Study Guide IEEE ILP Satellite Communications An IEEE/EAB Individual Learning Program Prepared for the Educational Activities Board of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. by Tim Pratt rast 938 4989 25250 00034345,{©1980 by The lstute of Elecieal and Electroies Engineer. oe Alleighsreered. No part ofthis book maybe reproduced ia ay form or by any meas without permisionin ‘iting fom the publser Printed inthe United States of Ameria Cone layout andillusteation by Lisa A. Marcy blshed by the Inetitte of Eectveal and Electronics Engineers. In. 115 Hoes Lise, PO Bor 331 Piscataway, NJ 08855-1351ait Sestion 1: ait 2 Section: Usit Uns § Usit 6 Usie 7 Section 3: Use 8 Usit 9 Appendix ‘Appencin? ‘Appendix 3 ‘Appendix ‘Appendix Satellite Communications Table of Contents fotroduction ‘Satetites As Spacecran The Space Segment ‘The Space Segueat 2 Communications via Sate Link Design Aaalog and Digs! Commesicaton Techies Mabtiple Access Coding Techniques fr improved Peifornance The Ground Segment -..eseeseeeesesesessersesesseeee Earth Stations ‘Propagation Stl Earth Pathe Modulation Theor Baseband Digal Transmission The Supebet Receiver Probability Theory Sampling ad Quantization Page ca a 3 a2 18 13 166 UNIT 4 inRoouc’ Suelite Communications i 3 mature technology wi Sion in as. Every dap ling uf telephoe tase caried by sought them by exiles. Trent years lites aod malons of people watch Toe origi of satelite comauicaons canbe iaced back fo an atc written in Wireterr Wold fn 1045 by Arthur C Clarke, who was io Brisa’ Roval Ar Force atthe ine, Clatke sugested that a9 aca soc ould be lacie iat ori wl a radius of #2242 km and would always tetseissbove ibe sane sean en casth, We sow cll thi geonttiooary aie, apd sich satlites are the backbone ofthe worlds ote fg ‘ommunicatioe over Joey distances 1a 1945 a geostationary sulelite was scence fc, because there ere co fockets powerfl caoush to achieve the 17,00) ag tency aceded lor injection ia low ears orbic Then a 1957 SPUTNIK 1 was avocied bythe USSR sad the ea ol aetes ad begun, The fe eeccatoneey eet as SYNCOM I, lsuoched by the United States from Cape Caoaveral in 1263, 1a 4963 2 ueely ened ineroaional tlie tclecommusicaions consrtiva, Ines, nuached the est season ‘eleconsuncaons satelite INTEUSAT I, ‘The rapid developmest of satelite commusieion technology Satelite Communications Begins cover the pat rent tne years wae driven ty several facors Ta space progr led to ibe development of more powerful rocket thick could pce larger and beaver stlles uve geonaionsey orbit. The value of Satellites for ransoceaie couusieatios aod ‘clevsion was realized, andthe fst actworks were ‘tablished by lteit for woridwide telephone ls, Domestic systems followed, istribuig television to comtnenal ress 30d rovidig unk telephone routes, fo 168 there we hundeeds of {e0sationary stelites ia obi, sersing amos every country om ‘ar. To this day, satelite comsmunsationsremaias the only acvity by man ie space which bas produced a sigufcane Ginacial eta forthe huge invesmen in spate esearch ‘The Gist ive telecon signals to be set eos the Allaslic were, aasmited ‘om Aadover, Maine via the TELSTAR satelite. (©: Goonhily Downs a SW England and Pleumcir-Badou a France ‘x lly 10,196, the day that TELSTAR, sas laueched. The event was cased fre (Brith television. TELSTAR I vas is 2 medium. earth orbit wath tual silly between ear uations of sboxt (oeny minutes The eanb satoas wad rere lage. with 60° apertures and besmmidths of 1% 59 sccuratetachieg of the satelite: vas necessary. The satelite was picked op on the secood past at Goonhilly afer a polaer problem a the UX station was corrected and several exchanger of TY siguls folowed ia occeediog pases Why se satelies for telephone and tcleisin inks? Satelite ste broadcast communications devices they ranma bit sinsls over awide aes, sometines over orethird of ibe earths surface “The major advantage ofa satelite communications system ovet ‘ther forms of log distance communication lak i that one satelite ca smulaseousy reach hundred of ear sais. The broadeast capably has been widely exploited inthe United Slates and many ober luge countries for disibetion of tckeson signals The api rom bl lesion nthe United States in the 19705 nas caused lrg ybe vali of satelite ks Co deiver TV programs to thousands of cable TV companies rcogh eae ewclng ‘wansponder. Optical fiers aad teresa merowave links pevide point-to-poit commusicitions with data rates and apacics similar to those provided by a ae, Opi bers may ota be lower in cot than 3 sacle ak {or such applications, but must fest be established betweea speciic pons Its the Nexbly and tres capable of satites that ake them atiractve lor many sppestions ‘08 Now read Chapter 1 the tet gives a brie istry of satelite communications Table 1.4 shows listing of communications satelite ie obit 2d plaaned 3 of 1984,“Satelite Communications shi age vse fom the United Stato | Figure Lt shows the Lok aso at Figure 10.0 pages 70987 I shows the festions ofthe worll's communication sates, yon ae untae wth what a sali oaks tb, eer Figure 120m page £7 and Figure 39. page or. “These gre show soe of the ote sles. More satelites ate shown in Figures 325 amd 324. ges 9 sind 90. “atmost eveyone inthe United States wit be elie der seem ia many yards, more corey noun a5 eth ation antennas. so Look at Figures 9.1 and 9 on pages 85 ond 356 hich show some lage cath station antennas. ‘REVIEW OF UNIT recs att you hve leased how satelic communication sared, how i expanded very rapidly inthe 1968 (a tn ae vt ached naar in the 198%. You have sea some pictores of communications stlits and aan are ant expec ead of toe ol the applications or stlite communication tems and why satlites Grothe preferred choice for television signal distribution Soteiite Communications SECTION 1 SATELLITE AS SPACECRAFT UNIT 2 THE SPACE SEGMENT I intaooucTion fe units? and 3 ofthe ILP you wil ara abou satellites as spacecraft-unmanaed vehicles in omit round the tant which provide the wt commision lik a space. ‘++ Here are some ofthe topies you will sted + syty asatelite stayin odie + Which bits ar wel for communications purposes + wy the geonymeheonous obits so widely sed + which sete ar ia low earth obit + How io calculate the look angles af geostationary satelite + How suet launched Chapter 2 of the text deals with orbits and lunches and conias moce mathematical detail on obits than we SeeeSca im hs ICP Chapter 3 desribessatliter aad the commuricaionssstems they carey and aso CTstuses some ofthe problems of keeping aa unmanned sem operating correctly thousands of miles out in spe for many yor. 2.1 ORBITS Understanding how a comaurcatons satelite says in orbit, and bow oat itthece. requires some knowledge Ml onbual mechanics, The laws of orbital mechaniee were developed by astcogomers centuries ago by Gheerotons af the planets aad stars. Two soteeth-celur astoaomers, Kepler and Neaton, were the fist (© Crpl the mation af the planets. Kepler spent mot of is Le obsersing the movement of planets around the Sau and deduced his avs empirically At aboot the same tie, Nevin derived the same results mathematical. “The essential mathematics for determining obits are presented ia Section 2.1, Chapter 2 of he text. The resus besowe very complested aod the [ll derivations are oot included in he tex. For our porposes in his ILP, we Sit concenteate on the factors which are important for communications saeites, especialy those in scetationary obit SATELLITE ORBITS Let begin by esewing he most important features of seit ris A gates wit ied os eH has a suliemly high clocks and is above the earths souphere, Asa stele moves in a cured path i experiences a changin she direction (and possibiy the Speed) of ts movie. Tai change in eloiy mean thatthe seit i accelerating and acceleration reveals tht se Gnostancedforee acts onthe satelite. Gravity supplies this ceter-seking(cetegetl force needed to Sonsany torn the stelle towands the Earth = otbersize would sped off in 3 sraight fine. The hey (0Sateite Commonics ssfally eablishing a tequieed ea 1848 et of the spacecrafl slot ring th vac ene ‘ve wil alk sbost launches ater \e GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT sete is oe particular ori which is woe side sed for commumatio saelies. Thisis tbe geonencivonous iin which the satelite i he plaoe of he car's equator aod makes one rian sbow te center of Be ‘in exaly 2 hours, Saintes ua #ccond: (a sideresl dey, Under hese condo the sselite Base se aguas velogy asthe earth and wl appear oe ationary above oae specie pon on he equator The iin the sa tobe geoationa, The ort pri i aot hours becouse we Ueze 2 Rout 9 be (ie "Soph of a day-A day isthe average elapsed tie between suness, which includes 3 con ths rowationavouad the sua, The sun spear to cee 3 sinues aad 36 seconde (on average) Inter than Ct ne fas forthe earth ae once on at Low EARTH ORBITS Seite are not aways in geostationary obit 1 Suneilance slic: snd not commucicaions stellt, «he majority of stlies arent, because they are earth Suneilance saeites ae usally placed ia ow bits, us above the atmosphere, wth altudes ofa few hundied Silometers. If stelle bas an ae of es than 300 km, it wil be slowed down by ellison with molecules {oom be eats atmosphere an, unless velociy & peradically boosted, ill move fuer into the e=i's Staosphere and eveatully bara p. Low cath orbit satlites have eeisl periods of about 9D minutes aed therefore, appear (ors and seta the ly js ste sua ad moon do, but more olen. I requires much less toergy from the lack vebile to rach a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) than the geosatonary orbit, and costs much {ets too, However for communications purpons the constant appearance and disappearance of the saelites ‘The area of the art's surface sen bya low orbit satelite it ‘much les thon the azen seen bya geouationay satelite. Tis ‘neane thatthe earth stations communicaling via a LEO satelite most be euch cose together than fra geosaionary satelite, adhe range between them quite limited, Low earth orbits Low earth orbits are used for earth suvedlance “satelier. Miltary see Tnchde abseration wih visible and ‘nfeared light electronic signal gathering aod storeantlorvard conansications (Ch ystems are used for earth resooree studies, weather obsenaton,aapaion, ‘and energency beacon locaton whea, vera cath, Survellaace satellites are ely in inclined bis so that a he ah rns the satellie pases overall of jig suilace in sueemsie pau. Sometimes 4 polar bit is used which lakes de sacle ovr the aon aad ‘out poles. Many ofthese LEO catelies ‘any Coanmutieatons systems which are ‘designed in the same way 26 those fot geostationary stele, The aio Siferences are that low orbit satlites Rave broad beam, low gui antennas and satelite the shorter distance fom stelle 10 ‘anh station revalsia # smaller pa Ir you ace not lotereted ia the mathematics of orbital les. mechanics, ship to Section 22 on page 22 ofthe text If ou alow the math, ead Seton stating o page ‘The cave stelite commusicatons tests with the TELSTAR, ind RELAY satellies used medium ori slits with aitdes of several thousand klometes, and mtoal visbity berwees ‘arth stations of about twenty minutes. The problems of aching ‘ese satellites, and Bandiag over beiveea them. wakes the feovtationary version more popular for commusiations However if reakime commucicton i 91 requved, “store and onward" operation 3 posit and theres renewed interest LEO satelies forthe porpoe, CALCULATING ORBITS. Look at Figure 22 on page 13 of he et. Te shows the general form of 2 satelite ori [Note thatthe earih coats independently ofthe satelite oie ‘hich complicates the problem of finding out wherein the ky youook fo “he eels uf sume very invhed sams forween pages 1 and 2 xn be umecarized ftom Saeites aos in epi obis wih be earch tone feu of he ellie. Tiss Kepler's es Taw of plaveiry ‘Dov: he ori cla, bb oc of be elie ae coincident athe carbs cestr “The time tatza forthe satelite 19 move ace round its orbit is called the orbital period. The orbital period Tependsom the datancee the sai from be cater of be earth ats rst itt pat called the apogee of terre), This is Kepler's thind lon The shape of the ofits deiged by its eccenrcty. Eecetecy sa (Bestee of te eiffecace beween the otis spogee aad is penge (the post of closest proach so the ear). deal orbic has eqval apogee aod prises ands defined by is radius from the czoter ofthe earth, The period of ao litical orbit is defined ia Equation 230 ofthe te, page 16, forthe geometry shown i Fgute 24 Look at Figure 2.4 and Equation 230 ‘The parameter ia Equation 230 is Kepler constant snd ha value 39861592308 L's ‘The satelite doesnot Bave a constant veloc iits orbit is elliptical. moves slowest at spogce and fastest at perigee Kepler's secoad law expiis ihe elaoaship, “The eliptical obi is eseaially saionuy in space, based on Johann Kepler Coordinates referenced fo celestial poias gy a sar. Howser, the carh touates wikia the ori, so the Wack ofthe satelite projected ono the ears surface ones around the globe ashe fart urs Jobann Kepler was 4 Corman ‘Sstonanch ho ned om 571901. Fie anbicd the sutiaw of he planet ftom decane the postions ot Seccessalcoumasicaon wa 3 elie usta requies 4 many yeas and dovied thee lve (6 Gecucatorees 2 ERASE Paks erent the say Bs CSpot for he snl, and whe fave general ce of Sst lw aes hat al whi are eines, ee ine ti panier cede oil elements wih a pavindoal cee, eg hem FRE aktiea td sclaiosip lide sodlonptndeco 3 ove fous. His secand law ses tat SEcEvounee Geo bo eal denen and sable he pie cee ot etal eatin apts rogac you ca Gd ut whe and whretolok for egal tine, Tht means hat an obing temeiie ‘aap an move fers perigee then at Motes Ha thud lw sales Dat Be Mowe of Ge. ori period & preporioes tothe thee power of he Solent aor ais His Gangs were Ider confireed aleatialy by estos wings te of grav 2n ibe cant uasaome mat Paes fete sv sew answer these questions om tbe Get part of Section 2 of ell. 1. athe eats rxatioal pero: (0) Bis mins ees (6) hrs mins Osees (2s Sins S6sces 2a sateliesis placed an orbit wth ude les than han 200 bn does (@) fallback tocar (0) fyolfito outer space (havea circular orbitSattite Commun 4. The apogee alam seit ih. pot when the satelite (0), closet tothe carta : (farthest fom the eat (9) closest tothe sun (2) farthest oon tbe sun 4. The periges ofa obits the point when the satelite is (2) closes tothe ear ()octbet trom tbe earth (0) closextothe sus (2) artes ome hes A stele is in acral obit wth an ahitde of 200 km. the earth's asf 6370 km, she perio of te obit () sr ins (©) 88 mins (© %0a%is © mins 5 Assatelite isin an eiptical orbit wih an apogee alte of S00 km and a peige tude of 100 ken. Foe the earth radi value of 6370 kn. is the orbital period () 88mg (0) 105 in (9 2 ovins (©) 10min SELECTING AN ORBIT CComausicaton va alow earth orbit satlie clearly wh more difiult-valess noa-dirctional antennas are ssed-than via a geostationary satelite. Tb gestatonar orbit is therefore very inpatan snd very widely weed {or communication. tba the folowing characteris “The rostatonary ofits zea inthe equatorial plane with he east's center asthe center ofthe ctl we ake the earth's orbial period as 2¢ hours the rae ofthe orbit is 2.22 km A stellite ina geosationary orbit remsis stationary athe sky above pec point o the earth's equator. Froma geostationary positon, a atelitecan“see aloe one third of the earth's surface, REVIEW ‘Any satellite which it in obi round the eath travels along an elite path in space wth the earth atone foes Satelite Communications The clcoaion of he orbit parameters, andthe leation the sei taion, requires koomledge of sie parameters called the otal elements rg the obi wt respect tue Suteies in any ori except geostationary appeae to eve aerss the sky sad mst be tacked by the earth Communication selves ae wualy in geostationsey obit. The geostationary orbit icicle inthe plate of the ex's equsto a an stude of 33872 km, Al geostationary saelites are in hs ori A satelite in geowstionary obit appears to be feed above pont on the equator It appears to be faed 9 2 point inthe sky wea ened from an earth sation. Now answer these questions on section 22 f the ILP 1. lsthe plane ofthe geostationary xi (2) nthe earth's equatorial pase () Through he and S poles (@) athe earth's orbit plane around the sua A. Istheabitude of geostationary satelite wih 26 hour period () srk (0) 353708 (© 38m (© enn 8. The exact period ofa tly geostationary satelite one sidereal day, 23s Sémins and 4ecs, What i the slide of satelite wth hit period? (@) 35704 ©) 35795 (9 357m (© 359904 10, Ifa geostationary satelite moves away fom the earth to as aitude of 42.442 km, co an obserer a the equate, wll he satelite appear to (2) dat tovardsthe eat (©) det towards the west (0) remain ststonsryiathe kySeletite Communications 12 LOOK ANGLES ve point inthe shy occupies by a sateie ae teen frm ages earth sation i delned bys fok anges Look savies are usually given fa wimuth and clestion coordzates at show ia Figure 25, rage az of tne we Zrouth aogle (A2) is measured round the horizon, starting st cov and going throuth ext Elevation ue (6) & measured (fom the horizontal plane towards the seni, Look angles ate deleraiced tow ovbed ements at a given (ine of day wing complicated mathematica Here we will comer oa tbe case of stationary stelle. Section 22, began on page 12 ofthe tex shows how to calelae look ages snc Ship co page 238 of theta iyo are aa interested inte natbeamatcs. Read pages 24 trough 30. quaions 2.68 and 2.73, cgeter wih Figue 213,02 page 28 40d 29, ge the information needed to calcolate look anges (ora geontationary satelite. Note hat ia swe 213 o0 page 29 ofthe tex, he sale sbown wid oa row ithe azimuth angle, 2a he angle ph. ‘To'ind the look angles for a particular satelite rm 3 given ear station you mst have the foowing data: The longitude ofthe satellite, koown abe susatelitepoit. Theis the loagtde atthe equator directly below the satelite, symbol lI you ae uncertae about (be defations aod woe e latcude and longue, read the Footsote a the bots of page 2 i the ext, ‘The lattes and longitude of the earth station. Symbols ae late Le and longitude L. Be earful aot to laterchange the to: autude ba the upperase symbol To find he lok tgs of esatiary saute wi Poses 7) igen kth fon erent oad 4 OEE onde an ‘east or west of the prime (Greeawich) ‘evan sn andes egies sok ot soutbat the ester Thus oagiote of 9 W pase trough he Usted State dod eguren ou Aiowi anpet ‘eon delved ne tame ay. Ieagitude follow thi procedure: 1. First solve Equation 266 oe page 28 ofthe tet forthe ‘ogle gamma If gamma is eater tae 615° (oles than 1.3), the earth station eanot sete aelie because it isbelow tbe borzoa 2 Nex solve Equation 268 on page 2 fo El, the elation lok angle ofthe satelite 43. Thea find s fom Equation 2.71, and substitute ia Equation 273, pge 28,10 fad the angle alpha. This ‘he age shown in Figure 2.13 on page 29. The azimuth lock angle (A) i ound from Table 22 below Figure 2.13, For earth tations the sorsera bemopere, ibe sub satelie poia is na soulbwest or southeast ofthe earth station. That the satel avaye appears i the soutbera sy. ‘tis simple matter to wit a compute program which wil ay out the above procedue, so that catering the "vee parameters fo the satelite and earth ation produces ook angles, Equation 2.67 on page 28 of the ext gives the distance Irom the earth aio othe stellt. Oceasiaally this ‘ceded for path ls calelations but t varies ony betwee a 35,871 ka ora stelle direc verbead to 81,756 um for a satelite oo the Brion ‘That completes the calculation of look angles. Section 23, pages 30.32 ofthe tem, goes trough a detailed ‘lealation of the orbit and look angles fra weary geestaionay satelite. You wil see ibt the eaeulation weryinvoied, Skip thi sectionif ou are ntintereted. onerrat = Ia the Foreabing anaisis of satcize unit, we have assumed tha all the factors iano remain conta Unrate tis 20 the cave in prac an 3 numberof fect cate the vei cage wih ime. At resuly a geostationary satelite il i ay from i saion and cust be sent back using rocket wotors on the ‘atelize. Tis is caled toon Leepng and aa ieporiantfacor in determining the uel letime of Seoustionsey atetie TURBATIO! Remember tht a satelite i orbit weightless. Any al force acing on he sulelite wil case i to accelerate and eves move away fom ks feqused abt. The soagest perturbing force ona geowstionary satelite ‘the moon, The mooe's oral plane sed wit rexpet to be earth's bial ple, cating & force on the ‘atlie wbich ead ropa out ofthe ears equstra plane, The sus as 2 sna, ba sale. efet, 00 Read section 3-4 of he teat pages 32 cough 34 That now completes the stud of stellt obits sn lok angle. The nes topic we mus consider © "== 2 satelite int the required orb. Now ansuer thse questions on Sesion 22 of the ILP, ‘Which of he following parameters are needed o Find he look angle fora geostationary stele? (@) Fah station laitude (©) Emth sation loogtede ( Satettte raege (2) Subsatelitelooginde 2. Anazimuth angle i given a 00, What compass direction ie this? (@) Noni (©) Sous (@ Es (@) wen 3. An earth station i located in Equador. which iin he soutbere hemisphere ata longitude of SIP west a ‘sch part of he sky would you lok for a geoiatonary satelite witha subsatelie longitude of 115° west? (9) Nontesst () Soubeast, (2) Nonthowest (@) Soub-westB Satelite Communications png: 28 of he tee 81.2% woud you expect the saci the angle gama in Eaton 2 (2) Below the orion (©) Cathe horizon (c)_ ust above the hviron (a) P above the horizon Aw earth stion has 3 longitude of 1? cat ofthe prime meridia and altitude of A geosationary ‘elite has asubsaeite pot of «eas. What are the look anges (a) Anise, Eto? (e) Anis E17? (o) ard £190 (@) AE? “The ialad of Spitcbergea ies north of Norway above the arctic ccle a longitude of Leas and aide (L78 noth, What ar tbe look angles or a geostationary satelite witha sbsatelite point tI? weu? (2) ALST50?, E126? (b) An26150%, E126 (©) Axtr99* E1627 (6) A2251907, £13.28 The Olmnpus satelite & tobe lauached in 1980 to serve Westera Europe, and willbe located atl 1P west (equal to longitude 31"), What are the look anges for an earth statin loated in Wash De, ongitude 7209 west, atude 38 nor (3) Area, E1656? (0) Aet1139%, E1100" (9) Aer, En6e (9) Acti ee? PROBLEMS ‘++ Solve problems avetered 3 §,8,and 10 on pages 4 and 80 ofthe ext. ee ee rare Ha ee Satelite Communications “There ate two wain cles of auncher: expendable cocks, noon as Espemfsble Launch Vehicles (EL), snd the space stl, Keown 33 the Space Transportation Seem (STS) ‘04 Look at Figures 2.16 through 221 ages 3600 the et. “Thea Figues ilstrate some ofthe avaiable auochers. At the ie of writing the US space shut program | seat grounded following the iach aur ie 185, The US government, prio to 1936, bad followed ply of ‘hasing out ELVs i aor ofthe sbule, That policy bas bce eevised and ELVs are once agun seen avaiable [sanchers, in Earope tbe Ariane ELV ba enjoyed great popularity ata geostationary satelite launcher bese Df beck of lune epabiht i the United Stes. szem probabe tht a ico shutle and ELV launchers ‘rile svilabie inthe ure, Lauoching geostationary satelitesis much moce comple tha Inuachig a spacecraft ito alow earth orbit The Drocedure i detcribed im section 26 ofthe te. I invoits a series of tes in which the satelite st fist be Dot into low arbi sad then moved out to geostationary alitide sing a transfer ori. Foal the stelle bit st he made circlar anda the equal p ‘An ELV launch usualy roquives a he stage eocke 0 get he satelite into 9 trasfer orbit. A rocket mee Sitached to the stellt tel called sm Apogee Kick Motor (AKM) i wed to provide the injection imo seosynchronous orbit. Whee aSTS i wed, the satelite & nuacked inate transfer obit fom the ste by 2 Payload Aust Module (PAM), special rocket motor designed to take the payload (rom the low earth rb | the shutle out 0 geosatonse altitude, The PAM fad on two early STS launches, leaving the spaceralt a low earth orbit from nic they were eveataly recovered alte hulle mission. Tee intl orbit of any spacecraft bas a inciaation tothe ears equatorial plane equal to the latitude of the launch site, For Cape Canaveral this is 283°. Moving a geostationary satelite from 2 283° iackination tothe ‘equatorial plane requite velocity increment of 366 mi, which eee tof fue that could otherwise be ted {oe station Keepiag or fra heavier payload. The launch site for Ariane i in French Guiana latte of ‘The reduction a lul to achieve an equatorial orbit with an Aragelnuach enables Arace to cary a biger payload than ae equivalent lauscher rom Cape Casaver ‘Tye co of luaching geostationary satelite i high. Look at Table23 page 41 and Table 2-400 page 2 ofthe ter. These tables show some typical costs foc launching geostationary stelites, A good estinate would be 35M, although the weight ofthe spaceraft ia erica (actor in deciding which launch vehicle i to be vied Seal Fah sclites ean be launched inc low earth orbit with much amar rockets at uch lower cost. Suis are sow in progress for aetworks of many simple LEO satelite with medium communications capacity at action of the cout of ezosiationary satelites. Miliary communication systems sing geostationary satelite are swlerable jazi and (9 hoa attacks onthe satelite, The prospect of simple satelies and low-cost Tausebss is tact for tactia eoeauaeatios, whieh has led o renewed iateret low orbit stems, s+ Read sect 28 of he ent, pages 36 trough 4, ‘0 Nowanaver these questins on the second part of Section 2 ofthe IP.