TANKER HANDBOOK DECK OFFICERS BY CAPTAIN C. BAPTIST GLASGOW BROWN, SON & FERGUSON, LTD. 4-10 DARNLEY STREETCopyright in all countries signatory to the Berne Convention All rights reserved First Edition — 1954 Fourth Edition — 1969 Fifth Edition ~ 1975 ‘Sixth Edition 1980 Seventh Edition 1991 Reprinted Edition — 1993 Eighth Edition ~ 2000 ISBN 0 85174 672 1 © 2000 Brown, Son & FERGUSON, Lrp., GLasGow, G41 28D Printed and Made in Great Britain ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO THE EIGHTH EDITION ‘The author would like to express his appreciation to the many Companies and individuals listed below for their permission and help in reproducing photographs and diagrams appearing in this book. Also to the many Masters and Officers of Oil Tankers who have co-operated in helping to obtain much of the information used. Exxon Corporation Inc., U.S.A. and Affiliated Companies. Mobil Oil Corporation and Affiliated Companies. Gulf Oil Company and Affiliated Companies. National Bulk Carriers Inc., U.S.A. Lief Hoegh and Co., Norway. Drysdale and Co., Ltd., U.K. Howaldtswerke, Hamburg A.G., Germany. Maersk Tankers, Denmark. Stolt-Neilsen Ltd., London. Mirrlees (Engineering) Ltd., U.K. Ferguson & Timpson Ltd., U.K. ‘Nautical Photo Agency, Beccles, U.K. Newman, Hender & Co., Ltd., U.K. The Western Mail and Echo, Cardiff, U.K. Brown Lennox & Co., Lid., U.K. Burmah Oil Shipping Inc., U.S.A. ‘The Tanker Advisory Center, U.S.A. Captain K, Ricbensahm Marine Consultant, U.S.A. Burmeister and Wayn Skibsvaerft A/S, Denmark. Saab TankRadar System, SwedenWhile the author and publishers have taken every precaution to ensure that the information provided in this book is accurate, no responsibility can be taken for errors or omissions INTRODUCTION ‘The expansion of world energy has increased dramatically over the last hundred years and oil has played a major part in meeting these needs. In terms of the industrial revolution. Coal was the main fossil fuel but oil began to play an increasingly important role due to the convenience with which it could be stored and handled. With the gradual improvement of the refinery process and the development of products such as Kerosene for heating and lighting, the demand increased on a world wide basis. Sailing ships carried kerosene in flimsy metal containers which frequently leaked and filled the holds with gas. ‘These case oil cargoes soon got a reputation for being dangerous, but it was not long before the tanker which carried oil in bulk was developed, ‘The 8th edition of “The Tanker Handbook for Deck Officers” covers the development of the oil tanker and the equipment used for handling oil up to the present, as well as Chemical and LNG. Ships. Gradually the transportation of oil by sea has become a vast industry and has been subjected to a great deal of national and international regulation which is constantly being updated. Oil tanker officers and crews have to be trained to mect these requirements, ‘The first edition of the “Tanker Handbook For Deck Officers” was first published in 1954, Apart from the gradual expansion of the subject matter to meet modern requirements, the author has retained much of the material covering older ships to provide the reader with a broader view and an improved understanding of the oil tanker and its operation.(CHAPTER. CHAPTER, CHAPTER. CHAPTER Cuaprer CHAPTER (CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 10 ‘Cuapter 1 Cuaprer 12 Chapter 13 CuapTer 14 Cuaprer 15 Cuaprer 16 Caper 17 Cuaprer 18 Cuaprer 19 Cuaprer 20 ‘ChapTER 21 ‘Cuapter 22 eo auawne CONTENTS INTRODUCTION History of Oil Transportation at Sea. Pumps and Pumping Equipment . Oil Tanker Cargo Systems . Heating, Cooling and Ventilation Systems Petroleum Products. Tank Cleaning and Gas Freeing . Oil Pollution of the Sea — Regulations and Avoidance. Loading Crude Oil Discharging Crude Oil. se ULCC., V.L.CC. and Combined Carriers The Carriage of Refined Oils . Special Cargoes Chemical Tankers Liquid Petroleum Gas Carriers . Oil Tankers in Ballast Small Coastal Tankers, Inland Waterway Craft and Barges Miscellaneous Pumping Data Fe Lightering Operations... . Oil Terminals Dock and Seaberths Ship-Handling Problems and the Oil Tanker . Tanker Documentation and Ship’s Business. Tanker Emergencies, Training ond Safety INDEX FCHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF OIL TRANSPORTATION AT SEA TRANSPORTATION of oil by water was the indirect result of the first oil well. Mineral oil had been known to exist below the surface of the earth for quite some time. There are indications that the Chinese obtained small quantities from shallow mines several thousand years ago, but the small quantities obtained by them and people inhabiting the Middle East could never have justified the time and energy needed in developing it as a fuel for heating, lighting, and the multitude of other purposes which man has found for oil in the present highly Industrial Age. Primitive races generally used wood and animal droppings dried in the sun, together with other material for heating and lighting purposes. However, some of these people lived in areas where wood and fuel of other kinds are hard to come by, such as in the Far North. In these desolate frozen wastes, all materials are derived from the animals that roam the region during the summer months, also from birds, fish, and other sea creatures such as the walrus, seal, and whale, that inhabit the seas fringing these northern lands. Oil derived from these creatures played a major part as fuel for heating and lighting. Other people in warmer climates were responsible for the development of several different types of vegetable oils, but except for pitch, very little use seems to have been made of the small amounts of mineral oil available to earlier civilisations. The first oil well was sunk in Pennsylvania in June, 1859, and it was brought in at a depth of some seventy feet, on August 27th of the same year. This well was the forerunner of thousands of others all over the world, some of which have been driven to depths of twenty-thousand feet in a search which is never ending, It is extremely doubtful that any of the gentlemen concerned with the sinking of this first well, however far sighted, visualised an industry such as has been developed over the course of the last one hundred and twenty years, ‘The Elizabeth Watts is generally credited with being the first ship to carry a full cargo of oil across the Atlantic. She commenced her career in 1861. Several factors tended to retard the development of the early tanker, not the least of these was the attitude of owners and crews of the numerous wooden sailing ships of that period. Not without cause they regarded oil as a dangerous cargo. Leakage from Brilgnt — Built 1901, 3765 tons gross, 3,609 tons net, 3525 feet long, 491 feet beam, 282 feet deep, Poop 46 feet, Forecaste 37 feat long. Bound from New York to India wit case ol. Photographed inthe Indian Ocean north of Durban. Port Lilebeal has been washed away during bad weal her '2 TANKER HANDBOOK SS. Gluckauf — The Gluckauf is generally egarded as having been the prototype of the modern oil tanker. She wos the frst vestel designed specfically co carey oil ia bulk im the skin of the ship, and ‘as buil in 1886 by a British shipyard tothe rer of Wilhelm Riedemann, barrels in the holds resulted in the spaces below deck becoming permeated with dangerous gas, which slowly made its way into the living accommodation, this in turn meant disaster or extreme discomfort as all lamps and cooking fires had to be extinguished. ‘The use of the iron hull to some extent offset these difficulties, and several sailing ships were built and converted for this trade. Several were fitted with specially built tanks for the carriage of oil. The futute of the oil trade was then thought to lie in the Targe iron hulled sailing ship, fitted with iron tanks and equipped with hand pumps for the rapid and safe discharge of cargo. The idea of using a steamer for such cargo was as yet unthinkable, due to the danger of vapour reaching the coal fires in the machinery spaces. It must be remembered that though the ships of the period were only able to provide primitive facilities for the carriage of oil, the oil industry as a whole was in its infancy, and refinery procedure and equipment of those early days would hardly be recognisable as such in comparison with modern equipment and technique. The principles of distillation were recognised, but the pipe still was a very simple affair, designed principally for the production of kerosine, there being as yet little call for gasoline or fuel oil As the industry developed, so did the carly tanker. In 1878, the first ship to use the hull or skin as a container for oil was built. This vessel was called the Zoroaster, and her building marked a major step in the development of the modern tanker. To the bolder minded, the advantages of a steam powered tanker became apparent, apart from the question of propulsion, steam powered pumps were an added advantage. In 1886, the Gluckauf was built as a sail assisted steamer for the carriage of Petroleum in bulk. Sailing ships continued to be used well into the next century, both as bulk and case-oil carriers. Most of the bulk carriers were provided with a donkey boiler and steam powered pumps to discharge the oil. As the number of steam driven tankers increased, it became inevitable that the oil fired boiler should replace the coal fired boiler, but this was a slower process than one would imagine, in spite of the increased efficiency and advantage of using as fuel one of the products the tanker carried as cargo. The reason for this was the difficulty in obtaining fuel oil bunkers. Coaling stations were provided all over the world, and a steamer could be reasonably sure of obtaining coal along all main trade routes, but the same facilities were not available for the oil burning or motor ship, which meant that she had to carry a lot more bunkers, and therefore less cargo. Coal burning steam tankers were built right up to and including the period of the 1914-18 War. With the exception of some early types and others built during both World Wars, the tanker’s machinery was in the after end of the vessel, and the cargo tank section was segregated by transverse compartments called cofferdams. ‘The silhouette of a tanker with funnel aft and the midship bridge house was exceptional seventy years ago, but the present day tanker fleet makes up a very large percentage of the world’s total tonnage ‘The Isherwood longitudinally stiffened centre line bulkhead tanker with engines aft made its appearance just prior to the First World War. This type of vessel, by a design incorporating transverse HISTORY OF OIL TRANSPORTATION AT SEA. 3 Diagram la Leni Diagram 1b, — Cross section showing Summer Tanks, -—fl} i | ae ee 4 wee « Densir OF FREEN WATER ASQUNED TOBE 85'86C8/TON Diagram le, — Plan and Sihovette of an Oil Tanker. framing with a special arrangement of stringers for longitudinal strength, reduced costs and weight of material in tanker construction by a considerable amount. These vessels were provided with a midship pumproom which generally contained two steam reciprocating pumps for handling cargo. To control the flow of liquid when the vessel was rolling in a seaway, and to avoid large areas of free surface, the tanks were provided with trunkways, which considerably reduced the area at the top of the tank. Vessels, however, were often far short of their marks when loading light products, later types began to incorporate the “summer tank” which was housed on the trunk deck and was generally filled by means of a drop valve from the main tank below. (See Diagram la and 1b). ‘Towards the middle of the 1920's, the twin bulkhead ship made its appearance, and slowly but surely the advantages of the new design made itself felt, and the centre line bulkhead type began to be replaced in all but a few special types and coasters, where size made the twin bulkheads impracticable. Welding was used in ship construction for a considerable period before World War II. However, where hull construction was concerned, welding was always viewed with grave suspicion, but like all new methods, material and techniques improved, and during World War II whole’ ships were constructed on this basis. The advantage of the welded hull is fairly obvious. All the plates are welded in a straight line, and there are no plate landings to restrict the flow of water along the hull as the vessel is propelled through the water. In addition to this, rivets have a tendency to work, leaks from this source are quite frequent both in the hull and in the bulkheads separating the cargo tanks. Welding, has more or less eliminated leakage of this nature. In the last ten to fifteen years, a great deal has been learnt about the use of metal in all types of4 TANKER HANDBOOK, construction, Research into metal fatigue and wastage as well as the use of coatings to prevent this, has helped considerably to simplify some of the problems encountered when carrying highly corrosive hydro-carbon liquids. Large-scale models in ship model basins have assisted the ship designer to ‘examine stress problems and to simplify the design and layout of large tankers, thus reducing the cost. of construction, Where once a large crude tanker could be expected to have a minimum of 36 cargo compartments and a whole battery of pumps, pipelines and valves, the modern tendency is to reduce the number of tanks and other equipment so that a ship of 200,000-tons d.w.t. built to A.BS. or Lloyd's specifications may only have 15 cargo compartments with individual tanks holding as much as 140,000 Bbis. or 20,000 tons of oil. ‘The tendency is also to reduce the number of pumps and to instal fewer and more powerful units with a higher capacity head. In some cases suction piping has largely been eliminated by the introduction of the suction pipe ducts and/or sluice valves. The extensive use of sluice valves has led to the name Free Flow System coming into general use where suction piping has largely been eliminated. Such systems have certain definite advantages, particularly in capital saving when the ship is built. There are however, definite disadvantages from an operational standpoint; when more than one grade of oil is carried and when tank cleaning and changing ballast. Apart from the layout of the cargo compartments and pumping systems, there have been significant changes in other directions, e.g. power operated valves and remote control are becoming increasingly common, Properly used and maintained, such improvements show an economic return by reducing manpower requirements and climinating human error from a complex operation where expensive equipment can be seriously damaged. It would not be wise to neglect other areas where changes are taking place. Nearly all the new ships have no amidship house. The bridge and living accommodation are located aft. Safety and economics have been the main reason for this change and the arguments of Masters and Pilots who have opposed it on navigational and ship handling grounds can find little support today. In 1974 tankers were classified by size for freight purposes: — General purpose vessels — 16,500/24,999 d.w.t Medium range — 25,000/49,999 d.w.t. LAI (Large Range 1) 45,000/79,999 d.w.t L.R2 (Large Range 2) 80,000/159,999 d.w.t V.L.C.C. ot Very Large Crude Carriers — 160,000/320,000 d.wt . U.L.C.C. or Ultra Large Crude Carriers — 320,000 d.w.t. and above. While V.L.C.C.s and U.L.C.Cs were, and always are, likely to be exclusively engaged in the carrying of erude oil handy size and medium size vessels tend to cover a very large range of duties. The larger vessels in the L.R2 range — i.e. over 100,000 d.w.t. tend to be crude carriers. They trade between ports that are restrited by drat or other limitations so that V.L.C.Cs or UL.CC:s cannot 38 Use L.RI and L.R2 range vessels of less than 100,000 d.w.t. are mainly divided into two classes (@) Dirty product carriers. (b) Clean product carriers. The larger dirty product carriers are frequently switched between the crude trade and carrying refined dirty products. After carrying crude the cargo tanks have to undergo cleaning to remove wax and crude residue which might affect the flashpoint of dirty products like fuel oil. Some large dirty product carriers have their tanks coated to reduce corrosion from crude and water washing and facilitate changing from one to the other. Clean product carriers in the medium size range tend to be less than 50,000 d.w.t, Many are purpose built with coated tanks and have sophisticated pumping systems capable of handling 12 or more grades The largest dirty and clean product tankers have evolved from changing trade practices and requirements and though some of these vessels may be involved in short haul coastal distribution of refined products many are now involved in longer haul work. General purpose tankers probably cover the largest range and variety of different cargoes carried. This size range inchides some chemical carriers as well 2s a host of purpose built clean and dirty product carriers engaged in short haul and coastal distribution. Tankers smaller than 16,500 are generally clean or dirty product short haul coastal vessels, but some are built to handle special products like bitumen, chemicals, acids as well as lubricating oil The big building programmes of the 1960's and early ‘70s were the result of high freight rates. The large numbers of U.L.C.C.s and V.L.C.C.s which came into service received a lot of publicity and to some extent hid the fact that the number of smaller ships produced was also significant. auaene HISTORY OF OIL TRANSPORTATION AT SEA 5 ‘The 1973 oil price increase was a major catastrophe which reduced oil consumption around the world and made many ships of all sizes and classes redundant. The tanker building boom had produced a spate of larger ships. Quite a number were over 500,000 d.w.t. Four of these vessels were under the French flag, two were owned by Socicté Maritime Shell and two by Compagnie Nationale de Navigation. All four had similar dimensions; the overall length was 1,359 feet and the beam over 200 feet. Each ship was driven by steam turbines and twin screws. The carrying capacity of all four differed slightly but was in the region of 550,000 d.w.t All four of the above ships had relatively short lives under the French flag and were laid up and eventually sold for scrap. As far as the author is aware, the biggest tanker produced in the building boom was the Seawise Giant owned by the Island Navigation Company. She was originally built as the Oppama before being enlarged in Japan. She had the highest recorded deadweight of 564,739 tons. In 1988 this vessel was reported on fire and severely damaged after a bombing attack in the Persian Gulf, While the layup and scrapping of U.L.C.Cs and V.L.C.Css received a lot of publicity all classes and sizes of ships were affected by the reduced consumption of oil, even chemical tankers which might have expected to escape the worst. ‘To understand the problem we must look beyond the immediate effect of the O.P.E.C. price rise. During the 1960's studies show that as an energy source, oil consumption grew faster than any other fuel. At over 60% in terms of growth it was by far the world’s most popular fuel. As a result the oil tanker increased in size and numbers. In the 1970's oil was still very popular in spite of price increases, Asa percentage share of growth in world energy it grew by 44%, but it has to be said that most of the recorded growth occurred in the first half of the decade, During the first half of the 1980's the growth of world oil consumption was less than 10%, but improved with the decline in oil prices in the second half of the decade. ‘The oil tanker and freight market are dependent on oil consumption. It has become apparent that the 1973 price increase which triggered the world reaction, drastically reduced oil consumption. Apart from oil tankers laid up and scrapped, many refineries were shut down and some dismantled. It became clear that many oil companies saw the reduced consumption of oil as a long term, rather than a short term, phenomena. Oil company fleets were drastically reduced in size, often by selling individual ships to independent owners using charter back agreements as bait. When this failed even modern ships were laid up and scrapped ‘The seven year War between Iran and Iraq was responsible for the withdrawal of a lot of tankers from layup. Many of these vessels were severely damaged and others lost. In spite of this, overall the War had little effect on tanker freight rates when considered on a world basis. Insurance premiums for trading in War zones reached astronomic proportions. Towards the end of 1988 crude oil prices started to increase and by early 1989 had reached S19 @ barrel and freight rates responded as the demand for oil picked up. In turn, this resulted in a steady reduction in the number of laid up tankers. ‘The crisis caused by Iraq invading Kuwait in August 1990 caused oil prices to rise significantly Light crude on the open market was selling for $30 a barrel and for a time looked as if it would reach $40 a barrel. For a while a large number of oil tankers were withdrawn from lay up, but at the end of the Gulf War prices gradually returned to normal and there was still a large surplus of oil tankers. Perhaps the most significant event in the recent oil transportation business was the U.S.A.'s passing. of OPA 90. This was new legislation which may have resulted from frustration at the slow progress the I.M.O. were making. It came out in favour of double skin tankers and this had a tremendous effect both on the type of tankers allowed to trade in U.S. waters but also put responsibility for pollution squarely on the ship and its owners/operators. The U.S.A. uses approximately 1-6 million barrels of oil each day and the majority of this amount is imported in oil tankers. Initially in 1991 the additional insurance cost due to OPA for vessels trading to the U.S.A. increased premiums by an estimated 55 cents per GT. Longer term it is difficult to access the cost due to the unlimited liability laws which apply in a number of individual U.S. States. The U.S. Federal Limits of OPA 90 on Tanker Financial Liability are well defined. (1) $1,200 per gross ton; or (2) $10 million for tankers over 3,000 gross tons; or (3) $2 million for tankers less than or equal to 3,000 gross tons. ‘The Federal Liability Regime also covers territorial waters and the exclusive economic zone which is claimed by the U.S, and extends 200 miles from the shoreline. This is very important as the U.S. Coast Guard have in recent years brought into operation a set of proposals in the Gulf of Mexico, which are far reaching,6 TANKER HANDBOOK These proposals would allow single skin tankers (subject to conditions laid down by the U.S.C.G)), to bring oil from the Middle East and elsewhere to three separate areas sixty miles off the Gulf Coast of the U.S.A., where the oil would be transhipped into smaller tankers which could enter U.S. ports with a lower risk of pollution. Several environmentalists have pointed out that if single skin tankers are a risk in U.S, ports and rivers, they are also a risk when engaged in lightening operations sixty miles off the U.S. Coast and that heavy oil pollution in deep water represents a threat to the ocean environment which could be longer lasting and more severe than the same pollution in coastal waters. ‘Over time the U.S.C.G. have gradually made single hull tankers trading in U.S. waters turn alternative wing tanks into segregated ballast tanks. The loss of oil capacity is the price paid for obtaining certification to trade in U.S. waters. Obviously these vessels will be phased out as soon as the availability of double hull vessels allows. In addition to the above, the U.S. Coast Guard issued a ruling requiring all laden single hull oil tankers over 5,000 gross tons transiting through Prince William Sound, Alaska and Puget Sound ‘Washington to be accompanied by two escort vessels. The Coast Guard is also evaluating other U.S. coastal waters with the object of passing similar rulings for the areas concerned. When looking at costs it is important to remember that many of the U.S. major ports are limited to relatively shallow draft tankers by the depth of water. (Under 40 feet). Transhipment terminals and lightening from large to smaller vessels is an expensive way of handling oil, but there is litte alternative as far as the U.S.A. is concerned, From the standpoint of the consumer, neither the increased cost of insurance or the cost of lightening has had much effect so far. Oil prices in the U.S.A. are much better than those in Europe and many other parts of the world. In chapter 7, OPA 90 and other new pollution regulations are discussed in more detail. CHAPTER 2 PUMPS AND PUMPING EQUIPMENT THERE are several types of cargo pumps used on modern tankers:i— Reciprocating Pumps, Centrifugal Pumps, Rotary Displacement, and Screw Displacement Pumps. In recent years large reciprocating pumps have been replaced by other types, such as the centrifugal pump and more recently by the decp-well pump, though smaller reciprocating pumps are still used for stripping oil from the cargo tanks, Reciprocating Pumps Reciprocating pumps are motivated by steam at working pressures from 100 to 250 Ibs. per sq. inch. They can be simplex (single acting), or duplex (double acting), the latter being in more general use. Manufacturers produce both horizontal and vertical versions through a fairly wide range. Each pump is, fitted with three gauges. One shows the steam pressure working the pump, another the delivery head or back pressure, while the third shows vacuum or pressure conditions at the pump suction. Large steam reciprocating pumps are often compound, which means that the steam passes through an H.P. and L.P. cylinder in turn, thereby giving increased economy in operation. ‘The general principles of operation are familiar to most people and it is not proposed to deal with the details of their operation at this stage. Reciprocating pumps were commonplace in all types of oil tankers up to 1950, Since then they have been largely relocated to a secondary roll as stripping pumps, ete, Centrifugal Pumps These pumps can be driven by steam turbines, or by diesel and electric motors. Unlike the steam reciprocating pump, the centrifugal pump is not a positive displacement pump, and uses centrifugal force to transfer oil from the pump into the discharge Pipe. In theory the pump can be operated with the discharge valve closed, the impeller churning in’ the liquid, but the clearances are generally so small that the pump would rapidly grow hot and damage might result. In conjune- tion with cargo systems, this pump seldom has more than two stages, and in order to start it, oil must be present at the first stage. ‘The pump can be con- structed with a vertical or horizontal driving shaft ac- cording to requirements. ‘Steam Turbine driving a Two Stage Centrifugal Oil Pump. By Courtesy of Drysdale & Co,8 TANKER HANDBOOK When driven by a steam turbine, the pump can generally be run at variable speed to suit the discharge facilities of the particular port. The speed is regulated in direct proportion to the amount of steam that is admitted to the turbine, Reduction in the discharge head means automatic inerease in output. Turbine driven pumps are generally fitted with governors to prevent overspeeding thereby making their operation easier and safer. Electrically driven centrifugal pumps are sometimes designed to run at a constant speed, the electric motor automatically compensating or adjusting itself to the load. Trip gear is gencrally provided to guard the motor from harm as a result of too big or too small a load. Centrifugal pumps are generally provided with all the gauges associated with reciprocating pumps. In addition, however, the turbine driven pump generally has a tachometer so a check can be kept on the pump and turbine revs. while the electrically driven pump will have a volt and amp. meter to indicate the power and load respectively. Rotary Pumps ‘The rotary pump is a positive displacement pump, which is driven in the same manner as a centrifugal pump. There are several different types in use, but the general principle is the same in all of them. One simple type has a driving shaft which is slightly off the centre line of the pump. The pump chamber is fitted with a single drum, which has a number of vanes attached to it. These vanes are not fixed but can move in and out of the slots into which they are fitted. When the pump is in motion, centrifugal force throws the vanes out and away from the centre of the shaft. As the shafi rotates, the casing forces the vanes back into their slots whenever they are on the side of the shaft which is closest to the casing, centrifugal force throws them out again as the distance to the cover increases. ‘The oil enters the pump and is trapped between the vanes as they rotate, and thrown out under pressure via the delivery outlet. In actual fact the vanes squeeze the oil out of the pump. Other types employ one, two, and sometimes three interlocking gears to obtain the same effect. ‘The rotary pump is not a very popular pump, and where it is to be found, is generally relegated to the status of a standby, or additional stripping pump. The reasons why this type of pump is not in general use in tanker pumping systems are twofold. The moving parts are subjected to a great deal of ‘wear, and the pump has a tendency to lose suction if used for prolonged periods, Screw Pumps As seen in the illustration on page 8 the basic elements of design in this particular type of pump are three screws, consisting of a central power rotor and two idle rotors. The thread surfaces are so shaped that they form a tight seal both in relation to themselves, and the sleeve. As the screws rotate, the seal formed by the threads moves axially and quite uniformly, thus acting as a piston moving continuously in one direction. ‘The advantages of this type of pump is its self priming, and it does not set up vibration or pulsation even at high speeds. So far very few tankers, other than lubricating oil ships or vessels carrying vegetable oils, utilise this or any other type of serew pump in their cargo systems, the reason being that the makers of such pumps design the pumps to handle liquids free from abrasives and having definite lubricating qualities, a type of duty for which this pump is particularly suitable. Deep-well Pumps In recent years Deep Well Pumps have become increasingly ayn popular in product tankers and medium-size crude ships. Depend- By Courtesy of Miles (Engineer) Lid ing on the type of ship and purpose for which they are designed, ‘these pumps can be located in @ pumproom or an actual cargo tank. The pump operates in a well or casing, ‘and is self-priming as long as the well is full of liquid, They can be normally driven by a steam turbine or electric motor housed on deck and connected to the pump by a long vertical drive shaft. Hydraulically deep-well pumps are now quite popular with multi product tankers and a pump in each tank. PUMPS AND PUMPING EQUIPMENT Deep Well Pump. Showing Discharge pipe and easing for hydraulic drive.10 TANKER HANDBOOK, It is important that the pump well remains full at all times, or there is a danger of damaging the pump from over-heating. The main advantage of such pumps are their self-priming capabilities which enable them to be used in relatively simple pumping systems and in multi-product or chemical service where stripping systems and pumps might be an added source of contamination. Some vessels are equipped with a small pump and pipe which serves to prime or empty the pump well or casing. It can also be used to discharge cargo from one tank to another in case a deepwell pump in any tank fails. Immersed Pumps Immersed pumps are normally used in special service, such as L.N.G., where the pumps are actually submerged in the tanks together with the electric motors which drive them. Immersed pumps can also be operated hydraulically. Cargo Line Piping Systems Pumping systems are composed for the main part of steel pipe which varies in size from four to thirty-six inches, according to requirements. This type of piping is the cheapest, and is used extensively in spite of the fact that it has a far shorter life than cast iron pipe. Corrosion generally makes the most progress in the lower section of pipe, and for this reason it used to be general practice to turn pipelines 2 quarter of a tum at regular intervals so as to lengthen the life of the pipe. The present day cost of labour and the ever increasing size and number of pipelines in modern tankers have virtually put a stop to this practice. Several different methods are employed to join the various lengths of piping together. Some are bolted together throughout their length, provision being made for expansion with specially constructed telescopic expansion joints. Others are secured by means of victaulic joints or couplings, in which case no special provision has to be made for expansion as the ordinary couplings are designed to compensate for contraction and, expansion. ‘Some large vessels and V.L.C.C.’s are equipped with a central suction duct which runs along the length of the vessel. All the pumps take suction from this duct instead of individual pipelines. Such a system has the advantage of providing better suction flow conditions while discharging, but is somewhat limited for carrying and discharging more than one grade, as the duct represents a considerable volume of liquid in terms of contamination even if one grade is loaded and discharged at a time, Strums Strum is the name given to the funnel shaped appliance which is fitted to the end of suction pipes and through which the liquid is drawn to the pump. There are several different types in use, but all are designed to allow the pump to draw the maximum amount of oil out of the tank without admitting air to the system, For this reason the bottom edge extends to within approximately an inch of the plating when fitted to main line suctions, and a little lower when fitted to stripping line suctions. The shape is largely dictated by the fact that the area or floor space available on the bottom of a tank is restricted by the small longitudinal floors that run the length of the tank, Valves A cargo system in a modern oil tanker contains a large number of valves which control the flow of liquid. The most common valve in use is the gate or sluice valve, and is produced in two different forms. The first type has the gate or wedge secured firmly to the spindle, while the valve wheel is engaged but not secured to the top of the spindle. When the valve wheel is turned in an anti-clockwise direction, the spindle slowly lifts the gate up into the cover, and the spindle begins to protrude above the valve wheel. When the valve is fully opened, the gate or wedge is clear of the pipe and hidden in the valve cover, leaving the pipe completely clear for the passage of liquid. When in the closed position, the gunmetal ring or face on either side must fit tightly against the corresponding faces in the body of the valve or the valve will leak. PUMPS AND PUMPING EQUIPMENT ML In the other version of this valve, the spindle is directly attached to the valve wheel, while the spindle is engaged in the thread of a square nut on top of the gate. The gate or wedge is hollow, and when the valve wheel is turned in a clockwise direction, the gate rises on the threaded spindle until it is completely in the cover. The former type is generally found in the pumproom, and such places where it will not be exposed to the weather, as corrosion on the exposed threaded spindle or damage from other sources would make the valve difficult to operate. Other types of valves, mostly non-return valves of one kind or another, are utilised extensively. The angle stop valve is very often fitted in stripping systems, as, when it is open only a few turns, it will allow oil to be drawn from the tank, but will not allow it to run back should the pump lose suction, Valves in the suction lines serving the cargo tanks are fitted with extended spindles. The lowest section of rod or extended spindle is either keyed direct to the valve spindle, or alternatively a yoke is used to give additional leverage, and the lower section of the reach rod is forked and fits into two slots in either end of the yoke. The next section is jointed to the rod below by means of a universal joint, and by using these joints and angling the upper lengths of rod, it is possible to pierce the deck in the most advantageous position. Where the extended spindle pierces the deck, a watertight gland or stuffing box is arranged to keep the ‘A Gate Valve water out of the cargo compartment below. By Courtesy of Newman, Heder & Co, The butterfly valve is in widespread use in moder tankers. A quick operating valve, it lends itself to power operation and remote control. Essentially the gate or disc is mounted on a fixed spindle, and is opened or shut by turning the spindle a quarter of a turn. The seal is obtained by the valve making contact with the sealing rims on either side of the body of the valve when operated to the closed position. The sealing rim and matching face of the valve are frequently lined with hard wearing material like tuflon, which protects the metal working faces and provides an improved seal. Discharge Connections of The Meridian Lion12 TANKER HANDBOOK Some of the older, less-well designed butterfly valves have been a source of trouble when loading at high-loading rates. There is also considerable evidence that some types are prone to leakage. Improved design has gone a long way to eliminate these faults, but because size for size the butterfly valve is cheaper than a gate valve or most other types, it is widely used, particularly with large ships where pipelines are bigger. Valve Identification When valves are a part of the pipeline system, their wheels are painted for identification purposes. Several different systems are used in various companies, but, as a rule, suctions in the port tanks generally have their wheel spokes painted red, while those in the starboard tanks are green. The centre tank suctions may have half the spokes green, and half the spokes red, or be painted another colour, according to the identification system used in that particular ship. Master valves are so called because they master off or segregate the different tanks on any one section of line. The valve wheels are generally given a distinctive colour, as in ships carrying several grades it is important that the right master valves are shut and that they are not mistaken for other valves. Crossover valves are so called because they are located on a connecting piece between different Jines, and here again easy identification is as important as in the case of the master valves. Open and Shut Indicators (Telltales) All valves should be fitted with telltales. A telltale is a small threaded ring which is fitted to a section of the extended spindle above deck level. A metal strip of two small bars placed in a vertical line with a small gap between them keeps the pointer on the threaded ring always pointing in one direction, and the ring is only free to move vertically up and down the spindle, When fully open, the telltale is at the top of the thread and the indicator, or pointer, points to the word “open”. When at the bottom, the indicator points to the word “shut”. Experienced personnel learn to tell by the position of the telltale on the thread whether the valve is open or not. In Chapter 3, automated pumping systems are discussed, including remotely operated valves. Open and Shut Indicators. By Courtesy of Newman, Hender & Co, CHAPTER 3 OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS ‘THE arrangement of loading and discharge lines is collectively known as the Ship’s Cargo System. The first oil tankers to carry petroleum products in bulk were equipped with very simple pumping systems. For the most part they had a single line which ran forward and aft from a midship pumproom, in which were housed two steam reciprocating pumps. One pup served the tanks forward of the pumproom, while the other dealt with the oil from the tanks aft of this pumproom. Some of the more simple types with their engines amidships, provided pumps in the engine room to handle the cargo, or alternatively the mainline was extended the length of the machinery spaces to feed the pumps housed in a small pumproom just forward of the engine room. In both cases these vessels were unsuitable for the carriage of low flash products. Circular Line or Ring Main The pipeline system illustrated in Diagram | is better suited to the centre line bulkhead type ship. Each tank or oil compartment has two suctions — one Direct suction, and one Indirect suction. The CENTRE LINE BULKHEAD TANNER, ‘TWIN BULKHEAD TANKER CIRCULAR LINE SYSTEM—TWO PUMPS, Fort Starooard Fort Gentre Starboard : J Te | aN) ra id + 7 > sf ‘ ‘ ‘ rs th @ 5 5 f A oar soa | ect been a a f Diagram Diagram 2.4 TANKER HANDBOOK direct suctions for the port tanks are all on the port cargo line, and feed the port cargo pump. The indirect suctions for the port cargo tanks feed the starboard cargo line and the starboard cargo pump. Master valves arc provided on each line between the tanks, so as to isolate each tank from the other when necessary. This particular vessel is not fitted with a stripping line and pump. This type of pumping system providing for the handling of several different types of oil, was a natural development from the earlier types which were really only suitable for one grade of oil. As previously mentioned, the summer tanks were fitted with drop valves, which when opened allowed the 0 flow into the main tank below. Some vessels, however, were provided with small 6-in. lines which served the summer tanks through separate suctions, and these tanks proved very useful for small parcels of oil. To drain the oil from the main tanks it was necessary to list first one way, and then the other, so as to keep the strum covered and to help the flow of oil towards the suction. Diagram 2 shows a vessel fitted with a Circular Line or Ring Main, but adjusted for the twin bulkhead type of vessel. This ship is also fitted with a stripping system. Inspection of the pipeline system shows that the pipeline travels around the ship in the wing tanks, crossing over from one side to the other in Nos. 1 and 9 centres. Each wing tank has a suction on the line which passes through it. The centre tanks have two suctions, one on either side leading to the port and starboard lines respectively. It will be noted that the master valves provide separation between the tanks as in the carlier system. The main fore and aft pipeline is 12 in., but reduces to 10 in. at the suctions. Due to their size, the main cargo pumps are not really suitable for draining tanks, wear and tear being excessive, therefore when the level of the oil in any particular tank has fallen to a foot or less, the main pumps are switched to another full tank, and the stripping pump is brought into operation. This stripping pump is served by a 6-in. stripping line which reduces to 4 in, in the transverse lines which feed the suctions. The stripping pump can deliver oil ashore on a separate connection, or gather all the strippings into No. 6 centre by means of a special delivery line into this tank. ‘Two main risers 12 in, in diameter connect the pumps with the pipeline system on deck, these risers are on either side of the pumproom and are connected by means of crossover lines in case it is necessary to use both pumps on a common discharge line. Each riser faces outboard immediately above the main deck, and is fitted with a “Y” piece, on which are mounted the gate valves and 8-in. reducing pieces which provide connections for the shore hoses. Some vessels were fitted with a 12-in. deck line which runs aft to the stem discharge. At one time in quite a number of ports, vessels moored stern on to the dock with both anchors down forward and ropes ashore aft, the stern discharge was used to pump cargo ashore. This still applies to some Italian and other Mediterranean ports Discharge manifold of a modem cleor-oil carrer OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 15 Ring Main with Two Pumprooms Diagram 3 shows a vessel fitted with a Ring Main or Circular Line, and two cargo pumprooms each containing two cargo pumps. This arrangement gives the vessel more pumping power and provides facilities for handling four grades of oil at once. The positioning of the pumprooms between tanks Nos. 2 and 3, and Nos. 6 and 7 split the ship into three sections which means that even when the vessel is troubled with leaky bulkheads and fines, she can still rely on the pumprooms to act as cofferdams when carrying different grades. Another feature in this system is the crossover line at every tank. This in effect means that to load the port, centre, and starboard compartments of any particular tank, it is no longer necessary to travel right round the loop. The disadvantages of this type of system as compared with the earlier types, are mainly one of costs, as obviously more piping and valves have to be provided. If the vessel is engaged in carrying several parcels of oil, the advantages are likely to more than compensate for the original outlay. ‘Vessels of this type were often fitted with special loading pipelines which serve the centre section directly. These lines have no connection with the fines in either pumproom, and offer greater security from contamination than would normally be possible. ‘The Effect of Centrifugal Pumps on Cargo Pumping System So far we have dealt with Ring Main or Circular Line systems serving one or more midship pumprooms in which are housed steam driven reciprocating pumps, the steam for these pumps being supplied by the boilers in the engine room spaces at the after end of the vessel. Large numbers of oil tankers propelled by diesel engines were dependent on small Scotch boilers of limited capacity for steam to drive the pumps. Often one or more cargo pumps had to be shut off or run at a reduced speed. Prior to the last war, this was the accepted state of affairs. It was argued that as the regulations ‘at most ports required tankers discharging low flash petroleum products to extinguish all fires, and use shore steam, small boiler capacities did not matter provided they could supply sufficient steam for everyday needs at sea. ‘During the war and after it, large number of tankers were constructed with steam turbine or turbo electric propulsion engines. This in turn necessitated the use of high pressure water tube boilers. In this way high pressure steam and electrical power became available for driving centrifugal pumps, and these pumps became increasingly common where suitable power was available to drive them. As few, VLCC JalionDIAGRAMMATIC ARRG™ OF CARGO OIL PUMPING SYSTEM. DECK LUNES & CONNECTION Meg STARER & ‘TANK LIMES, PUMPROOMSDIAGRAMMATIC_ARRG™ OF CARGO OIL PUMPING SYSTEM. DECKLINES & CONNECTIONS ete i | qty weSPORT | TANK LINES. PUMPROOMS & CONNECTIONS VAIVEE marty THUS — EXPANSION CLAMS ~16 TANKER HANDBOOK, if any, oil terminals had steam at sufficiently high pressure or electrical power sufficient to supply the needs of these vessels, it became normal practice for vessels of this type to use their own power when discharging. Centrifugal pumps fitted in midship pumprooms must of necessity be constructed with vertical driving shafts connecting them to the turbines or motors in a deck house immediately over the pumps. Obviously this arrangement is far from satisfactory, as there are numerous problems such as the size of steam and exhaust lines from the boilers in the after end to the pumps in the midship deck house, and the trouble in keeping these lines in the good condition necessary for the use of high steam pressures when the pipes are exposed to all weathers. Then there is the question of suitable gas tight glands or stuffing boxes where the pump driving shaft pierces the deck. All this tends to suggest that the most suitable place for centrifugal pumps to be installed is in a pumproom immediately forward of the engine room, and between it and the after cargo tanks. In this way, the turbines or motors can be in the engine room, while the pumps themselves are housed in the pumproom, the connecting shaft passing through a gas tight gland or stuffing box in the bulkhead. Pumping Systems — With Pumprooms Aft the Cargo Tanks Centrifugal pumps and the location of the pumproom between the engine room and the cargo tanks, automatically lead to considerable modification in pipeline systems. ‘Vessels have been constructed with pumprooms aft using electrically driven centrifugal pumps, as Jong ago as 1930. These vessels were centre line bulkhead ships with eleven main cargo tanks and five summer tanks. The cargo systems were similar to the one shown in Diagram | though the summer tanks were served by a 6-in. line and independent suctions. The two main cargo lines led directly aft to the pumproom which housed three centrifugal pumps for use on the main lines, and two rotary stripping pumps which were served by a 6-in. stripping line and a single suction in cach main tank, ‘These rotary pumps could collect the strippings into No. 11 main tank, or discharge direct ashore, ‘These vessels were capable of carrying approximately 19,000 tons of cargo, and of discharging at over 1,000 tons per hour. For the main part, however, centrifugal pumps and pumprooms situated between the engineroom and the cargo tanks were not common prior to 1940. The reasons for this have already been discussed in detail, but can briefly be put down to lack of sufficient or suitable driving power. ‘T2 Type Tanker ‘The first type of tanker to be built in any number with centrifugal pumps and an after pumproom. was the T2 type tanker, which was designed and built in America during the last war. ‘The T2 type tanker was designed to carry oil faster than the average pre-war tanker, and also to pump its cargo ashore in the quickest possible time, thus minimising the congestion in Allied ports. This type of tanker carries approximately 15,000 tons of oil when loaded to its summer marks. It is a standard twin fore and aft bulkhead type ship, with pumproom aft. However, there is one slight modification at No. 1 cargo tank, Owing to the extremely fine lines, it was found easier to divide No. 1 tank into port and starboard compartments, instead of port, centre, and starboard compartments. Inspection of Diagram 4 shows three main 12-in. cargo lines. Each of these lines serves a separate cargo pump, situated aft in the cargo pumproom. The oil is delivered from each of these cargo pumps through three 12-in. lines up on deck to manifolds situated just abaft the midship house. The starboard ‘main suction line serves tanks Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 across, the centre line serves Nos. 5 and 6 across, while the port pump serves Nos. 7, 8 and 9 across. Further inspection shows two crossover valves controlling the link between the starboard and centre lines at No. 5 centre. A similar link between the port and centre lines is located at No. 7 centre. Master valves are located on each line and give isolation between tanks. This type of vessel was designed to handle three grades at once, provided that the crossover valves situated at Nos. 5 and 7 are shut and that crossovers in the pumproom and at the manifolds are similarly shut, One grade goes direct down the starboard line via the pumproom to the forward section of tanks, the second grade on the centre line can be loaded direct through the loading line at No. 5 tank into Nos. 5 and 6 across. The third grade is also provided with a direct loading line into the after section of tanks. OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 7 "2 Bsso Cardiff — 6321 tones net, 10,684 ons gros. Built in 1945, ‘T2 to the V.L.C.C. The basic T2 pumping system set a trend which has been followed with modifications and improvements in successive generatiois of newer and larger tankers. The number of pipelines and pumps may have been increased as well as the size and capacity, but the after pumproom and general pipeline arrangement frequently bears a startling resemblance to the T2 pumping system. With the exception of the multi product clean ship which is designed to handle 10 or more grades with separate pumps and lines for each product, most conventional oil tankers under 50,000 d.w.t started life as crude carriers, Due to the passage of time and the increase in tanker size, they gradually became uneconomic, and many of them have been equipped with heating coils, and commenced hauling dirty refined products, With few exceptions these vessels were all built with 30 or more cargo tanks and their cargo piping systems are similar to a T2. A few had reciprocating pumps, but these were steadily becoming unpopular because of the vibration reciprocating pumps can cause when scharging through rigid metal arms and flow booms, as well as lower overall discharge rates. Large vessels are nearly all used in the crude trade. Some of these ships are constructed on the old multi-tank system, but from 1960 onwards, most vessels began to be equipped with fewer and larger cargo tanks and simplified cargo piping systems. Part of the Cargo Control System of the Meridian Lion18 TANKER HANDBOOK. As mentioned previously, the V.L.C.C. is exclusively a crude ship and covers ships of 160,000/ 320,000 d.w.t. while U.L.C.C.s are over 320,000 d.w.t. In Chapter 10 these ships are discussed in detail Stripping Systems ‘The main function of a stripping system is to handle liquid or ballast left in the cargo tanks after the main pumps have discharged the bulk. The second, but no less important function is to handle tank drainings and wash water which gathers in the bottom of the cargo tanks when tank cleaning is undertaken. A stripping system generally consists of a pipeline, sometimes two or more, which serve all the cargo tanks. Normally the stripping system is separate from the main suction piping, though frequently connections are provided, by which the stripping pumps and lines can be used to wash the ‘main suction lines. Stripping pipelines vary from 6 in. in smaller ships to 12 in. in larger vessels. They are generally served by one or more positive displacement pumps which can either be steam-driven reciprocating or clectrically-driven rotary pumps. The pumps are gencrally connected up so that they can strip on the main suction lines if need be. On the discharge side, stripping pumps are normally cross-connected to discharge directly ashore via the main delivery lines, overboard or into one or more slop tanks. In some cases the stripping pipeline system is eliminated and the vessel's stripping pumps are used on the main suction lines. This frequently means a longer discharge. Some vessels are equipped with eductors which can be used to assist stripping of cargo tanks. Eductors used in conjunction with a cargo pump are fast and reliable. They make a major contribution when tank cleaning, as they save wear and tear on the stripping pumps, as scale and sludge can be handled without damage to valves and impellers. Where reciprocating main pumps are fitted or if Deep Well or other self-priming pumps are installed, stripping systems are generally eliminated for purposes of cargo handling, Automated Pumping Systems ‘The last ten to fifteen years have seen the gradual evolvement of the automated pumping system as tankers got larger and iarger. Of course the term automated is still relative and covers a trend, or move away from manual and visual operated pumping systems, towards the power operation of valves, remote control or valves or pumps, together with instrumentation for data gathering and remote read-out of liquid levels in the cargo and ballast tanks. Historically a considerable amount of trouble has been experienced with the reliability of many of the earlier systems which were installed, and this has coloured the viewpoint of many ship owners and operators, as well as sea-going staff. It is a fact of life that frequently equipment which has performed well ashore becomes temperamental when required to operate at sea It would be unfortunate if such failures and disappointments were allowed to retard the development of the optimum in automated pumping systems, or if itis permitted to discredit modern technology. It is the author's considered opinion that the concept of central control, coupled with adequate instrumentation and communication, is essential to the efficiency of operating a large tanker's cargo system. Some large vessels have highly sophisticated cargo pumping systems which have operated well over a reasonable period of time, and are a tangible proof that the right equipment can be made to work and will give a reasonable degree of accuracy and reliability if proper maintenance is provided. Before passing on to discuss the component parts of an automated pumping system, it might be of considerable advantage to discuss the need for adequate control of the ship's cargo system, together with control concepts. The Cargo Control Room ‘The cargo control room ideally should not be located in the pumproom, in the past there has been a tendency to locate the control room in the top of the vessel's pumproom. It should be a large room with a clear view of the main deck, and space to arrange all the control panels and instrumentation. ‘The control room should be free of mechanical noises such as are caused by pump turbines and forced OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 19 draft fans. It should not be used as a ship's office for the conducting of normal ship's business, but should be manned at all times by the officer controlling cargo operations. A normal control room has the following communication medi Internal phone direct to the engine room and/or pumproom. External phone or radio contact with shore installation Public address for communication with personne! on the main deck or mooring stations, General Emergency Alarm switch. Fire alarm panel and controls for any automated fire equipment provided. V.HLF. transmitting receivers for contact with personnel on deck who are equipped with portable V.HLF. sets, 7. Inert gas monitoring and control panel SER Ga ps ‘Normally the main feature of any control room is a big board showing the cargo tanks and piping arrangement, together with the individual valves. In some cases the pumproom and all ballast and water tanks are included, The valves are sometimes marked by coloured lights which show green when the valve is open, and red when it is closed Where a vessel is fitted with remote controlled power operated valves, a control panel is fitted below the above-mentioned board. This control panel houses the individual controls for each valve. Depending on the system fitted, the valves are activated by levers or switehes and a light glows green while the valve is opening, or red while it is shutting. In early models the open and shut indicator lights were motivated by the same contact as levers on the control board, The appearance of the green light did not necessarily mean that the valve had in fact been opened, but merely that the power operator had been motivated to open the valve. In later models this possible source of problems has been eliminated. Either included on the control panel or located to one side is the cargo pump control board from which the operation of the cargo and stripping pumps are controlled, In most cases the main cargo pumps are large, centrifugal pumps operated by steam turbines. Each pump is clearly identified. Two tachometers indicate the pump and turbine revolutions and the usual back pressure and suction ‘gauges. In many cases the pumps have to be started from the engine room on an individual basis, but can be stopped or slowed from the control rooms. Emergency stop controls are sometimes fitted both in the control room, and in certain instances on deck. To complete the instrumentation required for a well-equipped control room it is necessary to have a system by which the liquid level in the cargo tanks can be ascertained quickly and accurately. It is in this area that the biggest problems and obstacles to automation have been encountered. In fairness to the manufacturers of such equipment, it is easy enough to develop systems to measure liquid levels in cargo tanks ashore, but the environment aboard the large crude ship is another matter. With a few exceptions, major problems have been encountered with most systems, both in terms of accuracy and reliability ‘As we will be discussing some of these systems at a later stage, it should be sullicient to mention here that there are some big incentives in favour of a workable system which allows the liquid level in the cargo tanks to be ascertained quickly in the control room even if it has to be frequently calibrated and checked out by hand. With more and more vessels being equipped with Inert Gas Systems, ships have to be loaded and discharged with a closed venting system, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to use manual methods for tank gauging Partly as a result of the problems encountered in obtaining accurate remote read-out gauging systems, some vessels have been equipped with high- and low-level alarms or indicators. Obviously when installed in the control room they give the officer on watch an accurate check on the liquid level, apart from their main function which is to give warning and allow the operator time to reduce the loading or discharge rate, or to stop all operations as required A well-equipped control room may have a number of other instruments, a list of such equipment is given below-— 1. Oil in water detector. (Connected to overboard discharge piping). 2. A loadicator or electronic calculator which permits the operator to calculate the effect of various cargo layouts, in terms of bending moments and shearing forces. 3. An instant draft recorder fore and aft. 4. Acconstant monitor of the air and gas mixture in the pumproom and cofferdams. (This may incorporate an Inert Gas System). 5. Pump bearing and casing temperature gauges,20 TANKER HANDBOOK 6. The pressure/vacuum gauges for individual cargo tanks. 7. A computer which co-ordinates all loading and discharge operations, and monitors all operations throughout the discharge. Remote Control and Power-Operated Valves ‘The majority of oil tankers which are equipped with power-operated valves utilise a hydraulic system. This type of system includes a hydraulic fluid reservoir and pump. The valve is opened and shut by hydraulic Muid pressure generated by the pump when the switch is activated. Individual systems and valves vary, but the valve has to be linked to the pump and fluid reservoir by small bore Piping to allow the passage of the hydraulic fluid. Because ships are getting so large and the tanks so deep, it is no longer practical to use extended spindles and reach rods to turn valves from a position on the deck immediately over the valve. It is therefore, quite normal to dispense with hand-valves and provide hydraulic controls on deck or in the control room. An increasing number of vessels are utilising hydraulically-operated valves through the cargo system which includes all valves in the pumproom and the cargo manifold. In most cases the hydraulically operated valve submerged in the cargo tank gives little or no trouble, but occasionally failure can be experienced. Loss of pressure by damage to the hydraulic fluid line is the most frequent cause of failure, but occasionally a valve will jam in the open or shut position. If this happens it can be quite a problem. In most cases the cargo system is designed so that a single valve will not prevent a vessel from completing loading or discharging. Normally there is more than one valve in a cargo tank even if the second valve is only a stripping valve, and the cargo compartment can be discharged even if it has to be at a reduced rate Most hydraulically-operated valves and the associated hydraulic system are fitted with pressure monitors and valves which allow faults to be detected, and leaking hydraulic lines to be isolated so that the loss of hydraulic fluid is kept to a minimum, Remote Control of Cargo Pumps Most of the older, smaller tankers still in existence, have little or no remote control of cargo pumps and pumping systems. In such ships, to enable the pumps to be used efficiently and to allow the operators to monitor performance, a limited amount of instrumentation is provided at the pumps and/or at the pumproom top. In the case of reciprocating pumps, steam pressure gauges as well as gauges showing the back pressure against which the pump is pumping, and Vacuum/Pressure gauges to monitor flow conditions on the suction line are normal Where turbine or clectrically-driven centrifugal pumps are provided with much the same instrumentation, it is necessary to instal tachometers to monitor the turbine and pump speeds though sometimes the tachometers are only mounted in the engine room. In all cases controls are located in pumproom and/or engineroom. As ships got bigger and control rooms became more popular, more and better instrumentation was provided as well as the means of stopping and starting the pumps from a control room. In many cases the instrumentation included gauges for cach pump, which indicated the temperature of the impeller casing and bearings. The ultimate in control is, of course, the ship which is fitted with a computer to control the pumping system, and which monitors the discharge, giving a printed read-out of actual performance every ten minutes. In such a case, the computer is programmed with the known facts about the discharge facilities ashore, and the pumps are started by activating the computer. From that point on, the computer opens and shuts all valves and starts and stops all pumps, Liquid Level Data-Gathering Systems To ascertain the liquid level in a tanker’s cargo oil tanks, it is necessary to measure manually, mechanically or electronically:— (@) The amount of liquid in the tank, measuring from the bottom of the tank to the surface of the liquid. The resulting measurement is known as “The Sounding”. (6) The amount of space between the top of the tank (ullage plug) and the surface of the liquid ‘This measurement was known as “The Ullage”. OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 21 In the older tankers, ullaging with a tape or ullage stick was common practice. Fast loading or discharging with numerous tanks open at once, meant that several members of the crew had to be out on deck to check the liquid level in the tanks at frequent intervals. The amount of manpower required was considerable, particularly when loading fast. The risks of affixiating personnel continuously leaning over open ullage hatches could not be ignored, ‘Automatic tank gauging systems used in oil tankers are largely adapted from similar systems used by the oil industry ashore, ‘The Whessoc Float System was probably the most common of the automated tank gauge systems. In the earlier versions, the float was suspended from a special hatch by means of an ordinary ullage tape. The tape was passed over a flywheel directly under a clear view screen complete with screen wiper. The other end of the tape was sccured to a weight suspended in a tube filled with cleaning solvent, extending to the bottom of the tank, The Float is heavier than the weight in air, but when the tank is being filled or emptied it floats on the top of the liquid rising or falling as’ the liquid level alters. The tape records the ullage automatically. ‘The Float System is tried and reliable, and a broken tape at once lets the operator know he must. revert to hand-ullaging. A reasonable amount of maintenance will keep the system trouble-free. ‘The steel tapes provided by the manufacturers have the measurement scales either painted on them, or embossed on the actual metal. The latter type are less likely 10 be defaced by contact with inert as or other corrosives. . Larger and more modern ships fitted with the Float Ullage System are equipped with a remote read-out in a central control room. There are a large number of automated tank-gauging systems based on hydrodynamic principles. Such systems have a marked similarity, and it should suffice if we cover them in outline. Each tank is fitted with one or more open-ended pipes connected to a read-out gauge and reservoir in the control room. The length of the gauge and the type of liquid with which it is filled, depends on the accuracy required. A small gauge using a heavy liquid like mercury, can be used where accuracy is not required. Where accuracy is required, such as when topping-up tanks, a larger gauge and a lighter liquid are used together, with a separate pipe to cover the upper section of the tank. How do such systems work? The open-ended pipe in the tank is connected to a liquid reservoir in the base of the gauge glass. Nitrogen, or another suitable gas is inserted into the pipe until it has purged all the air and [ills the whole length of pipe. The end of the pipe is restricted, but the gas is allowed to leak out of the open end in the tank, Changes in liquid level within the tank result in changes of pressure on the gas in the tube, which is in turn transferred to the liquid in the gauge glass, and the liquid level can be read off the calibrated gauge. Experience with a number of gauge systems manufactured in different parts of the world, has been varied. While some have been reasonably accurate, others have proved to be undependable and are mistrusted by tanker officers, some of whom continue to ullage by hand in preference to utilising such systems, tis not possible to determine here the relative merits of individual systems, but before condemning equipment, the operator should take all the necessary steps to service, check out, and calibrate equipment according to the manufacturers instructions. Lack of use and disinterest are certain not to lead to the successful ironing out of problems in the system. Electronic Ullaging Devices At one time there was considerable reservation about the use of electronic sensors either for use as high and low liquid level alarms, or for ullaging. Improved technology combined with a better understanding, of the problem has been instrumental in producing some remarkably accurate equipment, The author inspected a fully-automated vessel which had two independent electronic ullage systems fitted in cach tank. If the two systems differed more than 3 cm, a warning signal was given. A more recent development in this field was introduced by a Swedish Company which used in-tank radar to measure ullages and soundings, Liquid Cargo Measurements In Closed Tanks From time to time Independent Petroleum Inspectors are hired to measure the quantity of oil loaded at the loading port or discharged at the discharge port. Their duties will vary according to the22 TANKER HANDBOOK type of tanker. In a conventional tanker the time honoured method was to inspect the tanks visually to make sure that all the ballast water had been pumped out and the bottom of each tank was dry. This was done by inspecting the tank bottom, generally with the aid of an intrinsically safe gas tight torch, to see it was reasonably dry. If there was any free water or oil residue, this was measured by lowering a bob manually into each tank and then calculating the amount of residue/free water in each ‘compartment. “Load on Top” and the use of inert gas in closed tanks has led to the development of some special portable equipment which has been approved as intrinsically safe and can be used if the ship's ‘equipment is malfunctioning or the Petroleum Inspector needs to use it. This equipment ean consist of ‘an ullage probe, an interface probe as well as a temperature probe, which is used in conjunction with a vapour control valve. This valve is fitted to a tube which can be mounted on top of the ullage plug and through which the various probes can be passed without serious loss of inert gas pressure IG pressure sensor ‘Saab TankRadar System, CHAPTER 4 HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION SYSTEMS IN addition to the provision of cargo compartments, pipelines and pumps for handling the oil, the oil tanker must also provide adequate heating systems for some types of oil and cooling systems for others. Properly constructed ventilation systems are necessary in all oil tankers in order to avoid excessive loss of cargo from evaporation and to control the escape of dangerous gases. Cargo Heating Systems Heavy fractions, such as fuel oil become very thick and sluggish when cold, and, in order that such oils can be loaded and discharged without delay it is necessary to keep them heated. Today the oil trade is so vast and wide spread, that the average oil tankers may be trading in the tropics one voyage, and in Arctic conditions the next, It is therefore necessary that cargo heating systems be designed to cope with extreme conditions, Due to the fact that a loaded tanker has comparatively little freeboard, the temperature of the sea water through which the vessel is passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the ship’s side and bottom, and across the decks, rapidly reduces the temperature of the cargo and makes the task of heating it much harder. Warm sca water, however, has the reverse effect, and can be very useful in helping to maintain the temperature of the cargo with a minimum of steam. Steam is used to heat the oil in a ship's tank. It is piped from the boilers along the length of the vessel’s deck. Generally the cat walk or flying bridge is used for this purpose, the main cargo heating steam and exhaust pipes being secured to either the vertical or horizontal girder work immediately below the foot treads. At intervals, manifolds are arranged from which the steam for the individual cargo tanks is drawn. Each tank has its own steam and exhaust valves, which enables the steam to be shut off or reduced on any of the tanks at will. Generally the main steam lines are well lagged, but obviously it would not be a practical proposition to Tag the individual lines leading from the manifold to the cargo tanks. In a conventional tanker which uses the hull or vessel’s outer skin to contain the oil in the cargo tanks. ‘The heating arrangements in the actual cargo tanks consist of a system of coils which are spread over the bottom of the tank at a distance of six to eighteen inches from the bottom plating. In wing tanks it is the usual practice to extend the coil system as far as the turn of the bilge but not up the ship’s side, ‘When it becomes necessary to heat cargo, the steam is turned on the individual tanks. The coils in the bottom of the tanks become hot, heating the oil in the immediate vicinity. The warm oil rises slowly and is replaced by colder oil, thus setting up a gradual circulation system m each tank ‘The wing tanks insulate the centre tanks on both sides, while they are subject themselves to the cooling action of the sea, not only through the bottom plating, but through the ship’s side. It is therefore advisable to set the steam valves so that the wing tanks obtain a larger share of the steam than the centre tanks. This is particularly true in some of the more modern vessels, where the coils are passed through the longitudinal bulkheads between the centre and wing tanks. Vessels fitted with double bottoms under the cargo tanks, as well as double skin tankers, may have the coils fitted in the double bottoms under the tank bottom plating. This type of ship requires, considerably less heat for its cargo as there is no direct contact with sea water outside the vessel. The actual tanks are also clear of heating coils and this allows the actual oil to drain to the pump with fewer obstructions. It also facilitates easy tank cleaning when this is necessary. Heavy fuel oils are generally required to be kept at a temperature ranging between 120° F. and 135° F. Within this temperature range they are easy to handle. Lubricating oils of which the heavier types require heating, are always the subject of special instructions as they vary widely in quality, gravity and viscosity. Some types of Heavy Virgin Gas Oil or Cat Feed have very high pour points, and it is necessary to keep the cargo well heated to avoid it going solid. Provided the temperature of this type of oil is twenty to thirty degrees above its pour point, it offers no difficulty when loading or discharging though a wax skin will form on the sides and bottom of the ship.24 TANKER HANDBOOK Some crude oils which contain paraffin wax or have high-pour points are also heated when transported by sea. The main reason for this is to stop excessive deposits of wax forming on cooling surfaces. The heating requirements for such cargoes varies considerably. Waxy crudes with pour points over 100° F. may require heating to 120° — 135° F. : Bitumen cannot normally be carried in ordinary ships, as it requires far more heat than the normal cargo system is capable of. For this reason, bitumen ships are generally designed so that the cargo tanks are insulated by wing tanks which are reserved for ballast, and by double bottoms under the cargo tanks. This coupled with extra coils, arranged on platforms at different levels, helps to keep the bitumen heated. In ships carrying heavy lubricating oils which require heating, the coils are generally ordinary steel pipe, but vessels carrying crude oils which have to be heated, are now equipped with cast iron or alloy coils. The reason for this is that the heating surfaces are subjected to excessive corrosion from the lighter fractions in the crude, and ordinary steel pipes do not stand up to the corrosive action so well as the other materials mentioned. Heat Exchangers While steam coils continue to be in general use, some vessels are fitted with heat exchangers. Thermo Oil is heated and then pumped through the coil system. In the case of chemical ships individual tanks are sometimes fitted with stainless steel coils to guard against leaks, but heat exchangers located in the individual tanks through which heated thermo oil is pumped are increasingly popular. In some cases, particularly vessels fitted with individual deep well pumps, the piping system is arranged so that when necessary the individual cargo pump can circulate cargo through a heater in each tank. “ULL.C.C.s & V.L.C.Cs seldom have coils fitted throughout their cargo tanks, but they often have coils fitted in their slop tanks to help heat the oil and water mixture and thus facilitate the separation of oil from water, as when heated the oil tends to float to the surface of the water.” Cargo Cooling Systems All mineral oils are subject to expansion and contraction with the rise and fall of temperature The coefficient of expansion of heavy oil at 60° F. is in the region of -00035, whilst the lighter oils such as motor spirit, etc, have a coefficient of expansion of approximately -00070 at the same temperature, As a rule there is little or no trouble in loading a vessel with the heavier types of oil. There is generally plenty of room for expansion, and indeed more often than not some of the tanks are empty, but where the lighter products are concerned this is a matter of major importance. Normal practice is to load a tanker’s cargo tanks to 98 per cent. of their capacity, 2 per cent. being allowed for normal expansion and contraction, which may be experienced as a result of change in latitude or simply daily fluctuations of temperature. Vessels loading very light products have of necessity to be very exacting about ullages. It is often very difficult, and on’ short voyages often impossible to put the vessel down to her marks. It is therefore very important to be able to estimate correctly what the vessel may experience in the way of high temperature, and to make extra allowance for cargo expansion where necessary. To keep the temperature of the cargo in reasonable limits and also to avoid excessive loss through evaporation, some vessels are fitted with a sprinkler system. A sprinkler system is merely a number of fixed nozzles or water roses, which are stationed at intervals throughout the length of the vessel in the immediate vicinity of her cargo tanks. The sprinklers are connected to the deck service line, through which cool sea water is pumped to counteract, the effect of the sun on the ship’s steel deck plating. Oil Tanker Ventilation System When subjected to heat, oil not only expands but gives off vapour, and loss through evaporation with spirit cargoes would be considerable if natural ventilation were allowed. On the other hand, if the vessel’s cargo tanks were completely sealed and then subjected to a rise in temperature, the cargo Diagram 5s, — Pressure Vacuum Ventilation Valve. By Courtesy of Ferguson & Timpson Lid. Reger, coment seinen Ros [7OUTET FLAME ARRE STE porererverrs or ae Py Stain Serie cores, Diagram 5. By Courtesy of Ferguson & Timpson Lid.a Age pendent Type, Inde Pressure Vacuum Ven Diagram Sb By Courtesy of Ferguson & Timpton Ltd. HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION SYSTEMS. 25 would gradually give off more and more vapour, until the vapour exerted a pressure on the liquid surface of the cargo, and on the surrounding plating and other component parts of the cargo compartment. If the temperature should increase further, eventually the pressure would release itself by fracturing the weakest portion of the cargo tank. Oil tanker ventilation systems must aim at three things:— 1. The controlled escape of any excessive pressure of vaporised oil 2. The safe disposal of these dangerous vapours in the atmosphere outside. 3. The provision of air to replace any partial vacuum caused by a contraction of the liquid oil in the tank Early tankers had ventilation systems of two distinct types the Independent Venting System, and the Common Venting System. Independent Venting System The independent venting system as fitted in some types of vessels consists of a 3-in. pipe fitted to each tank, and generally located on top of the tank, coaming. This pipe extends approximately 3 feet to a wire gauze covered cow! or flame trap. Halfway up the venting pipe a spring-loaded valve lifts if the pressure in the tank exceeds 2 Ib. and closes again immediately the pressure in the tank drops below that figure, The pressure valve incorporates in its design another valve, the function of which is to allow air to flow into the tank, should a vacuum be created by any contraction in the cargo. The advantage of this system is mainly one of cost, as large lengths of gas line are not required. Its main disadvantage is that with volatile cargoes it does not discharge the vapour sufficiently high enough for it to disperse quickly. Another disadvantage is that either valve can be jammed by scale or wax deposits, with little or no indication that anything is wrong. Common Venting System ‘This type of venting system has a gas line or pipe serving cach cargo compartment. These gas lines serve a larger line which runs the length of the main cargo deck, utilising the catwalk or flying bridge for support. It eventually ascends both masts to two flame traps well above the deck. At the base of cach mast, a pressure vacuum valve is fitted into the system to control the escape of gas and the inflow of air. Each of the tanks has an ordinary sluice valve which has to be manually closed to isolate it from the rest of the tanks. The advantages of this type of system are, that in comparison with the independent system, all gas is discharged well above deck level. Its disadvantages are firstly: contamination via the system, a possibility when carrying several different parcels; secondly, should the pressure valves at the base of cither mast fail or jam open, evaporation would not affect just a single tank, but the whole cargo, and the loss through this cause might be very considerable. Grouped Type Venting System Most modern oil tankers have the venting system divided up in much the-same manner as the pumping system, In this way a separate gas line together with a separate flame trap are available for each section of tanks. Each of the tanks is served by a pressure and vacuum valve on similar lines to one or other of the two types shown. ‘The “D" Type Pressure and Relief Valve ‘The “D” Type Tiros Pressure and Relief Valve shown on opposite page is so constructed that the valve performs both operations, allowing excessive pressure to escape up the gas line, and in the case of a contraction of cargo, it allows air to enter the tank via the gas line. When the valves are opened up for inspection, testing or cleaning purposes, the pressure and vacuum adjustments can be made by the nuts provided for this purpose.26 TANKER HANDBOOK ‘The Independent Inlet and Outlet Type Relief and Pressure Valve ‘The main difference between this valve and the “D” type is that this is really two separate valves One valve allowing excessive vapour pressure to escape via the gas line, and the other allowing air to enter direct from the atmosphere without using the gas line, thus avoiding any possibility of contamination from the ventilation system, Ventilation while Loading and Discharging ‘The question of ventilation while loading and discharging is an extromely important one when viewed from the point of view of safety. A proportion of the accidents that occur on oil tankers where oil or dangerous vapours are ignited, can be traced to the misuse or failure of the ventilation system. Safety regulations require vessels loading and discharging at most oil terminals to keep ullage hatches and inspection ports sccure on all tanks into which cargo is not being loaded or discharged. ‘Those cargo compartments which are actually in use should be fitted with proper wire gauze screens, or spark arresters, to be in place over all ullage hatches and inspection ports while cargo is actually entering or leaving any tank. Sometimes Port Regulations require the cargo ventilation system to be used while loading or discharging, and the ullage hatches to be secured for the entire time that cargo is being transferred, When a vessel is fitted with an Automatic Ullage System, it is easy to comply with these regulations. Indeed other than when the ullages and samples are taken and when the tanks are being drained dry on the completion of a tank, the ullage hatches need never be opened, but when vessels are not equipped in this manner, and some vessels in service today are not, it is not always so easy; ullage hatches have to be opened from time to time to ascertain the level of the oil in the tank in order to avoid overflows, etc. In addition, unless the gas lines are large enough loading rates are restricted. It is ING TOWER RECIACULATION LINE EXPANSION PIECES. BLOWER FANS \ pnessune teow ro BREAKER hs / _ or Sos [mis . ‘ramesh WITH CLEAM BALLAST TANKS (CET) ‘pats vESsHt USES €A8GO PIPELINES TO LOAD AND EALOAD BALLAST £ Tannen vInH StonecArED aaLLAST Tas (587) saLLASt Tomes ARE IN PRCTEGTIVE LOCATION (FL) OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 7 Existing Tankers All ships fitted with H.C.W.M. (High Capacity Washing Machines) must be fitted with LG.S. Product and Crude tankers of 20/40,000 dw.t. which are not fitted with H.C.W.M. may be exempted if fitting LG'S. is not practical. Objectives of MARPOL "73/78 The main objective of MARPOL '73/78 Annex 1 is to prohibit the discharge of all oil, sludge or oil and water mixtures into the sea. At the same time there is recognition that the pollution prevention capability of some types of ships, particularly older and smaller tankers, may be limited. Oil and water mixtures in the engineroom bilges are normally required to be discharged into the tankers’ slop tanks, where this is not feasible and no engineroom oil and water separator is provided, the discharge of such a mixture is permitted provided the tanker is not in one of the special areas where no oil can be discharged. The vessel can discharge the mixture provided she is 50 nautical miles or more from the nearest land. It must also be fitted with monitoring equipment to control the flow concentration and total quantity of oil discharged while the vessel is en route. ‘Tankers discharging oil and oily water mixtures from eargo tanks are severely restricted. The oil tanker must not be in one of the special areas or within 50 nautical miles of any land when ‘outside these areas, The tanker has to obey the Following requirements. 1. The instantaneous rate of discharge of the oil content in the oil/ water mixture does not exceed 60 litres per nautical mile. The 1992 amendments to MARPOL °73/78 reduced the amount of oil which could be discharged by oil tankers from 60 litres per nautical mile to 30 litres per nautical mile from the 6th of July 1993, 2, The total quantity of oil discharged from existing oil tankers shall not exceed 1/15,000 of the total quantity of cargo including contents of the slop tanks. New tankers are required not to exceed 1/30,000 of the total quantity of the last cargo including contents of slop tanks. Both the existing and the new tankers have to have slop tanks as well as monitoring and control equipment to meet these needs. Using normal L.O.T. procedures the average vessel should have 0:1% to 1% of slops on board depending on several factors including type of cargo, weather and the length of the voyage to the loading port, The discharge of segregated, or clean ballast, must not exceed 15 parts per million and provided it meets this standard may be discharged within 50 miles of the nearest land. Monitoring the Discharge of All Ballast If leaks occur in the bulkheads between cargo and ballast tanks it is possible that ballast may leak into a cargo tank, By the same token a bulkhead leak between a full cargo tank and an empty ballast tank is also possible. If this occurs the whole system serving the S.B.T. may be contaminated. It is necessary to inspect bulkheads between cargo tanks and segregated ballast tanks on a regular basis as Ieaks could contaminate the ballast system. Older single hnull vessels which hrave had some wing tanks converted to $.B.T.s may also have ballast pipelines which pass through cargo tanks. These pipelines could also be a source of leaks, where deepwell pumps are fined in individual ballast tanks pipeline leaks are avoided. When considering double hulled vessels with the ballast tanks arranged between hulls and in the double bottoms the ballast pipelines are not permitted to pass through cargo tanks. The discharge of Segregated Ballast needs to be monitored continuously to make sure leaks and contamination from oil does not occur. Most segregated ballast systems are designed with an automatic cut off if an oil leak occurs, MARPOL "73/78 Annex 1 and Protocols In 1983, "73/78 and the various Protocols came into effect. This was in spite of the fact that several Nations refused to sign up. The high cost of implementing MARPOL was objected to by a considerable number of ship owners and operators duc to the high cost of paying for C.B.T., S.B.T. and 1G.S. as well as C.0.W. Where possible some ship owners and operators, as well as oil terminal58 TANKER HANDBOOK, operators who were required to instal additional deballasting facilities, lobbied their national governments and in some cases were very successful, with the result that these nations refused to sign The I.M.O. is an international body. It depends on its members to agree the way forward on the basis of majority decisions. The U.S.A. and several other nations were frustrated by the action of the few Governments that refused to sign. The U.S.A. had been pressing for some time for even stricter measures such as the need to fit all new tankers with double bottoms to avoid pollution in the case of groundings. The stranding of the Exxon Valdez in Alaska in 1989 precipitated action by the U.S.A ‘The Exxon Valdez was under the U.S. flag and complied with MARPOL requirements, but did not have double bottom tanks. Secing little hope of meaningful progress in the near future the U.S.A. decided to take action on its own, U.S. Oil Pollution Act (OPA 90) OPA 90 was far reaching and complicated both from the standpoint of implementation and its overall effects. It came down heavily in favour of double skin tankers and stated that any tanker ordered afier the 30th June 1990, or delivered after the Ist January 1994, must be fitted with a double hull if it was to enter U.S. waters. Other sections of the Act made it clear that all oil tankers would have to provide proof of financial protection against any, or all pollution while in U.S. waters and that liability for pollution would rest sorely with the owner/operator of the oil tanker. Each vessel would have to have a VESSEL RESPONSE PLAN (V.R.P.) which had to be approved by the U.S, Coastguard and updated annually In effect each vessel had to name an approved qualified contractor to cover any clean up resulting From oil spillage. One of the problems experienced immediately after OPA 90 became law was the problem of dealing with the requirements of individual ports and maritime States within the U.S.A. The Coast Guard had the job of reviewing some fifty Area Response Plans which should have been published in February 1993, but due to the difficulty of reconciling all of them with the Overall National Plan many of them were still outstanding by that date OPA 90 did not pre-empt U.S.A. State Laws which provided unlimited liability for oil pollution. Several States had laws which allow unlimited liability under certain conditions. The table entitled “United States OIL Spill/Pollution Financial Responsibility and Liability” (see end of chapter). Indicates the variation between individual U.S. States Level of Financial Responsibility. OPA 90 precludes the U.S. from participating in the international oil spill liability and compensation provided by the International Convention on Civil Liability for OIL Pollution Damage and the International Fund for Compensation for OIL Pollution Damage. (1.0.P.C. Fund 1971), ‘The U.S. had not ratified the C.L.C. or the L.0.P.C. Fund Conventions or its Protocols. Examination of U.S. tanker requirements in 1990 suggested that there were insufficient double skin tankers available to meet U.S. oil requirement in existence at that time, nor was their likely to be for the next ten to fifteen years. To handle this situation the U.S. Authorities proposed a phase out of single hull tankers by age and size according to the table listed below. After Jan, Ist '95 30,000-+ GT 1995 1967 1996 1969 1997 1971 1998 1973 1964 1999 1967, 2000 1970 2001 1972 2002 1974 2003 1976 2004 1978 2005 1980) 2006 1981 2007 1982 2008 1983 2009 1984 2010 1985 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 59 Effective date of double hull requirement by year of delivery for existing single hulled vessels, Add five years to year of delivery for existing vessels with either double bottoms or double sides. Smaller vessels are treated more generously. It should be remembered that U.S.C.G. not only have to approve each vessel’s V.R.P. but are able to inspect all vessels in U.S. waters to see that they comply with requirements. Meanwhile the I.M.O. was also busy legislating. ‘Under MARPOL Amendment 13F for New Tankers ordered after mid "79, the new legislation was to be effective after July "93. It stated that new tankers of 5,000 m.d.w.t. or over should have double hulls. The wing tanks should have @ minimum width of 2 metres for ships of 30,000 m.d.w.t. and over. The double bottoms should have a minimum height of 2 metres or B/15, For smaller ships of 5,000 m.d.w.t. plus, the double bottoms must have a minimum height of | metre Product Tankers of 20-30,000 m.d.w.t. were also required to be fitted with I.G.S. and those over 30,000 m.d.w.t. to have 8.B.T. as well as L.G.S. Alll Segregated Ballast Tanks, other than fore and after peaks to be fitted between the inner and outer hull, Crude Tankers of 20,000 m.d.w.t. and over had to be fitted with I.G.S., S.B.T. as well as C.0.W. Alternatively vessels could be fitted with a new (Mid-Deck) System — see diagram. The US. rejected the Mid Deck System until proven effective. With regard to Existing Tankers MARPOL 13G required all Existing Tankers to meet the regulations already specified under MARPOL °73/78. In addition all crude tankers of 20,000 m.d.w.t. and over, or product tankers of 30,000 m.d.w.t, and over not fitted with segregated ballast tanks, must comply with 13F not later than 25 years after delivery. If they convert to S.B.T. they gain another 5 years. Vessels already fitted with S.B.T. must comply with 13F not later than 30 years after the date of delivery. The .M.O. may accept Hydrostatic Balance as an alternative under certain conditions but this involves the development of new inspection guidelines. It can be seen [rom the above that the phase out schedule for OPA 90 and the LM.O. differ in the detail as different yardsticks are used. It does look as though single hull tankers will all have been phased out by 2010 or not long after. General Comments It is sometimes overlooked that the U.S. Authorities through OPA 90 and the I.M.O. through MARPOL ate not just concerned with setting standards for avoiding pollution which the owner and the master of an oil tanker has to obey or suflet severe penalties. A lot of work goes into formulating guidelines for all types of tanker equipment which will help prevent pollution. The actual design of double skin tankers of various sizes together with the number of oil tanks and other factors have been considered in detail and much of the detail legislation is aimed at Shipbuilders and the Classification Societies as well as ship owners who are considering new buildings. ‘OPA 90 and the more recent amendments to MARPOL.°73/78 means that both sets of legislation are heading in much the same direction regardless of the difference in thinking on the merits of Mid Deck as opposed to Double Hulls The complexity of pollution liability for ship owners/ operators due to the differences in individual state laws in the U.S.A. on unlimited liability, at one time, caused a considerable amount of confusion and alarm amongst non U.S. flag tanker operators, particularly as the P. & 1. Clubs refuse to offer guarantees of payment for oil spills. Many owners were reluctant to let their vessels trade to the U.S. until the situation could be clarified. Not all the vessels affected were substandard or an abnormal pollution risk. In other cases, vesscls belonging to third world countries or ship owners from such countries probably could not afford to put up the financial guarantees required. Looked at dispassionately, OPA 90 and other U.S. maritime legislation covering the operation of all shipping in U.S.A. waters was, in some respects, ahead of most other countries and was only achieved by the U.S. taking arbitrary action on its own. The principal of consensus as used by the 1.M.O. is at best slow and there is undoubted deficiencies in getting some Flag States to comply if they refuse to sign. Some Flag States were seen to be a particular problem and the I.M.O. began to look for a way of correcting the weakness inherent in ART 94 of U.N.C.L.O.S. (United Nations Law of The Sea) with regard to the duty of Flag States. Port State Control (P.S.C.) came into being in 1982. It was essentially a regional agreement