esa ae se erento sy THIRD EDITION gy Flight Dynamics PEE rae MICHAEL V. COOK erat 5Flight Dynamics Principles A Linear Systems Approach to Aircraft Stability and Control Third Edition Michael V. Cook Bsc, MSc, CEng, FRAeS, CMath, FIMAButterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OXS 1GB, UK First Edition 1997 Second Faition 2007 ‘Third Edition 2013 Copyright © 2013, 2007 Michael V. Cook. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including phorocopying, recording, ot any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. 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V, Flight dynamics principles: a linear systems approach to aiteraft stability and control / Mike Cook. — 3d ed pcm, Includes bibliographical references ISBN 978.-0-08-098242-7 1, Aerodynamics. I. Tite TLS70.C617 2013 629.132'3—de23 2012021575 th Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Briti Library For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications nar website at hup:/store.elsevier.co Printed in the United States of Ameri 1B 14151617 10987654321 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries wwwelzviercom | wwibookaid.org | wwwsabreorg asainContents 18195 Preface on. Preface to the second edition Preface to the first edition Acknowledgements. Nomenclature... CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 Overview..... 2. Flying and handling qualities.. 3 General considerations... : 1.3.1 Basie control-esponse relationships. 1.3.2. Mathematical models 13.3. Stability and control 1.3.4. Stability and control augmentation 1.4 Aircraft equations of motion. 1.5. Aerodynamics 1.5.1 Small perturbations. 1.6 Computers, 1.6.1 Analytical computers, 1.6.2. Flight control computers 1.6.3 Computer software tools 1.7. Summary References. Sources CHAPTER 2 Systems of Axes and Notation 2.1 Earth axes 2.2 Aircraft body—fixed axes. 2.2.1 Generalised body axes. 2.2.2. Aerodynamic, wind, or stability axes... 2.2.3. Perturbation variables. 2.2.4 Angular relationships 2.2.5 Choice of axes 2.3. Euler angles and aircraft attitude : 2.4 Axes transformations ..rommenn 2.4.1 Linear quantities transformation 24.2. Angular velocities transformation. symmetric flight. xxi xxiii 10 10 ul 13 13 4 4 15 15 16 18 19 19 20vi Contents 2.5. Aircraft reference geometry 2.5.1 Wing area. 2.5.2 Mean acrodynamic chord... 2.5.3. Standard mean chord 2.5.4 Aspect ratio. 2.5.5 Location of centre of gravity 2.5.6 Tail moment arm and tail volume ratio. 2.5.7 Fin moment arm and fin volume ratio. 2.6 Controls notation - 2.6.1 Aerodynamic controls... 2.6.2. Engine control 2.7. Aerodynamic reference centre References, Problems... CHAPTER 3 Static Equilibrium and Trim. 3.1 Trim equilibrium 3.1.1 Preliminary considerations 3.1.2 Conditions for stability 3.1.3. Degree of longitudinal stability 3.1.4 Variation in stability 3.2. The pitching moment equation 3.2.1 Simple development of the pitching moment equation. 3.2.2 Elevator angle to trim... 3.23. Condition for longitudinal static stl 3.3 Longitudinal static stability 3.3.1 Controls-fixed stability. 3.3.2. Controls-free stability 3.3.3 Summary of longitudinal static stability 3.4. Lateral-directional static stability 3.4.1 Lateral static stability . 3.4.2. Directional static stability 3.5 Calculation of aircraft trim cond 3.5.1 Defining the trim condition. 3.5.2. Elevator angle to trim. 3.5.3 Controls-fixed static stability . 3.5.4 “AeroTrim”: A Mathcad trim program. References... Sources Problems CHAPTER 4 The Equations of Motion B 4.1 The equations of motion for a rigid symmetric aircraft BB 4.1.1 The components of inertial acceleration. 3Contents vii 4.1.2. The generalised force equations. 17 4.1.3. The generalised moment equations. soe TS. 4.1.4 Perturbation forces and moments. 80 4.2. The linearised equations of motion 80 4.2.1 Gravitational terms 4.2.2 Aerodynamic terms : 4.2.3 Aerodynamic control terms. 4.2.4 Power terms Ft 4.25. The equations of motion for small perturbations. son 85 4.3. The decoupled equations of motion. 43.1 The longitudinal equations of motion 4.3.2. The lateral-directional equations of motion. 44 Alternative forms of the equations of motion 4.4.1 The dimensionless equations of motion. 4.4.2 The equations of motion in state space form a 4.4.3. The equations of motion in American normalised form References... Problems CHAPTER 5 The Solution of the Equations of Motion...... 109 5.1. Methods of solutior 109 5.2. Cramer's rule 110 8.3 Aircraft response transfer functio 12 53.1 The longitudinal response transfer functions 113 5.3.2 The lateral-directional response transfer functions. 1s 5.4. Response to controls .. see WT 8.5. Acceleration response transfer functions. 121 5.6 The state-space method. 123 5.6.1 The transfer function matrix 123 5.6.2. The longitudinal transfer function matrix 125 5.6.3 The lateral-directional transfer function matrix. 125 5.6.4 Response in terms of state description 128 5.7 State-space model augmentation . 136 5.7.1 Height response transfer function so 137 572 Incidence and sideslip response transfer functions....sessesnoewsneons 138 5.7.3. Flight path angle response transfer functioN.....rnonmem sone 139) 5.7.4 Addition of engine dynamics He lteetscra eae era Th 09 References. . a2 aoe nse nee AD Problems — onan ne REnnaras CHAPTER 6 Longitudinal Dynamics .. ua 6.1. Response to controls 147 6.1.1 The characteristic equation . 152viii Contents 6.2 63 64 65 6.6 References. Problems CHAPTER 7 WW 12 13 14 15 16 References. Problems CHAPTER 8 8.1 8.2 83 84 The dynamic stability modes. 6.2.1 The short-period pitching oscillation 6.2.2. The phugoid... Reduced-order models. : 6.3.1 The short-period mode approximation, 6.3.2 The phugoid mode approximation . Frequency response... . 64.1 The Bode diagram 6.4.2. Interpretation of the Bode diagram... Flying and handling qualities Mode excitation... Lateral-Directional Dynamics... Response to controls 7.1 The characteristic equation . ‘The dynamic stability modes... 7.2.1 The roll subsidence mode 7.2.2. The spiral mode. 7.2.3. The dutch roll mode Reduced order models. : 7.3.1 The roll mode approximation 7.3.2 The spiral mode approximation. 7.3.3 The dutch roll mode approximation Frequency response so Flying and handling qualities. Mode excitation ..ncnnen Manoeuvrability . Introduction 8.1.1 Manoeuvring flight. 8.1.2. Stability... 8.1.3. Aircraft handling . 8.14 The steady symmetric manoeuvre ... The steady pull-up manoeuvre... The pitching moment equation Longitudinal manoeuvre stabilit 8.4.1 Controls-fixed stability 8.4.2 Normal acceleration response (0 elevator 8.4.3 Controls-free stability 8.4.4 Elevator deflection and stick force... 153 153, 154 155 156 159 166 168, 170 175 175, 179 179 183, 183, 191 192 192 194 195 197 198 199 200 204 210 21 215 215 219 219 219 220 220 221 221 223 225 225 227 228Contents ix 8.5 Aircraft dynamics and manoeuvrability .......... _ severe 233, 8.6 Aircraft with stability augmentation 86.1 Stick force. 8.6.2 Stick force per g. 235 References. 2a CHAPTER 9 Stability... 243 9.1. Introduction... 9.1.1 A definition of stability 9.1.2. Non-linear systems.. 9.1.3. Static and dynamic 9.1.4 Control... 243 243 se 244 ability 9.2 The characteristic equation 245 9.3. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion 246 9.3.1 Special cases... : oo 248 9.4 The stability quartic... 250 9.4.1 Interpretation of conditional instabi - as 251 9.4.2. Interpretation of the coefficient E... so . 252 9.5. Graphical interpretation of stability. 253 9.5.1 Root mapping on the s-plane 253 References, oo 257 Problems... 257 259 CHAPTER 10_ Flying and Handling Qualities 10.1 Introduction... 259 101A Stability. 10.2 Short term dynamic models. 260 10.2.1 Controlled motion and motion cues. 260 10.2.2 The longitudinal reduced order model... 261 10.2.3 The “thumb print” criterion 266 10.2.4 Incidence lag. 267 10.3 Flying qualities requirements.. oma sevens 267 104 Aircraft role nn ne oe 270) 10.4.1 Aircraft classification 270 10.4.2. Flight phase son 271 10.4.3 Levels of flying qualities. ennnee mn 10.4.4. Flight envelopes... an 10.5 Pilot opinion rating 24 10.6 Longitudinal flying qualities requirements, eacennae 276 10.6.1 Longitudinal static stability... 276 10.6.2. Longitudinal dynamie stability 277 10.6.3. Longitudinal manoeuvrability 279 10.7 Control anticipation parameter. 279x Contents 10.8 Lateral-directional flying qualities requirements. 10.8.1 Steady lateral-directional control 10.8.2. Laterai-directional dynamic stability . 10.8.3 Lateral-ditectional manoeuvrability and response... 10.9 Flying qualities requirements on the s-plane 10.9.1 Longitudinal modes. 10.9.2. Lateral-directional modes, References. Problems... CHAPTER 11 Command and pay ld 11.4 Introduction... 11.1.1 The control law. 11.1.2 Safety 11.1.3 Stability augmentation system architecture... : 11.1.4 Scope. 11.2 Augmentation system design, 11.3 Closed-loop system analy 11.4 The root locus plot. . 11.5 Longitudinal stability augmentation. 11.6 Lateral-directional stability augmentation 11.7 The pole placement method 11.8 Command augmentation. 11.8.1 Command path filter design. . 11.8.2. The frequency response of a phase compensation filter... 338 11.8.3 Introduction of a command path filter to the system state model 339 References, 348 Problems ... CHAPTER 12 Aerodynamic Modelling. 12.1 Introduction... 12.2 Quasi-static derivatives... 4 12.3 Derivative estimation, 356 12.3.1 Calculation 357 12.3.2. Wind tunnel measurement... - 357 12.3.3 Flight test measurement 358 12.4 The effects of compressibility 360 12.4.1 Some useful definitions 360 124.2 Aerodynamic models. 361 12.43. Subsonic lift, drag, and pitching moment... 362 12.4.4. Supersonic lift, drag, and pitching moment sone 363 12.4.5: Summary... ~ — soe 364 12.5 Limitations of aerodynamic modelling. es se 368 References. - 368Contents CHAPTER 13 Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives... 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Longitudinal aerodynamic stability derivative Preliminary considerations Aerodynamic force and moment components... Force derivatives due to velocity perturbations, Moment derivatives due to velocity perturbations... Derivatives due to a pitch velocity perturbation... 13.2.6 Derivatives due to acceleration perturbations 13.3 Lateral-directional aerodynamic stability derivatives.. 13.3.1 Preliminary considerations 13.3.2. Derivatives due to sideslip... 13.3.3. Derivatives due to rate of roll... 13.3.4. Derivatives due to rate of yaw 13.4 Aerodynamic control derivatives . 13.4.1 Derivatives due to elevator 13.4.2 Derivatives due to aileron 13.4.3 Derivatives due to rudder 13.5 North American derivative coefficient notation 13.5.1. The longitudinal aerodynamic derivative coefficients. 13.5.2. The lateral 13.5.3, Comments References. Problems CHAPTER 14 Flight in a Non-steady Atmosphere... 14.1 The influence of atmospheric disturbances on flying qualities 14.2 Methods of evaluation.. 14.3 Atmospheric disturbances 14.3.1 Steady wind 14.3.2 Wind shear 14.3.3. Discrete gusts 14.3.4 Continuous turbulence. . 14.4 Extension of the linear aircraft equations of motion 14.4.1 Disturbed body incidence and sidestip 14.4.2 The longitudinal equations of motion 14.4.3. The lateral-directional equations of motion, 144.4 ‘The equations of motion for aireraft with stability augmentation 14.5 Turbulence modelling 14.5.1 The von Karmén model. 14.5.2. The Dryden model 145.3 Comparison of the von Karman and Dryden models, 145.4. Turbulence scale length... 145.5. Turbulence intensity rectional aerodynamic derivative coefficients... 371 371 371 371 373 373 376 377 380 384 384 384 394 398, 404 405 406 409 410 412 416 418 435 441 441 442 443 443 444 444 446 446 447 448 sons 450 oe ASL 456 457 457 on 459 459 461xii Contents 14.66 Discrete gusts... eo 462 146.1 The “I-cosine” gust... . es - 462 14.6.2 Determination of maximum gust velocity and horizontal length... 464 14.7 Aircraft response to gusts and turbulence ccc Beate 465) 14.7.1 Variance, power spectral density, and white noise .............., 465 14.7.2. Spatial and temporal equivalence 467 14.7.3. Synthetic turbulence oe sincere 468 14.7.4 Aircraft response 10 gUStS..ncnniunemnnnnnn ron : 470 14.7.5. Aircraft response to turbulence — . 472 References... 484 CHAPTER 15 Coursework Studies. 487 15.1 Introduction. oe 487 15.1.1 Working the assignments = os see 487 19.1.2. Reporting cosines a Fass z oxime 487 15.2 Assignment 1: Stability augmentation of the North American X-15 hypersonic research aeroplane. 488, 15.2.1 The aircraft model 2 488 15.2.2 The solution tasks. es, - oe ABB 15.3 Assignment 2: The stability and control characteristics of a civil transport aeroplane with relaxed longitudinal static stability . : a 2 489 15.3.1 The aircraft model — . sri 2 489 ‘The governing trim equations... — fesse 491 Basie aircraft stability and control analysis. 2491 Relaxing the stability of the aircraft... 5 492 Relaxed stability aircraft stability and control analysis 492 Evaluation of results aa - . 492 Postscript... Sessoms . sre 492 15.4 Assignment 3: Lateral-directional handling qualities design for the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter aircraft....senssetcene : snes 492 15.4.1. The aireraft model... 0 493, 15.4.2, Lateral-directional autostabiliser structure. = 494 15.4.3 Basic aircraft stability and control analysis... 494 15.4.4 Augmenting the stability of the aircraft ae 495 15.4.5 Inclusion of the washout filter in the model............... senies 497 15.4.6 Designing the aileron-rudder interlink gain... : sss 497 18.5 Assignment 4: Analysis of the effects of Mach number on the longitudinal stability and control characteristics of the LTV A7-A Corsair aircraft... 498 15.5.1 The aircraft model... 498 15.5.2 The assignment tasks... 498Contents 15.6 Assignment 5: The design of a longitudinal primary flight control system for an advanced-technology UAV 3 15.6.1 The aircraft MOdel ....nc 15.6.2 The design requirements... 15.6.3 The assignment tasks. References... Appendices AeroTrim: A Symmetric Trim Calculator for Subsonic Flight Conditions Definitions of Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives Aircraft Response Transfer Functions Referred to Aircraft Body Axes. Units, Conversions, and Constants... A Very Short Table of Laplace Transforms. ‘The Dynamics of a Linear Second Order System... North American Aerodynamic Derivative Notation... Approximate Expressions for the Dimensionless Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives es 9 Transformation of Aerodynamic Stability Derivatives from a Body Axes Reference to a Wind Axes Reference 10 Transformation of the Moments and Product Reference to a Wind Axes Reference IL The Root Locus Plot eaaunene of Inertia from a Body Axes Index 501 501 503 504 505