REINFORCED CEMENT chapesr CONCRETE STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION GENERAL Cement concrete isa composite material obtained by mixing its three ingredients, namely, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement im predetermined proportions (which depend on the strength to be possessed by the concrete) with specified amount of water. The coarse aggregate may sometimes be referred as gravel or metal and fine aggregate is sand. Initially the mixture will be a plastic mass which can be poured in suitable moulds, called forms and becomes hard progressively. This process is known as selfing. The setting time can be divided into 3 distinct Phases, The fnitial set requires 30 to 60 minutes and during this phase the concrete decreases its plasticity and develops resistance to flow. The second phase, known as final set, may vary between 5 to 6 hours after mixing. During the third phase, known as progressive hardening the concrete increases its strength. The advantage of concrete is that it can be cast to any shape and size with an appropriate form work, With proper curing it attains most of its strength by the end of one month after mixing. The strength and hardness of concrete depend on the quality and proportions of the ingredients used and the properties of concrete vary almost as widely as different kinds of stones. The concrete described above is known as plait concrete, Concrete is fairly strong in compression and weak in tension and it-can be used where the tensile stresses are absent or negligibly small. However, the concrete used in beams, slabs etc, reinforcement bars (usually mild steel bars) have to be embedded in concrete at the tensile zones, The concrete is then called the reinforced cement corerele abbreviated as RCC.Merits of R.C. (a) The coefficient of linewr expansion of concrete is almost equal to that of steel, (H) Concrete can be moulded into any shape and size and its ingredient materials are easily available. {c) Cancrete constructions are economical and their maintenance cost is almost nil (d) Concrete is durable and is not easily affected by the atmospheric agencies (ce) Conerete is fire resistant and its construction is superior to steel and timber construction (f) Monolithic construction is possible with concrete and this provides a greater flexibility in planning and design. ‘Types of Cement, There are many typesof cement such as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Low Heat Portland Cement, Portland — pozzolona Cement (PPC), High alumina cement, natural cements and special cements like masonry cement, expansive cement ete. The type of cement must be chosen such that it is the most appropriate to the work. The specifications to be satistied by the cement can be found in the relevant IS-code. Aggregates. Aggregates used for concrete must comply with the norms laid down in IS: 383-1970. Measurement of Materials. All the three ingredient materials have tobe measured by weight. In our country cement is supplied in bags weighing 30 kg each. The volume of cement in one bag may be taken as 34.5 litres that is 0.1345 m’. Water Cement Ratio. Water cement ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of water used in making concrete to the volume of cement used. The workability and strength of concrete depend. on water cement ratio. For a given proportion of materials there is one optimum value of water cement. If the actual water cement is less than this optimum it will notonly reduce the strength but may be also insufficient to ensure complete setting of cement, Likewise, if the actual water cement ratio is more than optimum, it will increase the workability but decrease the strength. Some practical values of water cement for R-C.C, are about: 0.45 for 1:1; 2 concrete, 0.50 for 1: 1.5; 3 and 0.60 far 12:4, Durability of Concrete. The property of conerete by virtue of which it resists the disintegration and decay is called the durability. The disintegration and decay in concrete may be due to: (a) Use of unsound cement which produces changes in hardened concrete due to delayed chemical reactions. (b) Use of less durable aggregate which is acted upon by cement and atmospheric gases, (c) Excessive pores formed while making concrete, which permits harmful gases causing disintegration. (d) Freezing and thawing of water sucked through the cracks causing disintegration. (¢) Expansion and contraction occurring due to temperature changes, or alternate wetting and drying, One of the main characteristic of the concrete influencing the durability is its permenbility. Higher permeability permits rather the free flow of potentially deleterious substances like water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and others. To ensure durability care should be takento see that proper ingredient materials are used, mixing and compaction is properly done and sufficient cover is provided for the embedded reinforcement bars. Workability of Concrete. Workability may be defined as the ease with which the concrete may be mixed, handled, transported, placed in position and compacted, The major factor influencing the workability is the amount of water present in the mix, The concrete mix proportions chosen should be such that the concrete is of adequate workability for the placing conditions of concrete and can be properly compacted. Grades of Concrete, IS 4156 : 2000 specifies 15 grades of concrete which are designated as MLO, M15, M20,.Mi25, M30,M35, M40, M45, M50,.M55, Mol, M65, M70, M75 anc M80 in which the letter M refers to the mix and the number that follows the letter M{ refers to the chanmcferisticstrengtiy in N/mm? (/.,) of 150 mm concrete cube at 28 days. Thus for example M20 grade refers toa concrete mix whose characteristic strength is 20 N/mm. The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the material below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. Suppose n (say BO) cubes of M20) grade concrete are tested for their compressive strength, ‘Then at the maximum 0.05 n (that is 4) cubescan have strength of less than 20) N/mm? and the remaining 0.95 n (that is 76) cubes shall have strength more than or ‘equal to 20 Ni'mm?, From the definition of characteristic strength it is implied that there is only 5% chance or a probability of 0.05 for the actual strength to be less than the characteristic strength. To put it iin other words the characteristic strength has 95% reliability. The characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete is denoted by f,- An estimate of tensile strength of concrete in flexure denoted by f,, may be obtained from the following equation: heave 41) The modulus of elasticity of concrete denoted by E_ can be assumed as follows: E,= 5000 Fy eo.) 18. 456:2000 recommends that minimum grade of concrete used in reinforced cement concrete works shall not be less than M20. Steel Reinforcement. The steel reinforcement used in concrete are generally of the following types: (a) Mild steel bars conforming to 1S 432 (part-1): 1966 and Hot rolled mild steel deformed bars conforming to IS 1139: 1966, ‘These bars have yield strength of 250 N/mm?, Hence they are referred to as Fe 250 steel. (0) Hot rolled high yield strength deformed bars conforming, to IS 1139 : 1966 and Cold worked steel high strength deformed bars conforming to 1S 1786 : 1979 (Grade Fe 415 and Fe 500) having 0.2% proof stress as 415 N/mm? and 500 N/mm? respectively, These are also known as CTD (cold twisted deformed) bars. The idealized stress-strain curve for mild steel bars, and the stress-strain curves for CTD bars are shown in Fig. 14.1.‘Strain — {a} Cold worked defamed bar (b) Stee! bar with definite yield port FIGURE 14.1 Stress-strain curves for mild steel and CTD bar. ‘The characteristic strength of steel is denoted by f, and is defined as the strength below which not more than 8% of the test results are expected to fall. Following the similar interpretation as that of concrete grades the Fe 250, Fe415 and FeS0il grade steels will have characteristic strengths of 250 N/mm?, 415 N/mm? and 500 N/'mm* respectively, Fo45 is also referred to as Tor 40 and similarly Fe500 is also known as Tor 50, When strain (x-axis) versus stress (y-axis) curve is prepared, we notice that the strain increases ata yield stress and the curve exhibits horizontal portion which is called piateasr. ‘The steel bar can be strained beyond yield plateau by twisting or stretching and then unloading, The process is known as cold working and the tor-steel bars available in India are of this type. A twisted bar has considerable increased yield stress and it has yield stress 501 to 100% more than ordinary steel bars. Thus designs using twisted bars lead to saving in steel. One can expect improved bond between concrete and steel when deformed bars are used. A deformed bar is obtained by providing lugs or ribs deformation on the surface of the bar. High yield strength deformed bars (H'YSD) are in common use. The use of HYSD bars also requires the simultaneous use of grade of concrete of M20 or higher. The modulus of elasticity of steel denated by £, is generally taken as 2x 10° N/mm’, The stress-strain relation for steel is assumed to be same both in tension and compression. DESIGN CONCEPTS ‘The reinforced cement concrete structures may be designed using any one of the following three methods: (a) The working stress method {W5M) also called the Modular Ratio Method.(b) The ultimate load method (ULM) also known as the load factor method. {e) The limit state method (LSM). Working Stress Method. It isa traditional method of design based on classical elastic theory used not only for R.C.C. structures but also for timber and steel structures. It uses a factor of safety of 3 for concrete and 1.8 for steel. It has the following demerits. It does not show the true factor of safety under failure. It leads to uneconomical design. It to distinguish between different types of loads that act simultaneously but have different uncertainties. ‘The merits in its favour are : (2) it is simple in concept and application. Structures designed by this method are large and therefore give better serviceability performance (4e., less deflection, less crack width etc,,). Knowledge of W'SM is essential since it formsa partof LSM far serviceability condition, Ultimate Load Method. In this method stress condition at the state of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed using the non-linear stress-strain curves of concrete and steel. Load factor gives factor of safety. In brief, the ultimate load method ensures safety at ultimate loads but disregards the serviceability at service loads, Limit State Method. A limit state is a state of impending failure beyond which the structure ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of safety or serviceability. Two types of limitstates are considered in design. They are limit state of collapse and limit state of serviceability. The limit state of collapse inclucte the limit state of collapse in flexure, in compression, in compression and uniaxial bending, in compression and biaxial bending, in shear, in bond, in torsion and in tension. The limit state of serviceability include the limit state of deflection, the limit state of cracking and the other limit states such vibration, fire resistance, durability ete. In general, the structure shal! be designed based on the most critical limit state and it shall be checked for other limit states. Characteristic Strength and Partial Safety Factors. Suppose the tests conducted on nm samples have given strengths fy, fy... f,. Then the mean strength f_ is given by Ie A fy Fone + LV = aie ef 4.3) Similarly the standard deviation of the strength / is given by Dill wf 44) Now, if we assume that the strength follows normal probability distribution, the characteristic strengths f, can be obtained from the relation Apa fyw 45 ef 145) because the area of the normal curve between — => and — 1.645 is 0,05, The design strength of the material f, is given by fra hln A146) where y,, is the partial safety factor appropriate to the material and the limit state being considered, For concrete y,, = 1.5 and for steely, = 1.15Thus for steel the design stress is givenas f,.=f,/ 1.15 =(.87f,. The [5456 : 2000 code suggests that for design purpose the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed to be (1.67 times the characteristic strength of concrete in cube and in addition the partial safety factor of 1.15 shall be applied. Thus the design stress in concrete f, is given by f,. = 40.67 f,)/1.5=045/,. This is reflected in stress-strain curves Characteristic Loads, A characteristic load is defined as that value of load which has a 95 per cent probability of notheing exceeded during the life of structure. If F,, is the mean load, F, is the standard deviation of the load, then the characteristic load F, is given by F,=F, + L.6d5 F, A147) Equation (14.7) is again based on the assumption that the load F is a random variable follmwing normal probability distribution and the normal curve has 95% of its area between — and + 1.645, However, since adequate data is not available, 15 456 ; 2000 supgests that the dead loads (DL) given in IS 875 (part-) the imposed loads (IL) or the live loads (LL) given in 15 875 (part-IT) the wind loads (WL) given in [S 875 (part-II1) the snow loads (SL) given in IS 875 (part-IV) the seismic or earthquake loads (EL) given in 15 1893 shall be assumed as the characteristic loads The design load is given by Fy= ¥Fe 14.8) where 7, is the partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and the limit state being considered. The design load F, given by eqn. (14.8) is also known as finctoned fowl. Partial safety factors for loads may be taken from Table 18 of the code 15 456 : 2000. ‘Stress-Strain curves for concrete and steel. The most important characteristic of the materials in R-C.C. (that is concrete and steel) required in the design is the stress-strain curve. o.o02 0.0035 Straiq > FIGURE 14.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete.A typical stress strain curve for concrete is shown in Fig, 14.2. It may be noted that each curve is parabolic in the initial portion up tea strain of 0.002, Ata strain of (1,002 (at 0.2% strain) the stress remains constant with increasing load until a strain of 0.35% is reached, when the concrete is said to have failed. ‘The stress-strain curve for steel is shown in Fig, 14.1. It may be observed from this figure that for mild steel the stress is proportional to strain up to yield point and thereafter the strain increases at constant stress. For the stress-strain curves of Fe 415 and Fe 500, there is no definite yield point. Hence yield stress in taken as 0.2 per cent proof stress, The stress-strain curves for these two types of steel are linear up toa stress of 0.8 f) and strains are elastic. Thereafter, they are not linear. The salient points on the stress-strain curves of Fe 415 and Fe 500 in the non linear portion are given in Table 14.1 Table 14.1. Salient Points on the Design Stress-Strain Curve for Cold Worked Bars Stress devel Fedl:f, = 415 Niwa? FeS00: f, = 500 Nyaa? Strain ‘Streas Nye? Strain Stress N/mm? af, 0.00144 2587 OKT HTB TBS fy 0.00163 w6.? 0.00895 I6%6 Of o.00192 324.8 0.00226 391.3 0.55 fy 0.00241 La 0.00277 410 0.975 f,, 0.00276 3518 0.00812 49 Lh 0.00380) 360.9 OOM? Aue UMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN FLEXURE (SINGLE REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS) Design for the limit state of collapse in flexure is based on the following assumptions: (#) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending, (i) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fiber is taken as 00,0035, (iif) The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in concrete may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of the test. An acceptable stress-strain curve is given in Fig, 14.3, For design purpose the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed tu be 0.67 times the characteristic strength, The partial safety factor oF y,,= 1.5 shall be applied in addition (io) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored (v) The stresses in the steel reinforcement are derived from the representative stress-strain curve for the type of steel used. For design purpose, the partial safety factor for stee! y,, © 1.15 shall be applied.(vi) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be loss than [(f,/115 E.) + 11.002), P Seq = 0085 MET, #— p ——* oe a -————— c 0416 x, By 5, = 0.98 fb Ty = O87 ty a) ) ‘e) FIGURE 14.3 Stressestrain distribution across the depth of rectangular section. ‘The stress and strain distribution across the depth of a rectangular section is shown in Fig. 14.3, The notation is self explanatory. If x, is the depth to Neutral Axis (NA}, then from the similarity of triangles in the strain diagram, we have 0.0085 040095 + (L002 + O87 f, /E.) i a where d is the effective depth, The effective depth d of the section is the vertical distance between the tension reinforcement and the maximum compression fiber excluding the thickness of the finishing material not placed monolithically with the member, Thus we have d = (D-—1p/2 — clear cover) Where D is the gross or overall depth and @ is the diameter of the reinforcement bars, the reinforcement being provided in only one layer. The simplification of the above expression replacing E, by 2x 10 N/mm gives ___700 d 11004 O87 f, The value of x, given by eqn. (14.9) is the max because both concrete and steel are taken to fail simultaneously. Therefore we can write 49) «0 d 11004087 f, It may be noted here that x, ,,,, i5 dependent on the grade of steel only, Substituting appropriate value of f,, we obtain that, for Fe 2504, = 0.53, for Fed it is 0.48 and for Fe 500 tis 0.46. (1410) uy