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2011 Malnutrition in Developing Countries. PCHH PDF
2011 Malnutrition in Developing Countries. PCHH PDF
Emily Walton
Stephen Allen
Abstract
Although now rare in industrialized countries, severe acute malnutrition is Over a third of
unfortunately still common throughout the developing world and is a key all deaths are
contributor to both global childhood morbidity and mortality. This review attributable to
describes the epidemiology of malnutrition and the presentation and undernutrition
pathophysiology of the severe syndromic forms e marasmus and kwash-
iorkor. The gold standards for diagnosis and management are detailed
and the challenges of implementation in the basic healthcare systems
of the developing world are discussed. As the leading cause of ill health
in the world today, more effective treatment and prevention of malnutri-
tion must be a priority for the global healthcare community.
Based on data of the Child Mortality Estimation Group used in the UNICEF
report ‘The State of the World’s Children 2008’
Underweight: the leading cause of ill health in the world today Figure 1 Global cause specific mortality in children under 5 years of age.
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 418 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITION
WHZ less than 2 and 9.4 for WHZ less than 3. Therefore,
severely wasted children are the focus of in-patient treatment
programmes.
In the resource limited settings where malnutrition is
common, accurate measurement of weight and height may not
be possible and calculation of age and access to, and correct use
of, the reference norms may also be difficult. MUAC (mid upper
arm circumference) may be more appropriate in these situations
as it can be measured more easily. MUAC is relatively constant
from 6 months to 5 years avoiding the requirement for accurate
calculation of age. MUAC of less than 11.5 cm and WHZ of
less 3 identify similar proportions of children and are associ-
ated with similar risks of mortality.
In the most basic settings where no measurements are
possible, diagnosis is based on the presence of visible signs of
severe wasting and nutritional oedema. There are two well-
recognized malnutrition syndromes. Children with marasmus
(see Figure 2) have severe muscle wasting and minimal adipose
tissue; they are often noted to be irritable. Children with
kwashiorkor (see Figure 3) present with oedema and may show
other classical features including dermatitis, sparse depigmented
hair and hepatomegaly; they are typically described as apathetic.
Nutritional oedema (i.e. pitting oedema of both feet with no
identifiable cause such as nephrosis) increases weight and,
therefore, may result in a misleadingly high WHZ score. Many
children present with clinical features of both syndromes.
Whichever diagnostic criteria are used, they must be applied
consistently. All children who present to a health facility, what-
ever the reason, should have their nutritional status assessed. If
treatment is prescribed for the presenting condition but there is Figure 3 Child with kwashiorkor (lower limb oedema, sparse depigmented
a failure to identify and address underlying malnutrition then an hair, dermatitis with areas of hypo- and hyperpigmentation, angular
stomatitis).
opportunity to reduce long-term mortality has been lost.
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 419 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITION
ability and oedema as well as the other features of tissue damage. C Diarrhoea (frequency, consistency, presence of blood)
The finding of higher levels of iron (a catalyst for damaging free C Fever
radical reactions) in children with kwashiorkor is consistent with C Cough (acute or chronic)
a marked deficiency of heparin sulphate proteoglycan (HSPG). C Immunizations and routine vitamin A supplementation
Physical activity and growth are minimized and basal metabolic C HIV
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 420 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITION
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 421 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITION
Stabilization Rehabilitation
1. Hypoglycaemia
2. Hypothermia
3. Dehydration
4. Electrolytes
5. Infection
6. Micronutrients NO IRON WITH IRON
7. Initiate feeding
8. Catch-up growth
9. Sensory stimulation
10. Prepare for follow-up
Taken from the World Health Organization’s ‘Pocket book of Hospital care for children’ 2005.
Figure 4 Outline of priorities and time frame in the management of severe acute malnutrition.
Common complications of severe malnutrition that require followed (e.g. i.v. ampicillin/p.o. amoxicillin and i.v. gentamicin
specific management: for 7 days). In countries where worm infestation is prevalent,
1. Treat/prevent hypoglycaemia a course of mebendazole should also be given. Strict handwashing
Unless blood glucose of 3 mmol/L can be demonstrated, and other infection control measures should be adhered to.
hypoglycaemia should be presumed and treated with enteral 6. Correct micronutrient deficiencies
glucose: give 10% dextrose or a milk feed immediately. Only if Children should receive supplements of important trace
the child is unconscious should intravenous glucose be given. elements (zinc, copper, selenium), folic acid and a multivitamin
Hypoglycaemia is prevented by giving all new admissions preparation. These may be added to the milk feeds at prepara-
frequent feeds (2e3 hourly) throughout the day and night. tion. A standard dose of vitamin A should be given to all children
2. Treat/prevent hypothermia and a higher dose to any with ocular signs of deficiency.
Malnourished children are at high risk of hypothermia (axil- Although malnourished children are usually anaemic, iron
lary temperature less than 35 C or unrecordable) because they should not initially be replaced as iron storage systems are
have minimal insulative body fat and no energy stores to produce underactive and free iron can catalyze harmful free radical
their own heat. Hypothermia should be managed with an reactions as discussed above. Once infections have been treated
immediate feed and active rewarming. An effective way of and the child has entered the rehabilitation phase, iron can safely
rewarming is ‘kangaroo care’: skin-to-skin with the mother with be supplemented.
a blanket covering both. 7. Start cautious feeding
3. Treat/prevent dehydration The milk feed recommended for the rehabilitation phase is
As previously discussed, clinical signs of dehydration can be F75. This can be made from locally available ingredients (milk
difficult to interpret. Therefore, all children with watery diar- powder, vegetable oil, sugar and water) and contains 75 kcal/100
rhoea should be assumed to be dehydrated. Intravenous rehy- ml and 0.9 g protein/100 ml. Children are initially fed 130 ml/kg/
dration should be avoided (unless signs of shock are present) due day reduced to 100 ml/kg/day in kwashiorkor to allow for the
to the risk of precipitating heart failure. Enteral rehydration extra weight of the oedema. Total feed volume and the energy
should be slower than usual and use a modified version of oral and protein (and therefore sodium) content of the feed are
rehydration solution (ORS) known as ReSoMal (Rehydration restricted to prevent heart failure, osmotic diarrhoea and
Solution for Malnutrition). a worsening of oedema. Poor appetite, impaired gut motility, and
4. Correct electrolyte imbalance decreased gastric volume mean that feeding is more successful if
ReSoMal contains more potassium and less sodium than smaller feeds are offered more frequently (2 hourly) and the
standard ORS and is therefore more suitable for malnourished interval spaced as the child improves. Children may also need
children in view of their typical electrolyte shifts and imbalances. a nasogastric tube for feeding early in the course of their treat-
The initial milk formula (F75) recommended for feeding also has ment. Success in refeeding relies on the regular provision of
added potassium and magnesium and restricted sodium. The frequent feeds, encouraging children to complete their feeds, and
extra potassium should allow the kidney to excrete the excess accurately recording feeds consumed to assess readiness to move
sodium and fluid and oedema should gradually dissipate. into the rehabilitation phase. This can be a challenge in busy
Oedema should never be treated with diuretics. hospitals where staffing ratios are often poor and strict time-
5. Treat/prevent infection keeping not always part of the culture. Empowering mothers to
Infection should be assumed and all children treated empiri- involve themselves in the care of their children is a means of
cally with broad spectrum antibiotics. Local guidelines should be attempting to overcome these challenges.
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 422 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITION
8. Achieve catch-up growth the disease to ensure that families are not stigmatized and that
Once acute medical problems have been dealt with and the children do not receive inferior care due to a belief that their
child’s appetite has improved they are ready to enter the reha- demise is inevitable. HIV positive malnourished children should
bilitation phase. The starter F75 formula is replaced with F100 follow the same protocol as HIV negative children with the
formula (100 kcal/100 ml and 2.9 g protein/100 ml) and volumes addition of prophylactic co-trimoxazole. Severe oral thrush can
increased according to the child’s demand. The higher energy inhibit feeding and may need treatment with fluconazole. When
and protein content of F100 should result in rapid weight gain to start antiretrovirals should be based on the level of immuno-
assessed in g/kg/day. A weight gain of greater than 10 g/kg/day suppression (CD4 count) and stage of malnutrition treatment
is considered good; 5e10 g/kg/day moderate; and less than 5 g/ according to local protocols.
kg/day poor. At this stage of treatment, dependent on individual
circumstances, children can often be transferred to out-patient
Prevention
care and RUTF offered instead of F100.
9. Provide sensory stimulation and emotional support As detailed above, management of the severely malnourished
Although usually unintentional, malnourished children have child presents a huge challenge, especially in inadequately staf-
suffered a form of neglect. They should receive tender nursing fed and resourced health facilities. Even when the WHO 10 steps
care in a stimulating environment with opportunities for play and are applied rigorously, mortality often remains high. Therefore,
physical therapy as they recover. prevention of malnutrition is a priority for governments and
10. Prepare for follow-up other organizations interested in reducing child mortality. As
Recovery is considered to be a WHZ score of 1. This may malnutrition is both a medical and socioeconomic condition,
take up to 6 weeks to achieve. Before discharge from in-patient or a range of interventions are necessary.
out-patient care, endeavours must be made to ensure the child An essential component of any preventive strategy is the
will not relapse. Caregivers should receive health and nutrition promotion of breastfeeding. The WHO recommends exclusive
education and be alerted to the signs of deterioration and when breastfeeding until 6 months of age with supplementary breast
to seek medical care. Scheduled follow-up appointments should milk forming an important part of the diet up to 2 years of age.
also be planned over at least the first 6 months. Currently only 24e32% of infants in developing countries are
exclusively breastfed up to 6 months. The WHO ranks subop-
Special groups timal breastfeeding as the 7th most significant risk factor for
Infants younger than 6 months: traditionally malnutrition has global burden of disease. The uncompromising guidelines of the
been considered a condition that develops after the age of 6 Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative e now familiar in many UK
months and management guidelines are aimed at children maternity units e were originally intended for use in the devel-
greater than 6 months old. However, increasing numbers of oping world where breastfeeding is truly a life-saving interven-
young infants are presenting with both non-oedematous and tion. Infant formula milks are inferior to breast milk both in
oedematous malnutrition. Possible reasons for this include nutritional composition and lack of immunological protection
increased survival of low birthweight and premature babies and against infectious diseases, in particular gastroenteritis and
failure to exclusively breastfeed (for a variety of reasons pneumonia. In poor societies where many mothers are illiterate
including increased prevalence of maternal HIV). The younger and innumerate, producing appropriately concentrated and
the child the more likely an organic cause of malnutrition further hygienic milk from instructions on a tin of powder is unlikely to
highlighting the importance of a thorough assessment to detect be achieved. Furthermore, the cost may result in a temptation to
any underlying medical conditions. over-dilute infant formula or to purchase a cheaper, non-
Breast milk is the ideal nutrition for these infants but is often modified, animal milk.
not available in sufficient quantities and the child may be too Other health education approaches include the promotion of
unwell to suckle effectively by the time they reach the attention of nutrient rich weaning foods and discouraging the over-reliance
health services. There is currently no consensus on the optimum on carbohydrate dense staple foods. This is combined with an
nutritional management in the rehabilitation phase if breast milk, active programme of routine child health surveillance with
or a commercial infant formula, are not available. F100 has a high regular weight monitoring to detect children at risk of severe
potential renal solute load and its use could result in hyper- malnutrition and target interventions. Increasing coverage of
natraemic dehydration e particularly in hot, dry environments. immunization and vitamin A supplementation should help
Some practitioners advocate the use of a diluted version of F100 as prevent the infectious diseases that can often trigger severe
a safer alternative. However, studies of its use have not shown it to malnutrition in an already undernourished child. Primary care
consistently support the rapid weight gain required. Additional services must also be available to ensure the prompt treatment of
guidance on the management of infants less than 6 months is childhood illnesses that can precipitate or worsen malnutrition.
anticipated in the next edition of the WHO treatment protocol. Improvement of a community’s sanitation and hygiene via the
provision of toilets (currently available to only 59% of the
HIV positive children: there is debate as to whether malnour- world’s population) and the promotion of handwashing with
ished children should be routinely screened for HIV infection. soap will also be crucial in improving children’s nutritional
The increasing availability of antiretroviral medication, as well as status e particularly if tropical enteropathy is confirmed as a key
the opportunity to access prophylactic co-trimoxazole, suggest contributing factor to malnutrition.
that it will now be helpful to check HIV status. However, treat- The large family sizes common in many developing countries
ment facilities must ensure that nursing staff are educated about make it difficult for mothers both to offer optimal breastfeeding
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 423 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITION
to each child, and to provide a diet, once weaned, of appropriate Hamer C, Kvatum K, Jeffries D, Allen S. Detection of severe protein-energy
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family planning services to either limit family size or to space 181e4.
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tion of malnutrition. For mothers to act as effective advocates for handwashing. Lancet 2009; 374: 1032e5.
their children, the broader aim of empowering women and UNICEF. The State of the World’s Children; 2008.
improving levels of female education must also be addressed. World Health Organization. Global health risks: mortality and burden of
With just 5 years left to achieve the Millennium Development disease attributable to selected major risks; 2009.
Goals there is a clear need to confront childhood undernutrition World Health Organization. Pocket book of hospital care for children.
as the single most important risk factor for ill health in the world Guidelines for the management of common illnesses with limited
today. Mounting evidence for the efficacy of simple interven- resources; 2005.
tions, such as exclusive breastfeeding and improved sanitation, World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund. WHO child
should aid governments and society in tackling this threat. A growth standards and the identification of severe acute malnutrition in
infants and children; 2009.
World Health Organization. Severe malnutrition: report of a consultation
to review current literature; 2005.
FURTHER READING
Amadi B, Fagbemi AO, Kelly P, et al. Reduced production of sulfated
glycosaminoglycans occurs in Zambian children with kwashiorkor but
not marasmus. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89: 592e600.
Ashworth A, Chopra M, McCoy D, et al. WHO guidelines for management Practice points
of severe malnutrition in rural South African hospitals: effect on case
fatality and the influence of operational factors. Lancet 2004; 363: C Children presenting to healthcare facilities should routinely
1110e5. have their nutritional status assessed.
Berkley J, Mwangi I, Griffiths K, et al. Assessment of severe malnutrition C Treatment of the 2 main forms of malnutrition should be stan-
among hospitalized children in rural Kenya: comparison of weight for dardized and take account of reductive adaptation to prevent
height and mid upper arm circumference. J Am Med Assoc 2005; 294: avoidable deaths.
591e7. C Treatment programmes should be community based where
Bhutta ZA, Chopra M, Axelson H, et al. Countdown to 2015 decade report possible but the most severely affected children will still need
(2000e10): taking stock of maternal, newborn, and child survival. intensive in-patient management.
Lancet 2010; 375: 2032e44. C Strategies to prevent malnutrition should be aimed at both
Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta ZA, et al. Maternal and child undernutrition: individuals and communities and must tackle the wide range of
global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet 2008; medical, social and economic causes.
371: 243e60.
PAEDIATRICS AND CHILD HEALTH 21:9 424 Ó 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.