Respiratory -

● Functions of respiratory system

○ Providing a large area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood.
○ Moving air to and from the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs.
○ Protecting the respiratory surfaces.
○ Producing sounds permitting speech, singing, and non verbal auditory
communication.
○ Providing olfactory sensations to the central nervous system for sense of smell.

The oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve, also called the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve or
oxygen dissociation curve (ODC)​, is a curve that plots the proportion of hemoglobin in its
saturated (oxygen-laden) form on the vertical axis ​Pulmonary ventilation​:​Inspiration
a very active process that requires input of energy Air flows into the lungs when the thoracic
pressure falls below atmospheric pressure. The diaphragm moves downward and flattens while
the intercostal muscles contract.

​ xpiration​
E -a passive process that takes advantage of the recoil properties of elastic fibers. Air is
forced out of the lungs when the thoracic pressure rises above atmospheric pressure. The
diaphragm and expiratory muscles relax.

​ ulmonary Ventilation Inspiration and expiration​. External Respiration Movement of oxygen

P
from the lungs to the blood. Movement of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs. ​Transport
of Respiratory Gases Transport of oxygen​from the lugs to the tissues. Transport of carbon
dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.Describe what occurs within the lungs during breathing.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air to be exhaled; pressure changes within the
lungs cause breathing; each gas moves from high to low according to its own pressure; the
diaphragm and muscles contract, the ribs move up and out and the volume of the thoracic cavity
increases (causing the pressure in the lungs to decrease)
Describe ​emphysema​and its cause. Reduction in the surface area available for​gas exchange
(permanent lung damage) and the increased dead air space results in shortness of breath; Caused
by destruction of alveoli, usually by smoking Describe ​pneumonia.​An inflammation of the
lungs that causes fluid to accumulate in the alveoli, reducing gas exchange
What are three types of pneumonia?1. Bacterial 2. Viral 3. Fungal apnea temporary cessation of
breathing (one or more skipped breaths)
Asthma​​sleep apnea c​essation of breathing for 10 seconds or longer during sleep allergens
trigger the release of histamines and other inflammatory chemicals that cause intense
bronchoconstriction ​COPD l​ong term obstruction of airflow and a substantial reduction in
pulmonary ventilation ​Cystic fibrosis ​affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat, and digestive
juices. It causes these fluids to become thick and sticky. They then plug up tubes, ducts, and
passageways. ​Measure ​FEV to FVC

Digestive ​function
● Functions of digestive system
○ Ingestion, mechanical processing, digestion, secretion, absorption, and excretion.
ingestion, mastication, deglutination, digestion, absorption, peristalsis, defecation
consist of GI tract and accessory organs of digestion. Breaks down ingested food, prepares it for
uptake by the body's cells, provides body water, and eliminates wastes ​Gastrointestinal Tract
(GI or alimentary canal)​consist of mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, and anus Carries the digestive processes of: (1) Ingestion of food (2) Propulsion
(push) of food and wastes from the mouth to anus (3) Secretion of mucus, water, and enzymes
(4) Mechanical digestion of food particles (major function) (5) Chemical digestion of food
particles (6) Absorption of digested food (7) Elimination of waste products by defecation
Four layers of GI tract ​From inside out:-Mucosa-Submucosa-Muscularis-Serosa (or adventitia)
Layers vary in thickness and have sublayers. lining-​The ​stomach , small intestine , and large
intestine ​(colon) comprise the gastrointestinal (GI) tract ​Esophagus​- Stratified Squamous
non-keratinized epithelium ​Mechanical digestion chewing foods chemical digestion dissolving
foods mechanical and chemical similarities Breaking down foods mechanical and chemical
differences
1. chewing
2. dissolving
Compare​: both processes break food down into smaller parts to aid in digestion ​Contrast​:
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food in the mouth, done by teeth. Chemical
digestion is enzymatic reactions that breakdown food, also occurring in the mouth but caused by
saliva. ​Physicology ​of ​Protein​ digestion occurs in the stomach and the duodenum through the
action of three main enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach, and trypsin and chymotrypsin,
secreted by the pancreas.
● During ​carbohydrate​ digestion the bonds between glucose molecules are broken
by salivary and pancreatic amylase.
● The digestion of certain f​ats​ begins in the mouth, where short-chain lipids break
down into diglycerides because of lingual lipase. The fat present in the small
intestine stimulates the release of lipase from the pancreas, and bile from the
liver enables the breakdown of fats into fatty acids.
Carbohydrates are mainly taken in the form of amylose and glycogen. Amylases hydrolyze the
long carbohydrate chains that break amylose down into disaccharides, and glycogen into
polysaccharides. The enzymes in the small intestine then break these down to monosaccharides.

● Proteins are digested by hydrolysis of the carbon–nitrogen (C–N) bond.

Peptidases are secreted in an inactive form, to prevent autodigestion.
Endopeptidases cleave the polypeptides at the interior peptide bonds, and the
exopeptidases cleave the terminal amino acids.
● Fats are digested by lipases that hydrolyze the glycerol fatty acid bonds. Bile
salts emulsify the fats to allow for their solution as micelles in the chyme and to
increase the surface area for the pancreatic lipases to operate.

Effects ​Gastrointestinal Benefits of ​Exercise. ..​. Exercise can relieve constipation and promote
healthy digestion when you're at rest. Over time, regular exercise can strengthen your digestive
tract. If you're fit, the amount of blood diverted from your digestive system decreases because
the need is less urgent
The main symptom of a​stomach or duodenal ulcer​is upper abdominal pain which can be dull,
sharp, or burning (a hunger-like feeling). (Bloating and burping are not symptoms of peptic
ulcer, and vomiting, poor appetite, and nausea are uncommon symptoms of peptic ulcer.)
Lactose intolerance​is when the body can’t easily digest lactose, a natural sugar found in milk
and dairy products. Lactase is an enzyme normally produced in the small intestine and it is
necessary to digest lactose. Without enough lactase, lactose moves through the large intestine
without being properly digested.
symptom=​diarrhea
Hepatis -
An inflammation of the liver.
Appendicitis​- A condition in which the appendix becomes inflamed and filled with pus, causing
pain.

Immune system - ​function-​protect n host environmental agents

phagocyte​spots the pathogen with an antigen on it
2. phagocyte engulfs the pathogen
3. phagocyte have lysosomes dissolve the pathogen
4. the phagocyte takes a protein from the pathogen and attaches it a MHC 2 complex.
5. the specific defense will then look for harm
dendritic cell
a phagocyte that is the best specific immune system activator
Macrophage​most versatile phagocyte that does the most heavy lifting
Mast cells ​specialized cells of connective tissue. They release heparin, histamine,
leukotrienes, and prostaglandins to stimulate the inflammatory response
Allergies ​occur because the body overreacts to allergens
Pyrogens ​ secreted by leukocytes and macrophages which results in a fever
Lymphatic system ​A network of vessels through which lymph (fluid containing white blood
cells) drains from the tissues into the blood
Lymphocytes chief immune cell, white blood cells that chemically recognize antigens
have a large nucleus, either B or T cell
Lymph nodes majority found in armpits, neck, and groin
Lymphocyte B cells secrete antibodies that provide Humoral immunity made in bone marrow
HIV​attaches to these CD4 cells. The virus then infects the cells and uses them as a place to
multiply. In doing so, the virus destroys the ability of the infected cells to do their job in the
immune system. The body then loses the ability to fight many infections.
Autoimmune disease
A disease in which the body's immune system attacks healthy cells.
Hypersensitivity-​undesired, allergies