Journal of Biblical Literature VOLUME 121, No. 2 Summer 2002 ‘Music and Dance in 2 Samuel 6 DAVID P. WRIGHT 201-225 Omitted and Remaining Matters: On the Names Given to the Book of Chronicles in Antiquity GARY N. KNOPPERS and PAUL B. HARVEY JR. 227-943 Indications of Jeremiahis Psalter WILLIAM L. HOLLADAY 245-261 Whose Apocalypse? The Identity of the Sons of God in Romans $:19 SUSAN EASTMAN 263-277 An Anchor for Pauline Chronology: Paul's Flight from “the Ethnarch of King Aretas” (2 Corinthians 11:32-33) DOUGLAS A. CAMPBELL 279-302 Jesus, the Merkavah, and Martyrdom in Early Christian ‘Tradition PHILLIP B, MUNOA IIL 303-825 ‘ox in Malachi 3: VICTOR AVIGDOR HUROWITZ 327-330 ‘The Derrenbacker-Kloppenborg Defense MICHAEL GOULDER 331-336 Book Reviews 337— Index 399 US ISSN 0021-9931(PL. 12172 (2002) 303-395 JESUS, THE MERKAVAH, AND MARTYRDOM IN EARLY CHRISTIAN TRADITION PHILLIP B. MUNOA TIT muitoe@lope.cd Hopé Collage, Holland, Mi 49424 Scholars bave identified Dan 79-14 asa merkaueh vision, avision of God's throne, und as « source text for an early Jewish form of mysticism exlled merkaval nysticism,? 8. Ae Taleb, thrones were et pean Anetta of Dag took is fone his doting white as no aa te bias hen ike pare wo his Aon as Rey Mines, ans wher seere burn fire. 10.Aatrearn of fe seve inal Bowed oat from his presence, thouran thousands served in ane ten thossand sto attending hin The cour st in judgeent end thes buoks were pened. 11 watched then esas othe sole oC arrogant ‘words thatthe hora was speaking. And aU with, the beast was put to deat, sits ody destryed ane gen ve abe burned wth fue 2.8 for the rest of the beasts, their dominion was taken away, bat thelr Hives were toned foraseason pela time, 13 As ovelced nthe night sing, ts One ike son of tan coming on the eowde of heaven, A o-eame othe nett of Digs sl as presented before him, 1 To a sas ven dein lena ley an kingship, dat al pple, nao, ad languages shoul serve hin, His donniion iam evedetng donno bat shalt us ea, ane his Kgship is ene that hal esr pass mony. kngsiy cone hat stallneyorhe deste. (Dan 79-14 ‘While carly Christin Bterature does not refer to Dan 7.914 as often asit does to Ps 1101, the most quoted passuge from the Jewish Bible in the NT, there are several uses that demonstrate its importance for the raystical interests "ce 1. GriwanldApenlypic avd Merkacah Muyticim (NGJU 14; Laer: Br, 2680), Be, "all bill quotations ace tke fom NISW, Pasi von ofa heated! Rane am ‘one. so:ruonied by whatppears i he x crowded et af aendanis, has heen tae by © Rowand hack to the wsoa of th Kheness of the gy af tbe Lord in Buc 12.28, th roa ena eatin vay Jewish apatism (Mr Open Hees [New York Crossroad, 1882), $8) 908 is ae wae pba n JOC 17 oe SSUES capi 82a y Resacoy ma peN Linas TD ature ue ote oan JB pesca cont 9 espa Cae shane WATT 128 ots ot Aenea sz tits, Svc Dede ons, ava ogre aL Eerectomne ete,304 Journal of Biblia! Litereture of easly Christians? This vision of Dau 7 has several elements thut reappear in the Acts of the Apostles, Revelation, and the early-thivd-century tost The Pas- ston of Perpetua and Feltcites, These tests all shaze an interest i cuptive vision- aries, enthroned figures, empowered beings who are standing, and threatening iroumstances. As « group, they demonstrate how a merkeeah vision became associated with maxtyrdom, 1. Daniel 7 ‘Thie vision in Dan 7:9-14 isthe second hal of lengthy vision that begitis in 7.2. The visionary; Daniel, is described in this second-century 0.0.5. text a8 an exile Jew (Dan 1:3-7) who lived asa captive siader the administration ofthe Babylonians andl the Persians (Dan 5:30-31) and fond his life under threat (Dan 6:1-28), The vision in: Dan 7.2-8 Liegins with a sequence af four beasts, the four of which is terrifying and destructive, After Daniels description of the fourth beast, the vision of Dan 7:91 follows. Here figure identified as an “Anielent of Days” with white hair takes his dueling throne in w court scene involving thousands of attendants. Judgment follows: the destruction of the Fourth beast is announced; and the three other bews find their lives prolonged for “a season and x time.” As the vision continues Daniel sees an unnamed Hig ure called “one Uke a s0n'of man?” whe, after‘coming with the elouds of heaven, is presented bofore the “Ancient of Days" and fs piven everlasting doxninton over ll peoples. Scholaely debate has focused on the unnuned figure called the “one like a son of man” referred to in, Dan 7-13-14, Interpreters are divided over whether {this igure i syinbolic ran individual, usually a heavenly being The history of| Interpretation behind this passage shows how both options hire been popula: Early Christian interpreters identified Jesus as the “one like a son of mu,” and. several identified Jesus as the “one like a son of min” whois “standing.” Chis. tans were not aloie in arguing for& specific kdentity for this anonymous figare, 2 Dankel 713 parti quote in Mar 13-26 and 2468 fn Mark 15:26 Jesus pid bt ‘spingiling be deourre ante eis that sil Fall destruston ofthe tere, “Fem they ‘will othe Son-of Maa coming lous sit grat fewer ad gay” ky Bare L262 Jon ‘tod using in unswer ta the high peat question aboot Jost messidship. Tams thd yo sul 386 the Son of Blan seated at dhe right had oF the Powe, ae ‘cong wth the ls of ‘eens “MB, Houker (The Simof Mov fh Mark (Montel: HGH Creo Pres. 1962], 1120} snd P.M, Casey (Sn of Many Te Becta ond nfuene f Daniel 7 Londons SPCK, 13, 24-38} vet symbahe view. while 8. Movswdel ile Fiat Cometh [Nash Abingdon, WEA], 956-58) ad Uh. E, Toe The San of Naa ie Spang Toadton (Plvedelphte Westeinater, 1065), 22-81} argue freien seorfgure aterpelition, Scasey, Sin of Man, 2-28, G4-60, 71 a pla 19 fae a-aa,conp Ha Dy We So of Ble Laas To rao cn ie una ebro oD pao cota! SUL stan ace hen 87 128 38 Fens hom toro 89a tcl Deeg OR vec che Sa: Rene thumws oesMunows Jesus, the Merkubul, and Blartgrdom 305 Other Jewish groups had their candidates: Enoch, Metatron, Seth, Abel, and Michael." 2 Er 13 is ome of the very few tess to refer to thie “one likes son of man” of Dan 713-24 without identifying the igure, Th Aets7 ‘The vision attributed to Stephon in, Aets 754-60 includes several charse- teristics that illustrate its probable use of Dus 7, S54 When they heard these things they becaene enrxged snd ground their teeth at Steplien. 55 But filled with the Flofy Spit, he gazed into heaven snd sa the glory of God wel Jesus standing atthe ght ha of Ged. 36 “Looky” he said, "see the heavens operied and the Son of Man standing at Uc right hand of God!” 87 But they covered their ears, and with x laud shout all reslied together against him, 58 Tho’ they ragged hit our oF ee eity and began to stone hin; and Ue witnesses lad thelr coal a the fest ata youig, ‘man named Saul, 50 While they were stoning Stephen, le prayed, “Lord Jesos. receive my spins.” Ther he knele dow andl eried outin aloud vice, ‘Lord, dy not hold this sin against them.” When be ba said this, he ded (hots 754-0} This vision of the heavenly world, which wit onlyalliides to.Daniel’ vision- ary experience but also recalls Rzehiol's visionary experiences,” parallels the sherkacah \ision of Dan 7 in subtle, yet detectable ways. M. Casoy has argued ‘hat “there is no clear sign of Dan. 7 in Acts," and that “the ultimate influence of Dan 7:13 cun be detected at Acts 756 only ina remote sente, and reference ta it was not intended by the author"* Casey’ ertetia for literary dependence {0 this instance, however, border on a usage that upproximates a quotation, Detecting literary dependeace iavalves moro Uhan identifying a quotation. Ib involves being sensitive to the recurrence of woeabulary, eoncepts, wa strue- tural or narrative elements? ‘The author of Acts appears to have usedl Dan Twvhen deseribing Stephen’ sactyzdon!° Like Daniel, Stephen is ceseribed as i-captive vitionary, having, NP. Munoa, Four Powers bx Herve: Be batinpreitos of Banal 7 tthe Tate of Abram (ISPSup 28; Shel Shook eat Press, 1958), loand notes how 1 QM AVE, ngerprets Das 713-14 reecencs to Michel (Open Hane, 80). Both Bzak ba a Acts 756 hopin hy des:nhnghow the lemons were opened and visions of God were geen. See also 7 Leu 2:6 Tho visionary interests of Dan 79-10 (hi enone Neecat of Days" hav ein traced to Beck 125-97 (estan, Ope Henn 18, 239). * Casey, Son af Man, 200-20 Sou my dss oer Fears en, 42 "6H D, Speks angied thar th autor of Lnkete d {Bve REC work “bla vi € The Sento of St La Ipcaely iated the 130%) ato ‘Gospel JTS ai [1834 199-38), IF308 Journal of Biblical Literature been seized by a hostile crowd of Jews who have binn under their control (Acts 68-12). Stephen's words accomding to Aets 7:56, ‘see the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God,” go on to imply thi, ke Daniel, he aces both God an his throne, recalling Daniel's “Ancient of Days.”seho was seated on a throne, sand the “one dike 1 son of ran,” who was isthe presence. of the enthroned cit of Days" (Dax 79-13), Acts 7 is in this way an implicit merkavah ision, Wheis Jesus is referred to.as the "Son of Man the author cls to mind sot only the familie title used by Jesus decoding to the NT Goepels,” but also the figure idencified as “one like a son of muni” in Dan 713-14, whom the author associates with Jesus earlier in his worl (Luke 21:97). Anotler-conneation ta Dan 7 inay be implied when Stephen prays to Jesus, which assumes that Jesus, like the “one like a son of man,” has been eunpawered (Den 7-13-14). Lemay even be suggested that Daniel’ courtroom ‘seone and the exercise of judgment (Dan 79-11) are in the background, sitice Stephen asks Jesus to act as a merefi judge over thase who are stag hint to death (Acts 7359), Daniel 7:14 says that tho “one like « son of man’ was given “dorainion, glory, and kingship": these are ateribudes that imply the authority to Judge, Finally, both Daniel and Acts 7 refer to a threateving, hostile setting Damiels vision refers 0 fue beasts, the fourth of whick is especially monstrous; “devouring” with “geedt iron teeth” (Dan 77) Ia Acts an “enraged” crowd ‘ground their twetir” at Stephen (Acts 7:54) and eventually destroyed him When these sirnirities between Dan 7 and Acts 7 are set out, it hecomes uuolikely that they ace: the result of comoidence or the author’ use of cominon IMterary patterns, Stephen’ dying words are ain intriguing aspect ofthis passage. Will them. the authoret Acis putallels Stephen’ death tthe hands ofa hostile enemy with Jesus‘ deuth o the cross, Both Stephen and Jesus offer up their spits and ask Ut their enemies he Forgiven (Laike 23:46, 54! The author's interest in pare Sparks right about the obo of Cake Aets ning he angong the XX isn woes le hat th sme athor may hae used ies ner evens ar the EXX as otel fr hi x ‘sets interests, Por Lake'sust of OT themes and meres, see. 5. Roswer, "Aeteai Bibel Histon, The Book af Ate in x Anciont Literary Setting v1 (', Winter aa A.D. Claes Grand pts Eerdmans, 1M), 6-82, 2H TListstheonly NT nse Fhe tie “Sim f Man" |, bv iy 09 GW>Snou} wit the dle indtesmuai ovtacethe Gospe, "© yen DB. ACH, wh argues agunat ey se af Ninn of Main Luke-Aes a og ets eas wr apcalpli ie dened ftom Dan 73-4 uo hat Lake 21327 i ne ly passe Lake's espe about hich can be stl wth ny dogo aus thatthe rerig “the Son of Man” neers ingen to Dan 7.1514 (hs Soni Say Tenn [Minnenpele ovis, 1900), 60, The este) support fr uke 23:31 incerta baton balance the evidence Tones ts Seceptunce ay Lukan Seo I, H, Marsal, The Gospel of Les A Communty an the Crodk Tet (Grand Raplels: Bendae, 1978, $67-88, is sie was eliresin JBL vt ia 368-5 carn OTE be STORY ACA Tes To -urtaes cg ots ave css JBL. masa GOL Cato tome oyehre a aoe abe ews Anofecer nena ses by wate B64 Ms vat venir oOL BetheaMienoa: Jesus, the Merkaba, and Martyrdom 207 alleling Stephen's martyrdom by a “beastly” erowd with Jesus’ death may owe something tn thecircuinstances of Jesus’ death, as deseribed in Laike-Acts, nd to how Dan 7 was interpreted by Jesus’ followers. Daniel Puever explicitly éxplains why the “one like a son of man” ts ‘empowered, While the rationale isnot stated, hosséver, the text of Daniel may be taken to imply thatthe “one like son of man® brought about the destruction, cof the fourth beast and the muting ofthe ethers. Acoording to Dan 7:10-12, the heavenly court “sat in jadgment,” the fourth beastwas then destroyed, and Hae dozninion of the other three was taker uvway, The method of judgment is not given, however" While Dan 7 does not explicitly credit the “ore Uke a son of sman” with the Judginent of the bessts, such an inference would not be unrea- sonable, The defeat of the beasts would provide i reader with a reasonable ‘explanation for empowerment: the “one like ason of man” cartied out the ieay- only. courts judgment of the boast, This interpretation finds support in the Uyaritic tradition that is thought to be behind the throne-raom scene of Daniel! 'The Christian adaptation af Dan 7 in Rev 12 omy also fend support to the idea that the “ou lke a son of than” implicitly defeated the fourth beast Here the angel Michael, pechaps acthig in the role of the “one hike a son of van,” fights and dofeats« dragon whose seven heads and ten horas serve as ae abvious allusion to the fourtl beast of Daniel (Rev 12:3; ef Das 7:7), 15 ‘The uuthor of Luke-Acts presents Jesus es batlling Satan (Luke 12:14-23) and, ulkimately, on arconant of his death, being raised from the dead and exalted, as “both Lore and Christ” (Livke 24:28, Acts 2:92-86). This early Christian author sees Jesus, early Christiantty’s “one like « son of man,” succeeding through « death that lends to glory. What was loft unidentified by Dan 7, the "See aly Ban 721-22, 26 J J Calls atest we nr nt tl oe ar hy wom eke Benassi (Dani Commontary on the Bork of Daniel [Fenencs Minneapeks: Fetes, 19), 30 15, Ganga argues thatthe Ueto const ryth Bl tittle ef ease te Ses od E's beitcval linge hp hs son serves as "save! bachgroul” of Dat 7 sion (Dine! [WHC I0- Dalles: Were, 1859], 11) x ate Ft note Hy O. Enel (Raat Zip, Zone Kasi avd dor Durchoy der leet darch Moor (Mell: Niger, 1992), 25-90) Ue ths rnyth the Sea ies to esurp as postion ad Ha Ii the Sa and reels an tcl kg, Golding notes hat the OF wsually eorines the potas af EL and Hal Yahweh, exert 7. wher he humane gore tes Bas pesto” Cirgy pgs tht thie kw ‘nei wh cane through Uva les in Jd hat wore comes eet te emp cul (Daniel 151) view shed ly Celis (Deel, 94-04), Ta sedge af el ateaon in he second Goat 6 GF. may hae supine nt the Hirst ety thas ale Js fll fers thoy rel Dan "8. Day anges thatthe cic of Michael the dragna sa nllucaced yt account tne "ene th so a a" and the Furth bass sn Dae 7 (Gs Coil wis Dee od the Sea [Gutnbridye: Cambridge Univornty Press, 1985}, 172) See also A, Yarbro Celting, Te Combet ge nthe Book of Belton (DN, Missal, NIT: Stars Ps, N76), 4-7 Tonos patted J 148 0] R= TR, cys HO ye Sat RICA TO acannon tute sta eta Sa CutarrCane by Srne FT Se mci nn Sass toa St by ak eMRoRE TE, yoke GAL estan sce308 Journalof Biblical Literature means of fudgitg the: beat and the reason for the empowerment of the “on {ike a son of man," was identified by the followers of Josas: Jesu, the “oe Bkow son of ryan,” overcame (judged) the “beast” through his death, and us Tel to his exaltation Inti ight, Acts 7 is teaching that martyrdom is thie means of vielory over the beast: Martyrdom inay be implied in Dan 7:21, which says that the “holy cones," wlio, according to Dua 7:15, symbolize the “one like son of man,” suf fer before they gain the Kingdom: the fourth beast “made wae” with thers an “was prevailing over thean." In this mannes, Stephen is placed ina setting that alludes to boti Jesus’ death and Dan 7. Stephen follows his"Sonof Man" in fo ‘and in deuth us he fights 2 "beast." As he dies, he is granted a vision of Jesus the "Son of Man,” as an encouragement and xs a promise of ultinnte vindica- on and victory over death through resurrection. 9 Stephin is presented us repeating the experience of the “one like «soy of’ man” ag bis "Son of Mun" receives him ‘The most puzaling aspect of Acts 7255-56 hus been the dese‘iption of Jesus as “studing” acdbxa) at the “right band of God." Mark 14:62 ussoci- ‘aes Jesus with PS 11051 wid Dan 7:18 and in this way infers that Jesus is both sitting and standing (2k BeEsdv xupevov wig Suxduieae and EoySuevoy wet ‘oy VetEABY WH ovpavOd), Likewise, the Ascension of Isaiah, whi is dated from the second century i6.6.P, to the fourth century C.E., describes Jesus as stunding, then eventually sitting (9:95; 11:92). The author of Litke-Acts, bosw- exer, does nat include a yeference to Dan 7:13 when refercing to Jesus! contes- sion before the high priest and has Jesus quoting ovly Ps 110:1 and thus identifying that the “Sou of man will be seated at-the right hsid af the power of ¥ Sav alo Dan 725, whore tx prttd tht te fourth: etl “yeu cuts halons and hey shill be given if is pave" Dane 8.36, “aftr the aay ny weeks. a moted one Shalt ext of an shal ive nothing,” wy alse aso to rears tl deeth ant mart Aloe were aancanstasn end © Daou 725:deseriboshow the fourth beusahull wea? ot icboly mes ofthe most igh ‘Wile “halon” may lr to elestl ings or exe ines Dam 7, pip of he st igh he Soa Gods camry Talaga beat scl, For opposing pointe of ow a hie ee pretation of holy nes” cy>3 "Ep, se J.-C, "Te Soe of a and te Sant ofthe Moe Egham tho Uonk af Dani, BL. (1874). 50-68; unl C, Kael, "ae Ede He Sansa te Mest High ta Daniel," B34 (0975): 17-59: "0s va Lake-Aet eneuiages the peer to thie ahent the purine oF Stephen's \ision. ea ier quoted Ps 165-11 az Dat ison ofthe Lat (Jan) at brought Hin, Dan, reassurance that would tveicomé death nd rail ry the esd (Act 3:25.98). Joss os eserived using the rgit halo Gas then Ps 1201 sould ti elltely -come'o nd The language of A 755 dees have sonst Be L,I my argues ‘hithe nftunes of Dan 74-23 i aneloala hy temo ® Chapters -U ag iene seu Cran work are dae ta the second entry Ci (M.Kaibb ie O7P2140-50), ese wit plied GL (i DR sap w bu Slay ch mlEa Cw To pueeee copes sea fo sce IL, nea ala SL CL Sev by oot T7100 SH Beso Simro Occ yn a 2 B64 Fs ron SEL Svs ve SeManoa: Jesus, dhe Merkabal andl Martyrdom 308 God” (Luke 22:60). Jebus’ stance in Acts 7:55-56 thus contrasts with Luke £22:60'and other enthronement passages in Luke-Act {Lake2:32). Whyis Jesus standing when the traditton of Luke-Acts foresces Jesus as sitting E, Huonchen suggests throc possible explanations for Jesus’ postuce: {a) Jesus studs as the protomartyr—identiied by Hrenchen us the majority view (2) Jesus stands to take up his mossianie-office; and (e) Jesus, Like the’ angels, stinds before God as a act of scbordination2° Explanations (a) and 4b) ase hypothetical and lack textual support, Explanation (c) as been called ‘dubious. According to explanation (e), Jewish tradition teaches that the ‘ngels anc otter heavenly heings do-not sit but mast sind as an abt of suhordi- Of the singel Metatron being beatea for siting ova in heaven lustrates (3 Fp, 26:1-5)2 Yer this Metutron tradition, whieit is essential to the “two poswess” controversy'in rabbinic Judaism, lustrates that there mast have been difforiys Jewish traditions about the posture of angels. 1¢ dvocates the view that no angels are allowed to sit 2° Iu contrast; while Dan 7:10 says, “A thousand thousands served him, aul ten thousand times ten thou sand stood uttexding him,” Dan 7.9 refes to a plurality of thrones and implies tat the heavenly attendants of Dan 7:10 have their thrones andwere seated, In addition, early Chistian tradition, as evidenced by the Revelation of John, Ila {nutes how early Christians accepted the teachsng that heavenly beings do sit27 ‘Thevofore, the angelic subordination argument is not sufficient: [ast posture ‘must have some other explanation, ospecially since Luie-Aets foresees Jesus ns sitting at Godsright hid, J Fossum relates Jesus’ posture to un anti-Simion Magus polemic in Aets, 2. Holy tes cite Ps 1101, Dan 7:33, ane Li 2260 when rearing te detains af eso standing in Aes 755-56. but doce met adress he appareut eae wit Lael fn Harps Bible Comomnday el 1. Muy San Branco, Harpe, Lo], 1058. Hvenhen, The dete af te Apostes alae Bl Ulakovel, 1971}, 339 m4, Mone resent enrwitatorson et ofl Hist explanations fo Jeni pose, butted nearby overt ‘edoingcapparer, Clesecxaminiion discoves tut mhyadtiond expansions eer ene n ‘ing degrece wh Hecachow’s Hat or are new explastions that lk sige tevtalseptort and sve is cenjecture, Soe H. Couvelann, tof the. posts (Phelps Warteess Lee) 58-90; C.K. Bart, Te Ate ofthis pont (Endura, 1080) 386 8, oad emer ct of haps (AB 2, Nos ark: Dole, ED9B), 392 *D. Ane, “Chita Trophic and the Megane Stats af jes Te Messiah Deve: opments in ariew Jide dt Christianity (J.B, Churlesiurthy Minneapelis Fortes, 19), 11005, ® Royhind presets tis ei of ungtebornaion (Open Hoaven, S70)-Groensald i> stsoaies the vi that ongels do at st hewvta Cpoenl ype al Morava Sytem 65-6), 24, Segal pins eat th sgiflemice ofthe Retaton adit for diem the ei tag Jacks oft rabinew (To oier in Hewson: Eel Habis Repur abet Co, ‘aud Grostese ISU 25, Lee, Bri, ATT), 60-03, Soc Rey 44 “his vin eonras to ter teats a8 3B V5 thi dese te cna of Metaton the angel boing sted new i 5 eoigh 2505 ba Goat Bal Evie To pase tna SB, Sakon ty ona 877259556 E858 729 oa eon OL Ske owned ea310 Journal of Biblical Literature where Simon is introduced as an inomy of the apostles (Acts'$:9-24), The Pseudlo-Clementine writings presont Sinvon as claiming to be the Messiah by calling himself the Standing Onc” (@ dowig) (Hom. 2.23 ANF), Fossum argues that several biblieal vferences to Moses standing by God (Exod 83:21, Dent 5:51} led to the Samatitan belief, found in a'test such as Memar afargah 4.12, {hat Moses stood by God and underwent an apatheosis, being xalted'to angelic stats. [No prophet ike Moses as aien or sil vor a, Fle was ealted above tho ‘wtb Ia ace and proresso! un he jew dhe angels, a was rad thins "And Iwill join sou" Whereis there anyone He Moses who trl the fire? Where isthero myone ike Moses to who the Lod sf "Stand by Me so"? Whereis ore a Prophet Bie Moss, whom Gad adested mort to snouth? Wheres theres prophet Re Moe, fasted ity days and Forty tights, neither eating vor drinkiig? And he deseonded euryng to stone tablets inseribed bythe finger af God. (Sear Marga .10¥" ‘The Snmatitan community believed that the Mosaic deliverer would be Known os “the Standing One,” the eschutalogieal Mosaic prophetvwho hid been glorified asa heavenly being, Fossurn say tae this Suinaritan tradition explains loth Simon’ claims and the posture of fesus, Acts 7-58, then, dccording to Fos sum, expresses Sumaritan ideology wis presenting Jesus asthe true “Staading One," the prophet like Meses, in opposition te Sime 22 ‘Thereare two weaknesses in Fossuum’s solution. Fizst, the Samaritan mate- rials he wtilives to present his case for the title “the Standing One” clearly post- date Aets, a wesltness that Fossum sicknowledges.3 There are no.pre-Acts zeferences to the title “the Standing One” as a Samarttan Nosute trudition, ‘There is the possibilty of an oral tradition predating the written materials, but the exisience of such a tradition can be deemed only possible, not probable, if there is no literary evidence. Second, Acts 7:56 docs not use the title “the Standing One” asst appears in the Pscuda-Clementine literature or tho Sema itan writings, In Act, Jesnsis deseribed us standing, he is not ealled “the Stand- ing One.” That tite does not appear in-Brst-century Christian itonituze, C. Fletcher Louis has eecently argued that Jesus’ posture in Acts 7:55-56 's understundable in light of Luke 12:8, where Jesus sigs, "everyune who 2), Possuin, The Nome of God andthe singe of the kad (WUNT 5, Pebingom: Moki> Siebel, 1855), 122. saa tha hn ples of east seni in Acts hase on at faery expained bat believes that Fossuny's explant nak nec (Ciniatin Progeey 410 1653), ret (ot ofthe spate. 384) races his Sancta expiniton buck to ©. Calpe Teenlaion from J. Macdonald, Meer Merqats Ths Tealnge of Marga. (BZAW St eno Reig 1063), essum, Nerse af Gl 124 0. Tot 16, "eae wat asa w JEL V8 ha) SO8-oH cap D ad by ha Soy RBC loca To bes JL pe Sn UL Ca ae ypa TTR ebtcet lr aecjoree2 bt eoarby aca #2 ak srvaitir sri eB. Soro wes oyManoa: Jesus, the Merkabeh, and Mariyrdon sul acknowledges me before others, the Son of Man will acknowledge before the angels of God.” According to Fletcher-Louis, Jesus is falling this promise. by standing to “acknowledge” Stephen, who has acknowledged hitn before the Jews? The problem with this solutions that Acts 7 is missing several clements pertinent to Luke 12:8: Stephen never refers to fosus by name in his speech, bofore his.aceusers: there are no angels present in Staphes's vision; and ven Stephen sees Jesus, Jesus is silent and says nothing, Jesus’ “standing” in Acts 7:56 is best explained. as an intentional allusion to Dan 71829 Two observations warrant this conclusion. Fast, te Jesus tradition of the Gospels emphatically associates Jesus with Dan 7:10, and it makes sense to look there for in explanation, That Mavi 18:26 and 14:63 partially quot Dan 7113 illustrates how if was an important text in. understanding the sigoiRcarice of Jesus. While tis truc that there iso explict deseréption in Dan 713 of the. “one like a son of man” as standing,* this posture inay be understood as, implicit inthe test. Second, early Christians understood Dan 713 as a deserip- tion of Jesus, the “one like-a'son of mean,” who stood after “he cane to the Ancient of Days.” This s bow Justin (150.6.8,) understands Dun 7:13 when hie quotes Dann 799-14 to Trypho when arguing that jesus has been enspawered by God 1Fsuch power is shows to have ecompanied and still nos accompanies bis Passio, just think hose great shall be His pawer st his Pioriows Advent? For ‘5 Daniel foretold, He shall come on the clouds asthe Sam of Man, accompa ned by His angels. Hexe are his exact words: “T bekild il dhe ones were set, and the Ancient of days sa, whose garment wes white as snow, abd the hnir on His head Hke eloan weal. His time eas Vike Ue Maynes of Ste, His heels ike a burning fire. A swift stean of fire issued forth from fore FC, MotchesLouls, luke-see gel, Chelolay,nd Sotrilogy WWUNT 21, Tie gn Moh-Stbcek, 1999, 216-48, B Lindare argos fr she sav view fess Son ef Mon A Fras Exminotion of tha Son of Mam Sayingr bx Phe Coyle (Grand Rapids. Gevdans, 183), 138-18, Gath Ftchor-Laais and anders has taste thn start pilby he or ackaostedee” (Quoarrice) in Lake 13 cen though atl” fmt speealy mention ‘The inet contort Lake 128 sagt tal spain seo dgaent eile ce ke mae) © thacohen sofers to Dan 719 bates te standing dhe “oe ike sora on” aan ‘spresion uf angele paste, He dae wt explain th postr of Juss kht of Dan 7:15 (es, 282. 4.8. P Bruce ages for Jesus a «Reson advocate gt of Lake 128, "everyone whe ‘elnayledyes me bore nie, ie Sos ofan ala wil ackrovAdge helt ange (The Ace of the Aptos [3 eds Gran Repke: Bevan, 10, 21). Hewover te et een sat “acknowiod" implies shining" Gonzales connects Jour tang with T, Bla. 103, hich predlls that Gog “il arse" from his Kgl three in ond to git fa jgmen Ae ef the ‘Aste, 60). However, there ae wail pre wih this pasage fae J. Priests cantents om thus pasage i) OFF BIB), sed appears to a camtomporanceks wilh Ae, Neither etheeatezerae tothe “om Bho sm a nein ici was ped in a Ae ka Sas sapjapis FONd by ea By al ICA Livan To cua fn vk ve oo sib. Zeer Dileep a PTE rao sore S518 fn LOS Ma row ENOL SIE were312 Journal of Bibliea! iterative Hin, Thensinds of thousands ministered to Hi, and ten thousand fines ten thonsing stood bofore Hin. The books were oponed and the judge ‘vas set. beheld then the woiee of the great words whieh the hora speats and the bevst was tortved, and the hod thereof destroyed, and given to the fire to bo burnt, And the power oF the other beasts token asa. and times of life were appointed diem fora ime anda time, Ubeheld therefore in the ‘sion of night, and lo, one like the Son of Man came with the elonds af heaven, and He eune'even tothe Ancient ol ds, cul toad bofore Hits, “And they who stood by brought Hin neat ond He xiv Him power and aglo> ‘ious Mingo, snd all the peopl ofthe earth by ther antes, ant sory. serve Fin, Elis power is an ewirsting power Ut shall note taken aay and lis Kingdor: shell not he destroyed (Dietogue with Frypo 81° Justin's interpretation of Dan 713-14 offers support for early Christian readers Seeing it. a5 the reference point for Stephen’s vision of the “Son of Man stand ing” iv Acts 7:55-56. Moreover, there ure several Jewish tests that clearly allude to the idea of the *one lke «son of man’ standing before God and being empowered. The Sinilitudes of 1 Extoch provide first-centwsy support for a use of Dan 79-6 that understands the “one like a son of man" as standing and & enthroned. Scholurs have long noted how Dan 7 sewed as the background for the “Soi of Maa’ in 1 En. 36-71." Here the “Son of Man,” who is also called the “Fleet One® in} Enoch, is described as standing now, but as sitting on Gadls throne when the final judgment takes place, ‘The Bleee One stands hefuee the Lord of the’ Spits his glory is forever und ever a! his powers unto al generations I En, 40:2 OFF) In-thove days, Sheol wil veturial the deposits which she hal recetvel ane Jill wil give bac all dt whiel it oes, Ana he shia choose the zighteous and the oly ones from anon (the risen dead), fr the day whe they shal be selected and suved fins arrived. Tn thase dys, (the Elect One) shall sit iny throne, and from the conscience of his mouth shall ede out all. the secrets wistlom, forthe Lard ofthe Spirits has gion them to him and glri- fied hits. (Bu. 51-8 OFF) Like the Jesus tradition, 1 En. 49:2 appears to be borzowng from the’ pre sentation Of the. “one like a son of man” before the “Ancient of Days” where-e stinds and fs empowored, whereus 1 En. 51:1-8 is making use of the exercise oF ‘ules ne The LX ashe sas Isat to hin Da 78 Teanslation fom T, Pals Seine Jestin Mevayr (POTC & Neve Yor: Chistian Heritage, ss) Maitck anges thu te Sirus dat tothe fit conta: dara dependent on ‘Das 7 fr the povtrayl ofthe Sow af Man (The Bonk of Fnurleart Enh [SVTP 7 Ltslos Bel 185], 180-80),Munoa: Jesus, the Merkabah, and Martyrdom aia judgment and enthronement that is alsa implied in the text as arresult of empowerment, The whole setting of Dan 749-14 is one of judginent, and enthronement is implied by Dan 7°, “as.1 watched, sftrones were set in place." Bvekiel the Tragedian, a secontl-century 8.C.E, Jewish text that predates the Similitudes of f Enoch, also sade nse of Dan.7'9-14, This pre-Christian work, which I. Cruenivald identifies one of the earliest postbiblical merkaval visions, has been described by W. Horbury as a messlanie exegesis of Dani” Gp Sinats peak I [Moses] sive what seemed a throne se great in'sire st ‘ouch thie elouds af heaven, Upen it sata man a nable mien, beeroved, and with a scepter in one lund while wth the other he die backoo me, 1 sale approach and stood before the throne. Fe lisaded forthe seepter and Luade ing to monnt he throne, and gave me Hhe ero; then he: Rims With tSe 61 by mea tO46oe5 cretim eara cht Sere oNMunoa: Jesus, the Merkaboh, and Martyrdom 223 ‘youthful face (a idea that shows clear tse of Dasi7:19%) sic was surrounded bystarding attendants, and that this siting figure accepted them into his pres- ‘ence, ‘The whole sone, though it mekos use of texts lke Revelation, is elearly ‘dependent on Dan Tan affizins the ides that Cliistiats read Dan 7 i. way that joined their suffering as martyrs with the sole played by the “one like son of man," Apparently the experience of Christian martyrdom produced an iano: tive tradition of interpretation of Dan, The'vision of Dau 7 is adapted in Acs, Revelation, and the Passion of Perpetua andl Felfeites in light of the fatal ‘encounters of Jesus’ followers with their earthly enemies. Thesr deaths are pre- sented as rvenactments of the conilict of the “one lke a som of man” with the devi and his reward for victory a guacantee oftheir reward for faithful ma tyndom. ¥, Jesus, the Merkaval, amd Marhyrdonvin Bucy Christian Tradition Acts, Revelation, and the Passion of Perpetua and Relicitas illustrate how : ‘nnd crisis went laud in hand in easly Christianity, In these passages iis a the beleaguered, sufforing followers-of Jesus, facing inartyrdoin, who were granted visions ofthe heaventy thon room and its occupants. The merkarah Wsivitof Dan 7 served as the frameworicfor these visions and: was adapted ta ft the circamstances of each visionary, who in several instances reeuacted the task of the “one like a son of man,” These Christian merkavah visioas served the purpose of stcengthening and encouraging their tecipients as they faced their hourof conflict." One difference of these merkavah texts from other sueh texts © Rowan notes tt the youth nppearins ofthe age ma ors aa cssophany xl that ts Christ bo apes wth ths charters of Gad (Open Hien, A, Remy hhseormt, but ths presentation of am wget Ngure wih a yi apaeuninas eu be under Stood is on exopeialiforenue from Dan 79-14. As Rowand inset pants ont eoncersing DM i 73, "whereas Fhenoton Fallows the Mem anltrnaives ‘ad he carne ithe Aneta Daye [Dare 7:13], be EXX temslates the sama Peebeer pias i the fallen he eum a Ue Aes of Days” Keven! goes a tonite hy hi arian sage hak the “one Whe a 30 nan’ isn embodiment ofthe person ofthe “Aneenter Das" (Open Herve, 98) For be fot ‘sin of Post his moans tht these igure wide jot fac be eget traced 16 Creun is slemoostaed hav Josh teadilos poruays God at bod ax old un aod a younginan ("Tho Ciuldren i Lappe and dae Theophauya the Sea” fe 24 [OTB] 416-80), Reve- Jaton’ tout at Foss ages Gas there muy abo ave ent othe dbl appar sanee ofthe enthroned fgirs in Stu von, oth Rosa (Opt Heaceit 01) ad aock Prop it Garage, 70-86) wake note of Reva’ aisenc, but as entoned i ection withthe fist 0m only Dart presen swe tized Due oa throu 51, Chenus hr Saget hie merkunel nti, okich aerate soighta linge of3a ourned of Biblical Literatuse Involves mystical rituals: thore are na.xtualé that might prompt the mystical experience, apart from the truel circumstances of facing; death us a faihfed arty “The tradition. of Jesus’ passiow and the ongoing threit of martysdorn inthe frst thee centuries evideatly stinilated! an interpretation of Dan 7 among Christians that saw martyrdom, understood as combat against the devil, as a means of glory aud asa basis for visions. Fitst-eentary #.Ce. Jewish texts suc a5 2 Maceslyeos had already taught that faith martyrdom led to resurrection (2 Mace’79, 14, 23, 29), Jesus’ words according to Mark 14:69, spoeen when hie faced deat, about “seeing the Son of Mam, ..eominigon the clouds ofheaven™ (Dan 7:13) built up air expectation of sceing Jesus. The teaching that one would see Jesus at thé time of death vas nas is the Jesus community (Phil 1:23), as were the ideas of believers in combat with the devil (Eph’é:11-13; Rew 12:17; LPet 5:8), sulering with Jesus with glory as a reward (Bom 8:17), andl death asa gain” (Phil 1:21}. There are alsa texts, shaving a dependence on Dan 713-14, that portray Jesus as the “Som of Man" who handles the juckgment of the living and the dead, ‘The association of niartyrdom atid vision yay help explain the zeul 6f God upon is tren, my have been understeod ata prafgueng ofthe dean ofthe rghtoms (lyse in Rube Judea (Ne Yok do Grays 2088), 96). Cherm leo elaesthe sig ease of desth and yson' Jewish myst to, Eliade view of natory deat ad Se nay ‘bosom relate fart ary Chain tect nasa in ie erty dn Ra ini Julaton. 48-52). Be argos thatthe dest a ine cam boeeun ea repttn af te lest ofthe cnt fda, wich enim htt’ aban the superar con dons ofthe fur, the inititory deus being aecessty forsprsid egevontsn es ae Symbol Bite lone The Mgiteio of Bish and Bebith ins, WR. rth Ne Yorks Harper 8 Row, 1965) 13). © dels 2511 ve fa way areas the norte of Aes TB 98 anf the visions othe Poss of Fert and Folica concaralog cris and vision. AR Paal hal Toeslly ben seested whew vilont mob sought toa hin, Atte, "Thar ig he Lad sei wach aed S36 "Keep wp your enuruge! For jist 23 yo hase tested Far mein Jones, oy nist bear ‘ones als in Ronse” fevish Rtorutara as resented by the Jos ib, the Aprcryp i, the ‘Tsoudepigeapl, Aferkata tests, and Helo! texts Mees prstiees sh as priven Laing, speci iets, Isthing vals, and thease peacties wx preparitry far mtictl caperionces (Gruen pestis ad MerRacah ttn, 9-103), ent wot he aveetoked that Dy 7 iil eat agit the Iucksrop of Aah IVY ‘oly rao Ue send ewaty uC. when Jee were marty Fo thee at il lp st oti Mcology of cullang resisianceand the veer ta! ensaes hi Jv Gog sa prams is aller hat thoy "ll a cavon ope and angels ‘of Gai scending and descend pom te Son pf Man Jel LSD). Sus A, DeConik fora dso sina ofthis psig sf aelates to sys a Joba's Cony (Visio ofthe Mysto Ely Gin tan Diseonrse bs the Gospels of Jolin andl Thomas and Osher Ancien Chistes Literotore IJSNTSup 157: Shetek ShetRield Academie Fee, S001], 25-25, 116-17) "age eno (Matt 19:28 95:3, Fehn 5.27) Ts side we iba JLT 8) 05-78 sopyrOatm ye Seay aT ae To pocaae coe aa vi we sate GD Carr arse pro e197 a ae 267 orate one Seren aMusiot: Jesus, the Merkaba, aud Martyrdom Bs many early Cheistians regarding rinetyxdom. Martyrdom fier the fashion of Jesns presented sowie early Chnistians with the opportunity Zar spacial reward and a mystical encounter with God and Joss, the “one like «som of rasa." The Shepherd of Hermas, a second-century text, promises that te “right side of the holiness” belongs to these who “suffer for the namse"(3.4)."! a promise that is, siriking’y similar to the vision of Stephen in:Aets 7, where he sees the “Son of Man standing at the right hand of God” anid Rev 3:21, where faithfil Landi- couns are promised arplage with fesus-on his throne. C. Hobeck points out that Cyprian (of Perpetua's Carthage no less] encouraged thirt-eentury Cherise tians.with the message that they had “entered upen on the pathway of the Loni’ blessing’ (Epistle 6.1.2). What was this blessing” (Latin diguitonns)? Robeck stiggests that Gypriati “seems to have in mind something akin to Stephen’ visionary experience at the moment of his mantyrdom."™ An exaeni- nation of Dan 7 in early Christian bterature supports Robeck’s contention by placing this “blessing” in the larger Barnework of Jewish and Chastian myst= The Mootanists, sho were pariularly strong im North, Asien in th thicd century nd thr yang for mayo may pth understandable in hes erm "© Gruen identifi tow the reucing ofan ensoviter sth God tn sale vas 3 pola contraarsy among te Tank hot Wesson a ideshle esrcore aul in ape tieloraore and ss prespposcd by the Shur Qonahpoculasons Kapaa ml Merk “Mpsticts, 83-94: re slbo G, Seholeer,ftesh Myttim, Morlabah Mystic, ad Talc Prelim [2 ed. New York: Jovi Thedepial Seminary Af Arve, 165), 36-42), "-Tranlton Iron J Lightfon, The Apasioie Rar (Landon, Macon, SL), 7 acct to Heseation hese sh tea ith lit id presumably arc enlramed with i ls vm Hed es Fr tae evo eo bm (Re 2, 8 Queted by Robeek. Prophecy in Carthage, 1. obec Peypheey is Cartage, 285 1, Trish fo think Christopher Morny-Jones foe eabig an eouamenting ot an cir dele fis papery Barry asdsta and An Vesbey for the hell roma lth tn anor JBL yecieseys for thle gonsructiveetiias, fottee lath aera