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Ancient History of India GK Today PDF
Ancient History of India GK Today PDF
C: Vedic Era
1. Who were Aryans?
2. The Rig-Vedic Settlements
3. The Geography in Vedic Texts
PROJECT COMMUNICATION PLAN
Section E : Buddhism
b. Chandragupta Vikramaditya
i. Navaratnas of Chandragupta Vikramaditya
4. Gupta Administration
5. Society and Economy during Gupta Era
6. Religion in Gupta Era
7. Temple Art During Gupta Period
8. Inscriptions of Gupta Era
9. Literature in Gupta Era
a. Kalidasa
10. Later Guptas
11. The Huna Invasions
12. Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas
M : Sangam Literature
1. Sangam Literature
a. Pallava Architecture
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Cont ent s
T he past of humankind has been divided int o t wo broad cat egories viz.
Prehistoric and historic. Prehist oric period belongs t o t he t ime bef ore t he
emergence of writ ing and t he hist oric period t o t he t ime f ollowing it . It has
been so f are believed t hat Modern Humans originat ed in Af rica and have lived
on our planet f or around 150,000 years. In recent t imes, t here have been some
challenges t o t his t heory.
T he ant hropologist s have long t heorized t hat humans emerged f rom Af rica
and int o East and Sout heast Asia around 60,000 years ago; t here has been a
signif icant lack of f ossil evidence t o support t hese claims. T he earliest skull
f ossil evidence in t he region had dat ed back 16,000 years and was f ound in
t he early 20th cent ury. In August 2012, a new skull was found that dates back to
46,000 to 63,000 years. This discovery has bolstered the genetic studies that point
to modern humans inhabiting Laos and the surrounding environs at that time,
according to a report of the anthropological discovery published in the latest edition
of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The skull has
been found in Tam Pa Ling, "the Cave of the Monkeys" in northern Laos. It
helps fill in this mysterious gap in the fossil record.
Advent of writing
But , man learnt writ ing only about 5000-8000 years ago. Writ ing most likely
began as a consequence of polit ical expansion in ancient cult ures, which
needed reliable means f or t ransmit t ing inf ormat ion, maint aining f inancial
account s, keeping hist orical records, and similar act ivit ies. It has been
concluded t hat around t he 4th millennium BC, t he complexit y of t rade and
administ rat ion out grew t he power of human memory, and writ ing became a
more dependable met hod of recording and present ing t ransact ions in a
permanent f orm. T he earliest record of human writ ing may be t he Dispilio
T ablet, dat ed t o t he 6th
millennium BC.
T hen, t he cult ural changes t ake place at an uneven pace in dif f erent regions.
In many part s of t he world, f or example in India, prehist oric ways of lif e have
survived more or less unchanged int o modern t imes. T he discipline, under
which we st udy t he non-indust rialized societ ies, especially t hose pract ising
hunting-gathering, fishing, primitive cultivation and pastoralism, is known as
et hnoarchaeology. T his st udy cont ribut es t o int erpret ing t he archaeological
record.
Origin of Man
Chronology of t he past can be eit her relat ive or absolut e. Relat ive chronology
dat es prehist oric event s in relat ion t o ot her event s and geological deposit s.
T he relat ive chronology t ells us if a part icular event is earlier or lat er t han
anot her event . On t he ot her hand, t he Absolut e chronology dat es event s and
phenomena in solar calendar years. T he t echniques such as Radiocarbon,
K/Ar, f ission t racks, t hermoluminescence, T H230/U234 and dendrochronology
are t he t echniques of absolut e chronology. Out of t hen, t he dendrochronology
is applicable only t o a period of a f ew t housand years and only in t he f ew
areas where old wood samples have been preserved. T hen, t he radiocarbon
dat ing can dat e event s up t o sixt y t housand years old. T he ot her met hods
can, however, dat e event s belonging t o t he ent ire prehist oric period. However,
t heir applicat ion is dependent on t he availabilit y of suit able mat erials such as
volcanic ash and rock at archaeological sit es.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Palaeolithic Age Prehistory of India
2011- 05- 04 14:05:10 GKToday
Cont ent s
Palaeolit hic Age spanned f rom 100000 years ago t ill 10000 years ago. It is
divided int o 3 ages viz. Lower Palaeolit hic age which spans t ill 100000 years
ago. Middle Palaeolit hic which spans f rom 100000 years ago t ill 40000 years
and upper Palaeolit hic which spans f rom 40,000 years t o 10000 years ago.
Palaeolit hic t ools were club, sharpened st one, chopper, hand axe, scraper,
spear, Bow and arrow, harpoon, needle, scrat ch awl et c. T he t ools made were
generally of hard rock quart zit e so t he Palaeolit hic man was called Quart zit e
Man. T he t erm Palaeolit hic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.
It lit erally means "Old St one Age." It was marked by t he hunt ing gat hering
nat ure. Most Palaeolit hic sit es in India developed in t he Pleist ocene period.
T he earliest human set t lement s in sout h Asia have been ident if ied wit h an
abundance of st one t ool assemblages. T he oldest known t ools used by
human beings were t he simple cores and f lakes, and t hey have been report ed
f rom t he Siwalik Hills at Riwat , near Rawalpindi in Pakist an. T hese t ools dat e
back t o as old as t wo million years. However, t he earliest reliable st one t ool
assemblages belong t o t wo dist inct cult ural and t echnological t radit ions viz.
t he Sohanian Cult ure and t he Acheulian cult ure, which we st udy under t he
lower Palaeolit hic cult ures.
Acheulian cult ure, named af t er French sit e of St . Acheul, was t he first effective
colonization of the Indian subcontinent and is almost synonymous wit h t he lower
Palaeolit hic set t lement s in India. T he Acheulian cult ure was a hunt er-gat herer
cult ure t hat adapt ed t o a variet y of climat es including but not limit ing t o
west ern Rajast han, Mewar plain, Saurasht ra, Gujarat , Cent ral India, Deccan
plat eau, Chot a Nagpur plat eau and t he East ern Ghat s, nort h of t he Cauvery
river. Read more about Acheulian Culture here.
But , what has been f ound in India are t he st one t ools very similar t o t hose
f ound wit h t his hominid species in Europe and ot her regions.
The first general observation about the Middle Palaeolithic era is that in comparison
to the lower Palaeolithic era, the distribution of sites is sparse. T he reason f or t his
is t hat t he middle Palaeolit hic cult ure developed during t he upper Pleist ocene,
a period of int ense cold and glaciat ion in t he nort hern lat it udes. In t hose t imes,
t he areas bordering glaciat ed regions experienced st rong aridit y. However,
generally, t he middle Palaeolit hic populat ions occupied t he same regions and
habit at s as t he preceding Acheulian populat ions.
Middle Palaeolit hic t ools were primarily made on f lakes and blades made by
f inely t rimming t he edges. Some of t hem were used f or manuf act uring t he
wooden t ools and weapons and also f or processing animal hide. T here are
lit t le hint s of use of wooden shaf t s. In comparison t o t he lower Palaeolit hic
era, t he t ools in middle Palaeolit hic became smaller, t hinner and light er. T hen,
t here was also a signif icant change in t he choice of raw mat erial f or making
t ools. While quart zit e, quart z and basalt cont inued t o be used, in many areas
t hey were replaced or supplement ed by fine-grained siliceous rocks like chert
and jasper. T ool Fact ory sit es at chert out crops occur at many places in
cent ral India and Rajast han.
Upper Palaeolit hic cult ure developed during t he lat er part of t he upper
Pleist ocene. T he Upper Palaeolit hic period has recorded a rich panorama of
f ossils in t he peninsular rivers of India. One import ant discovery is of t he
ostrich egg shells at over 40 sit es in Rajast han, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharasht ra, which shows t hat ost rich, a bird adapt ed t o arid climat e, was
widely dist ribut ed in west ern India during t he lat er part of t he upper
Pleist ocene.T here were very import ant changes in t he Palaeolit hic-
environment which had it s own impact on t he dist ribut ion and living ways of
t he humans. Some of t hem were as f ollows:
T here was ext remely cold and arid climat e in t he high alt it ude and
nort hern lat it udes.
T here was ext ensive f ormat ion of desert s in Nort h west India
T he drainage pat t ern of west ern India became almost def unct and river
courses shif t ed "west wards".
Veget at ion cover over most of t he count ry t hinned out during t his
period.
Coast al areas of sout h-east ern T amil Nadu, Saurasht ra and Kut ch
developed quart z and carbonat e dunes as a result of t he lowering of
t he sea level.
During t erminal Pleist ocene sout h-west erly monsoons became weak
and t he sea level decreased by scores of met res.
Due t o t he harsh and arid climat e, t he veget at ion was sparse t hough t he
f aunal f ossils show presence of grasslands. T he human populat ion f aced
rust icat ed f ood resources and t hat is t he reason t hat t he number of Upper
Palaeolit hic sit es is very limit ed in t he arid and semi-arid regions. T he most
opulent archaeological evidence of t his period comes f rom t he Belan and Son
valleys in t he nort hern Vindhyas , Chot a Nagpur plat eau in Bihar , upland
Maharasht ra, Orissa and f rom t he East ern Ghat s in Andhra Pradesh.
T he earliest f orm of art is f ound in t he f orm of ost rich egg shell pieces
engraved wit h cross-hat ched designs f rom t he upper Palaeolit hic period.
Bhimbet ka rock shelt ers are locat ed in Raisen Dist rict of Madhya Pradesh, 45
km sout h of Bhopal at t he sout hern edge of t he Vindhyachal hills. T hese
served as shelt ers f or Palaeolit hic age man f or
more t han 1 lakh years. T his is t he most exclusive
Palaeolit hic sit e in India which cont ains t he rock
carvings and paint ings. T hese paint ings belong t o
t he Palaeolit hic, Mesolit hic ages, Chalcolit hic,
early-hist oric and even medieval t imes.
Bhimbet ka is a World herit age Sit e.
Please not e t hat it was earlier considered t o be a Buddhist sit e and was lat er
recognized as Palaeolit hic sit e by Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar who is now also
called "f at her of rock art in India ". Bhimbet ka Rock shelt ers were included in
t he world herit age list in 1970
Cont ent s
T he t ransit ion f rom t he Palaeolit hic period t o Mesolit hic period is marked by
t ransit ion f rom Pleist ocene period t o Holocene and f avourable changes in t he
climat e. T he climat e became warmer and humid and t here was expansion of
f lora and f auna cont ribut ed by increased rainf all. T his led t o availabilit y of new
resources t o humans and t hus t he human beings moved t o new areas. T his
period is marked wit h increased populat ion, t hough core economy of t his
period cont inued t o be based on hunt ing and gat hering.
T he early period of Mesolit hic age marks t he hunt ing, f ishing and f ood
gat hering which t urn t o hunt ing, f ishing, f ood gat hering as well as
domest icat ing t he animals.
One more important fact about the Mesolithic era in India is that the first human
colonization of the Ganga plains took place during this period. There are more than
two hundred Mesolithic sites found in Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Mirzapur and
Varanasi districts of Uttar Pradesh. This era also marks the dramatically increased
settlement in deltaic region of Bengal, the areas around Mumbai and other places
of western coast of India.
T he t ools are Mesolit hic Era are smaller in size and bet t er in f inishing (more
geomet ric) t han t he Palaeolit hic age and are called Microliths. T hese
microlit hs are t iny t ools of one t o f ive cent imet res lengt h, made by blunt ing
one or more sides wit h st eep ret ouch. T he main t ool t ypes are backed blades,
obliquely t runcat ed blades, point s, crescent s, t riangles and t rapezes. Some of
t he microlit hs were used as component s of spearheads, arrowheads, knives,
sickles, harpoons and daggers.
T hey were f it t ed int o grooves in bone, wood and reed shaf t s and joined
t oget her by nat ural adhesives like gum and resin. Hunt ing-gat hering way of lif e
was slowly replaced by f ood product ion f rom about 6000 B.C. T hus we see
t hat t he use of t he bow and arrow f or hunt ing had become common in t his
period, which is evident f rom many rock paint ings. T he Bored st ones, which
had already appeared during t he upper Palaeolit hic, became common during
t his, and t he Neolit hic and Chalcolit hic periods. T hese are believed t o have
been used as weight s in digging st icks and as net sinkers. Similarly, shallow
querns and grinding st ones also occur at several sit es. T hese new
t echnological element s led t o enhanced ef f iciency in hunt ing, collect ion and
processing of wild plant f oods.
T here were some more int erest ing changes in lif est yle of t he Mesolit hic era
humans. T he f avourable climat e, bet t er rainf alls, warm at mosphere and
increased f ood securit y led t o reduct ion in nomadism t o seasonally sedent ary
set t lement .
T he sedent ary set t lement s lead t o beginning of t he t radit ion of various ways
of int ent ional disposal of t he dead. The first evidence of intentional disposal of
the dead comes from Mesolithic Era. Mesolit hic human burials have been f ound
at Bagor in Rajast han, Langhnaj in Gujarat , Bhimbet ka in Madhya Pradesh et c.
T he dead were buried in graves bot h in ext ended and crouched posit ion. In
some cases t wo individuals were buried in a single grave. T he dead were
occasionally provided wit h grave of f erings which include chunks of meat ,
grinding st ones, st one, bone and ant ler ornament s, and pieces of haemat it e.
Em e rging art s
T he Mesolit hic man was a lover of art , evident f rom t he paint ings in several
t housand rock shelt ers in t he Vindhyan sandst one hills in cent ral India. T he
paint ings have been f ound in bot h inhabit ed and uninhabit ed shelt ers. T he
paint ings are made most ly in red and whit e pigment s, made f orm t he nodules
f ound in rocks and eart h. T he subject mat t er of t he paint ings are most ly wild
animals and hunt ing scenes, t hough t here are some relat ed t o human social
and religious lif e such as sex and child birt h.
Fo o d Pro duct io n
T he hunt ing-gat hering way of lif e was slowly replaced by f ood product ion
f rom about 6000 B.C. T he core economic act ivit ies were now included hunt ing,
f owling, f ishing and wild plant f ood gat hering. The first animals to be
domesticated were dog, cattle, sheep and goat and the first plants to be cultivated
were wheat and barley. T his new subsist ence economy based on f ood
product ion had a last ing impact on t he evolut ion of human societ y and t he
environment . In t he humid lands, ext ending f rom t he middle Ganga valley t o
China and Sout heast Asia, rice cult ivat ion and domest icat ion of pig was
accomplished probably around t he same t ime because rice and pig exist ed in
wild f orm in t his region. T he cult ivat ion of yams and t aro also t ook place in t his
region. Domest icat ed animals proved t o be usef ul not only f or meat but also
f or milk, hide, agricult ural operat ions, and t ransport .
Cont ent s
T he human set t lement s in t he Mesolit hic era got more sedent ary and t his was
t he beginning of est ablishment of villages. Man now could keep cat t le, sheep
and goat s and prot ect crops f rom pest s. In due course, as t he ef f iciency of
agricult ural product ion improved, some f armers were able t o generat e surplus
f ood. As a consequence, a sect ion of t he populat ion were f reed f rom t he t ask
of f ood product ion and t heir t alent s and energies were divert ed t o t asks such
as t he product ion of pot s, basket s, quarrying of st one, making of bricks,
masonry and carpent ry.
The Neolithic period began around 10700 to 9400 BC in Tell Qaramel in Northern
Syria. In South Asia the date assigned to Neolithic period is 7000 BC and the
earliest example is Mehrgarh Culture. Mehrgarh is the oldest agricultural settlement
in the Indian subcontinent.
Mehrgarh Culture
First Pe rio d
Se co nd Pe rio d
T hird Pe rio d
Fourth Period
Emergence of polychrome pot t ery wit h a t all goblet wit h wide mout h and
a pedest al base as a new shape.
Ext ensive use of t imber in t he const ruct ion of houses, of f emale
t erracot t a f igurines wit h pendulous breast s and of st amped seals of
t erracot t a and bone.
Emergence of commercial t ransact ions.
Fif t h Pe rio d
Sixt h Pe rio d
Dramat ically increase in pot t ery st yles and t he f irst evidence of pot t ery
kilns.
Pipal leaf and humped bull designs appear on pot t ery which ant icipat e
Harappan mot if s.
Prolif erat ion of t erracot t a f igurines, improved f emale f igurines.
Seventh Period
Eight h Pe rio d
St ruct ured graves, semi-precious st one beads and a bronze shaf t -hole
axe.
Cigar Snapped handmade Brick st ruct ures wit h f ire places, st one blade
indust ry using f lint , composit e st ickle, grinding st ones, bone t ools,
Pot t ery et c.
In April 2006, it was announced in t he scient if ic journal Nat ure t hat t he oldest
(and f irst early Neolit hic) evidence in human hist ory f or t he drilling of t eet h in a
living person was f ound in Mehrgarh. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor t o
t he Indus Valley Civilizat ion. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed t he ent ire
concept of t he Indus civilizat ion,"
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Chalcolithic Age in India
2011- 05- 04 14:05:55 GKToday
Chalcolit hic is also known as Eneolit hic period which saw t he use of t he met als
among which t he Copper was f irst . It is called Chalcolit hic which means use of
st one and well as copper was prevalent in t his period. T he earliest
set t lement s of t he Chalcolit hic period range f rom t he Ganget ic basin t o
Chhot anagpur Plat eau. T he economy of t his period was based upon
agricult ure, st ock raising, hunt ing and f ishing. Limit ed number of Copper and
bronze t ools have also been recovered.
Ahara Culture: T he sit es of Ahar Cult ure were Aahar (Rajast han),
balat hal, Gilund et c. T he dist inct ive f eat ure is black and red ware.
Kayatha Culture: Locat ed in Chambal and it s t ribut aries, t he st urdy red
slipped ware wit h chocolat e designs is main f eat ure
Malwa Culture: Narmada & it s t ribut aries in Gujarat . One of t he largest
Chalcolit hic set t lement s.
Svalda Culture: T he well-known sit es are in Dhulia dist rict of
Maharasht ra.
Prabhas & Rangpur Culture: Bot h of t hem are derived f rom t he
Harappa cult ure. T he polished red ware is t he hall mark of t his cult ure.
Import ant Prehist oric Sit es in India and t heir locat ion
Sit e Name Locat ion Period
T imargarh Swat alley Pakist an Chalcolit hic
Ahar Udaipur, Rajast han Chalcolit hic
Chandoli Maharasht ra Chalcolit hic
Ganeshwar Sikar, Rajast han Chalcolit hic
Ghaligai
Swat valley Chalcolit hic
Cave
Gilund Rajast han Chalcolit hic
Guf kral Kashmir Chalcolit hic
Inamgaon Bhima river syst em in Maharast ra Chalcolit hic
Nevasa Maharast ra Chalcolit hic
Largest Jorwe cult ure sit e,
Diamabad Maharast ra
Chalcolit hic
Narmada Valley Hoshangabad,
Adamgarh Mesolit hic
Madhya Pradesh
Banks of Damodar River in West
Birbhanpur Mesolit hic
Bengal
Chopani
Allahabad Ut t ar Pradesh Mesolit hic
Mando
Lekhania Mirzapur Mesolit hic
Morhana
Narmada valley UP Mesolit hic
Pahar
Jalalbhalli Karnat aka Mesolit hic
Sarai
Prat ap Garh , UP Mesolit hic
Nahar Rai
T eri group Chennai, T N Mesolit hic
Brahmagiri Karnat aka Neolit hic
Burzahom Kashmir Neolit hic
Gumla Peshwar Neolit hic
Koldihwa Allahabad Neolit hic
Mehrgarh Pakist an Neolit hic
Napchik Manipur Neolit hic
Anjira Surb valley, Baluchist an Neolit hic
Daojali
Nort h kachhar hills Assam Neolit hic
Hading
Mundigak Af ghanist an Neolit hic
Rana
Baluchist an Neolit hic
Ghundai
Chirand Bihar Neolit hic and Chalcolit hic
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Discovery & Extent of Indus Valley Civilization
2011- 05- 04 15:05:32 GKToday
"A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest
description.... When I joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous
brick castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west
was an irregular rocky height, crowned with the remains of buildings, in fragments
of walls, with niches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms the existence
here of a city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses
distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought
down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign"
About half a cent ury lat er in 1912 more Harappan seals were discovered by J
Fleet . Lat er an excavat ion campaign was carried out under Sir John Hubert
Marshall and t his culminat ed in t he discovery of a Civilizat ion at Harappa by
Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vat s, and
at Mohenjo-Daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John
Marshall.
T he cent re of t he civilizat ion was in Sind and Punjab in undivided India, f rom
t his cent re, t he civilizat ion spread t owards all direct ion. In West t he last ext ent
is seaboard of Sout h Baluchist an at t he Sukt agendor which can be called it s
west ern border. In east Alamagirpur in Ut t ar Pradesh (Dist rict Meerut ) can be
called it s East ern Border. In Nort h it ext ended up t o Manda in Jammu &
Kashmir and in sout h it ext ended up t o Bhagvat rav in Narmada Est uary of
Gujarat . However, lat er at Diamabad (Dist rict Ahamed Nagar Maharasht ra)
was t he sit e where f our f igurines of Bronze on t he bank of Pravara River
f ound. T his pushed t he civilizat ion's ext ension in f urt her sout h. Indus civilizat ion
remnant s have been discovered f rom as f ar sout h as Mumbai in Maharasht ra
St at e.
Observations
Most set t lement s in Indus Valley Civilizat ion are on banks of rivers.
As f ar as ext ension is concerned, t he Indus civilizat ion was largest of t he
f our ancient urban civilizat ions of Egypt , Mesopot amia, Sout h Asia and
China
It covered an area of around 13 Lakh square kilomet ers.
T his area is triangular in shape and no ot her ancient civilizat ion was
ext ended t o such a large area.
Remains of t he sit e f irst f ound at Harappa so it is also called Harappan
Civilizat ion.
Modern dat ing met hods keep t he civilizat ion t o be ranging f rom 2900 t o
2000BC.
T he people of t his civilizat ion were def init ely in t ouch wit h t he ot her
civilizat ions most prominent ly being t he Mesopot amian civilizat ion.
T he dif f erence between names of Harappan Civiliz ation and Indus Valley
Civiliz ation
The chronolog y of the ris e and fall of the Harappan civilization has been an is s ue of debate
and controvers y. Subs tantive work was done by Mars hall who dated this civilization between
the 3250-2700 BC. The modern res earch bas ed upon the C-14 dating or radiocarbon
dating has placed it between the 2900 BC to 2000 BC.
However, recent excavations by the Harappa Archaeolog ical Res earch Project have been
able to build on thes e earlier s tudies to define at leas t five major periods of development.
This lates t project was s tarted by the Univers ity of California and it was named
Univers ity of California-Berkeley Project which s tarted in 1986 under the leaders hip
o f Dr. Georg e F. Dales a t Harappa in Pakis tan. Dr. Dales died in 1992 and the
Government of Pakis tan named it as Harappa Archaeolog ical Res earch Project.
Webs ite: http://www.harappa.com
Thes e five periods repres ent a continuous proces s of cultural development where new
as pects of culture are balanced with long term continuities and linkag es in many crafts and
artifact s tyles .
Pleas e don't cram thes e dates . The only thing s hould be kept in mind is that the civilization
dates back to around 3300 BC to 1300 BC.
The res earches have made it clear that the Harappan Civilization was definitely in
contact with the Mes opotamian civilization in 2600 BC.
The mos t accepted timeline for development from the Neolithic period to early his toric
period throug h Harappa Civilization is as follows : (all dates are approximates )
Apart f rom t his, a Neolit hic set t lement has been f ound in Sout h India which is
cont emporary wit h t he Early Indus valley Civilizat ion. T hese sit es were
charact erized as Neolit hic sit es by Bruce Foot at sin Karnat aka such as
pikkalilal, Ut nur, Kupgal, Kodekal, pallavoy. Ash mounds have been f ound and
t hey have given t he evidence t hat cat t le were herded t here. T his along wit h
views of some ot her scholars indicat es t hat t his was a "Dravidian Civilizat ion".
However, Mehrgarh dat es back t o 7000 BC and as early as 5000 BC, t rade
links wit h Arabian Sea coast and wit h cent ral Asia have been est ablished. So
in t he light of t hese evidences it has been made clear t hat Foundat ion of Indus
valley civilizat ion was laid in t he Neolit hic period.
Bef ore we move t o t he each sit e and set t lement s of t he civilizat ion let 's have
a look at some basic common f eat ures of t he urban cent ers of t he
Civilizat ion. T hese f eat ures vary lit t le f rom place t o place.
T he f irst common f eat ure is Indus script on seals. T his script has not
been deciphered yet , so not much inf ormat ion is available about t he
social lif e, cust oms et c.
T he second most import ant f eat ure is t own planning. T he main f eat ures
of t own planning were use of baked as well as sundried bricks, well
planned st raight roads and a syst em of drainage.
A f ort if ied cit adel at most of t he cit ies. T he number of t he cit adels
varies.
Houses wit h kit chens and wells, t anks or wat er reservoirs.
Use of st andard weight s and measurement t hroughout t he civilizat ion.
Presence of wheel made pot t ery.
T he Pract ice of burying t he dead.
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are 500 kms apart f rom each ot her. T hese, along
wit h Dholavira, are called t he nucleus cit ies of t he civilizat ion. Harappa, t he
f irst discovered sit e of t his civilizat ion was on
bank of river Ravi, while Mohenjo-Daro was on
banks of Indus River. Each of t hem has t wo
prominent mounds where excavat ions t ook
place. Not able f indings at Harappa are rows of
granaries, Cit adels, Furnaces and a crucible t o
melt t he bronze. Not able f indings at Mohenjo-
Daro are t he magnum opus Great Bat h, uniform
buildings and weights, hidden drains and other
hallmarks of the civiliz ation. This is the site where most
unicorn seals have been found. Mohenjo- Daro is also sometimes known as largest urban
centre of the civiliz ation.
Gre at Bat h
The most famous building found at Mohenjo- Daro is a great bath. It is a 6x12 meter
specimen of beautiful brick work. The water for the bath was provided from a well in an
adjacent room. The floor was made up of bricks. Floor and outer walls were bituminiz ed
so that there is no leakage of water. There are open porch's on four sides of the bath.
There is use of Burnt bricks, Mortar and Gypsum in the Great bath but NO use of st one
is there.
The largest building found at Mohenjo- Daro is a granary. Then, there was also a pillared
hall for social gatherings. The other notable findings at Mohenjo- Daro are instruments of
cotton weaving, Bronz e figurine of dancing girl, evidence of violence and killing, seal of
the mother goddess, the figurine of beared man, the seal of Proto Shiva, a seal in which a
man is sacrificing a woman with his knife.
Bot h Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are approximat ely 500 kms apart f rom each
ot her. Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira are called t he nucleus cit ies of
t he civilizat ion. Since it was locat ed on t he old course of t he Ravi River, t he
Harappans had easy access t o t rade net works, aquat ic f ood as well as wat er
f or drinking and cult ivat ion. T his is one of t he reasons t hat t he Harappa was
occupied f or a long period of t ime. Harappa marked t he meet ing of t he rout es
coming f rom t he east leading t o t he Iranian plat eau.
Location:
Harappa was an Indus civilizat ion urban cent er. It lies in Punjab Province,
Pakist an, on an old bank / bed of t he River Ravi. T he lat est researches have
revealed t hat t he cit y was have been surrounded by ext ensive walls.
Archaeological Sequence
Important Findings
T he west ern mound of Harappa represent ed a cit adel which was 420 met ers
X 196 met ers in area and on a elevat ed plat f orm wit h t he height of 13.7-15.2
met ers and t his cit adel was reinf orced by bast ions. Out side t his cit adel have
been f ound somet hing like workmen's quart ers. 16 f urnaces have been f ound
wit h t he cow dung ash and charcoal. A crucible used f or smelt ing bronze was
also f ound at Harappa.
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Mohenjo-Daro
2011- 05- 04 15:05:32 GKToday
The meaning of Mohenjo-Daro is "Mound of the dead" and Mohenjo-Daro is the bes t
known Indus s ite.
It is located in Sindh, Pakis tan, next to the Indus River.
Here the Great Bath, uniform building s and weig hts , hidden drains and other
hallmarks of the civilization were dis covered in the 1920's .
At Mohenjo-Daro the mos t unicorn s eals have been found.
Due to a ris ing water table, mos t of the s ite remains unexcavated, and its earlies t levels have
not been reached. The Mohenjo-Daro als o has two mounds . The wes tern mound is lower
which was a citadel with 200 m X 400 m and eas tern is a big g er which was having the relics
of a buried city of s ize 400x800 meters .
Mohenjo-Daro was the larg es t city of the Indus valley civilization. Both Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro can be called the capital cities of the civilization.
Great Bath: The mos t famous building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a g reat bath. It is a
6x12 meter s pecimen of beautiful brick work. It has a tank with 11.88x7.01 leng ths and
breadths and 2.43 meters depth along with s teps on the north and s outh s ides . The
water for the bath was provided from a well in an adjacent room. The floor was made
up of bricks . Floor and outer walls were bituminized s o that there is no leakag e of
water. There are open porch's on four s ides of the bath.
Granary: A g ranary has been found which the larg es t building of the Mohenjo-Daro
is . This g ranary is divided into 27 rooms of different s ize and s hape.
As s embly Hall : A s quare pillared hall with 90X90 ft is another important building
found at Mohenjo-Daro. The s cholars ag ree that this pillared hall was a s ite for s ocial
g athering s .
All hous es have a courtyard , kitchen and a well. All hous es at Mohenjo-Daro have proper
arrang ements of lig ht air and drainag e.
A piece of woven cotton along with s pindle whorls and needles has been found.
A bronze fig urine of a dancing g irl has been found.
Mohenjo-Daro has als o g iven evidence of violence leading to death.
A s eal repres enting the Mother Goddes s a plant g rowing from her womb has been
found.
A fig urine of a bearded man has been found at Mohenjo-Daro
A s eal with a picture s ug g es ting Pas hupati Mahadev has been found at Mohenjo-
Daro.
A s eal which s hows a woman to be s acrificed by a man with a knife in hand has been
found at Mohenjo-Daro.
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Rakhigarhi
2011- 05- 04 15:05:11 GKToday
Rakhig arhi is located in the His s ar dis trict of Haryana. The excavations were carried out by
ASI in 1997 under the leaders hip of Prof. Surajbhan & Acharya Bhag wan Dev.
Not much has been publis hed but this s ite g ives evidences of two cultures early
harappan and mature harappan. The mos t important finding is an ins cripted s eal.
About 150 kilometres from Delhi , Rakhig arhi is located on the dried bed of
Saras wati-Dris hadvati rivers Firs t major excavation at Rakhig arhi was carried out
for three winters in 1997-1999 by a team led by Amarendra Nath Spread over an area
of approximately 130 hectares , it is the larg es t Indus Valley Civilis ation s ite in the
country . Two levels of Early (3500 BC— 2600 BC) and Mature Harappan (2600 BC
—1800 BC) civilization have been found at Rakhig arhi. Both the phas es have yielded a
rich haul of artifacts It is a necropolis which has yielded burials , important for the
s tudy of any civilization. The ASI has located only one other burial s ite, at Kalibang a,
under Saras wati-Dris hadvati project.
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Suktagendor
2011- 05- 04 15:05:29 GKToday
Suktag endor was located around 55 kms from the s hore of Arabian Sea on the Bank of
Das ht River near the Iran Border. It was an important coas tal town.
Suktag endor is cons idered to be the wes tern border of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Excavations at Suktag endor has revealed a twofold divis ion of the towns hip.
It was orig inally a port and later cut off from the s ea due to coas tal upliftment.
The conclus ion has been drawn up that Suktag endor had relations hips with Babylon.
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Balakot
2011- 05- 04 15:05:12 GKToday
Balakot is s ituated on the bank of Somani Bay near Karachi. Balakot was a coas tal city of the
Indus Valley Civilization.
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Kalibangan
2011- 05- 04 15:05:54 GKToday
The location of Kalibang an is Pilibang ān, between Suratg arh and Hanumāng arh in
Hanumang arh dis trict of Rajas than. It was excavated by A Ghos h in 1953 and later by BB Lal
& B K Thapar in 1961. It has g iven the evidence of both Pre harappan culture in the lower
layer and harappan civilization in the upper layer.
The bricks us ed in Kalibang an were earthen ones and Kalibang an was not as better planned.
Banawali is located in His s ar dis trict of Haryana. It has provided two phas es of culture
during excavations viz. pre harappan and harappan.
Located in the Dhalka taluk of Ahmadabad of Gujarat. Lothal was excavated by S R Rao in
1957.
Lothal has s hown a different kind of town planning . The city was divided into s ix
s ections and each s ection was built on a wide platform of unripe bricks .
Rice hus k has been found in Lothal.
Apart from Lothal there is only one s ite where rice hus k has been found and that is
Rang pur.
An artificial dockyard is found in Lothal which has g iven an indication that the place
was an important s ea link.
A doubtful terracotta fig ure has g iven s ome evidence of a hors e.
A bead making factory has been found in Lothal. Lothal is another s ite which has
g iven evidence of direct trade contact with Mes opotamia.
A s eal from Iran has been found which indicates its link with overs eas countries .
Lothal is a s ite in which the entry to the hous es have been found on the main s treet
while in other s ites of Harappa have s hown lateral entry.
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Chanhu Daro
2011- 05- 04 15:05:34 GKToday
Chanhu Daro is s ituated 130 kms s outh of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh and there has been found
a s ing le mound. It was dis covered by N G Majumdar in 1931 and was later excavated on a
larg e s cale by Mackay in 1935-36.
Chanhu Daro is the only harappan city which does not have a fortified citadel.
The Chanhu Daro has g iven evidence of factories of various fig urines , s eals , toys ,
bone implements s o it has been interpreted that it was a s ettlement with lots of
artis ans and was an indus trial town.
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Rangpur
2011- 05- 04 15:05:54 GKToday
It was the eastern boundary of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidences s ay that this s ite
developed in mature harappan phas e.
Kot Diji:
Kot Diji was a pre-harappan s ite and located on the left bank of River Sindh.
Amri:
Amri was als o a pre-harappan culture. It has g iven an impres s ion of pre and pos t harappan
culture.
Ropar:
Ropar in Punjab was excavated under Y D Sharma. There is another s ite Bara near Ropar,
which s hows an evidence of the decaying culture of pre harappan era.
Mittathal:
Mittathal is located in the Bhiwani dis trict of Haryana. A terracotta cartwheel has been
found. Weig hts of s tones have als o been found. The evidence of res idence outs ide a Citadel
have been found in Mittathal. The s ite g ives evidences of ris e, flouris hing and fall of Harappa
civilization.
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Social Life at Indus Valley Civilization
2011- 05- 05 03:05:18 GKToday
Cont ent s
Language
Religion
Prot oshiva or Pashupat i
Linga Worship
T ree Worship and ot her rit uals
T alisman
Food:
Dress:
Sport s and Ent ert ainment s:
T ools, arms and weapons:
Science & T echnology
Burial Pract ice
Language
Religion
Most prominent religious f igures of t he Indus Valley Civilizat ion are Unicorn,
Pashupat inat h, Seven mot hers (sapta matrika) and compound creat ures. T he
lat er t hree are now inculcat ed in Hindu religion. T he mot her goddess was
dominant shows t hat t he society was predominantly matriarchal. T here
was a division of labour and societ y was diversif ied and st rat if ied. T he people
were scholars, art isans, t raders, warriors and businessmen.
Protoshiva or Pashupati
T he f irst t wo aspect s are apparent f rom t he seal it self . T he deit y is sit t ing
cross-legged in a Padmasana post ure wit h eyes t urned t owards t he t ip of t he
nose which evidence t he Yogisvara aspect of t he deit y. T he deit y is always
nude save f or a cinct ure round t he waist .
Linga Worship
St one symbols of bot h male and f emale sex organs f ound at Indus Valley
Civilizat ion gives in indicat ion t hat Phallus or Linga worship was in pract ice.
T he peepal t ree has been depict ed on many seals which gives a sense t hat it
might be a sacred t ree. Humped bull was a venerat ed animal and t here are
evidences of snake worship and snake charmers. No temples, No special
places of worship, no castes. T he people had a sense of art s and craf t s and it
is proved by t he t oys, f igurines, bangles, st one st at ues, met al st at ues, et c.
T he people were expert in making seals.
T alisman
On a seal is depict ed a six-rayed mot if which may signif y t he sun. Swast iks
and cross signs were harbingers of good luck. A shell inlay, shaped like a heart ,
was probably used as a T alisman in t he Indus Valley.
Food:
T he evidences of bot h veg and nonveg lif e have been f ound at Indus Valley
Civilizat ion. T here are evidences of cult ivat ion of Wheat , Barley, Rice, Dat e,
melon, lemon et c. people were cat t le herders and used milk and milk product s.
T here are evidences t hat people made sweet s. Half burnt bones give
evidence of nonveg lif e.
Dress:
T he large number of t erracot t a f igurines and t oys such as cart , bull, elephant ,
monkeys, chariot s; whist les et c. indicat e t hat t he children ent ert ained
t hemselves. T here are no clear evidences of Music in t he civilizat ion; however,
t he f inding of a dance girl bronze f igurine gives some insight about t he social
ent ert ainment .
T hey are made up of Copper and Bronze. T hey were unaware of t he use of
Iron.
T he Harappan civilizat ion was t he womb of mat hemat ics f rom where both the
concept of numbers and the numerical system originated. T he numerical syst em
developed by t he Harappan included symbols f or most numbers and several
innovat ions f or mat hemat ical manipulat ions such as addit ion and
mult iplicat ion. T he Harappan numerical syst em is decimal and addit ive
mult iplicat ive in usage. T here are symbols f or numerical f or 4 t o 100, 1000 and
t heir derivat ives. T he numerical syst em which was f irst used by t he Harappan
lat er f ound it s way int o ot her ancient civilizat ion. T hese people are known t o
have const ruct ed t he world's f irst t idal port at Lot hal at t he head of t he gulf
company. T hey possessed a high degree of knowledge relating to the ebb
and f low of tides and carried on brisk overseas t rade wit h ot her civilizat ions.
T hey were also conversant wit h t he medical sciences and used various herbs
and drugs t o t reat diseases. T he people of Indus valley Civilizat ion pract iced
T rephination which is kind of medical int ervent ion making a burr hole in t he
skull t o t reat migraines and ment al disorders. T he evidences of T rephinat ion
have been f ound at Lot hal, Kalibangan and Burzahom but not at Harappa or
most ot her sit es.
Burial Practice
Surkot da and Dholavira are t wo sit es of Indus Valley Civilizat ion where t he
burial pract ice resembled t he megalit hic burial pract ice. Burzhahom is a
Neolit hic sit e and here pract ice of burying dogs wit h t he mast ers was
common.
Cont ent s
Cit ies are t he symbols of t he Indus Valley civilizat ion charact erized by t he
densit y of populat ion, close int egrat ion bet ween economic and social
processes, t ech-economic development s, caref ul planning f or expansion and
promot ion of t rade and commerce, providing opport unit ies and scope of work
t o art isans and craf t smen et c. T his was a sort of urban revolut ion, which could
not have been possible wit hout t he st rong cent ral aut horit y, specialized
economic organizat ion and socio-cult ural unit y. T he size and archit ect ural
complexit y of all large Harappancit ies mean somet hing in t erms of a socio-
cult ural development . T he lay-out of t he st reet s, t he presence of a large-
scale drainage syst em wit h it s requirement f or const ant t ending, t he
monument al cit adels, all can be t aken as an indication of tendencies toward a
strong central government.
Anot her f eat ure of Harappan urbanizat ion was t he elaborat e craf t
specializat ion and t he cont act s wit h ot her reasonably dist ant part s of asia.
But t he great est challenge t o t he archaeologist s is t heir f ailure t o get any
idea of t he Harappan urban inst it ut ions. For example, we almost know not hing
about t he f orm of t he st at e and t he economic inst it ut ions.
Marit ime commerce wit h Mesopot amia was a part t o t heir lif e, but t he
knowledge of inner working of t hese complex Harappan urban economic
inst it ut ions complet ely eludes us.
T he agricult ure was in f lourishing condit ion which was due t o t imely and good
rains. T hey sowed many crops including t he rice, wheat , cot t on, barley et c.
Ot her crops were dat es, melon, pea et c. Predominantly Rainf ed Crops as
Irrigat ion was based upon t he rainwat er but also t he sources of irrigat ions
were available. Wheat and barley were the most important Harappan Crops. In
Harappa, 3 principle variet ies of Wheat were sown; t hree variet ies of barleys
were also sown. T he cult ivat ion of lent ils, must ard, linseed, Sesamum has
been f ound. T he Finger millet , Ragi, Bajra, Jawar were cult ivat ed and it seems
t hat t hey dif f used f rom Af rica.
T he humped bull was domest icat ed animal, ot her were buf f alo, pigs,
elephant s, donkeys, goat s and sheep's. Only Surkot ada has given an evidence
of domest icat ion of Horse. Generally Horse is absent in t he civilizat ion.
T he goat s, cows and Sheep were commonly domest icat ed in t he mat ure
harappan phase but t he evidences of Buf f alo have not been f ound in t hat
much quant it y.
T he cart s and chariot s were means of t ransport . For sea t rade big boat s
were t here t o serve t he purpose.
It has been est ablished t hat t his civilizat ion had relat ionships wit h
Mesopot amia civilizat ion. In various cit ies of Mesopot amia, t he harappan
seals have been f ound which prove t hese relat ionships. T he descript ion of
Meluha in t he Mesopot amian lit erat ure ref ers t o India. T he Mesopotamian
records mention the word Meluha for Indus region. T he ancient name of t he river
Indus was Meluha. Sindhu is Sanskrit name, given by Hindus (Aryans), who
invaded India.
T here was use of many kinds of met als including Gold, Silver, Copper, Lapis
Lazuli , T urquoise, Amet hyst , Alabast er, jade et c. It has been guessed t hat
among t he precious st ones in t he Harappan civilizat ion; Jade came f rom
Cent ral Asia, T urquoise came f rom Iran , Amet hyst came f rom Maharasht ra
and Lapis lazuli came f rom Af ghanist an.
A Jewellery hoard has been f ound at Allahdino, an Indus valley Sit e near
congregat ion of Indus river and Arabian sea. It has a necklace of 36 carnelian
beads, Bronze spacer beads and a coper bead covered wit h Gold f oil and 20
Gold lumps.
T he t rade was mult if acet ed. It was operat ed on int raregional as well as
int erregional basis and had a guild syst em coupled wit h nomadic t rade. T here
are no evidences of monet ary exchange.
Well developed st oneware indust ry. T he manuf act uring of t he st one bangles
was most prevalent in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Harappan civilizat ion had
an Economic Zone. T his economic zone was along t he bank of t he Sirhind
river.
T hese people were aware of Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Bronze and T in but
did not know much about Iron.
Pottery
A large variet y of pot t ery, bot h plain and decorat ed, has been f ound.
Harappanwares were shaped on a pot t er's wheel. T he pot t ers wheels, being
made of wood, have not survived.
T he kilns in which t he pot s were baked have been uneart hed. T he heat ing was
skilf ully cont rolled as most of t he pot t ery was caref ully f ired. Once t he vessel
was shaped on t he wheels, t he ochre was paint ed over it . T hen t he designs
were paint ed on t his red surf ace wit h a brush in black.
T he designs include a series of int ersect ing circles (a pat t ern exclusively
f ound in Indus cult ure), t ree placed in met opes, mot if resembling a large
comb, chessboard pat t ern, t riangles, solar device, et c. f igures of animals,
birds, snake or f ish occur rarely. Animals are shown wit h grass and birds on
t rees. No human f igure is depict ed on t he pot t ery f rom Mohenjodaro but a f ew
pot t ery pieces discovered f rom Harappa port ray a man and a child.
At lot hal a vase a paint ing probably depict ing t he f olk t ale t he t hirst y crow and
on anot her jar f rom t he same sit e he has ident if ied t he depict ion of t he f olk
t ale t he cunning f ox.
T he seals were used t hroughout t he lengt h and breadt h of t his civilizat ion.
Made of st eat it e, t hese seals range in size f rom 1cm t o 5cm. t wo main t ypes
are seen
T he seals were very popular; more t han 1200 seals have been f ound at
Mohenjodaro alone. T he most remarkable one is t he Pashupat i seal depict ing
shiva seat ed on a st ool f lanked by an elephant , t iger, Rhinoceros and buf f alo.
Below t he st ool are t wo ant elopes or goat s.
On one seal a goddess st ands nude bet ween t he branches of a pipal t ree,
bef ore which kneels a worshipper. Behind t he worshipper st ands a human
f aced goat and below are seven devot ees engaged in a dance.
There are various theories of collaps e of the Harappan civilization. The main theories are:
Environmental Chang es :
It declined becaus e of the chang e in the cours e of the rivers and becaus e the rivers dried up.
The decline theory of environment deg radation was g iven by J ohn Mars hall. The dog ma
s ays that cutting of fores ts for ag ricultural and timber for fuel may have res ulted in the
barren land and s ilting of rivers . Another vers ion of the s ame s tory s ays that it declined and
decayed becaus e of the Floods in the rivers . It has been pos tulated that in Saras wati reg ion,
the civilization declined mainly becaus e of the s hifting of the river channels . However, the
decline was not s udden and took s everal hundred years .
There is a theory that is bas ed upon a Shloka in Rig Veda (VI.27.5). This Shloka s ays :
In aid of Abhyavartin Cayamana, Indra des troyed the s eed of Varas ikha.
At Hariyupiyah he s mote the vang uard of the Vrcivans , and the rear fled freig hted.
This s loka mentions Hari-yupiah which has been linked to Harappa. Further it has been
arg ued by the s cholars that s ettlements in Baluchis tan reg ion were put under fire by the
barbaric Aryans and invaders . There are found around 6 g roups of human s keletons in
Mohenjo-Daro which g ives an indication that the civilization was s ubject to the foreig n
invas ions . However, Wheeler s ays : It is not s us ceptible to proof and no s erious value.
The harappan civilization g ot dis appeared in 1300 BC and the vacuum created was filled by
numerous civilizations .
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Who were Aryans?
2011- 05- 05 03:05:04 GKToday
Cont ent s
Meaning of Veda
Aryans a Linguist ic Group
Sanskrit was t he language of Aryans
Sanskrit and Indo-European Languages
Sanskrit as a Scheduled Language and Classical Language
Meaning of Veda
"The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and
reverence, skilled in sacrifice."
Grif f it h t ranslat ed वेदने as "rit ual lore". Veda means t o know. Veda means
knowledge. In Sanskrit Vidya is Knowledge and it derived f rom Veda. Veda
does not mean t o be t he mant ras or samhit as or sholkas only. It is knowledge
and conscience. Avest a which is t he oldest Zoroast rian T ext has shown some
similarit y wit h Rig Veda.
It was init ially proposed by t he German scholar Max Muller t hat Aryans
belonged t o a race. However, he lat er det ract ed and declared emphat ically
t hat t he t erm Aryans, in scient if ic language, is ut t erly inapplicable t o race.
Aryan means language and not hing but language. It is now accept ed t hat
Aryan was not a race but was basically a linguistic group.
Cont ent s
Most of t he Rig-Veda civilizat ion was cent red on t he River Saraswat i which is
now lost in t he Desert s of Rajast han. T he Rig-Veda ment ions rivers Kabul,
Swat , Kurram, Gumal, Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, beas, Sut lej et c. which
proves t hat t he set t lement s were in Af ghanist an and Punjab as well. T he
cradle of Rig-Vedic civilizat ion is called Sapt Saidhav Region.
Our knowledge of t he Vedic Civilizat ion is based upon t he inf ormat ion derived
f rom t he Vedic lit erat ure. It consist s of 4 Vedas and Brahman. T he Rig-Veda is
most ancient covering a period f rom 1500 BC t o 1000 BC and t his is called
Early Vedic Civilizat ion.
Sapta Sindhu
Most of t he Rig-Veda civilizat ion was cent red on t he River Saraswat i which is
now lost in Desert s of Rajast han. T he Rig-Veda ment ions rivers Kabul, Swat ,
Kurram, Gumal, Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sut lej et c. which proves
t hat t he set t lement s were in Af ghanist an and Punjab as well. T he cradle of
Rig-Vedic civilizat ion is called Sapt Saidhav Region. Sapt a-Sindhu meaning 7
rivers is t he t erm which gave birt h t o t he word "Hindu". Sapt a-Sindhu was
ref erred t o as Hapt a-Hindu by Persians et c. T he t erm is f ound in Avest a of
Zoroast rians.
T he Shut udri was Sut lej, Parushni was Ravi, Asikni was Chenab and Vit ast a
was Jhelum. T he majorit y of t he scholars believe t hat Sindhu & Saraswat i
(locat ed in Rajast han) were t he most popular and sacred rivers of t hat era.
Some scholars are of t he opinion t hat t he hymns in praise of t he Saraswat i
are probably some of t he oldest , composed more t han 8000 years ago. T he 5
rivers Sut udri, Parusni, Asikni, Vit ast a, Vipas all were t ribut aries of Sindhu
River. T oget her wit h Sarasawt i and Sindhu, t hese 5 rivers const it ut ed t he
Sapt a Sindhu. However Saraswat i has been ment ioned as sapt asvasa, which
means she wit h 7 sist ers. So, T his f urt her leads t o a group of 8 Rivers.
T he init ial knowledge about t he dispersal of Aryan groups was based only on
comparat ive philology. Lat er some small archaeological inf ormat ion has been
f ound which includes t he 60 t housand horse bones and some chariot s. Horse
was t he best f riend of Aryans and it made t hem able t o make inroads in Asia.
Archaeological evidence of t he horse and horse specif ic have been uneart hed
in sout hern T ajikist an and in t he Swat valley in Pakist an. T hen, t he grey
pot t ery of t he Nort h East Iran is also one of t he represent at ive evidence of
arrival of Aryans, because t he Caspian region was t he place where t he grey
pot t ery independent ly originat ed.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
The Geography in Vedic Texts
2013- 05- 22 17:05:20 GKToday
Cont ent s
T he count ry of Aryans
T he Rivers
T he Mount ains
T he Seas
T he Desert s
Name of t he Places, Cit ies and T owns
Based on t he geographical dat a in t he Vedic lit erat ure, we can analyse about
t he Aryan expansion in India.
T he country of Aryans
T he Rivers
When t he early Rig Vedic hymns were writ t en, t he f ocus of Aryan cult ure was
t he region bet ween t he Yamuna and Sut udri (Sut luj), and along t he upper
course of t he river Saraswat i. T he Saraswat i river is now an insignif icant
st ream, losing it self in t he desert of Rajast han, but t hen it f lowed broad and
st rong. Out of thirty-one river mentioned in the Vedic texts, about twenty-
five names occur in the hymns of the Rig-Veda alone. In t he Nadist ut i, t he Rig-
Veda enumerat es several st reams most of which belong t o t he Indus syst em.
T he Mountains
T he Rig Vedic people knew about t he Himalayas but did not mention about the
land south of the Yamuna, and they did not mentioned the Vindhyas Mountains or
Satpura even. T he ot her hills ref erred t o are Arjika, Mujavant , Silament
(Suleman range), et c., which were all ridges of t he Himalayas.
T he Seas
T he ref erence of seas in t he early rig Vedic t ext is doubt f ul. However, in t he
lat er-Vedic lit erat ure, Samudram act ually means t he sea. T here are
ref erences t o east ern and west ern oceans in t he Sat apat ha Brahmana, which
indicat e acquaint ance wit h t he Bay of Bengal and t he Arabian Sea in t he lat er
Vedic era.
T he Deserts
T he Rig Vedic Aryans were not f amiliar wit h any kind of desert . However, an
implied ref erence t o Maru as t he count ry of desert mounds near Kurukshet ra
has been t raced in T ait t iriya Aryanka.
Vedic culture was essentially a rural culture, and cit ies had not emerged;
no import ant place name is hence recorded. In t he Rig-Veda it was because of
the migratory nature of the tribes and in t he lat er-Vedic period of t he
regions comes t o be known by t he names of t he t ribes who cont rolled t hem.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Rig Vedic Polity
2011- 05- 05 03:05:04 GKToday
Cont ent s
T he ent ire t errit ory of t he Vedic Aryans was divided int o a number of t ribal
principalit ies, ruled normally by t he leaders. T he Bharat as were t he most
import ant Aryan t ribe, af t er whom t he India came t o be known as Bharat a. In
connect ion wit h t he f amous Dasrajna Yudha or t he battle of ten kings,
ment ioned in various hymns of t he Rig-Veda, many import ant Vedic t ribes and
t heir personalit ies are f ound ment ioned.
T he t ribe was known as Jana. T he chief of t he t ribe was a Rajan. Rajan was
prot ect or of t he t ribe and it s cat t le. He f ought wars on behalf of his Jana.
Rajan was used f or t he t ribal chief who was primarily a milit ary chief t ain
leading t he t ribe in wars f or t he sake of t aking possession of cows and ot her
cat t le wealt h but not taking over possession of territories. T his implies
t hat t he concept of land territory was completely absent in early Rig
Vedic Era. Aspect s of Land T errit ory during Vedic Era
T he Rajan could not have an elaborat e administ rat ive machinery because t he
nat ure of t he Rig Vedic economy. An economy in which t he surplus was very
small, t he Rajan received only bali, i.e. of f ering t o a prince or t o a god f rom
t he conquered people. However t hese t ribut es were neit her regular and nor
st ipulat ed and hence cannot be called a t ax.
T here was no regular st anding army. T he milit ary f unct ions were invest ed in
t he Vedic assemblies. All t he t hree persons viz. t he Vrajapat i, Kulapa (head of
t he f amily) and t he Gramani f unct ioned as milit ary leaders. T he Rajan held t he
Spies called Spasa t o keep an eye on t he conduct of t he people.
T he early parisad seems t o be a t ribal milit ary assembly, part ly, mat riarchal
and part ly pat riarchal. However, t he variet y of t he ref erences lead t o t he non-
Vedic charact er of t he parisad. In lat er-Vedic period, it t ended t o become
part ly an academy and part ly a royal council dominat ed by t he priest s, who
f unct ioned as t eachers and advisers.
Cont ent s
T he f amily was t he basis of t he social st ruct ure in Rig Vedic societ y. T he Jana
or t he t ribal societ y was given import ance. T here is anot her t erm ment ioned in
Vedic t ext is Vis which means a clan. Vis consist ed of many gramas, which
was a t ribal unit meant f or f ight ing (Samgrama). T he societ y was divided int o
smaller gramas. Whenever t here was a clash bet ween gramas, it was a
Sangrama.
T he f amily was a joint unit and pat riarch societ y and birt h of a son was
desired repeat edly. T he inst it ut ion of marriage was est ablished. St at us of
women was equal t o men and t hey received t he Upanayan samskaras. T hey
st udied Vedas and some of t hem composed Vedic Hymns. T here was
presence of practice of polygamy as well as Polyandry.
T here was Varna syst em, which was mainly based upon t he color. Init ially t he
society had only Aryans, who were f air in color. T hey conquered t he
indigenous people who were dark in color and once conquered t hey were used
as slaves and called "Dasa". T he Dasyu have been ident if ied as t he enemies
of t he Aryan Vedic t ribes. A relat ion bet ween Dasa and Dasyu has not been
est ablished; however, Dasyu seams t o be derived f rom Iranian Dahyu which
means a t ribe.
In t he lat er Vedic era, t he t ribal societ y was divided among 3 groups Warriors,
priests and common public. Lat er t he f ourt h division Shudras appeared in
t he lat er Rig Vedic societ y. T he division of 4 Varnas viz. Brahman, Kshat riya ,
Vaishya and Shudra was initially not very sharp and based upon the
occupation BUT later became sharp and based upon birth.
In t he early Rig-Vedic era, ent ire inst ruct ion was given orally. Art of writ ing
does not seem t o have developed yet . In t he well-known Gayat ri mant ra t here
is a prayer t o savit ri f or t he st imulat ion of t he int ellect . T here were women
t eachers. Many of t hem possessed t he highest spirit iual knowledge. Mait reyi
and Gargi were gif t ed scholars. Rishis who composed hymns f ounded t heir
own schools separat ely t o t each t heir pupils and every person among t he vis
was ent it led t o learn Vedic mant ras.
Got ra or cowpen was a mechanism f or widening social t ies a new relat ionship
were est ablished bet ween hit hert o unrelat ed people. It is possible t hat
animals were herded in common and such a place was known as got ra and
f rom t his it acquired t he charact er of an exogamous inst it ut ion.
Dancing was common. T he chariot race was a f avourit e sport and source of
ent ert ainment . Chariot race was a symbolic source of polit ical aut horit y of t he
king. T he f ascinat ion of gambling and t he ruin caused by it s addict ion f ind
ment ion in t he Rig-Veda.
T he Griha sut ra prescribes a code of conduct , which gives a f airly good idea
of t he manners and et iquet t e of t he lat er-Vedic age. A guest (at it hi) was
welcomed at all t imes and special guest s, like t he guru, t he king, and t he
f at her-in-law, et c. were given special t reat ment . Respect f or t he elders self -
rest raint , moral purit y, abst inence of all kinds and f ait hf ulness were some of
t he virt ues. Cleanliness was a passion. Daily bat h, washing of t he f eet and
hands every now and t hen, and purif ying t he at mosphere wit h Vedic mant ras
were a part of rit ual when rit ualism acquired special signif icance in t he lat er-
Vedic age. It became one of t he many sources of t he development of
hierarchy and t he supremacy f or t he Brahmanas.
T he importance of Cow
Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral . T hey domest icat ed Pashu
(which included cat t le, horse and even human beings), as opposed t o Mriga,
i.e. wild animals. Cat t le was synonymous wit h wealt h and a wealt hy person
was called Gomat.
Cat t le was so import ant t hat t he t erms of bat t le were derived f rom Gau
it self , such as Gavist i, Gosu, Gavyat , Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of t ime.
Gopa and Gopat i were epit het s given t o t he king. Duhit ri was t he t erm used
f or daught er because she used t o milk t he cow. One of t he f our cat egories of
gods was known as Gojat a, i.e. cowborn.
When t he Vedic people encount ered buf f alo in India t hey called it Gauri and
Gavala or cow-haired.
T he cat t le obt ained in raids were divided among t he f amilies. Cat t le f ormed
an import ant it em of donat ion and it may also have f ormed a part of bali, t he
t ribut e given t o t he raja by t he clan or vis members. T he cat t le in general and
cow in part icular was t he main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic
period.
T he economy was based upon agricult ure. T he people were well acquaint ed
wit h t he sowing, harvest ing, t hreshing and various agro seasons. T he people
were past oral, Cow was revered but t he cows, and bulls were sacrif iced t oo.
T he gif t s t o t he priest s were in t erms of number of Cows and women slaves
but NOT in measurements of lands.
All kinds of craf t s were pract iced. T here were pot t ers, Chariot makers,
carpent ers, and weaver and leat her workers. T he met al work was known as
f ollows:
Cont ent s
T he Worship of Nature
T he Aryans were solely t heist s. T hey cont emplat ion about lif e and t he world
was f rom t he spirit ual st andpoint . T he Vedic Aryans believed in t he concept
of one in many. T hey worshipped t he f orces of nat ure, but at t he same t ime
believed in t he basic unit y of nat ure.
T he Vedic people worshipped many gods not because of t he f ear of nat ural
phenomena but f or gaining t heir f avours. All t he nat ural phenomena such as
t he sky, t hunder, rain, air were believed t o be guided by t heir presiding deit ies,
while nat ural devast at ions were t aken t o be an expression of t heir wrat h. T he
hymns of t he Rig-Veda were mainly sung f or t he glorif icat ion of t he gods in
order t o appease t hem. God was regarded as t he ruler, ordainer of t he period
of lif e, prot ect or of men and giver of happiness.
T his implies t hat t he religion of the Vedic Aryans was a f orm of nature
worship. T here were no places of worship like t emples. Nat ural phenomena
were conceived as t he expression of some spirit ual dif f erent appearances of
various gods. For t he dif f erent appearances of t he sky dif f erent deit ies were
imagined, such as Varuna, Indra, Mit ra, Dyus. Most of t hese nat ural event s
were personif ied and it was t he birt h of f irst myt hology in t he world.
T he earliest divine power in Vedic lit erat ure is Dyaus. Dyu or Dyaus is t he
name of t he sky or heaven t hat shines, and is t he most ancient name f or t he
divine power among t he Aryans. It is t he same word as t he Zeus of t he Greeks
and t he Jupit er of t he Lat ins, t he T iu of t he Saxons and t he Zio of t he
Germans, and t he name of t he Deit y among modern nat ions. Dyaus was
ref erred as Dyaus Pit r, which lat er became Ju-piter. Pit r means Prit hvi and
Dyaus was coupled wit h prit hivi and t he t wo Dyaus-Prit hivi are t he universal
parent s.
Indra:
Indra was t he most import ant divinit y and was lord of war. 250 hymns have
been devot ed t o only Indra in Rig Veda, which is highest f or any of t he Gods.
His ot her names are:
Indra is ment ioned as son pf Dyaus. He killed a demon Vrit ra, so he is known as
Vrit rahan. He dest royed t he f orest s so also known as Purandhar. He held t he
t hunderbolt (Vajra) wit h which he dest royed t he enemies. His wif e is Indrani or
Sachi (energy).
Agni
Varuna
So m a
Soma was prepared by ext ract ing juice f rom t he st alks of a cert ain plant , and
t he Soma God was god of t he plant s. 123 hymns are dedicat ed t o Soma and
most of t hem are f rom Soma Mandala.
Visve de vas
T hey are various Vedic gods t aken t oget her as a whole headed by Indra. 70
hymns are dedicat ed t o Visvedevas in Rig-Veda
Yam a
Yama is considered t o have been t he f irst mort al who died and espied t he
way t o t he celest ial abodes, and in virt ue of precedence, he became t he ruler
of t he depart ed. He is t he guardian of t he world of Dead. His t win sist er is
Yami and bot h Yama and Yami are Children of Surya. Yamini means Night and
Yami is also known as Yamuna.
Surya
Apsaras
Dancers of t he celest ial Court s. Please not e t hat Rig Veda ment ions Apsara
as t he wif e of Gandharva. Rig Veda allows f or t he exist ence of more t han one
Apsara. T he maiden Apsara is Urvashi who became t he wif e of king
Pururavas, f irst king of t he Somavamsha. Narrat ive of Urvashi and Pururavas
is f ound in t he Rigveda (X.95.1-18) and t he Shat apat ha Brahmana (XI.5.1)
Cont ent s
General Changes
Changes in Economy
T he Four Varnas
T ypes of Marriages in lat er Vedic Ages:
Anuloma and Prat iloma Vivah
Ashrama Syst em
Sacrif ices & Rit uals
Upnayana: perf ormed in t he eight h year t o conf er dvija st at us.
General Changes
T he King became import ant and t errit orial aut horit y became import ant . T he
t erm Rast ra which indicat ed a t errit orial count ry got prominent in t he lat er
Vedic Age.
Ashvamedha Yagya was considered t o aut horize t he unquest ioned aut horit y
over an area where t he Royal Horse could run. T he levy of t axes st art ed and
became prominent and t he of f icer responsible f or t his f unct ion was sangrihitri.
T he st anding army was not possessed by t he king even in Lat er Vedic period
and gramas must ered in t imes of war.
Changes in Economy
T he lif e became sedent ary and t he domest icat ion of animals and cult ivat ion
increased. Cat t le were st ill t he currency and principle movable propert y. T he
idea of privat e possession of lands st art ed t aking shape. Ironsmit hs, weavers,
jewelers, dyers, pot t ers, are t he new classes of art isans. T rade was also
boost ed.
T he Gold piece of specif ic weight Sat amana was used as a currency rat e.
Use of Gold as currency is ment ioned in Sat apat ha Brahman. Nishka was
anot her popular currency. T he ot her mat ellic coins were Suvarna and
Krishnala. Bart er syst em st ill exist ed.
T he societ y was now divided int o 4 varnas viz. Brahmans, Kahst riyas, Vaish
and Shudras. Each of t hem was assigned it s dut y. T he vaishyas were common
people who were responsible f or producing t he agricult ural commodit ies and
rearing of t he cat t le. T he engaged in t rade and were called vaniks. Nagara
was used f or t he f irst t ime, which meant a cit y and beginning of t own lif e.
T he marriage of a man of higher Varna wit h a girl f rom lower Varna was called
"Anuloma Vivah". It was allowed by t he sacred t ext s. T he marriage of a girl of
higher Varna wit h a man of a lower Varna was called "Prat iloma Vivah" and it
was NOT allowed in t he t ext s.
Ashrama System
4 st ages of t he lif espan of 100 years were not est ablished in t he early Vedic
era. T hey were well est ablished in t he lat er Vedic era and 4 Ashrams were:
Please not e t hat 4th ashram has not been ment ioned in early Vedic t ext s. T he
Sanyas ashram is ment ioned in Jabala Upanishad.
T he Vedas are said t o have been passed on f rom one generat ion t o t he next
through verbal transmission and are, t heref ore, also known as Shrut i (t o
hear) or revelat ion. T he t erm Vedic lit erat ure means t he f our Vedas in t heir
Samhit a and t he allied lit erat ure based on or derived f rom t he Vedas. We
classif y t he Vedic lit erat ure int o t he f ollowing cat egories:
T he f our Vedas i.e. t he Rig, Sama, Yajur and At harva and t heir Samhit as.
T he Brahmanas at t ached t o each Samhit a.
T he Aranyakas.
T he Upanishads.
T he Vedic lit erat ure is broadly divided int o t wo cat egories viz. Shrut i and
Smrit i.
Shrut i is "t hat which has been heard" and is canonical, consist ing of revelat ion
and unquest ionable t rut h, and is considered et ernal. Shrut i describes t he
sacred t ext s comprising t he cent ral canon of Hinduism viz. Vedas,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads.
Smirit i lit erally means "that which is remembered, supplementary and may change
over time". It is aut horit at ive only t o t he ext ent t hat it conf orms t o t he bedrock
of Shrut i and it is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit
literature. It comprises Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda,
T antras, Agamas, Upangas.
T here is anot her post Vedic class of Sanskrit lit erat ure called Epics which
includes Ramayana and Mahabhart a.
It 's wort h not e t hat , there is not a distinct divide between Shruti and Smriti. Both
Shruti and Smriti can be represented as a continuum, with some texts more
canonical than others.
Cont ent s
Rig-Veda
Yajurveda
Sam Veda:
At harva Veda:
T he f our Vedas come under t he Shrut i cat egory and are considered sacred
script ures. Lat er t ext s like t he various shast ras and t he it ihaasas f orm Smrut i.
Rig-Veda
Rig-Veda is neit her a hist orical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collect ion of
hymns by a number of priest ly f amilies. T hese were recit ed at t he t ime of
sacrif icial rit es and ot her rit uals wit h ut most devot ion. T he Rig-Veda cont ains
1017 (1028, including 11 hymns of t he Valakhilya recession) hymns (Sukt a) and
is divided int o t en mandalas. T he f irst and t he t ent h Mandalas are said t o
have been added lat er as t heir language dif f ers slight ly f rom t he ot her eight
Mandalas.
Yajurveda
"Yajus" means "sacrif icial f ormula" and Yajurveda is t he book of sacrif icial
prayers. It cont ains t he rituals of the Yajnas. It is est imat ed t o have been
composed bet ween 1,400 and 1000 BC.
It prescribes t he rit uals f or perf orming dif f erent sacrif ices. It was t he manual
of t he Adhvaryus. Adhvarus wre the people prepared the ground and the altar,
offered the sacrificial victims and poured out the libations.
T here are t wo dist ant f orms of t his Veda. In t he oldest , t he inst ruct ions about
rit uals are mingled wit h t he verses f rom t he Rig-Veda. T he chief recession of
t his is t hat t aught by a school of t eachers called t he T ait t t iriyans. T his was
called Black Yajurveda.
Sam Veda:
"Saman" means melody and it cont ains t he Ryt hmic compilat ion of Hymns f or
Rigveda. It ranks next in sanct it y and lit urgical import ance t o t he Rigveda. It
cont ains 1549 hymns which are meant t o be sung at t he soma sacrif ice by a
special class of Brahmans called "Udgat ris". It has t hree shakhas or
recensions:
Atharva Veda:
At harva-Veda is ent irely dif f erent f rom t he ot her t hree Vedas and is
chronologt ically t he last of t he f our. It is import ant and int erest ing as it
describes t he popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk.
Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of
healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures.
Rig-veda
Ait reya
kaushit aki
Samkhyana
Yajur-Veda
Kast haka
kapilst hakat ha
Mait rayani
T ait riya
Sam veda
Panchvisha
Shadvisha
Jaiminiya
At harvaveda
Gopat h
Cont ent s
T he word Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denot es a st udent
sit t ing near his guru t o learn. Event ually t he word began t o be used f or t he
secret knowledge impart ed by t he guru t o his select ed pupils. A number of
t reat ises were prepared, f irst orally and t hen in writ ing, and were called by t he
same name of Upanishad. T oday Upanishads specif y philosophical knowledge
and spirit ual learning.
Upanishads are called Vedant a (t he end of t he Veda) f irst ly, because t hey
denot e t he last phase of t he Vedic period and secondly, because t hey reveal
t he f inal aim of t he Veda.
T here are 108 Upanishad. 11 are predominant and they are called "Mukhya
Upanishads". T hey are as f ollows:
MukhyaUpnishad Veda
Ait areya Rig-Veda
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Shukla Yajurveda
T ait t irīya Krishna Yajurveda
Chāndogya Sam Veda
Kena Sam Veda
Īṣa Shukla Yajurveda
Śvet āśvat ara Krishna Yajurveda
Kaṭha Krishna Yajurveda
Muṇḍaka At harva Veda
Māṇḍūkya At harva Veda
Praśna At harva Veda
Aitareya Upanishad
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad
असतो मा स गमय
तमसो मा योितगमय
म ृ योर् मा अमत
ृ ं गमय
ॐ शांित शांित शांित
T he meaning of t he above Shloka is : Lead Us Fro m the Unreal To the Real, Lead Us
Fro m Darkness To Light, Lead Us Fro m Death To Immo rtality, OM , Let There Be Peace Peace
Peace
T aittirīya Upanaishad
Chāndogya Upanishad
Kena Upanisahda
Īsa Upanishad
It is one of t he lat est Mukhya Upanishads, dat ing approximat ely t o Mauryan
t imes.
Śvetāśvatara Upanishad
Kathopnishad
It was translated by Max Müller in 1879. It was rendered in verse by Edwin Arnold as
"The Secret of Death". The central story is immortality and covers the story of
encounter of Nachiketa, son of sage Vajasravasa, with Yama, God of death.
Muktika Upnishad
T his Upanishad deals wit h t he Para Vidya and Apara Vidya. T he Para Vidya is
knowledge t hat leads t o Self Realizat ion , Apara Vidya deals wit h everyt hing
else or t he mat erial knowledge. Mundaka Upanishad is not able as t he source
of t he phrase Sat yameva jayat e (3.1.6)
Māandūkya
Praśna
Six pupils int erest ed in knowing divinit y or Brahman come t o sage Pippalada
and request s him t o clarif y t heir spirit ual doubt s. T heref ore, t his Upnishad is in
Quest ion Answer f ormat .
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Vedanga
2011- 05- 05 04:05:47 GKToday
Cont ent s
Shiksha (Phonetics)
It cont ains t he sacrif icial pract ice and syst emat ic sut ras. T here are t hree
kinds of Sut ras part of Kalpa:
Vyakaran (Grammar)
Nirukta (explanation)
It measures and divides Vedic Mant ras by number of padas in a verse, which
is called Padas. Number of padas divides each verse, hymn, or mant ra and
number of syllables divides each pada. T here is a dist inct t axonomy on t his
basis. For example a Gayat ri Chhanda has 3 padas of 8 syllables cont aining
24 syllables in each st anza. Similarly, Anuṣṭup has 4 padas of 8 syllables
cont aining 32 syllables in each st anza. Anust up is t he t ypical shloka of
classical Sanskrit poet ry
Jyotisha (Astrology)
Cont ent s
Nyaya:
Vaisheshika
Samkya
Yoga
Mimansa
Vedant a:
Hindu philosophy is t radit ionally divided int o six āst ika (ort hodox) schools of
t hought , or darśanam, which accept t he Vedas as supreme revealed
script ures. T he āst ika schools are:
Nyaya:
Lit erally means recursion. It is based on t ext s known as t he Nyaya Sut ras,
which were writ t en by Aks apada Gautama f rom around t he 2nd cent ury AD.
Nyaya Sut ras say t hat t here are f our means of at t aining valid knowledge:
percept ion, inf erence, comparison, and verbal t est imony. Click here t o read
more about Nyaya Philosophy.
Vaisheshika
Samkya
Yoga
Founder of t his school of Philosophy was Pat anjali. Yuj means "cont rol" and
Yoga also mean t o "add". Rāja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakt i Yoga,
and Hat ha Yoga are it s main branches. T he Yogasut ras of Pat anjali which
mainly post ulat e t he Raj Yoga , dat e back t o Mauryan Period while Hat hayoga
was int roduced by Yogi Swat marama. T he major dif f erence bet ween Raj Yoga
and Hat hayoga is t hat Raja Yoga aims at cont rolling all t hought -waves or
ment al modif icat ions, while a Hat ha Yogi st art s his Sadhana, or spirit ual
pract ice, wit h Asanas (post ures) and Pranayama. So Raj Yoga st art s f rom
Mind and Hat hyoga st art s f rom Body. Read more here
Mimansa
Mimans a means invest igat ion or enquiry. T he primary enquiry is int o t he nat ure
of dharma based on close t heology of t he Vedas. it has t wo divisions, Poorva
Mimansa and Ut t ar Mimansa. Ut t ar Mimansa is t reat ed as
anot her vedang a " Vedanta ". T he poorva Mimansa was post ulat ed by Jamini. T he
ideology of Poorva Mimansa was t o count eract t he challenge by Buddhism
and vedant a which marginalized t he Vedic sacrif ices. T his school got
moment um in Gupt a period and reached it s climax in 7-8t h cent ury. Sabara
and Kumaril Bhat t a were t wo main int erpret at ors. It was one of t he major
f orces t o decline Buddhism in India , but lat er it self was eclipsed by Vedant a.
Read more here
Vedanta:
Lit erally means recursion. It is based on t ext s known as t he Nyaya Sut ras,
which were writ t en by Aksapada Gautama f rom around t he 2nd cent ury AD.
T he basic t heme of t his darshana is acquiring t he Valid Knowledge. T he
syst em is based upon Logic. On t his basis, t he knowledge can be valid or
invalid.
T he f ollowers of Nyaya believed t hat obt aining valid knowledge was t he only
way t o obt ain release f rom suf f ering. T hey t heref ore t ook great pains t o
ident if y valid sources of knowledge and t o dist inguish t hese f rom mere f alse
opinions. T he most import ant cont ribut ion made by t his school is it s
met hodology. T his met hodology is based on a syst em of logic t hat has
subsequent ly been adopt ed by t he majorit y of t he Indian schools.
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Vaisheshika Philosophy
2013- 05- 22 20:05:28 GKToday
T he Vaisheshika School classif ied t he mat t er or padartha int o six cat egories:
Dravya (substance): T here are nine subst ances viz. pṛt hvī (eart h), ap
(wat er), t ejas (f ire), vāyu (air), ākaśa (et her), kāla (t ime), dik (space),
āt man (self ) and manas (mind). T he f irst f ive are called bhūtas
(Panchabhutas) t he subst ances having some specif ic qualit ies so t hat
t hey could be perceived by one or t he ot her ext ernal senses.
Guṇa (quality): T here are 17 Gunas or qualit ies of mat t er. The Gunas
are diferent from Dravya. While a Dravya is capable of existing independently
by itself, a guṇa(quality) cannot exist so. T he 17 Gunas are rūpa (colour),
rasa (t ast e), gandha (smell), sparśa (t ouch), saṁkhyā (number),
parimāṇa (size/dimension/quant it y), pṛt hakt va (individualit y), saṁyoga
(conjunct ion/accompaniment s), vibhāga (disjunct ion), parat va (priorit y),
aparat va (post eriorit y), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duḥkha
(pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and prayat na (ef f ort ). T o t hese
Praśast apāda added anot her Gunas such as gurut va (gravit y), dravat va
(f luidit y), sneha (viscosit y), dharma (merit ), adharma (demerit ), śabda
(sound) and saṁkāsra (f acult y). (By reading this you can imagine the
knowledge level of our sages 5000 years ago J
)
Karma (activity): Act ivit y is a f eat ure of t he some of t he Dravyas.
Ākāśa (et her), kāla (t ime), dik (space) and āt man (self ), t hough
subst ances, are devoid of karma (act ivit y)
Sāmānya (generality): When a propert y is f ound common t o many
subst ances, it is called sāmānya.
Viśeṣa (particularity) : By means of viśeṣa, we are able t o perceive
subst ances as dif f erent f rom one anot her. As t he ult imat e at oms are
innumerable so are t he viśeṣas
Samavāya (inherence): Samavaya is basically cause and t he ef f ect by
t wo subst ances. Acording t o Praśast apāda, it is t he relat ionship exist ing
bet ween t he subst ances t hat are inseparable, st anding t o one anot her
in t he relat ion of t he cont ainer and t he cont ained
One more cat egory was lat er added called abhāva (non-exist ence). Here, t he
f irst t hree cat egories are def ined as artha (which can perceive) and they
have real objective existence. T he last t hree cat egories are def ined as
budhyapekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical
categories.
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Samkhya Philosophy
2013- 05- 22 20:05:16 GKToday
It st rongly proponent s Dualism. T here are only t wo realit ies viz. Purusha
and Prakriti.
By Purusha t hey mean Consciousness and by Prakrit i, t hey mean
subst ance or realm of mat t er.
Jiva or lif e is t hat st at e in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti through
the glue of desire, and t he end of t his bondage is moksha.
T he above t hree point s lead t o t he conclusion t hat t his school does not
believe in t he exist ence of God.
At t he same point , it does not describe what happens af t er moksha
and does not ment ion anyt hing about Ishwara or God, because af t er
liberat ion t here is no essent ial dist inct ion of individual and universal
puruṣa. So what happens af t er Moksha is irrelevant t hing f or t his school.
But at t he same t ime, t hough godless, t he Sankhya believes in t he
doct rine o£ Karma and of t ransmigrat ion of souls.
T his philosophy adversely af f ect ed t he T ant ra sadhana a lot .
Yuj means "cont rol" and Yoga also mean t o "add". T his philosophy is very
close t o Samkhya and can be easily dist inguished as
T hus, yoga school accept s t he samkhya psychology and met aphysics, but is
more t heist ic t han t he samkhya, because it also includes the divine entity t o
t he samkhya's element s of realit y.
Raja Yoga is a syst em f or cont rol of t he mind. As per Pat anjali Yoga is def ined
as योग: िच -वृि
िनरोध :, which means t hat Yoga is t he inhibition of the modif ications of the
mind. Swami Vivekananda t ranslat ed t he sut ra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-
stuff from taking various forms".
Rāja Yoga (Classical Yoga), a syst em of yoga codif ied by Pat añjali and
classif ied as one of t he six āst ika ("ort hodox") schools of Hindu
philosophy.
Jnana yoga, (buddhi-yoga) cent red on t he f acult y of discernment and
'virt ually ident ical wit h t he spirit ual pat h of Vedānt a'.
Karma-yoga, in which t he world of everyday work becomes t he t ool by
which self is t ranscended.
Bhakti-Yoga t he pat h of devot ed service t o God.
Tantra-yoga f ocused on t he t echniques and psycho-physical t eachings
cont ained wit hin a body of t ext s called t ant ras.
Mantra-yoga, one of t he most ancient f orms of yoga in which t he
psycho-acoust ical propert ies of t he spoken word are used t o
concent rat e t he mind.
Hatha yoga, a syst em of physical purif icat ion designed t o reint egrat e
and re-balance t he mind and body in preparat ion f or Raja-yoga (f irst
described by Yogi Swat marama).
Ashtanga Yoga
T he Yogasut ras of Pat anjali lat er became t he basis of Ashtanga Yoga. T his
eight -limbed concept derived f rom Pat anajali's Yogasut ra is a core
charact erist ic of pract ically every Raja yoga variat ion t hat is pract iced t oday.
T hese eight limbs are as f ollows:
Five Yama: Yama ref ers t o t he f ive "abst ent ions". T hese abst ent ions
are
Ahimsa (non-violence)
Sat ya (T rut h, non-lying)
Ast eya (non-covet ousness)
Brahmacharya (non-sensualit y, celibacy)
Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
Five Niyama: T he Niyama ref ers t o f ive "observances". T hese are
Shaucha(purit y)
Sant osha(cont ent ment )
T apas (aust erit y)
Svadhyaya (st udy of t he Vedic script ures t o know about God and
t he soul), and
Ishvara-Pranidhana (surrender t o God).
Asana: Asana means t o be seat ed. Pat anjali's Sut ras ref ers t o t he
seat ed posit ion used f or medit at ion.
Pranayama ("Suspending Breat h"): Prāna, breat h, "āyāma", t o rest rain
or st op. Also int erpret ed as cont rol of t he lif e f orce.
Prat yahara ("Abst ract ion"): Wit hdrawal of t he mind or senses f rom an
object or event .
Dharana ("Concent rat ion"): Fixing t he at t ent ion on a single object .
Dhyana ("Medit at ion"): Int ense cont emplat ion of t he nat ure of t he object
of medit at ion.
Samadhi ("Liberat ion"): merging consciousness wit h t he object of
medit at ion.
T he Yogasut ras of Pat anjali which mainly post ulat e t he Raj Yoga, dat e back
t o Mauryan Period while Hat hayoga was int roduced by Yogi Swat marama. The
major difference between Raj Yoga and Hathayoga is that Raja Yoga aims at
controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications, while a Hatha Yogi starts his
Sadhana, or spiritual practice, with Asanas (postures) and Pranayama. So Raj
Yoga starts from Mind and Hathyoga starts from Body.
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Vedanta
2011- 05- 05 04:05:11 GKToday
Cont ent s
Advait a
Vishisht advait a
Dvait a
Dvait ādvait a
Shuddhādvait a
Achint ya Bhedābheda
Purnādvait a or Int egral Advait a
Modern Vedānt a
Sub-schools of Vedanta:
Advaita
Vishishtadvaita
Dvaita
Dvaitādvaita
T he t heory of Dvait ādvait a was given by Nimbarka. It is based upon t he early
school of Bhedābheda of Bhaskara. It says t hat jīvāt man is at once t he same
as yet dif f erent f rom Brahman. T he jiva relat ion may be regarded as dvait a
f rom one point of view and advait a f rom anot her. T his school ident if ies God in
Krishna.
Shuddhādvaita
Achintya Bhedābheda
Modern Vedānta
T hey are lat e descript ions of ancient legends and consist of hist ory of t he
universe f rom creat ion t o dest ruct ion, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages,
and demigods, and descript ions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and
geography. T hey are colored wit h superst it ions and also represent a corrupt
f orm of Hindu Philosophy. 18 major Puranas are as f ollows:
Apart f rom t he above t here are Kurmi Purana, Shiv Purana also.
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Upaveda
2011- 05- 05 04:05:30 GKToday
Upaveda means applied knowledg e and are traditional literatures which contain the s ubjects
of certain technical works . They are as follows :
Cont ent s
Kasi
Kosala
Anga
Magadha
Vajji or Vriji
Malla
Chedi or Chet i
Vat sa
Kuru
Panchala
Mat sya
Surasena
Assaka
Avant i
Gandhara
Kamboja
In t he 6t h cent ury BC, t here exist ed 16 large st at es in India which are known as
16 Mahajanpadas. T hey are Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji or Vriji, Malla,
Chedi or Chet i, Vamsa or Vat sa, Kuru, Panchala, Machcha or Mat sya,
Surasena, Assaka or Ashmaka , Avant i, Gandhara & Kamboja. T he names of
at least 9 among t hem are given in t he Vedic Lit erat ure.
Panini in t he 4th cent ury BC ment ions as many as 22 dif f erent Janpadas, but
also ment ions 3 most import ant viz. Magadha, Kosala and Vat sa.
Following is t he Brief Descript ion of t he 16 Mahajanpadas:
Kasi
Kosala
Anga
Magadha
Vajji or Vriji
Malla
Chedi or Cheti
Vatsa
Kuru
Panchala
Its Capital was its capital were Ahichhtra (Western Panchal) and
Kampilya (eastern Panchala).
It covered modern day Rohilkhand division & Upper Ganget ic Plains of
t oday's Ut t ar Pradesh & Ut t arakhand.
Matsya
Assaka
Avanti
Gandhara
Kamboja
The late Vedic era ends where epic era starts. Most of the historical information about that
period we get from Puranas, epics such as Mahabharta and Ramayana. However, the
information is delusive, exaggerated and fragmented so, not much reliable info is
available. The dates assigned to the Vedic period & Iron Age is 1200–300 BC. We came
to know about some Mahajanpadas in Vedas. For example, the earliest reference to the
Magadha people occurs in the Atharva- Veda where they are found listed along with the
Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats.
We have many sources to know about various Janpadas, Kings, Dynasties, Events that
happened near the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. However, the information from 1500 BC
to 6- 7th century BC is so much confusing that none of the scholars has been able write
clearly about the history of those times.
Rise o f Janpadas:
We start our study from 1500 BC. We know that in contrast with urban culture of the Indus
Valley Civiliz ation, the society in Vedic period was rural , where smallest political unit was
a Vis. However, some later Vedic texts detail about the Janpadas such as Kuru, Panchala,
Matysa, Kunti, Kikata, Jayminia, Kashi, Magadha, Anga, Kamboja etc. The first question
arises is, why and how the Janpadas developed.
Most important Mahajanpada was Magadha. Magadha was located near today's Patna &
Gaya. The first notable thing about Magadha was its geographical location which gave its
rulers a locational advantage to acquire more and more power. Magadha was located
between Ganga River in North, Son River in West, Vindhya ranges in south and Champa
in East. The three sides protected the territory and it was not easy for any invader to
invade Magadha so easily. The earliest capital of Magadha was Girivraja.
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Brihadrath Dynasty
2011- 05- 05 04:05:32 GKToday
The earliest known king of Magadha is Brihadrath. Name of Brihadrath appears in Rig-
Veda (I.36.18, X.49.6). Magadha is mentioned in Atharvaveda. The puranic sources say
that Brihadrath was the eldest son of Vasu. According to Ramayana, Vasu founded
Vasumati and Grivraja. The Brihadrath dynasty was founded by Brihadrath. His son was
Jarasandha.
In the Mahabharta war, Jarasandha was killed by Bhima. The time period assigned to
Jarasandha is approximately 1760 BC. He was succeeded by Sahadev who also got
killed in the epic war of Mahabharta.
The Vayu Purana mentions that the Brihadrath dynasty was taken over by the Pradyota
dynasty, which ruled Magadha for 138 years. The time assigned to Pradyota dynasty is
approximately 800 - 682 BC. The Pradyota dynasty is mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina
texts as well. They write that the Pradyota dynasty kings used to kill their fathers as a
tradition to become kings. So patricide was common in Magadha.
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Haranyaka Dynasty
2011- 05- 05 04:05:19 GKToday
Most traditions agree that people get annoyed by this bloody tradition and a civil revolt
uprooted the Pradyota dynasty. After uprooting the Pradyota dynasty, which dynasty ruled
is a difficult question to answer. The Jain texts say that people rose up against the bloody
feudalistic tradition and made Shishunaga the king. While Buddhacharita by Aśvaghosa
mentions that it was Bimbisara of the Haranyaka Dynasty which succeeded the Pradyota
dynasty. Two Important Kings of this dynasty have been discussed here:
Bimbisara
Ajat shat ru
Ajatshatru faced the same fate as his father. He was killed by his son Udayin. Not only
these remarkable kings of the Haranyaka Dynasty were victims of Patricide, but also later
kings shared the same fate. Udayin was succeeded by Anuruddha by Assassination, his
son Munda & his son Nagdasaka also shared the same fate. This dynastic feuding
triggered a revolt and the people thrown these Haranyaka Dynasty rule and imposed
Shishunaga as ruler. This was the foundation of Shishunaga Dynasty.
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Bimbisara
2011- 05- 05 04:05:14 GKToday
Bimbisara was the first great king of the Haranyaka Dynasty. Most sources agree that
Bimbisara was son of Bhattiya who made his son Bimbisara, a king at the age of 15
years.
Bimbisara was the most remarkable king of the pre Mauryan dynasties of Magadha. He
was a man with clear perspectives. He used the policy of marital alliances to expand his
kingdom, a tradition which was not yet seen in any dynasty. He also used a policy of
sending envoys to strengthen the bilateral relationships.
He send Jivaka, a Vaidya (doctor) to the king of Avanti who was suffering from a
disease most probably jaundice.
He also received an ambassador from the King of Taxila.
Bimbisara had 4 wives. These wives were a result of Bimbisara's Policy of dynastic
alliances. His chief queen was Khema. The 4 queen of Bimbisara were
Bimbisara was great in military skills as well. He defeated Brahamdatta of Anga and
annexed Anga in Magadha. Further territories were also annexed to Magadha by
Bimbisara.
Both Traditions call him as their followers. Bimbisara was contemporary of both
Mahavira and Buddha. The Jain texts mention that he was a disciple of Lord
Mahavira. The Buddhist texts mention that he met Buddha before enlightment.
Buddha promised him to visit his capital after he gets enlightment. He was a
patron of Buddha and as a mark of goodwill; he presented the Bamboo Grove
(karanda venu vana) to the Sangha.
However, Bimbisara's life ended with a tragedy. He was imprisoned by his son Ajatshatru
who starved him to death. So, like many of predecessor kings he was also a vict im of
pat ricide.
Legacy of Bimbisara:
In Bimbisara, we find a very efficient politician who had a clear vision of the political
situation at his time. His success is attributed to a large extent to the matrimonial
alliances he made. He was known as Shrenik as per the Jain texts, which means that
he had a large standing army. He is supposed to be one of the first kings to have a
large standing army. After becoming a king at the age of 15 years, he not only
expanded the empire but also patronized both the rising religions at that time. His
success was also due to the efficient administration machinery, in which the rajbhats
or Mahamattas i.e. Royal officers were divided into many classes.
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Ajatshatru
2011- 05- 05 04:05:58 GKToday
Cont ent s
T he period assigned t o Ajat shat ru's rule is 491 BC t o 461 BC. He was son of
Bimbisara's wif e Vaidehi so, t he Buddhist t ext s ment ion his name as Vaidehi
Putra Ajatshatru. Ajat shat ru was NOT t he only son of Bimbisara. T here were
many sons and daught ers f rom his all wives but Ajat shat ru proved t o be
dominant . He killed his f at her by st arving him t o deat h, t his is what Buddhist
t radit ions say. However, Jaina t ext s say t hat he was not involved in pat ricide.
But , most scholars agree t hat he brought t he lif e of his f at her t o a t ragic end.
He was inst igat ed f or t his crime by Devadatta. Devadatta was a dist ant cousin
of Buddha who want ed t o usurp Sangha.
T he killing of Bimbisara brought enmit y bet ween Ajat shat ru and Pasendi, t he
king of Kosala. His sist er Kosaladevi died of shock of his husband's t ragic end.
Pasendi immediat ely conf iscat ed Kashi, which was given as a gif t t o
Kosaladevi in marriage.
Kasi remained a disput ed t errit ory bet ween Pasendi and Ajat shat ru f or a long
t ime. T he disput e was solved and result was in f avor of Ajat shat ru, who not
only absorbed Kasi t o his kingdom Magadha but also got daught er of Pasendi
named Vajira.
Ajat shat ru expanded his t errit ories by f ight ing a war wit h Licchhavis also.
T here were many reasons f or his enmit y t owards t he Licchhavis such as his
half bot hers were shelt ered by Licchhavis, t rade on t he banks of river Ganga,
a mine of gems near Ganga and most import ant t he rising power of
Licchhavis, which Ajat shat ru want ed t o dest roy. T he war / st ruggle cont inued
f or 16 years and ended in f avor of Ajat shat ru who absorbed t he Licchhavis in
his empire.
During the times of Ajatshatru, both Buddha and Mahavira attained
Nirvana. Makkhali Gosala or Gosala Maskariputta, t he f ounder of Ajivikas pat h
also at t ained Nirvana during t he t ime of Ajat shat ru.
Ajat shat ru shared t he relics of Buddha and enshrined t hem in a st upa. He also
renovat ed 18 Buddhist Monast eries. Immediat ely af t er t he deat h of Buddha,
Ajat shat ru sponsored t he First Buddhist Council, which was organized in a hall
erect ed by him out side t he Sattaparnaguha Cave or Sattapani caves in
Rajgir. T his meet ing was presided by Elder Mahakassapa. In t his council
Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka and Upali recited Vinaya Pitaka.
Legacy of Ajatshatru:
Ajat shat ru built a f ort at Pat aliput ra and so is known as f ounder of Pat na.
Many t ext s ment ion t hat is son Udayin developed Pat aliput ra as a cit y. It is
said t hat Under Udayin Pat aliput ra became prosperous cit y which lat er
became world's largest cit y under Mauryas. .
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Shishunaga Dynasty
2011- 05- 05 04:05:30 GKToday
Shishunaga was the founder of this dynasty. He was an amatya / officer / governor of the
last Haranyaka ruler Nagdasaka. After this coup d'état Shishunaga made Grivraja his
residence and deputed his son to Banaras. Shishunaga was succeeded by Kalasoka.
During Kalasoka, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha. In Puranas he is mentioned
as Kakavarna and in Sri Lankan texts he is mentioned as Kalasoka.
The second Buddhist Council was sponsored by Kalasoka at Vaishali in 383 BC.
This council was invited by a Buddhist monk Yasa, who saw the local monks of
Vaishali following the teaching laxily. The dispute was on 10 Points such as storing
salt in horn, eating after midday, eating once and going to villages for alms,
eating sour milk after one's meal etc. It was not settleed and Buddhism sects
appeared for the first time. President of this council was Sabakami.
The last rulers of Shishunaga Dynasty were 10 sons of Kalasoka who ruled
simultaneously. Out of them one son Nandivardhana is mentioned in Puranas.
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Nanda Dynasty
2011- 05- 05 04:05:58 GKToday
Mahapadmananda was the first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty. There are several theories
about the birth of Mahapadmananda. The Purana theory say that Mahapadmananda was
son of Nandivardhana & a Shudra Woman. Another theory says that there was a good-
looking barber, who won the heart of a queen who subsequently killed the king.
Mahapadmananda was a son of this barber. Whatever may be correct but this was the line
which started the trend of lowborn (as of contemporary conditions) rule started in
Magadha.
Meaning of Mahapadmananda
The Nandas were the first Non Kshatriya rulers in the history of India. They were also the
first Empire Builders in the recorded history of India. Estimates say that the army of Nandas
was consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 (or 80,000) cavalry, 2,000 (or 8,000) war chariots
and 3,000 (or 6,000) war elephants. Nanda ruled almost all parts of India for 100 years.
The last ruler was Dhana Nanda who was over thrown by Chandra Gupta Maurya thus
founding Mauryan Empire in 321 BC.
Invasion of Alexander:
Alexander, the great invaded India in 326 BC during the rule of Dhanananda. Dhanananda
is mentioned as Xandrames or Aggrammes or Ganderites in the Greek historical texts.
These texts mention that crossing the Beas was the last outpost of Alexander's army
which was insisted by Alexander to cross Ganga as well. But by hearing that Dhanananda
was waiting for them with 200, 000 army they were frightened and revoltedand thus
Alexander's army turned back. Alexander began his homeward journey in 325 BC and in
324 BC he died in Persia.
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Maurya Empire
2011- 05- 05 04:05:23 GKToday
After Alexander's invasion, India particularly North west region was in a state of ferment as
the people from this region tolerated the blows of the repetitive foreign invasions. On the
other side, the Nandas were not popular because of
its covetousness and greed leading to financial
extortions by Dhanananda. These conditions were
offering excellent opportunities for somebody to ride
the wave of popular discontent to overthrow the
unpopular rule. Chandragupta Maurya was that hero,
who tried his luck and due to his efforts coupled with
his spirit & boldness, India was politically united for
the first time in thousands of years.
Chandragupt a Maurya
Bimbisara
Asoka
T he Mauryan King :
King was the supreme source of all powers and was center of all authorities, judiciary and
administration. The Mauryan Administration was highly centraliz ed and King used to select
ministers, high official. A well planned system of supervision and inspection was there in
the Mauryan Administration.
The King was assisted by the council of Ministers. The ministers were known as Mantrins.
The council of Ministers was called Mantriparishahda. The mantriparishadadhyakshya was
head of the Council of Ministers
akin to our Chief Ministers and Prime Minister. Composition of Mantriparishada was as
follows:
There was a well knitted espionage system in the Mauryan administration. The detectives
were known as Gudhapurushas. As per the Arthashastra, there were two kinds of spies viz .
Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wandering). These spies were ears and eyes of the
King, who kept the king informed about all the details of the bureaucracy. The agents
included householders, merchants, disciples, ascetics, poisioners, Poisonous girls which
were called "Vishkanyas".
The ambassadors who were appointed in the foreign countries were also sort of spies.
Army:
The overall in charge of the Mauryan army was Commander in chief, who was
immediately junior to the King. He was appointed by the king. The army included 6 Lakh
infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9000 war elephants, 1000 chariots and other things such as
transport equipments. There was a War Council which was further divided into 6 sub-
councils each with 5 members which formulated policy for infantry, cavalry, elephant
forces, chariots, navy and commiserate.
T ranspo rt
Ag riculture:
Sitadhyaksha was the chief of the Agriculture department. There was full- fledged irrigation
department as well. There was a network of canals which provided the water for irrigation
as per the measurements of the land i.e. requirements.
Rice of different verities was grown, Kondrava was a kind of coarse grain. Wheat, Pulses,
Saffron, Mustard, Linseed, Sesamum etc. were grown.
There are several reasons of declining of the Mauryan Dynasty. Some of them are as
follows:
1. Immediately after the death of Asoka, the Mauryan dynasty was partitioned into two
parts viz . east and west. This partition disturbed the unity of the empire.
2. The successors of Asoka were weak rulers and they appeared to not been able to
handle the highly cent raliz ed tradition of domestic policy of the early Mauryas.
3. Some scholars say that pious policy of Asoka was responsible to the decline of the
empire as it undermined the strength of the empire. This theory is contradicted by
some scholars because Asoka only left policy of annexation but never dissolved or
weakened his army.
4. Some scholars say that a Brahminical revolution was a reason of decline; however
it is not accepted because Asoka, though patroniz ed Buddhism, but never forced
his religion on others.
5. Some scholars say that there was a pressure on Mauryan economy, which is
evident from the low quality punch marked coins in the later Maurya period.
However, this idea is not adopted because foreign accounts give details of a
flourished economy.
6. Some scholars such as Romila Thapar say that Mauryan administration was highly
centraliz ed and only a prudent ruler could handle this machinery.
7. Some scholars hold the oppressive policy of the later Mauryan for decline of the
empire.
Whatever may be the reason, one thing is clear that Maurya Administration was Highly
centraliz ed administration.
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Chandragupta Maurya
2011- 05- 05 04:05:45 GKToday
This account (purana) says that Chandragupta was a son of last Nanda Monarch
Dhanananda from his Shudra concubine Mura and that is why is name is Maurya.
This account has been rejected as well as accepted by many scholars.
As per the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Chandragupta was a scion of Moriya Clan, which
was branch of Sakyas Khat riyas. These Kshatriyas had received a share in the
relics of Buddha. Some other traditions link his ancestry to peacock tamers. So
there is no single theory about the ancestry of Chandragupta. One thing on which all
scholars agree is that he was from a "humble" background. He is mentioned in the
Greek texts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos and Androcottus.
Young Chandragupt a:
Against there are several stories regarding the early age of Chandragupta. One
theory says that Chandragupta served the Nanda Army as a General or Senapati.
He, instigated by Vishnugupta or Chanakya revolted against his master but his
revolt failed. Vishnugupta, a Brahmin was insulted by Dhanananda by breaching a
social etiquette. When the revolt failed, both of them fled to safety.
Traditional accounts also mention a story, that Vishnugupta was a teacher at the
Taxila University. He found one day that Chandragupta was playing with children
and he delivered justice among the boys, one of who was acting a criminal.
Vishnugupta was impressed by his sense of justice. He took the boy to the king,
who impressed by his intelligence ordered to be trained at Taxila University. But in
the same event the king insulted Chanakya by breaching the etiquette and forced
him out. To take revenge Chanakya groomed the young Chandragupta at Taxila
University.
Some scholars say that he met Alexander when he was a young boy.
First of all, Chandragupta liberated North east from the Greek Governors and
Satraps who were appointed by Alexander. Alexander's death provided
Chandragupta an opportunity to give a death blow to the Greek Rule in parts of
India. After that he focused his attention on Magadha. Chanakya through diplomacy
aligned Chandragupta with a neighboring king Parvataka and the combined army
dethroned the Nandas and seiz ed the Magadha. Nandas were spared their life and
let run with as much treasure as much a chariot can carry.
After death of Alexander, Selucus, one of the generals of Alexander became his
successor. He launched a campaign against India in 304 BC to recapture the
territories won by Alexander. He crossed Indus but his mission failed and an
alliance with Chandragupta ended the mission. By this treaty, Selucus returned the
Arachosia (Kandahar), Paropanisade (Kabul), Aria (Herat) and Gedrsoia
(Baluchistan) to Chandragupta. The alliance was cemented by Chandragupta.
Following were the acts that cemented the ties:
1. We know about Chandragupta's empire from the rock edicts and inscriptions
of Asoka and other rulers.
2. The Girnar Rock Inscription gives an indication that his empire was
expanded to the borders of modern Gujarat & Saurastra.
3. In south India we find Asoka's inscriptions and edicts, however, there are no
evidences that Asoka or Bindusara conquered these areas. However, some
sources say that Bindusara won the southern areas. So scholars agree that
the parts of South India were conquered by either Chandragupta or
Bindusara.
In the later years of his life Chandragupta abdicated his throne in favor of his son
Bindusara. He became a disciple of Bhadrabahu, a Jain saint. He is believed to
have spent his last years at Shravanabelagola. He is believed to have died by
practicing Santhara.
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Chanakya
2011- 05- 05 04:05:34 GKToday
Vishnugupta, Kautilya are other names of Chanakya. He was born around 350 BC and is
known for his being the chief architect of Mauryan empire and writing the pioneering
work in the Economics and Political Science that is Arthashastra. He is known as Indian
Machiavelli in the western world, which is wrong in the sense that Chanakya worked two
millenniums earlier than Machiavelli. Chanka was his father's name and Kotil was his
Gotra explaining his two names.
Chanakya was identified with Vishnugupta in a verse in his Arthashastra and also in
Panchatantra of Gupta age by Vishnu Sharma. Mudrarakshasha of Vishakhadatta
mentions that he was Dravid. Pali texts say that he was a Brahmin from Taxila.
Chanakya mixe d pois on to the food e ate n by Chandragupta Maurya, now king, in orde r to
make him immune . Unaware , Chandragupta fe e ds s ome of his food to his que e n, who is in
he r ninth month of pre gnancy. In orde r to s ave the he ir to the throne , Chānakya cut the
que e n ope n and e xtracts the fe tus , who is name d Bindus ara be caus e he was touche d by a
drop (bindu) of blood having pois on.
Arthashastra:
Kautilya's Arthashastra was one of the great political books of the ancient world. Max
Weber recogniz ed it as "truly radical 'Machiavellianism", however it is wrong because
Machiavelli's The Price (Il Principe) was published in the 16th century, while Kautilya wrote
Arthashastra long before birth of Jesus Christ. Despite of this Arthashastra is little known
outside India.
1.
2. Co ncerning Discipline
3. The Duties o f Go vernment Superintendents
4. Co ncerning Law
5. The Remo val o f Tho rns
6. The Co nduct o f Co urtiers
7. The So urce o f So vereign States
8. The End o f the Six-Fo ld Po licy
9. Co ncerning Vices and Calamities
10. The Wo rk o f an Invader
11. Relating to War
12. The Co nduct o f Co rpo ratio ns
13. Co ncerning a Po werful Enemy
14. Strategic Means to Capture a Fo rtress
15. Secret Means
16. The Plan o f a Treatise
These 15 books though tagged as theoretical by many scholars, have been accepted as
a source to describe the Mauryan Administration.
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Bindusara
2011- 05- 05 04:05:30 GKToday
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara. His other name is Amitraghata which
means destroyer of foes. The Greek scholars write him as "Amitrachates" or
"Allitrochates" . Chanakya served as Prime Minister of Bindusara for some years. Later,
Khallataka became his prime minister.
During the initial years of his reign Bindusara subdued a revolt in Taxila & Avanti.
At Avanti, he sent his son Asoka, the fearsome general and a great warrior right
from his childhood to subdue the revolt.
Bindusara had good foreign relations. He was friendly with the Greek King
Antiochos- I and asked him to send sweet wine, figs and a philosopher. The two
things were sent but third "a philosopher" was not sent as the land of the law at
Greece did not permit.
Deimachos was a Syrian ambassador who came in the court of Bindusara.
Bindusara ruled for approximately 25- 26 years and his succession was disputed
which ultimately gave India a great king called Asoka.
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Asoka
2011- 05- 05 04:05:39 GKToday
Ashokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of his father
Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts represent Asoka as "wading through a pool of Blood"
quoting that he terminated all 99 of his brothers except his uterine brother Tisya.
This has been disputed by the scholars. For example, Rock Edict V of Asoka
mentions about his brothers.
It may be a falsified version of his bravery by the Buddhist monks who might have
been interested in dark background of Asoka, who became the gentlest king after
his conversion.
Family:
The Buddhist texts mention his mother's name as Subhadrangi. His first wife was a
princess of Ujjaini called Devi or Vedisa. His two other wives were Karuvaki and
Asandhimitra. Asoka's only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was born to
Karuvaki. The name of Karuvaki and Tivara are mentioned in Queen's edict.
Conquest of Kalinga:
Why Kalinga?
The Mauryan Empire was probably in friendly terms with the southern kings such as
Cholas and Pandyas. Kalinga was strategically located in the heart of his territory and that
is why his campaign to Kalinga was strategically important. Once Kalinga was won, there
was no much need to win over further territories.
The Kalinga war was a horrifying event. It mentions that hundred and fifty thousand people
were displaced, hundred thousand people were killed and many hundred thousands
perished.
After the war of Kalinga Asoka realiz ed the gravity of war and the event had a profound
impact on his mind. He wowed to never wage such war and also directed his sons and
grandsons.
The 13th Rock edict mentions Asoka's remorse after the war and his changed
attitude from Dig- vajay to Dhammavijay.
Asoka adopted Buddhism in 9th year of his reign after winning Kalinga. He was inspired by
Nigrodha, a boy monk. Later, he came in contact with Moggaliput t a Tissa. Later his
brother Tissa, queen Karuvaki also adopted Buddhism.
Asoka sponsored the third Buddhist Council in 250 BC. This council was held at
Pataliputra. It was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. Abhidhamma Pitaka was
established in this council.
In the Bhabru edict Asoka says that he has full faith in Buddha, Sangha and Dhamma. But
he never forced his ideal on people. The Pillar Edict II says:
Dhamma sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme t i? Apasinave, bahu kayane, daya, dane, sace,
socaye.
The meaning is: Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil,
much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. In his Pillar Edict VII, he says
that all sects desire both self control and purity of mind. In the Major Rock Edict XII, he
directed and determined request for tolerance among different religious sects. He says
that he honors all sects and both laymen and monks. We can say that Asoka's Dhamma
is a moral code of ethics. Asoka propagated his Dhamma with z eal and earnestness of a
missioanry. He mentions in Minor Rock Edict I that as a result of his efforts for 1 year (or
more) "Human beings who were unmixed were cause to be mixed with Gods throughout
Jambudweepa. This was because of his well planned measures such as celestial
Chariots (Vimana), luminous balls of Fire (used for showing light in nights) and elephants.
Asoka abandoned the pleasure tours (vihara yatras) and hunting.
Deat h of Asoka:
Asoka died in 232 BC after a reign of 40 years. His policy of ahimsa partially contributed to
the decline of Maurya Empire. None of the successors of Asoka rose to his status. His only
son who was named in edicts was Tivara and there is a possibility that he died before his
father's death as not much is heard about him later. Jaluka was one of his sons who is
mentioned in Rajtarangini of Kalhana and became independent ruler of Kashmir. Kunala is
said to have reigned for 8 years but in southern traditions he is mentioned as a blinded
person. Ashokvadana says that Asoka was compelled to abdicate his throne in favor of his
Grandson Samprat i who was son of blind Kunala. Samprati was a great patron of Jainism
with his seat was at Ujjain. Another grandson Dasarat ha is mentioned in Vayupurana &
Matsya purana, who has been testified by scholars. It is possible that the empire was
partitioned into eastern and western parts, with Dasaratha getting eastern and Samprati
getting western parts.
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Asoka’s Edicts & Inscriptions
2011- 05- 05 04:05:55 GKToday
The Edicts of Asoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Asoka, as well as
boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Asoka during his reign from 272 to 231 BC
dispersed throughout the areas of modern- day Pakistan, Nepal and India.
The first tangible evidence of Buddhism is represented by the rock and pillar edicts
of Asoka detailing wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of
the most powerful kings of Indian history.
These edicts mention that Buddhism reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many
Buddhist monuments were created in a wide area. Buddhism and the Buddha are
mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts rather than religious practices or
the philosophical dimension of Buddhism.
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" and "King
Priya- darshi."
The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were written in the Magadhi
language, using the Brahmi script. In the western part of India, the language used is
closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharosht hi script , one extract of Edict 13 in the
Greek language, and one bilingual edict written in Greek and Aramaic.
These edicts were decoded by British archeologist and historian James Prinsep.
Major themes are Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to
spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal
welfare program.
Prohibits animal slaughter. Bans festive gatherings and killings of animals. Only two
peacocks and one deer were killed in Asoka's kitchen. He wished to discontinue
this practice of killing two peacocks and one deer as well.
Provides for care for man and animals, describes about Chola, Pandyas ,
Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South India
Concerns about the policy towards slaves. He mentions in this rock edict " Every
Human is my child…"Appointment of Dhammamahamatras is mentioned in this edict.
Describes King's desire to get informed about the conditions of the people
constantly. Talks about welfare measures.
Condemns the desire for fame and glory. Stresses on popularity of Dhamma.
Elaborates Dhamma
Directed and determined request for tolerance among different religious sects.
Asoka's victory over Kalinga . Victory of Asoka's Dhamma over Greek Kings,
Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This
is t he Largest Edict .
It ment ions Kamboj, nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra et c.
Separat e Edict s :
Queen Edict :
Pillar Edict s:
Asoka's 7 pillar edicts have been found at Topra (Delhi) , Meerut, Kausambhi, rampurva,
Champaran, Mehrauli. Minor pillar edicts have been found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Rummindei,
Nigalisagar.
Pillar Edict I
Pillar Edict II
Pilar Edict IV
Pilar Edict V
List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and another list
of animals which have not to be killed at all occasions. Describes release of 25
prisionars by asoka.
Pilar Edict VI
Dhamma Policy
Works done by Asoka for Dhamma Policy . He says that all sects desire both self
control and purity of mind.
Ot her Pillars
Rummindei Pillar Inscript ion: Asoka's visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini
from tax.
Nigalisagar Pillar Inscript ion: It was originally located at Kapilvastu. It mentions
that Asoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double siz e.
The spotted and white sandstone was sourced from Mathura. Buff colored
Sandstone and Quartzite was sourced from Amravati.
Three languages have been used viz. Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic. 4 scripts have
been used Prakrit inscriptions were written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi. Rest
written in Greek or Aramaic. The Kandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual. The
inscriptions found in Pakistan area are in kharoshthi script.
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Life in Maurya Empire
2011- 05- 05 05:05:45 GKToday
So cial Life:
There was a well developed "caste" system as per the accounts of Megasthenes.
Megasthenes writes that there were 7 castes viz . philosophers (he indicated Brahmins),
farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, craftsmen, magistrates and soldiers. So based upon this
account we can figure out that the caste system was based upon "occupation" rather than
birth.
The marriage and polygamy both were present. Polygamy was confined to Royal classes.
Normal people could marry to other women if there was no "son". The women had their
property in the form of Stridhana which included bridal gift.
Women enjoyed high status. The women were appointed as assistances and bodyguards
of King. Offenses against women was punishable.
There was no slavery in the sense that people used to work as dasa, out of their own
compulsions. No Arya including a Shudra could be made dasa forcibly. The 14th book of
Arthashastra Secret Means (Aupanisadika) deals with a number of rites and practices.
Art:
The age of Mauryas is known to have contributed to arts significantly. The palace of
Chandragupta Maurya at the Pataliputra was mostly made up of wood. The traces of this
palaces have been found at Kumhrar near Patna. It's a 80 pillar hall which speaks of
Mauryan Palace art.
A large number of Stupas were built in Mauryan Era, many of them by Asoka. The
Buddhist tradition writes that Asoka built 84000 Stupas.
The rock cut caves of Mauryan era are at Barabar hills, located near Gaya and
they are oldest surviving Rock Cut caves.
The Nagarjuna Hills rock cut caves are of Asoka and his successors.
The barabar caves have been cut of granite and are large halls which provided
place for worshippers.
The Asokan Pillars are Monolithic and mostly used Hard sandstone procured from
Chunar near Varanasi.
They were finely chiseled and highly polished.
A Coomaraswamy has categoriz es the Mauryan art into two distinct categories viz .
Royal art and popular art.
The Yaksha image from parkam and Yakshini Image from Besnagar are examples
of Popular art. While, the pillars are example of Royal art.
Asoka erected a Pillar to mark the spot in Deer Park Sarnath near Varanasi, where
Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma and where the Buddhist Sangha was
founded. It has 4 lions standing back to back. The four lions symboliz e the Power,
Courage, Pride and Confidence and rest on a Circular abacus which is girded by 4
animals. These 4 animals viz . Lion, Elephant, Horse, Bull are the guardians of 4
directions viz . North, East, South and West respectively. The Chakra with 24 spokes
has been chosen to be placed at the center of the Indian Flag on 22 July 1947. The
Chakra symboliz ed Dhammachakraparivartan.
Census
There was a proper system of census which registered all the details of the deaths and
births. Nagarika was the census officer who was responsible to keep a ready reference
data of the farmers, cattle, traders, cowherds etc. This was to ensure that proper tax is
levied.
Public health:
There were proper hospitals and Bheshajas (Doctors) appointed along with a team of
midwifes, nurses etc. Treatment was free universally. Food adulteration was a punishable
offense which invited a death sentence.
Suppression of crimes, maintenance of peace and protection of the subjects were the
chief duties of the King. The antisocial elements were called "Kantakas". There were two
kinds of courts "civils" and criminals. The civils courts were Dharmastheya
and the Criminal Courts were "Kantakashodhna". The idea of Kantakashodhna was to weed
out the antisocial elements.
Death Sentences were common and Asoka's edicts detail that he gave additional
time to the persons under the Capital punishment to offer donations and repent so
that they get a better life in next birth.
Chief source for revenue was "land tax". It was to of the total produce and it was collected
by the revenue officers. The more productive lands and irrigated lands invited more tax.
All craftsmen (except royal) and traders paid taxes. Taxes were of two kinds viz . Bali &
Bhaga. The Bali was religious tribute. Bhaga was the part of the produce.
Asoka edict says that Lumbini was exempted from Bali and Bhaga was reduced to
parts of the reduce.
Bhaga which was 1/6th of the produce was called shadbhaga (6th part) or Rajbhaga (state
part).
Maintenance of the Royal palaces, members, ministers and public welfare were the main
avenues to use the revenue.
Fo reig n T rade:
Foreign Trade by means of the land and sea was prevalent, and it was regulated by
passports kinds of documents. Indigo, cotton and silk was most traded property.
Antiochus I with his joint rule with Selucus issued coins of Indian standard rather than
the Attic Standard.
This shows that the Mauryan Economy was world's largest economy and the
currency of Mauryas was accepted Worldwide and was main currency of those
time.
District Administratio n:
Each district was administered by 3 officers viz . Pradeshika, Rajuka, & Yukta.
Pradesika was senior and Rajuka was subordinate. Yukta was subordinate to both of them.
It was duty of the Pradesika to tour the kingdom every five year and collect details
of the administration.
Villag e Administratio n:
Village was the smallest unit of polity and it was called Grama. The head of the grama was
a Gramika. The Gramika was not a paid employee of the government but was elected by
the village people. The 10 villages were collectively headed by a Gopa and 100 villages
were collectively headed by a Sthanaka. Most disputes were solved by Gramika in Open
Panchayats.
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Why New Religions?
2011- 05- 05 05:05:56 GKToday
The Later Vedic society was divided into 4 varnas viz . Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and
Shudras. Birth had become the basis of varnas and two higher varnas viz . Brahmins and
Kshatriya were given privileges. The later period saw tensions rising in the varnas. The
two dominant varnas Brahmins and Kshatriya competed for dominance. Kshatriya acted as
rulers and the reacted against the domination of the priests of Brahmins.
Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavira Jain basically disputed the authority of the Brahmins.
Apart from that India was now developing as a agro based economy. The importance of
trade increased and Vaishyas started getting more importance. The Vaishyas came at
third position after the Brahmins and Kshatriya and they looked for other religions which
could improve their position. The money lending was a trade in post Vedic era, but
Brahmins looked down upon this business. The vaishyas wanted some better religious
position and that is one of the regions that the trader community "vaishyas" provided
support to both Jainism and Buddhism.
There was practice prevalent in the Vedic era that was killing the cattle for sacrifices. This
ritual was not accepted in the new agro economy. In fact except Brahmins, almost all
common public was irked by the ritualistic practices of the post Vedic period based upon
exaggeration, superstition, Brahminical dominance. The position of Shudras got worse to
worst.
Sanskrit which was the prime language in the Vedic and post Vedic period now started
losing charm. Most people spoke Prakrit. The Position of women got inferior.
Buddhism and Jainism were the movements that started to reform the Hinduism.
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Meaning of Buddha
2011- 05- 05 05:05:57 GKToday
T he Buddhavamsa is a text which is part of the Pali Canon of Buddhism. It deals with the
life of Buddha. It mentions 29 Buddhas in all. The 27 Buddhas, preceded Gautam Buddha
and Maitreya, the 29th Buddha is next to come in future. Gautam Buddha was 28th Buddha.
The Buddhavamsa related that in the present Kalpa, there are 5 Buddhas.
1. Kakusandha
2. Koṇāgamana
3. Kassapa
4. Gautama
5. Maitreya
The fifth Maitreya is a future Buddha. The first amo ng these 5 Buddhas o f the present Kalpa is
Kakusandha.
Kakusandha is mentio ned in the Sanskrit Buddhist texts as Krakucchanda. In Tibet he is kno wn as
Khorvadjig. He was bo rn in Nepal, near Kapilvastu. He attained enlightment under a sirisa tree. The
seco nd Budha o f the present Kalpa was Koṇāgamana. Third Buddha was Kassapa. In Sanskrit
Buddhist texts, he is kno wn as Kasyapa. He was also bo rn in Nepal and attained enlightment
under a Banyan Tree.
B ud d has o f t he Anand a T e mp le
Ananda Temple is located in Bagan, in Burma. This temple was built in 1105 AD during the reign of
K ing K yanz it t ha. It has four standing Buddhas which are adorned with gold leaf and each
Buddha image faces a direction. Kakusandha is North facing, Kassapa is South facing,
Konagamana is East facing & Gautama is west facing.
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Gautam Buddha
2011- 05- 05 05:05:19 GKToday
T he experiment s wit h t he lif e of ascet ics could not bring desired f ruit s f or
Gaut ama. He lef t t he Udaka, and moved on wit h 5 companions who were led
by Kaundinya. T hey set out f or more aust erit y. T hey t ried enlight ment
t hrough t ot al deprivat ion of possessions including f ood. T his led him t o
st arving near deat h condit ion, and one day he collapsed int o a river and
almost drowned. T his led him t o reconsider t he pat h. He st art ed moving away
f rom ascet ics and moving closer t o medit at ing and t his is called t he Middle
Pat h, t he pat h of having oneself away f rom ext reme self -indulgence and
ext reme self -mort if icat ion. He accept ed milk and rice pudding f rom a village
girl called Sujat a.
While medit at ing under a Pipal t ree on t he bank of river Niranjana at Gaya, he
came across t he desired t rut h, at t he age of 35 years and af t er 49 days of
medit at ing. He was now called Buddha or "Shakyamuni Buddha" which means
t he Buddha of Shakya Clan.
Gaut ama Buddha now preached his f irst sermon which deals wit h t he Four
Noble T rut hs and t he Noble Eight f old Pat h, t he core pillars of Buddhist
t eaching regarding t he int rinsic suf f ering of exist ence and how t o deal wit h it .
T his was called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Kaundinya & 4 ot hers
became t he f irst human beings t o be t aught Buddha 's t eaching and become
an arhat (spirit ual pract it ioner). T his event t ook place at Deer Park near
Varanasi.
T wo gems of Buddhism viz. Buddha and Dhamma ware now ready. T he f ive
disciples and Buddha f ormed t he f irst union of Buddhism, which is called
Sangha. So, wit h t he f ormat ion of a Sangha, t he t hree gems of Buddhism
(Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha) were complet ed. T he reaming years of lif e,
Buddha t ravelled many part s of t he count ry, est ablished t he Sangha, and
propagat ed his t eachings. T housands of people joined Sangha and t hese
Sanghas spread in many part s. As promised previously Buddha now t ravelled
t o Magadha, t he capit al of King Bimbisara. During t his visit Sariput t a(who lat er
f ounded T heravada t radit ion) and Mahamoggallana became Buddha's
disciples. Sariput t a, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha
comprised t he f ive chief disciples. His t en f oremost disciples were complet ed
by t he quint et of Upali, Subhot i, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. Rahula was
his son, who became disciple at t he age of 7. Buddha's parinirvāṇa happened
at Kuśinagara at t he age of 80 years.
Event Symbol
Buddha's Birt h Lot us & Bull
T he Great Depart ure (Mahabhinishkramana) Horse
Enlight ment (Nirvana ) Bodhi T ree
First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivart an) Wheel
Deat h (Parinirvana) St upa
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Buddha’s Teachings
2011- 05- 05 05:05:05 GKToday
Four noble truths were taught by Buddha in Dhammachakraparivartan. They are the core
teachings of Buddhism.
1. Dukkha or "Sorrow" : The world is full of sorrow and everything from birth to death
brings sorrows in life.
2. Dukkha Samudaya or Cause of Sorrow : The cause of sorrows is desire. It is the
un- fulfillment of human desires which leads him to the vicious cycle of births and
rebirths.
3. Dukkha Nirodha or Prevent ion of Sorrow: It is possible to prevent sorrow. Man
can get rid of sorrow by triumphing over the desires.
4. Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada Magga or The pat h of Prevent ion of Sorrow:
Man can avoid Dukkha by avoiding extremes of life and following middle path or
Madhyam Patipada. The life of moderation and self control along with pursuance of 8
fold path is essential to prevent the Dukkha.
The eight fold path was recommended to eliminate the human misery. It basically
comprises of 3 basic divisions of Wisdom (Pragya Skanda), Ethical Conduct (Sheel
Skanda) And Concentration (Samadhi Skanda). Following table represents the eight fold
path:
Concept of Nirvana:
The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely different from the Hinduism. Buddhism
denied the concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has to getting rid of Cycle of
Death and birth. It is achieved in the lifetime itself and not after death. To achieve nirvana
one should follow moral code of Conduct.
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Buddhist Literature
2013- 05- 23 12:05:30 GKToday
Cont ent s
T ripit aka
Sut t a Pit aka
Vinaya Pit aka
Abhidhammapit aka
Jat akas
Milinda Panha
Dipavamsa
Mahavamsa
Mahavast u
Buddha Charit a
Mahāvibhāsa Śāst ra
Lalit avist ara
Divyavadana
Udanavarga
Udana
Bodhi Vamsa
T ripitaka
T ripit aka or T hree Basket s is a t radit ional t erm used f or various Buddhist
script ures. It is known as pali Canon in English. T he t hree pit akas are Sutta
Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
It cont ains over 10 t housand sut t as or sut ras relat ed t o Buddha and his close
companions. T his also deals wit h t he f irst Buddhist council which was held
short ly af t er Buddha's deat h, dat ed by t he majorit y of recent scholars around
400 BC, under t he pat ronage of king Ajat asat ru wit h t he monk Mahakasyapa
presiding, at Rajgir.
Dhammasangani : It cont ains a mat rix which list s t he classif icat ion of
Dhammas or ideas.
Vibhanga : It has 18 chapt ers dealing wit h dif f erent t eachings of
Buddhism. It is in 3 volumes and t hird volume is in quest ion answer
f ormat .
Dhatukatha: It has a mat rix and various t opics.
Puggalapannatti : It has a mat rix which deals wit h t he list of t he persons.
Kathavatthu: It cont ains t he debat es and comment ary on t hoese
debat es.
Yamaka : Yamaka has quest ions in pairs and underst anding.
Patthana : It also cont ains t he quest ions and answers.
Jatakas
Jat akas are very much close t o f olklore lit erat ure and t hey cont ain t he t ales
of previous birt hs of Buddha in poems. T he Jat aka have also ben ment ioned
in t he Khuddaka Nikaya. T here are 547 poems. In Sanskrit it is called
Jatakamala, In Khmer t hey are known as cietak, and in Chinese t hey are called
Sadok.
Milinda Panha
Milinda Panha means "Quest ions of Milinda". It cont ains t he dialogue of Indo-
Greek king Meander and Buddhist monk Nagasena. It has been writ t en in
second t o f irst cent ury BC and init ially writ t en in Sanskrit . T here is only one
copy in Sri Lankan Pali of t his work. It was print ed in t he 6t h Buddhist council in
1954.
Dipavamsa
Dipavamsa is one of t he most import ant works in Pali Lit erat ure. It det ails t he
t oot h relic and Bodhi T ree's arrival in Sri Lanka. It also deals wit h t he arrival of
Buddha's t eaching and preachers in Sri Lanka. It ment ions t hat Buddha visit ed
Kelaniya and Dighavapi in Sri Lanka.
Mahavamsa
Mahavamsa is t he most import ant Pali epic poem. Mahavamsa means "Great
Chronicle". It 's a hist orical poem in Pali Language which deals about t he Kings
of Sri Lanka. T he f irst version of Mahavamsa dat es back t o 3-4t h cent ury BC
during t he reign of King Vijaya. T he Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa
(small chronicle) all t oget her are somet imes known as Mahavamsa. It deals
wit h t he royal dynast ies of not only Sri Lanka but t he whole Indian
subcont inent and is known as world's longest unbroken hist orical account s.
T he consecrat ion of Asoka and det ails of Selucus and Alexander have been
det ailed in it .
Mahavastu
Mahavast u means t he "Great Event ". It 's a work in prose and verse and is
writ t en in Sanskrit , Pali and Prakrit . It det ails t he miracles & earlier lives of
Buddha.
Buddha Charita
Lalitavistara
In Sanskrit Lalit is a Lot us. Lalit vist ara is a Sanskrit t ext t hat deals wit h t he
biography of Buddha.
Divyavadana
Divyavadana means divine t ales. It cont ains ant hology in 38 st ories and is a
sankrit t ext which deals wit h Mauryan and Sunga Hist ory. T he Asokavadana is
a st ory in it which deals wit h t he legends of Asoka.
Udanavarga
Udana
Bodhi Vamsa
Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali t ext which was composed by Upat issa
under t he rule of Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka in 10t h cent ury AD. It describes t he
arrival of branch of Bodhi t ree in Sri Lanka and many ot her t hings which
ment ioned in Mahavamsa.
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Buddhist Scholars
2011- 05- 05 05:05:06 GKToday
Cont ent s
Aśvaghosa
Nagarjuna:
Asanga & Vasubandhu:
Buddhaghosa
Dignāga or Dinnaga:
Candrakīrt i or Chandrakirt i:
Dharmakirt i
Aśvaghosa
Nagarjuna:
Buddhaghosa
Dignāga or Dinnaga:
Candrakīrti or Chandrakirti:
Dharmakirti
Cont ent s
It was held in 383 BC. T his idea of t his council was t o set t le a disput e on
Vinaya Pit aka, t he code of discipline.
T he disput e was on 10 Point s such as st oring salt in horn, eat ing af t er
midday, eat ing once and going t o villages f or alms, eat ing sour milk af t er
one's meal et c. It was not set t les and Buddhism sect s appeared f or t he
f irst t ime.
T he subgroups were Sthaviravada, Mahasanghika and Sarvastivada.
It was held at Vaishali under t he pat ronage of King Kalasoka and t he
presidency of Sabakami.
St haviravada f ollowed t he t eachings of t he elders and Mahasanghika
became ext inct lat er.
St haviravada lat er cont inued t ill 3rd Buddhist council.
Fif t h Buddhist Council t ook place in 1871 under t he pat ronage of King
Mindon in Mandalay, Burma. It was presided by Jagarabhivamsa,
Narindabhidhaja, and Sumangalasami. T he idea was t o recit e all t he
t eachings of t he Buddha and examine t hem syst emat ically if any of
t hem was dropped or alt ered.
Hinayana:
Also called "Deficient Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the "Defective Vehicle". It
believes in the original teaching of Buddha. Don't believe in Idol Worship and try to attain
individual salvation through self discipline and meditation. Stharvivada or Thervada is a
Hinayana sect, which follows the "doctrine of elders". Asoka Patroniz ed Hinayan and Pali
the language of masses was use by the Hinayan scholars.
Mahayana:
This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in Idol Worship. It is also
called Bodhisat t va Vehicle. Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from India to China, Japan,
Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Zen, Pure Land,
Tiantai, and Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana.
Fundamental principles of Mahāyāna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal
liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle") and the existence of
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature. It allows salvation to be
alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitābha Buddha by having faith and
devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. Believes in Mantras.
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the
five offenses, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the
bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sutras are called the Mahāyānists, while those who
do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists
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Bodhisattva
2011- 05- 05 05:05:47 GKToday
A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment. Anyone who has a
spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It's a very
popular subject in Buddhist art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to all who
are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another life. There are celestial
bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha. Important 8 Bodhisattvas are as
follows:
1. Avalokit eśvara
Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is known as Guānshìyīn Púsà , in
tibetan as Chenrez ig, in Thai as Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. he
is depicted as holding a lotus flower. He is depicted as female also. A cave wall painting
of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in Ajanta Caves as Padmapani.
1. Manjusri:
He is known as Wénshū in Chinse, Jampelyang in Tibetan and is a menifestation of great
wisdom and meditation. Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva wielding a flaming
sword in his right hand.
1. Samant abhadra
Samantabhadra means Universal Worthy and he is associated with meditation. Known as
Fugen Bosatsu in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the Tendai and Shingon
sects. His manifestation is Action and he is key figure in Flower Garland Sutra.
1. Ksit igarbha
Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient / East Asia. Ksitigarbha
means Earth Womb. he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He
is regarded as guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted
fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a staff.
1. Mait reya
Answer of the above question is Maitreya. Maitreya will be successor of Gautama
Buddha. He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. He holds a "water phial" in his left hand.
Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon. It is said that he
will arrive when oceans will decrease in siz e (that is why keeps a Kumbha or philial in his
hand) and will rule the Ketumati Pure Land (Varanasi). Budai or laughing Buddha is
claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya. Budai was a Chinese Zen monk who lived during
the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE) in China. In Japanese, he is called Hotei and is one
of the 7 Lucky Gods of Japan.
1. Vajrapani
Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, other are Manjusri
and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani manifests Buddha's power, Manjusri manifests Buddha's
wisdom and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha's compassion. In Japan a dharma
protector called Nio is also Vajrapani.
1. Sadāparibhūt a
Sadāparibhūta is a Bodhisattva which manifests "never disparaging" spirit.
Akasagarbha
Along with them, Sravasti, Sankasya, Rajgir and Vaishali are known as Astamahasthanas.
Amaravat i:
Nagarjunkonda
Nagarjunkonda is near Nagarjun Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. Once, it was home to more
than 30 Buddhist Viharas (Buddhist universities and monasteries), attracting students from
as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal and Sri Lanka. Nagarjunkonda was one the largest
and most important Buddhist centers in South India from the second centuary BC until the
third century AD. It was named after Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist scholar and
philosopher, who had migrated here from Amaravati to propagate and spread the
Buddha's message of universal peach and brotherhood. Remains were discovered in
1926 by archaeologist AR Saraswati in 1926.
Ajant a Caves
Ajanta Caves are 31 rock cut caves from 2nd to 8th century AD, located in Aurangabad.
The first caves called Chaityas were created during Satavahana Dynasty. Cave No. 1 has
the painting of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Painted narratives of the Jataka tales are
depicted on the walls.
Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat is located in Cambodia. The temple complex was built by Suryavarman II and
it was first devoted to Vishnu and later to Buddhist.
Bodh Gaya
Bodh Gaya was known as Bodhimanda, Uruvela, Sambodhi, Vajrasana and Mahabodhi
till 18th century when Bodh Gaya name became popular. It has the Mahabodhi temple and
Bodhi tree. It became Unesco world heritage site in 2002.
Bodhi Tree
It's a Pipal Tree (Ficus Religiosa) and known as Bo in Sri Lanka. Located in Bodh Gaya.
Under this tree Gautama attained enlightment. The current tree is a descendent of the
original tree. There are other Bodhi trees as well viz . Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and the
Bodhi t ree (Bo) or also known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi planted in 288 BC in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka and both of them have been propagated from the original tree. It
is also known as oldest living Human Planted tree in the world with a known planting date.
Borobudur
Borobudur is located in Indonesia and comprises six square platforms topped by three
circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. It's a
world Heritage site. There are 3 Buddhist temples which are known as Borobudur Temple
Compounds.
Bamyan Caves:
They are located in Afghanistan and have statues represented the classic blended style
of Gandhara art of 6th century, They were the largest examples of standing Buddha
carvings in the world, before they were blown by dyanamite by Taliban in 2001.
Ellora Caves
Ellora Caves represent Buddhist, jain and Hindu Rock cut temples built by Rastrakuta
Kings. Earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6; most caves of Buddhism are Viharas. Cave
number 10 is a Chaitya hall also known as Chandrashala or Vishwkarma Cave and also
known as carpenter's cave. At heart of this cave is a 15 ft statue of Buddha seated in a
preaching pose.
Pushpagiri Universit y:
Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri are the part of the Puspagiri University which flourished till
11th century in Orissa. They lie atop the Langudi hills in Jajpur and Cuttak of Orissa.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Jain
2011- 05- 05 05:05:26 GKToday
The J ains are followers of certain as cetics who obtained omnis cience and who preached a
doctrine which promis es a s uper mundane blis s of eternal s alvation. J ainis m orig inated
centuries before Buddhis m, but revived by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar of J ainis m.
The relig ion is one of the oldes t and actually has no evidence of its dates of orig in. The J ain
theolog y s ays that it is the oldes t relig ion which has no beg inning and no end.
Kevalya Gyana
Kevalya Gyana or Kevala Nana (in Prakrat) is "abs olute knowledg e", "Enlig htenment" and
"Omnis cience". It is the hig hes t form of knowledg e that a s oul can attain. A pers on who has
attained Kevala Gyana is called a Kevalin. To g et a s tatus of a J ina, attaining Kevalag yana is
required firs t.
Mahapurana a g reat J ainis m text, compos ed by Acharya Jinasena during the rule of
Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha and completed by his pupil Gunabhadra s ays that
"S o me fo o lish me n de clare that Cre ato r made the wo rld. T he do ctrine that the wo rld was
cre ate d is ill-advise d, and sho uld be re je cte d. If go d cre ate d the wo rld, whe re was he
be fo re cre atio n? If yo u say he was transce nde nt the n, and ne e de d no suppo rt, whe re is he
no w?"
The J ain cos molog y s ays that world is made up of 6 Dravyas or s ubs tances :
Sams āra
Samsāra, as per J ain faith is worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and
reincarnations in various realms of exis tence. The mundane exis tence is full of s uffering and
mis ery and hence is worth renunciation. Moksa is the only liberation from Sams āra.
Mahavratas
Ahims a is the fundamental principle of J ainis m. Mos t J ains are
veg etarians and this practice s hows their faith in the principle of
Ahims a. Apart from that there are 5 Mahavratas .
1. Non-violence (Ahims a)
2. Truth (Satya)
3. Non-s tealing (As teya)
4. Chas tity (Brahmacharya)
5. Non-pos s es s ion/Non-attachment (Aparig raha)
Tri Ratnas
Triratnas are
J ain Samg ha could not maintain its unity after 200 years of Mahavira's Parinirvana. It s plit in
Dig ambar s ect and Shwetambar Sect during the Mauryan Era. The Dig ambar s ect obs erved
the tenets of relig ion s trictly and the monks remained naked. Shwetambar s ect were liberal
and they wore white clothes .
The conferences of J ainis m are called J ain Sang eeti. The firs t jain Sang eeti was convened in
300 BC and this conference was headed by Sthoolbhadra.
The s econd J ain Sang eeti was called in 512 AD and was held in Vallabhi Gujarat. The
chairman was Devardhi Ks hammaramana.
Jain Symbol
J ain Emblem or J ain Symbol was adopted in 1975, at the aus picious occas ion of 2500th
Nirvana annivers ary of Lord Mahavira. This emblem is us ed in almos t all of the J ain
mag azines , wedding invitation cards , J ain fes tival cards , and every mag azine with links to
events related to J ain s ociety. Us e of this emblem helps to create a culture s howing
dedication and trus t for the relig ion and the values that are repres ented by the emblem. The
pic s hows the features of the J ain emblem.
Ro yal Patro ns of
Jainism
King Kharvela o f
Oris s a: set up jain rock
cut cave.
Gangs, Kadambs,
Chalukyas,
Rastrakutas had
patro nized Jainism.
What is a Tirthankara?
A Tirtha is a relig ious pilg rim place. Mos t tirths in India of any relig ion are bas ed upon the
banks of Rivers . A Tirtha in Sans krit is derived of Tir, which is a bank of river. A Tirtha is a
ford or a s hallow coas tal part of a water body which can be eas ily cros s ed.
A Tirthankara is a founder of a Tirtha. He achieves the enlig htment and then s hows the path
to others . A Tirthankar achieves Moks ha or liberation at the end of his human life.
We all know that there are 24 Tirthankaras of J ainis m. The firs t Tirthankara was
Ris habhdev and Las t 24 th Tirthankara was Mahavira.
24 Tirthankaras
Ris hbhdev is als o known as Rishabh, Adinath, Adishwar or Kesariya Ji. He was born at
Ayodhya in the Ikshwaku Kula or clan. In Hinduis m he is known to be an avatara or
incarnation of Vis hnu. The name of Ris habh's parents has been mentioned in the Bhagvata
Purana.
Two s ons of Ris habhdeva are worth mention. One was King Bharata, a Chakravarti Samrata
and another is Bahubali. Bharta was the king , after whos e name India is called Bharat
Vars ha. Pleas e note that in Hindu Mythology Bharata is mentioned as s on of Dus hyanta.
However, s ome s ources s ay that Bharata was eldes t of a hundred s ons of a s aintly king by
the name of Ris hbhdev. The J ain theolog y calls Ris habh a Tirthankara and Bharat a King ,
whos e young er brother was Bahubali.
Bahubali was Bahu Bali, one with enormous s treng th in his arms .
T he mytho lo g ical sto rie s re late that Bharat wante d to attack o n the king do m o f Bahubali and
bo th bro the rs ne arly re adie d fo r a war. T he ministe r ne g o tiate d and it was de cide d that the two
bro the r o nly co nte st pe rso nally thro ug h Jal Yuddha,
Malla Yuddha and Drishti Yuddha. Bharata struck him first, but whe n it was Bahubali turn, he
re spe cte d the e lde r bro the r and did no t strike him and be came a re nunciant. S o me ye ars late r,
Bharta wo n the meru parvata and ho iste d a flag the re . But, whe n he re ache d the z e nith, he
fo und many flag s o ut the re . S o he fe lt insig nificance and also be came a re nunciant.
The Sig n of Ris hbhdev is a Bull and achieved nirvana on the Kailasa Mountain of the
Himalayas as per dig ambar canons and as per s hwetambar canons he achieved
nirvana on As htapad mount.
Pleas e note that 20 out of the 20 J ain Tirthankara attained Niravana at Summet
Shikhar or Shikharji located near Giridih, in J harkhand, one of the mos t s acred
places for J ains in the world
Vas upujya attained nirvana at Champapuri in north Beng al; Neminatha on Mount
Girnar in g ujrat; and Mahavira, the las t, at Pavapuri near patna in Bihar.
Bahubali is also kno wn as Go mateshwara. There are 5 mo no lithic statues are present in
Karnataka, o ut o f which 57 f e e t at Shravanabe lago la in Hassan Dist rict was cre at e d in
981 AD and his highe st . The lo catio n o f o ther statues are : Karkala in Udupi District,
Dharmasthala in Dakshina Kannada District, Venur in Dakshina Kannada District, Go mmatagiri
in Myso re District.
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Parshvanath
2011- 05- 05 05:05:14 GKToday
Pars hva was the s on of king Ashvasena and queen Vama of Varanas i. He renounced
the world and became an as cetic when he was 30 years old. He achieved Nirvana on
the Sammet Sikhar, now named Pars hvanatha after him. He has 108 names . He lived
in Varanas i around 800 BC.
Pārś vanātha is only J ain Tirthankar which is always repres ented with the hood of a
nāg a s hading his head. Two Yaks has viz. Yaks ha Dharanendra and the Yaks hi
Padmavati are often s hown flanking him.
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Mahavira
2011- 05- 05 05:05:20 GKToday
Mahvira was the 24th and las t Tirthankara, known as Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati,
Ativira,and Gnatputra in many texts and Arug an or Arug adevan in Tamil texts . He is known
as Nig antha Nātaputta in Buddhis t Pali Canon. His torial dates as s ig ned to Mahavira are
599-527 BC and he was born in to King Siddartha and Queen Tris hala on the 13th day under
the ris ing moon of Chaitra, which is celebrated as Mahavir J ayanti and falls in March or
Early April.
His name was Vardhamana and he des pite of being a prince, had exhibited a virtuous
nature.
He s tarted eng ag ing in meditation and immers ed hims elf in s elf-contemplation. At the ag e of
30 he renounced his king dom and family, g ave up his worldly pos s es s ions , and s pent twelve
years as an as cetic. During thes e twelve years he s pent mos t of his time meditating . He
attained the Kevalya Gyan (Omnis cience) and devoted the res t of his life to preaching the
eternal truth of s piritual freedom to people around India. At the ag e of 72 years and 4.5
months , he attained Nirvana in the area known as Pawapuri on the las t day of the Indian and
J ain calendars , Dipavali.
Mahavira was married to Yasoda. A daug hter was born to Mahavira and Yasoda whos e
name was Anojja or Priyadarsana.
Priyadarsana later married to a nobleman Jamali and became mother of a daug hter Sesvati.
Now here it is a controvers y. The dig ambar J ain tradition is of the view that Mahavira had
never married. He lived a life of an as cetic even as a boy and his parents were alive when he
became a monk. The author has placed both the views and has no intention to hurt any
J ainis m follower.
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Jain Literature
2011- 05- 05 05:05:59 GKToday
Jain Literature
J ain Literature is called J ain Ag amas . They are canonical texts of J ainis m bas ed on
Mahavira's teaching s . There are in all 45 texts .
Ācārang a s ūtra
Sūtrakrtang a
Sthānāng a
Samavāyāng a
J nātrdhārmakathāh
Upās akadaś āh
Antakrddaaś āh
Anuttaraupapātikadaś āh
Praś navyākaranani
Vipākaś ruta
Drs tivāda (This Ang a had dis appeared by the time s econd
s ang eeti was org anized in 512 AD. The remaining Ang as
were written down in Ardhamag adhi (J ain Prakrit)
Lang uag e.
Magadha Empire under Asoka was ext ended f rom t he f oot of t he Hindu Kush
t o t he borders of t he Tamil count ry. Af t er t he Kalinga war, Asoka became a
monk and expansion of Buddhism in ot her count ries t ook place during his t ime.
None of t he lat er Mauryas was ef f icient t o keep such a vast empire int act .
Brihadrat ha was a weak ruler and his Senapat i Pushymit ra Shunga while
a parading t he ent ire Mauryan army bef ore Brihadrat ha t o show him t he
st rengt h of t he army assassinat ed him and t his was t he end of t he
Mauryas.
Pushyamit ra Shunga f ounded t he Shunga dynast y in around 185-183 BC.
Capit al of Shunga Dynast y Was Pat aliput ra and it s major cent ers were
Ujjain, Mat hura, Saket , Sanchi, and Kapilvast u. Vidisha was capit al of
lat er Shunga rulers.
West Bengal and part s of Bangladesh, some part s of nort hern Orissa,
Chhat t isgarh and Madhya Pradesh .
In Sout h India, t he cont emporary of Mauryas & Shungas were
Saat vahanas, Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.
T he ext ent of Saat vahana was modern Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was
Tamil Nadu and Karnat aka and Cheras was Kerala (Cheras derived f rom
Keralaput ra).
Who succeeded Vasumit ra , not much det ails are available. Dif f erent
account s ment ion t he name of dif f erent kings such as Andhraka, Pulindaka,
Ghosha or Vajramit ra. T he last rulers of Shunga dynast y were Bhagabhadra
and Devabhut i, about whom we have some det ails
Devabhut i was t he last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own minist er
Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC.
Vasudeva Kanva t hus assassinat ed t he last ruler of Shunga Dynast y
and f ounded t he Kanva Dynast y.
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Kanva dynasty
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2. In the second year, he destroyed the capital of Musikas, a tribe of Hindus of Indus
river area.
3. In 4th year he subdued the Rastrakas and Bhijakas, the tribes near modern berar
area.
5. In the 8th year, he advanced till Barabar hills and defeated the king of Rajgriha.
6. In the 9th year he built the ''Mahavijayaprasad'' place of great on both the banks of
the river Pranchi.
We should know t hat during t he last t wo cent uries of BC era, Nort hwest and
nort hern Indian subcont inent was ruled by more t han 30 Hellenist ic kings. T he
knowledge about t hese has been at t ained via t he coins issued by t hem. T he
areas under t hese Hellenist ic Kings were T axila, Pakist an's, Punjab
Pushkalavat i (Peshavar) & Sagala.
Antiochus II
Demetrius I of the Bactria (2000-180 BC)
Apollodotus I
Apollodotus II
Menander II
Antiochus II
Approximat ely in 250 BC, Diodot us, who was a governor of Bact eria,
proclaimed his independence. He was one of t he f irst such independent
rulers.
Ant iochus II, who was a king of t he Hellenist ic Seleucid kingdom, marched
t owards India and def eat ed t he India king Subhagsena is Kabul in around
206 BC.
Demet rius I of Bact ria was son of Eut hydemus and conquered t he
ext ensive areas in Iran, Af ghanist an and Pakist an.
He is creat ed wit h real indo-Greek expansion in India and has also been
ref erred in Greek Sources as "King of Indians".
His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit writ t en in Greek and
Kharosht hi script . T he coins were issued in silver and one of t he coins
was known as "Heracles".
His capit al was Sakala (Sialkot Pakist an) which he named Eut hydemia in
memory of his f at her.
His coins have been f ound in several part s of modern Pakist an,
Af ghanist an and cent ral asia.
Apollodotus I
Apollodotus II
Menander II
Moga inscription
Moga inscript ion ref ers t o t he T axila copper plat e. T axila copper plat e was
f ound in area of T axila in modern Pakist an. T axila copper plat e bears a
precise dat a and it is writ t en in Kharosht hi.
Az es-I & Az es II
Bimaran casket
Bimaran casket was f ound in Jalalabad, Pakist an bet ween 1833 t o 1838. T his
casket is import ant because it was f ound having t he coins of Azes II.
Kapisa satraps
Mathura satraps
First known sat raps of Mat hura are Hagana and Hagamasa.
One of t heir successor named "Rajuvula" has been ment ioned as
Mahasat rapa in t he Mora inscription , t hat was f ound near Mat hura.
Ot her sat rapas are Sodasha, Sivadat t a, Sivaghosha.
Please not e t hat it were t he coins of t he Mat hura Sat raps which have
been engraved wit h St anding image which resembled Laxmi and T hree
Elephant s.
First known sat rapa in t he West ern India was Bhumaka, who ruled in
Saurast ra.
Bhumaka's successor Nahapana was an import ant ruler of t he West ern
sat rapas. Some sources say t hat Nahapana was son of Bhumaka, yet
t he act ual relat ionship bet ween t wo is not verif ied.
T he coins of Bhumka ment ion him as a Kshakarata Kshatrapa.
T he coins shows t he symbol of t he lion-capit al.
T hese coins were f ound in Gujarat and rarely in Malwa which might
indicat e t he area of rule of t he Mat hura kasht rapas. It is also known t hat
some of t he inscript ions of t he Mat hura.
Kshat rapas were incised on a lion capit al. T hese show t hat t he t wo
f amilies were alike.
Please not e t hat it was Bhumaka, who has been discussed in the Periplus
of Erythrean Sea.
Ujjain Satrapas
Rudramadaman-I
Chast ana's son was Jayadaman and grandson was Rudradaman, who was a
real hero.
Gondophares-I
Kujula Kadphises was t he f irst Yueh Chi chief who crossed t he Hindukush
Mount ains and laid down t he f oundat ion of t he Kushana Empire.
He est ablished himself in Kabul and Kashmir and is credit ed f or def eat
of Last Greek Kings.
He adopt ed t he epit het of Dharma-t hida.
Anot her epit het adopt ed by Kujala Kadphises was Sachdharmathida
which is cot erminous wit h Sat yaDharma St hit ha.
Bot h of t he above epit het s show t hat he was int erest ed in bot h
Buddhism as well as Shivait e.
Kanishka I
Vāsishka
Kanishka II
His main capital was Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional capit als
were T axila (Pakistan) , Begram (Af ghanistan) and Mathura (India).
His dat e of accession is disput ed. However, most sources agree t hat
Kanishka was t he f ounder of t he Shaka Era of AD 78.
T his has been ment ioned as Saka kala or Saka Nripa kala, probably
because he was t hought t o be a Shaka.
Under Kanishka, Kushana Empire reached it s climax and it ext ended
f rom Uzbekist an, T ajikist an t o Mat hura and Kashmir.
As per t he Tibet an Sources, Kanishka is considered t o have conf lict ed
wit h t he Pat aliput ra and Saket and had taken Aśvaghosa, the
Buddhist Monk to Purushpura.
A cit y kanishkpur in Kashmir is also connect ed t o Kanishka.
Kanishka conf lict ed wit h Chinese general of King Han Ho-t i, t he emperor
of Han Dynast y and def eat ed him in second at t empt .
He is also known t o have subjugat ed t he rulers of Khot an, Yarkand et c.
and is considered t o have est ablished a great kingdom only af t er t he
Mauryas in India.
He was a pat ron of Buddhism and convened t he 4th Buddhist council
in t he Kundalvana of Kashmir (or may be in Jalandhar) in 78 AD.
T his council was headed by Vasumit ra and it marked t he collect ion of
Buddhist t ext s and engraving of t he comment aries on Copper sheets.
Some scholars are of t he view t hat t he Abhidhama Mahavishasa was
prepared in t he 4t h Buddhist council.
Some of t he scholars in t he Court of Kanishka were Parsva, Vasumit ra,
Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mat hara.
Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka, t hough it is
very much disput ed.
Sushrut a who wrot e Sushrut a Samhit a has also been connect ed t o
Kanishka.
It was Kanishka's t ime when Buddhism got divided bet ween t he
Hinayana and Mahayana. \
We know Sushruta, who had written Sushruta Samhita and Charak who had written
Charak Samhita. However, both of them were from the Kushan period, earlier than
the Guptas.
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Mathura School of Art
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Cont ent s
Centres of Production
T he t radit ional cent re, Mat hura, remained t he main art product ion sit e
whereas Sarnat h and Kosambi also emerged as import ant cent res of art
product ion.
Sculpting Features
Cont ent s
Salient Features
Major Centres
Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram & T axila were t he main cent ers where
art pieces of Gandhara School have been f ound. Bot h Shakas and Kushanas
were pat rons of Gandhara School. T he head of t he Buddha mat ched very
much wit h Greek God Apollo.
Cont ent s
T hey have been ment ioned as Sāt avāhanas, Sāt akarnīs, Andhras and
Andhrabhrit yas in t he Puranas and Coins.
Most of t he inf ormat ion about t he Sat avahana kings is int erwoven wit h
myt hs and t he inf ormat ion has been collect ed by a large number of
coins mint ed in Lead, Silver and an alloy of copper.
T he origin of Sat avahanas is a myst ery but t hey are considered t o be
Brahmins and most kings use t he names of t heir mot hers wit h t heir
names.
T he coins issued by Sat avahanas had Bilingual legends. T he name of
t he Kings was ment ioned in Prakrit as well as some sout h Indian
Language.
Sat avahana Kings promot ed Buddhism. Nagarjunkonda and Amaravat i l
became import ant Buddhist cent ers during t he Sat avahana Era.
Simuka
Kanha:
Satkarni-I
Sat karni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka and was a great ruler among t he
Early Sat avahanas. Naganika was t he name of his queen and he has been
described as t he Lord of Dakshinpatha. Kanha ext ended t he empire t o
f urt her sout h, Malwa and Narmada valley. He perf ormed Ashvamedha Yajna
and Rajsuya Yajna.
Satkarni II
Sat karni II was t he longest ruling king of t he Sat avahana Dynast y and dat e of
his accession is considered t o be 166 BC. He has been ment ioned in
t he Hathigumpha inscription of the kharvela, in which he is depict ed as
enemy of Kharvela. In t his inscript ion, it is ment ioned t hat Kharvela
disregarded Sat karni and dispat ched t o t he west ern regions an army of
st rong cavalry. Sat karni II was succeeded by Lamobodara f ollowed by Apilaka
and some ot her rulers like Hala.
Hala:
Hala was one more great king of t he Sat avahanas who was 17th King of t he
Sat avahana line. He had compiled t he "Gatha saptasati" or Gaha
Sattasai which mainly a t ext on love t heme. Gatha saptasati is in Prakrat . He is
also ment ioned in anot her t ext Lilavat i. T hese rulers were small rulers only and
are considered t o be under t he suzeraint y of Kanvas. T he expansion of t he
Sat avahanas was checked just af t er Sat karni II. T he Shakas pushed t hem
sout hwards and t he west ern Deccan was occupied by t he Shaka King
Nahapana.
T he lost power of Sat avahana was revived by Gaut amiput ra Sat karni who is
described as t he Destroyer of the Shaka, Pahalava and Yavana Power.
Gaut amiput ra Sat karni is known t o have made a t ot al and sharp recovery of
t he Sat vahans. His achievement s have been ment ioned in t he Nasik
Inscript ion, by his mot her Gaut ami. His empire ext ended f rom East ern Malwa,
West ern Malwa, Narmada Valley, Vidarbha, West ern Rajput ana, Saurast ra and
even Kalinga. Nasik Prasasti describes Gaut amiput ra as t he ruler of
t he Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and Avanti. In sout h his reign
was up t o Kanchi in Sout h. He assumed t he t it le of raja-raja and Maharaja.
Af t er Gaut amiput ra Sat karni, t he Puranic inscript ion name ot her Sat avahanas
such as Pulumayi, Sri Sat karni, Siva Sri, Sivaskanda Sat karni , Madhaript ra
Sakasena, Sri Yajna Sat karni. One more import ant is Vasit hiput ra Pulumayi-II.
Pulumayi-II
Pulumayi-II is known as Vasit hiput t a or Vashisht hi Put ra Sat karni. He was son
of Gaut amiput ra Sat karni and was an ef f icient king like his f at her. He
ext ended t he power of Sat vahanas t o f urt her sout h and it was now ext ended
up t o Bellary dist rict of Modern Karnat aka. T he Girnar Inscript ion of
Rudradaman ment ions t hat Rudradaman def eat ed t he Dakshinapat hpat i
Sat karni t wice, but did not kill him because of t he close f amily relat ionship.
T his has been corroborat ed as "t hat Pulumayi-II was married t o daught er of
Rudradaman. (However, t here is conf usion in t his) Pulumayi-II has been
described in largest number of inscript ion and t his proves t hat he had a vast
empire. In t he evening of Pulumayi-II 's lif e, t he Shakas revived under
Chastana. T he last Sat avahana Ruler was Pulumayi-IV. Not many det ails
have been f ound about him except t hat he built a t ank in Vepura.
Sat avahanas administ rat ion was simple and inspired by t he Mauryas. T he King
was t he prot ect or of t he religion and had divine at t ribut es. He possessed t he
qualit ies of ancient Gods. T he Kingdom was divided int o t he Janpadas and
subdivided int o Aharas. T he ruler of each Ahara was an Amat ya.
Ahara was divided int o Grama which was under t he headmen called Gamika.
Important Points:
Sat avahanas ruled in Modern Andhra Pradesh , but most of t he inscript ions of
Sat avahanas have been f ound in Maharasht ra.
T he one cent ury gap bet ween t he ext inct ion of Kushana & Sat avahanas
(around 220-230 AD), t ill t he rise of t he Imperial Gupt a Dynast y a cent ury lat er,
is known t o be one of t he darkest in t he whole of hist ory of India. Af t er t he
disint egrat ion of t he Mauryas, t he Kushanas kept t he Nort h unit ed and
Sat avahanas kept t he Deccan unit ed. Furt her sout h t here were t hree Cheras,
Pandyas and Cholas. In nort h, t he Malvas, Yaudheyas, Kunidas et c.
cont ribut ed t o t he ext inct ion of Kushanas and in Deccan, t he Vakat as and
Ikshwaku cont ribut ed t o t he deat h of Sat avahana dynast y. T his
dark period of one cent ury was f ollowed by a dawn of classical age which is
also known as t he Golden Age of Indian History. T he classical age ref ers t o
t he period bet ween 320 AD t o 550 AD when India was unit ed again under t he
Gupt a Dynast y. T his period marks t he cryst allizat ion of Hindu Cult ure and
known f or development s in all walks of lif e including t he science, t echnology,
engineering, art , dialect ic, lit erat ure, logic, mat hemat ics, ast ronomy, religion
and philosophy. T he f ounder of this dynasty was Sri Gupta. But t here were
ot her early Gupt as ment ioned in many inscript ions such as Shiva Gupta in
Nasik Inscription and Puru Gupta in Karle Inscription. T he origin of Gupt a
is shrouded in myst ery.
Scholar View
Gupt a were vaishyas as t he ancient t ext s ment ion t hat
A.S. Alt ekar
t he surname ending wit h Gupt a were Vaishyas.
Dr. H C
Gupt as were Brahmins
Raichaudhury
R C T ripat hi Gupt as were Brahmins
Dr. V Upadhyaya,
Gupt as were Kshat riyas
Hira Chand Ojha
K P Jayaswal &
Gupt as were Jat s and same Got ra st ill exist s in
Dasharat ha
Rajast han
Sharma
R C Mazumdar Gupt as were f rom Ikshwaku Clan
D. R. Regmi T hey are closely relat ed t o t he Abhira Kings of Nepal.
T he Kshat riya Origin of t he Gupt as has been maint ained on t he account t hat
Chandragupta II wedded to a princess named Kumara Devi, who belonged
t o an ancient Licchhavi clan. T he Licchhavi clan was celebrat ed during t he
period of Bimbisara and Ajat shat ru but f or next 9 cent uries t he hist ory is lost .
T heref ore, it is t he marriage of Kumaradevi wit h t he Chandragupt a II, which
has been t he basis of argument s t hat Gupt as were Kshat riyas.
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Cont ent s
T he f o under o f Gupt a dynast y was S ri Gupt a . But t here were ot her early Gupt as
ment ioned in many inscript ions such as S hiva Gupt a in Nasik
Inscript io n and Puru Gupt a in Karle Inscript io n. T he origin of Gupt a is shrouded
in myst ery. T he brief descript ion about t he Kings of Imperial Gupt as is as
f ollows:
Sri Gupt a was t he f ounder of t he Gupt a dynast y. T he det ails about t he Sri-
Gupt a, t he f irst ruler of t he Gupt a Dynast y come f rom t he account s of IT sing
who came t o India in around 690 AD. Sri Gupt a has been ident if ied wit h Che-li-
ki-to of IT sing, who as per his det ails, had built a t emple 500 years back f rom
is visit f or Chinese Pilgrims. Some of t he scholars are of t he view t hat Sri-
Gupt a was a f eudat ory of t he Kushanas.
Ghat ot kacha was son of Sri Gupt a and he succeeded him af t er his deat h. Not
many det ails are available about Ghat ot kacha.
T he f irst year of t he Gupt a Era may be t aken as February 26, 320 AD t o March
13, 321 AD, of which t he f irst dat e is coronat ion of Chandragupt a.
Chandragupta II, the great was son of Samudragupt a and Dat t a Devi. Not
much is known about t he charact er but t he corroborat ed f act s about his lif e
prove t hat he was a st rong, vigorous ruler and was well qualif ied t o govern
and ext end his empire. Read more about Chandragupt a-II here.
Anot her t erm used by Harisena f or him is Kaviraja, which t est if ied him as a
pat ron of poet ic art s and a poet himself . Samudragupt a also assumed t he
t it le of Vikramanka. T he reign of Samudragupt a was f rom Brahmaput ra t o
Chambal and f rom Himalaya t o Narmada in sout h and he subdued t he Shakas
and Kushanas. T he dominion under t he direct government of Samudragupt a in
t he middle of t he 4th cent ury was t hus comprised of all t he populous and
f ert ile areas of t he Nort hern India.
He est ablished diplomat ic relat ions wit h t he Kushana Kings of Gandhar and
Kabul and also t he Buddhist king of Ceylon.
In 330 AD, Meghavarna, the Buddhist King of Ceylon had sent t wo monks,
one of whose was his brot her t o visit a monast ery built by Asoka. But t hey got
scant hospit alit y and ret urned wit h complaint s. Lat er, Meghavarna sent a
mission laden wit h gems and gif t s t o Samudragupt a wit h a request t o built a
monast ery on t he Indian Soil. T he f lat t ered Samudragupt a gave permission.
T his monast ery was built near t he Bodhi T ree at Bodh Gaya. T he purpose
was recorded in a copper plat e and it described t he monast ery wit h a height
of 3 st ories and cont aining 6 halls.
T he Saka dynast y which was overt hrown in 395 had been originally f ounded in
t he f irst cent ury by a chief named Bhumaka. Bhumaka was f ollowed by
Nahapana and Nahapana was dest royed by an Andhra King Gautamiputra
Satkarni in 125 AD. However, t he local government f ell int o t he hands of
Chastana and his descendants. In t he Middle of t he second cent ury, Sat rap
Rudradaman who was grandson of Chast ana def eat ed his Andhra Rival
Vashishtiputra Satakarni, who was event ually married t o his daught er.
Rudradaman f irmly est ablished his power in west (Malwa, Kut ch, Sindh, Konkan
and ot her part s). T he capit al of Chast ana and his descendant s was Ujjain,
which was one of t he import ant commercial cent ers.
Samudragupt a was not able t o undert ake t he conquest of t he west and had
received an embassy f rom Rudrasena, descendant of Rudradaman. But t he
rivalry did not ended and Chandragupt a II, son of Samudragupt a f inally
crushed his west ern rivals.
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Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya)
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Cont ent s
Chandragupta II, the great was son of Samudragupt a and Dat t a Devi. Not
much is known about t he charact er but t he corroborat ed f act s about his lif e
prove t hat he was a st rong, vigorous ruler and was well qualif ied t o govern
and ext end his empire.
Bef ore Chandragupt a II, his elder brot her Ramagupt a ascended t he t hrone
af t er deat h of Samudragupt a. T hrough, not many det ails about Ramagupt a
are available; t he drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta gives an
account t hat at Shringararupakam, Ramagupt a was badly def eat ed by a
Saka chief t ain. T o secure t he people, he agreed t o surrender his queen
Druvadevi t o t he Sakas. Chandragupt a II object ed t his and, Chandragupt a-II in
disguise of queen Druvadevi ent ered enemy's camp and killed t he Saka king
t o rest ore t he huge empire, queen and t he dynast y. Ramagupt a is port rayed
in t his drama as a Coward king and impot ent . Chandragupt a II killed his brot her
and married t o his widow, Druvadevi.
His vict ory over Malwa helped in prosperit y of t he Malwa region and Ujjain
became a commercial hub. Some scholars call Ujjain his second capit al.
Chinese t raveler Fa Hien had visit ed India during t he t ime of Chandragupt a II.
Numerous scholars and art ist s adorned t he court of Chandragupt a.
T he Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near t he Beas and was
brought t o Delhi by a King of Delhi the Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mo o kerji. T his
pillar credit s Chandragupt a wit h t he f ollowing:
Chandragupt a II was known f or his deep int erest in art and cult ure and nine
gems or Navrat na adorned his court . T he various f ields of t hese 9 gems prove
t hat Chandragupt a gave pat ronage t o art s and lit erat ure. Brief descript ion
about t he nine Rat nas is as f ollows
Am arsim ha
Amarsimha was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a
vocabulary of Sanskrit root s, homonyms and synonyms. It is also called
T rikanda as it has 3 part s viz. Kanda 1, Kanda 2 and Kanda 3. It has 10
t housand words in it .
Dhanvant ri
Harise na
Kalidasa
Kahapanaka
Kahapanka was an ast rologer. Not many det ails about him are f ound.
Sanku
Varaham ihira
Varahamihira (died 587) lived in Ujjain and he wrot e t hree import ant books:
Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, and Brihat Jataka. T he
Panchasiddhant aka is a summary of f ive early ast ronomical syst ems including
t he Surya Siddhant a. Anot her syst em described by him, t he Pait amaha
Siddhant a, appears t o have many similarit ies wit h t he ancient Vedanga
Jyot isha of Lagadha. Brihat Samhit a is a compilat aion of an assort ment of
t opics t hat provides int erest ing det ails of t he belief s of t hose t imes. Brihat
Jat aka is a book on ast rology which appears t o be considerably inf luenced by
Greek ast rology.
Vararuchi
Ve t albhat t a
Cont ent s
Amarsimha
Dhanvant ri
Harisena
Kalidasa
Kahapanaka
Sanku
Varahamihira
Vararuchi
Vet albhat t a
Vet albhat t a was a magician.
Chandragupt a-II was known f or his deep int erest in art and cult ure and nine
gems or Navrat na adorned his court . T he various f ields of t hese 9 gems prove
t hat Chandragupt a gave pat ronage t o art s and lit erat ure. Brief descript ion
about t he nine Rat nas is as f ollows
Amarsimha
Dhanvantri
Harisena
Kalidasa
Kalidasa is t he immort al poet and playwright of India and a peerless genius
whose works became f amous worldwide in modern world. T ranslat ion of
Kalidasa's works in numerous Indian and Foreign Languages have spread his
f ame all of t he word and now he ranks among t he t op poet s of all t imes. Here
we should not e t hat Rabindranat h T agore, not only propagat ed t he works of
Kalidasa but also expounded t heir meanings and philosophy t hat made him an
immort al poet dramat ist s.
Kahapanaka
Kahapanka was an ast rologer. Not many det ails about him are f ound.
Sanku
Varahamihira
Varahamihira (died 587) lived in Ujjain and he wrot e t hree import ant books:
Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, and Brihat Jataka. T he
Panchasiddhant aka is a summary of f ive early ast ronomical syst ems including
t he Surya Siddhant a. Anot her syst em described by him, t he Pait amaha
Siddhant a, appears t o have many similarit ies wit h t he ancient Vedanga
Jyot isha of Lagadha. Brihat Samhit a is a compilat aion of an assort ment of
t opics t hat provides int erest ing det ails of t he belief s of t hose t imes. Brihat
Jat aka is a book on ast rology which appears t o be considerably inf luenced by
Greek ast rology.
Vararuchi
Vetalbhatta
T here was an ef f icient administ rat ion est ablished in t he Gupt a Empire. All
powers were cent red in t he Kings but , t he rulers did not int erf ere in t he
administ rat ions of t hose regions which accept ed t heir suzeraint y. Elaborat e
administ rat ion syst em was evolved in t he regions which were under t he direct
cont rol of t he Gupt a Kings. T he element of divinit y was at t ached t o t he kings
and t hey were looked as Gods and God's represent at ives. T he Kings adopt ed
high-sounding t it les such as Maharajadhiraj, Paramabhattaraka, Chakravarti,
Paramesvara et c. T he King was assist ed by a council of Minist ers. T he
minist er's of f ice was almost heredit ary. T he supreme judicial power was
invest ed in t he King but t he Mahadandnayaka carried out t he judicial f unct ions.
T he Gupt a Kings creat ed t wo new classes Sandhivigrahika (Minist er of War
and Peace) and Kumaramat yas (Of f ices of t he crown Prince). Civil and
criminal crimes were demarcat ed in Gupt a Empire.
Bali: T he Bali which was volunt ary in Maurya era and was given t o t he
King became compulsory in Gupta Era.
Bhaga: King's share in all produce of t he cult ivat ors. It was 1/6th part of
produce.
Bhoga: Bhoga ref ers t o t he t ax in kind of gif t s, f lowers, woods, f ruit s
et c.
Hiranya: T his was t het ax paid in cash (Gold) Hiranya means Gold.
Halivakara: Hal means a Plough, so Halivakra was a kind of t ax slab,
t hose who owned a plough used t o pay t ax.
Kara: It might have been some irregular t ax charged f rom villagers.
Shulka: It was cust om or t oll t ax very much similar t o Chungi in modern
t imes.
Udinanga: It might be a social securit y kind of t ax.
Klipta: It was relat ed t o sale and purchase of lands.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Society and Economy during Gupta Era
2013- 05- 23 13:05:57 GKToday
Cont ent s
Cast e Syst em
Int ernat ional T rade:
Agricult ure:
Occupat ion:
Guild Syst em during Gupt a Empire
Caste System
International T rade:
Gupt a had a f lourishing Roman T rade. T he T rade cont act s developed during
t he Kushana Period cont inued and Chandragupt a II's conquest in west ern India
f urt her added t o t his t rade. T he people were prosperous and t hey were f ree
t o grow and f lourish. T he imporant port t owns were Brigukachchaha,
Kalyana & Sind, which were bulk t rade cent ers wit h Romans.
Ujjain had become a major commercial cent er and it was linked t o sout hern
and nort hern India. Nasik, Pait han, Pat aliput ra, Benares were ot her major t rade
cent ers. T rade was badly af f ect ed by t he Huna Invasions. Silk, Leat her goods,
Fur, Iron Product s, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export it ems.
T he Port of T amralipt i was a good source of T rade wit h East Asia. Most of
t he commodit ies were t axed One Fif t h of t he value as a t oll in int ernat ional
T rade.
Agriculture:
Agricult ure was t he main occupat ion in Gupt a Empire and t here was no
government al int erf erence. T he land was f ert ile and means of irrigat ion were
simple.
Occupation:
Gupt a period had many clot h cent ers and silk indust ry wit nessed a signif icant
development during t his period. T he Mandsor Inscript ions gives account t hat
Gupt a people were helped t o a great ext ent f or t he growt h of Silk Indust ry.
Gold, silver and Copper was used in making ornament s and issuing coins. T he
Gold coins show t he pomp, power and prosperit y of t he empire.
In ancient hist ory, t he glimpses of guild syst ems are seen in Jatakas T ales.
Guilds ref er t o organizat ions of art isans, and t raders, which have high place in
t he societ y. In Gupt a Era, t he act ivit ies of Guilds were increased and t hese
act ivit ies are recorded in various lit erat ure, inscript ion, clay seals et c. T here is
a ment ion of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa. T he Indore Copper plate
inscript ion ment ions about a guild of oilmen. T he Mandsor Inscription
ment ions t he guild of silk weavers. T he guild syst em declined af t er t he Gupt a
Period.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Religion in Gupta Era
2013- 05- 23 14:05:41 GKToday
T here were several changes in Hindu religion during t he Gupt a Era. Buddhism
was generally prevalent in Nort hern India including Kashmir, Af ghanist an and
Swat Valley t wo cent uries prior t o Christ ian era and 2 cent uries af t er it .
Jainism was prevailing but did not at t ain much popularit y. Hinduism never
ceased t o exist and ret ained t he large share of bot h t he popular as well as
Royal Favor. It is evident f rom t he coins of Kadphises II, the Kushana
emperor who adopted Hinduism wit h such a great deal t hat he repeat edly
put images of Shiva on his coins and described himself as a devot ee of Shiva.
In Gupt a empire bot h Buddhism and Hinduism received support and t he Gupt a
Kings were perf ect ly t olerant about t he t hree religions prevalent at t hat t ime,
but t hey were beyond doubt zealous Hindus who were guided by t he Brahmin
advisors and skilled in t he Sanskrit language.
T he Jainism remained conf ined t o t he merchant communit ies of west ern India.
Christ ianit y had also arrived in India but it was conf ined t o t he Malabar Region.
However, Hinduism also underwent some import ant changes during t hese
t imes. T he sacrif ice was replaced by Worship and mediat ion of t he Brahmins
was somewhat replaced by Devot ion and Bhakt i. T he Shakti cult emerged in
the Gupta era, which was based upon t he f act t hat t he male can be
act ivat ed only t hrough union wit h f emales. T heref ore, t his was t he beginning
of worship of wives / consort s of Indian Gods such as Lakshmi, Parvat i, Durga,
Kali and ot her goddesses. The worship of Mother Goddess, which was prevalent
in the Harappan India, finally got incorporated in the Hinduism by Guptas times.
By t he end of 5th cent ury, T ant rism had also become prominent .
T he emergence of T ant rism and worship of f emale deit ies also led t o occult
pract ices, which kept sexual union in t he cent er. T he sexual rit es st art ed
becoming prominent and now t hey st art ed t aking shape of religious sexualit y,
which reached it s zenit h in India by t he end of t he 6th and 7th cent ury, as
evident f rom numerous t emple art s cent ered on t he religious sexualit y in t hat
era.
Cont ent s
During Gupt a Era, t he rock cut archit ect ure reached it s zenit h and t his era
marked t he beginning of the
Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of t he t emples built in t he Gupt a
era were carved wit h represent at ion of Gods
(mainly avat ara of Vishnu and Lingams) and
Goddesses. T he most import ant t emple of
Gupt a era is Dasavatar T emple of Deogarh,
Uttar Pradesh.
Bhitargaon T emple
Dhamekha Stupa
T he Dhamekha st upa is locat ed at Sarnat h, 13 km away f rom Varanasi. It
marks t he deer park or Rishipattana where Buddha gave his f irst sermon. As
per an inscript ion dat ed 1026 AD, recovered f rom t he sit e, it s older name is
Dharmachakra St upa. Archeologist , Alexander Cunningham in search of a relic
casket bored a vert ical shaf t t hrough it cent er down t o t he f oundat ion and at
a dept h of around 91 cent imet er he f ound a slab wit h an inscript ion.....Ye
Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu.....writ t en in Brahmi script . T his inscript ion is of 6t h
or 7t h cent ury. Below t his, one more st upa made of mauryan bricks has been
f ound which gives in indicat ion t hat Asoka might have commissioned it .
Other
T emples
Ot her
t emples of
t he Gupt a
Era are as
f ollows:
Cont ent s
Kalidasa
Bhāravi
Bhat t i
Magha:
Sudraka
Vishakhadat t a:
Dandin
Bhat rihari:
Ishwar Krishna:
Vyasa
Vat syayana
Some Smrit i works of Gupt a Era
Sanskrit lit erat ure reached it s climax in t he Gupt a period. T his era is known f or
equal writing of prose and poetry. Sanskrit became t he Ligua franca of India
in t hat era. T he f inal edit ing of t he Ramayana and Mahabhart a t ook place in
Gupt a Period. Puranas, Smrit is and Dharmashasht ra lit erat ure was developed
in t he Gupt a period. Yajnavalkyasmrit i is almost regarded as t he of f icial law
book of Guptas. Naradasmrit i was also writ t en during t he Gupt a period. All
t he successive redact ions in t he Manu's Dharmashastras were carried out in
Gupt a Period.
Kalidasa
T he t rue beaut y and grandeur of t he lit erat ure in Gupt a Era can be seen in t he
kavyas. T he great est among all t he names is Kalidasa who lived in 4t h cent ury
CE and was cont emporary of Chandragupt a II. His earliest product ion was
Rit usamhara. But earliest drama was Malvikagnimit ram. Meghaduta is
pioneer Dutakavya in Sanskrit literature. Kumarasambhava and
Raghuvamsa have t he epic grandeur. Kumarasambhava deals wit h t he union
of Shiva and Parvat i and birt h of t heir son Kart ikeya who dest royed T arakasur.
Bhāravi
Bhāravi is best known f or Kiratarjuniya, writ t en around 550 CE. Kirat is Shiva
who speaks t o arjuna in f or f orm of a mount ain dwelling hunt er. T his epic st yle
Kavya is considered t o be among t he great est works in Sanskrit which is
known f or complexit y of t he Sanskrit .
Bhatti
Magha:
Sudraka
T here is a descript ion of a civil court in Mrichhakat ika, whose headquart ers
were at Nalanda.
Vishakhadatta:
Dandin
Bhatrihari:
Bhart ṛhari was a f if t h cent ury Sanskrit aut hor who wrot e Vakyapadiya , a
t reat ise on Sanskrit Grammar and Satakatraya which is also known as
Nitishatak and has 100 verses on philosophy. Bat rihari seems t o be a King but
many scholars say t hat he was not a king but a court ier serving t he king.
Ishwar Krishna:
Vyasa
Vatsyayana
Vat syayana was t he aut hor of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya, which was t he f irst
comment ary on Gautama's Nyaya Sutras. Kamasut ra is a t reat ise on Human
Sexual behavior and makes t he part of t he Kamashasht ra. T he f irst
t ransmission of t he Kama Shashra is at t ribut ed t o Nandi, t he bull of Shiva, as
per t he t radit ions. T he Nandi bull is Shiva's doorkeeper and he overheard t he
lovemaking of t he Gods and recorded his ut t erances, f or benef it of
humankind. However, Kama sut ra seems t o be t he f irst t reat ise on t he
principles / advices in sexualit y.
Cont ent s
Works of Kalidasa
Mālavikāgnimit ram
Abhijñānaśākunt alam
Vikramōrvaśīyam
Raghuvamśa
Kumārasambhava
Rit usamhara
Meghadut a
T here are several st ories about lif e of Kalidasa, t hough none of t hem seems
t o be aut hent ic. However, t he most f amous st ory about lif e of Kalidasa says
t hat Kalidasa was an illit erat e idiot and was a dumb f ool t o st art wit h. A king's
daught er was a very learned lady and t he st ory goes as she want ed t o marry
only a person who will def eat her in "Shastarthaa" (script ural debat e).
However, if anyone is not able t o def eat her, would be black f aced and kicked
out of t he count ry.
T he idea was enough t o irk t he Pundit s. Nobody want ed t o get his f ace
blackened and sent out of t he count ry, so t hese wit t y people t ook Kalidasa t o
her. T hese Pundit s spot t ed Kalidasa cut t ing a branch of a t ree on which he
was sit t ing himself .
T hey t old t he princess t hat Kalidasa does only mut e or symbolic debat es. T he
debat e st art ed and t he princess showed him one f inger, which she meant t hat
"Shakti is One". However, Kalidasa t ook it s meaning t hat she will poke his one
eye and he showed him t wo f ingers. T he princess t ook t his answer t o be a
valid one manif est ing t hat Shakti is in duality (Shiva and Shakti).
Cont inuing t he debat e, princess showed her f ive f ingers manif est ing t hat
t here are 5 element s eart h, wat er, f ire, air, and void. Kalidasa manif est ed it as
t hat she will slap him. So, in answer he showed her his Fist . T he princess again
t ook t his as a valid answer as she manif est ed t hat all f ive element s combine
and make t he body or srust i.
T hus, she married wit h Kalidasa. But af t er marriage she came t o know t hat it
was a f raudulent marriage and t hus kicked him out of t he house. Af t er t his
humiliat ion, Kalidasa st raight away went t o Kali's t emple and dedicat ed himself
t o Kali. Goddess Kali was appeased and grant ed him prof ound wisdom and art
and speaking abilit y. He ret urned home and his wif e spoke t hese words:
asti kashchit vaag-vishesha
T hese t hree words spoken by his wif e are t he opening words of his t hree
great works as f ollows:
Please not e t hat t he above st ory may be neit her hist orically correct nor t here
are any evidences t o prove it . It goes as it is J, so no need t o prove it .
Works of Kalidasa
Mālavikāgnim it ram
Abhijñānaśākunt alam
Vikram ō rvaśīyam
Raghuvamśa
Raghuvamśa is a Sanskrit epic poem t hat is a long (19 Sargas) narrat ion of
genealogy of Lord Rama's Raghu Vamsa beginning wit h King Dileep up t o
Agnivarna.
Rit usamhara is again a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which has 6 Sargas. T hese
Sargas ref er t o 6 seaosns (Rit u) viz, Grisma (Summer) , varsha (Rains),
Sharad (Aut umn), Hemant a (Cool), Sisira (Wint er) and Vasant ha (Spring). It
ment ions t he f eelings, emot ions and experiences of lovers in 6 seasons.
Rit usamhara is considered t o be t he earliest work of Kalidasa.
Me ghadut a
T he t rue beaut y and grandeur of t he lit erat ure in Gupt a Era can be seen in t he
kavyas. T he great est among all t he names is Kalidasa who lived in 4t h cent ury
CE and was cont emporary of Chandragupt a II. His earliest product ion was
Rit usamhara. But earliest drama was Malvikagnimit ram. Meghaduta is
pioneer Dutakavya in Sanskrit literature. Kumarasambhava and
Raghuvamsa have t he epic grandeur. Kumarasambhava deals wit h t he union
of Shiva and Parvat i and birt h of t heir son Kart ikeya who dest royed T arakasur.
T he whit e Hunas invaded f rom t he nort h-west ern sides in around 455 AD.
Skandagupt a was t he mat ure years and ripe experience, inf lict ed upon t hose
barbarians, and gave t hem such as decisive def eat t hat India was saved f or
some t wo decades. However, in 465 a f resh swarm of nomads again poured
across t he f ront iers and is known t o have occupied t he Gandhara. Af t er deat h
of Skandagupt a in 467 AD t here were repeat ed at t acks on t he heart of t he
dominions and t he empire succumbed t o t he repeat ed at t acks of t he
f oreigners.
Successors of Skandagupta
Cont ent s
T he Hunas had poured down f rom t he st eppes of Cent ral Asia t hrough t he
Nort hwest ern passes and devast at ed t he smiling cit ies of India. T hese cent ral
Asian hordes were in f our cardinal direct ions t hey were known as f ollows:
T he nomad Mongol t ribes known as Huns have f ound f irst ment ion in t he
Bhishma parva of Mahabhart a. As per Dr V. A. Smit h, t he sholkas t hat ment ion
t he Hunas must have been placed af t er edit ing in 4th or 5th cent ury AD. In
Mahabhart a t hese t ribes have been ment ioned as Malechhas and Malechhas
included several t ribes such as Sakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Savaras, Paundras
and Kiratas,Khasas, Chivukas, Pulindas, Chinas etc. Practice of Polyandry was
common in Hunas (several husbands one wife).
T he Hunas moved west wards and divided int o t wo major st reams. One
direct ed t owards t he valley of Oxus (t oday known as Amu Darya, a boundary
bet ween Iran and Cent ral Asia and in Indian t ext s known as Vaksu) and
anot her t owards Volga River (West wards t owards Europe). T he lat t er are
t hought t o have poured int o East ern Europe and f orced t he Got hs t o t he
sout h and causing t he Got hic wars, indirect ly. Hunas f illed t he land bet ween
Volga and Danube but t hey could not make f ull use of t heir advant ageous
posit ion. T he Hunic Empire in Europe was f inished wit hin 20 years by a f resh
swarm of barbarians f rom Nort hern Asia.
We know about t he 6t h cent ury Whit e Huna King Toramana f rom Kura
Inscript ion in which his name is ment ioned as Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana
Shahi Jaula. He has also been ref erred in Rajt arangini. T he silver coins of
T oramana are very much similar t o t he Gupt a Kings. It is t hought t hat
T oramana invaded t he Gupt a Empire wit h t he help of a scion of t he Gupt a
f amily called Harigupt a. Moreover, t he f eudal st ruct ure of t he administ rat ion
was a f acilit at ing f act or f or Huna's conquest . T oramana acquired t he Malwa
region by 510 AD and t he local prince Bhanugupt a was unable check him.
Mihirkula means "one f rom t he Sun Clan", In Persian Mihirkula ref ers t o Mehr
Gul t hat also ref ers t o Sun Flower. Mihirkula came t o power in 510 AD and was
an antibuddhist, known f or his cruelt y against t he Buddhist s. He dest royed t he
t emples and monast eries and was t yrannical t o t he Buddhist s. His reign
ext ended up t o Gwalior. His cont emporary Gupt a King was Narsimhgupt a
Baladit yaraja II.
Af t er t he Hunas were checked, t he Gupt a Empire dest royed int o many part s
and several kings appeared in t he scene all over nort h India. By t he mid of t he
6t h cent ury Gupt as lost t he cont rol over t he Magadha also. T here were many
cont emporary dynast ies of t he Gupt as and probably most ancient of t hem is
Maukharis.
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Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas
2013- 05- 23 14:05:43 GKToday
Cont ent s
Maukharis Dynast y
Naga Dynast y
Magha Dynast y
Vakt at aka Dynast y
Maukharis Dynasty
Naga Dynasty
Magha Dynasty
Magha dynast y ruled around Kaushambi and t hey were cont emporary of
Gupt as. T he rulers such as Nava is known by coins only.
Vaktataka Dynasty
Cont ent s
Family of Harsha
Coronat ion of Harsha and Annexat ion of Kannauj
Conquest s of Harsha
Conf lict wit h Pulkesin II
Conquest of Ganjam:
T errit ories of Harsha:
Apart f rom t he above, t he of f icial Chinese hist ory document s also provide
some det ails about t he reign of Harsha.
Family of Harsha
T he assassins were able t o escape and Rajyashri was about t o burn herself
alive wit h her at t endant s. However, Harsha chased t hem, guided by t he t ribals
and was able t o t race her in t he Vindhya Jungles. Shashanka escaped, t hough
his kingdom was lat er annexed t o t hat of Harsha's. However, Shashanka
remained a headache f or Harsha f or a longer period. Son of Rajyashri was
also an inf ant and t his was t he reason t hat Kannauj was also annexed wit h t he
kingdom of Harshavardhana.
Conquests of Harsha
However, his long career of vict ory was eclipsed by one great f ailure against
Pulkesin II.
Pulkesin II, t he great est of t he Chalukya dynast y vied wit h Harsha and was
able t o st op t he ambit ions of Harsha t owards sout h.
If Harsha was Uttarpathapati, Pulkesin II, t he Chalukya King of Vat api was
able t o raise himself t o t he rank of lord paramount of t he Sout h and called
himself Dakshinapathapati. Harsha, unable t o endure t he exist ence of such a
powerf ul rival in sout h, planed t o overt hrow Pulkesin II and advanced t owards
sout h wit h t roops f rom all part s of his reign. However, his ef f ort f ailed. T he
passes on t he Narmada River were guarded so ef f icient ly t hat Harsha
accept ed t hat river as his sout hern f ront ier. T his was somet ime in 620 AD
(some sources say 635AD).
Conquest of Ganjam:
T erritories of Harsha:
Click here t o Read about Administ rat ion & Legacy of Harsha
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Administration & Legacy of Harsha
2013- 05- 23 15:05:34 GKToday
Cont ent s
Interest in Literature
Harsha was a great pat ron of t he lit erat ure and was an accomplished
calligraphist and aut hor of reput at ion. He has writ t en t hree ext ant Sanskrit
Plays viz. Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika and one grammat ical work. His
plays are as f ollows:
Banabhatta
T he religion of Harsha
In Harsha, we f ind a learned king who was well versed in t he doct rine of
Sammitiya School, an of f shoot of t he Vat siput riya school of Early Buddhism.
Af t er t he Ganjam conquest , Harsha st art ed showing t he f avor f or t he quiet est
t eachings of Buddhism. He f avored t he Hinyana initially and Mahayana later.
We f ind in him a great devot ee of Buddhism, who enf orced t he Buddhist
t radit ions wit h ut most st rict ness. He f orbade the slaughter of any living
thing. Use of animal f lesh was a punishable of f ense in his reign. T he
benevolent inst it ut ions based upon Asoka's model were est ablished t hrough
his empire. Numerous monast eries were erect ed in t he closing years of his
empire. Huen T sang describes about t he numbers of t he monks occupying t he
monast eries t o be around t wo Lakh !
Fat her of Harsha was a Sun Devot ee, his remot e ancest or Pushyabhut i was a
Shiva f ollower, his brot her Rajyavardhana and sist er Rajyashri were Buddhism
devot ees, but Harsha was benevolent of all t he t hree and erect ed t emples
also. However, t he in t he closing part of his reign, his f avorit e was t he f ait h of
Buddhism. We f ind King Harsha's aut ograph in Baanskhera inscription of
Haryana.
Prayag Assembly
Bhandi
Bhandi was a leading noble of Kannauj and on advice of t he polit ical leaders of
Kannauj; he of f ered t he crown of Kannauj t o Harsha af t er deat h of
Grahavarmana. Bhandi was lat er described as one of t he chief of f icers of
Harsha. When Harsha chased Shashanka f or release of his sist er, t hrough
Bhandi only Harsha could know t hat his sist er has been released and
Shashanka has escaped.
Simhanada
Simhanada was t he General of t he Harsha's army and his Prime Minist er.
When Harsha was preparing t o conquest t he Sout h, Simhanada warned him
about t he dreadf ul consequences. T his was f or t he f irst t ime t hat Harsha did
not pay at t ent ion t o his seasoned councilor and paid t he price f or t he same
when Pulkesin II def eat ed him.
Cont ent s
From t he post -Maurya period, and especially f rom Gupt a t imes, India's
polit ical and administ rat ive development s t ended t o f eudalise t he st at e
apparat us. T his has been called Indian Feudalism.
T he f oundat ion of various kingdoms and f ief doms whose people were
generally conf ined t o t hem only led t he development of localized
cult ure, making India a diverse geographical area.
T he Hunas and ot her f oreign element s were absorbed int o t he Indian
societ y and cleared t he ground f or t he rise of larger def ined unit s such
as Rajput ana. Similarly, Bengal, which was earlier divided int o t wo part s
viz. Gauda and Vanga, lat er t he whole region was named af t er Vanga.
T he inhabit ant s of t he dif f erent nat ions dif f ered in cust oms, clot hing
and language. For example, t he Kavalayamala (8t h cent ury) not es t he
exist ence of 18 major nat ionalist s and describes t he ant hropological
charact er of 16 peoples.
In t he f ield of art and archit ect ure, t his period ushered in a new age
marked by regional st yles in sculpt ure and const ruct ion of t emples,
which became part icularly prominent in sout h India f rom t he eight h
cent ury onwards.
T he post -gupt a iconography prominent ly displays a divine hierarchy,
which ref lect s t he pyramidal rank in societ y.
T he Vishnu, Shiva and Durga became t he supreme deit ies, lording over
many ot her divinit ies of unequal sizes. T he Mahayajnas and danas
(donat ions) were gradually replaced by a syst em known as Puja. Puja
was int erlinked t o t he doct rine of Bhakt i, which became a dist inct
f eat ure of medieval religion. Bot h puja and Bhakt i became int egral
ingredient s of t ant ricism, which arose due t o t he accult urat ion of t he
t ribal people t hrough large-scale religious land-grant s.
Contribution of Al-Beruni
Al-beruni, who visit ed India wit h t he T urkish invader Mahmud Ghazni and
his army, has given a vivid account of India societ y during t hose t imes.
He visit ed India f requent ly and st ayed in dif f erent part s of t he count ry.
Assist ed by learned scholars of India, he t ranslat ed f rom Sanskrit a f ew
Indian works on ast ronomy, especially t he Paulisasiddhanta,
Brihatsamhita and Laghujatakam of Varahmihira.
Probably he was t he f irst t o int roduce t he t reasure of t he Sanskrit
lit erat ure t o t he Islamic world. His T ahkik-i-Hind (Realit y of Hindust an) is
t he most import ant work in which he gives a good graphic descript ion of
India, as he had seen. While narrat ing t he social condit ions of India
Alberuni observes t hat t he Hindu societ y was based on cast e syst em.
He describes t he inst it ut ion of marriage, t he posit ion of women, t he
Hindu f ast s and f est ivals. He observed t hat Hindus have numerous
books about all t he branches of science. He provides us long list s of
f amous books of Indians ast ronomy, medicine, alchemy, et c.
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Chalukyas of Badami
2013- 05- 23 16:05:15 GKToday
Cont ent s
Pulkesin I
Kirt ivarman I
Pulkesin II
Vikramadit ya I
End of Chalukyas of Badami
Pulkesin I
Kirtivarman I
Pulkesin II
Vikramaditya I
Click Here t o Read about t he T emple Archit ect ure of Chalukyas of Badami
Not e: Famous writ ers in Sanskrit f rom t he West ern Chalukya period are
Vijnaneshwara who achieved f ame by writ ing Mit akshara, a book on Hindu law,
and King Somesvara III, a not ed scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all
art s and sciences called Manasollasa. T he Karnat eshwara Kat ha, which was
quot ed lat er by Jayakirt i, is believed t o be a eulogy of Pulakesin II.
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Temple Architecture of Chalukyas of Badami
2013- 05- 23 16:05:19 GKToday
Cont ent s
Badami cave t emples are locat ed at Badami. T he red sandst one clif f s of
Badami of f ered a spect acular set t ing f or t he excavat ion of f our caves, three
Brahmanical and one Jaina (Parshwavanath). T he largest and most
impressive of t hese is Cave 3, dedicat ed t o Vishnu. An inscript ion next t o a
Varaha depict ion st at es t hat Mangalesa, a brot her of King Kirt ivarman,
dedicat ed t he cave in A.D. 578. Members of t he royal f amily of Chalukyas
pat ronized many Chalukyan monument s. All of t hem were creat ed in sixt h and
7t h cent ury. T he architecture is a mixture of the Nagara style and Dravida
style. Apart f rom t he above f our, t here is a f if t h nat ural Buddhist cave in
Badami.
Virupaksha T emple, Hampi
T emples at Pattadakal
Cont ent s
Dant idurga
Krishna I
Govinda II
Dhruva
Govinda III
Amoghavarsha
Successors of Amoghavarsha
Legacy of Rasht rakut as
Kailasanat ha t emple at Ellora
Dantidurga
Dant idurga's reign is f rom 735 AD t o 756 AD. He is also known as Dant ivarman
or Dant idurga II. Just af t er occupying Vat api, he also carried out several
conquest s but became unpopular very soon and was deposed by his uncle
Krishna I. Dant idurga made Gulbarga his capit al and def eat ed t he Karnatbala
of t he Badami Chalukya (Kirt ivarman II). He also def eat ed t he kings of Lat a
(Gujarat ), Malwa, Kalinga, Nagas and assumed t he t it le of Rajadhiraja.
Krishna I
Govinda II
Krishna I was succeeded by Govinda II, his eldest son. He became unpopular
soon and was excessively indulged in t he sensual pleasures. He lef t t he
administ rat ion t o his younger brot her Dhruva (Nirupama).
Dhruva
Dhruva was an able prince who cont inued t he wars wit h t he neighbors and
expanded t he f ront iers of Rast rakut a empire.
T his was t he reign of Dhruva, when Rast rakut a emerged as one of t he great
powers in India.
Govinda III
Dhruva's son Govinda III was also one of t he most remarkable princes of t his
dynast y. T he capit al of rast rakut a up t ill now was Nasik and it was shif t ed t o
Manyakhet a (Malkhed) by Govinda III. Govinda III's conquest s were up t o Cape
Camorin in sout h, Kannauj in Nort h and Banaras in Sout h. His rein was f rom 794
t o 814 AD.
Amoghavarsha
His cont ribut ion led t o rapid progress made by t he Digambara Jain sect in t he
9t h and 10 t h cent ury under Jinasena and Gunabhadra. (As evident f rom
Mahapurana). Bot h of t hese Digambar Jain monks enjoyed f avor of more t han
one monarchs and much responsible t o eclipse Buddhism.
Successors of Amoghavarsha
Legacy of Rashtrakutas
Cont ent s
T he last ruler of Rast rakut a Dynast y Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by T aila II
or T ailapa II t he scion of old Chalukya st ock in 973 AD. T hus T aila II f ounded
t he dynast y of Chalukyas of Kalyani which last ed f or 2 cent uries. For 200
years t hey remained in conf lict wit h t he Cholas and also t he east ern
Chalukyas of Vengi. T hey were f inally dest royed by t he Hoyasala Empire in
12t h cent ury. T he empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western
Chalukya Empire. T his empire has a great cont ribut ion in t he modern
Kannada lit erat ure as well as Sanskrit lit erat ure.
T ailapa II
T ailapa-II was one of t he f eudat ories of t he Rast rakut as. He rest ored t he
f amily of his ancest ors t o it s f ormer glory. T aila reigned f or 24 years and
during t hat t ime was able t o recover t he ancient t errit ory of his race except
t he Gujarat region. We know about his reign f rom t he Gadag records. He
pat ronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one t he earliest poet s of Kannada
language. Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna t oget her are called three
gems of Kannada literature.
Most of t he t ime, T ailapa II kept on f ight ing wit h Munja, a Paramara king of
Dhara. Munja was f inally capt ured and probably killed in capt ivit y. T his was in
995 AD. T wo years lat er T ailpa died and his crown was passed on t o his son
Sat yasraya
Satyasraya
T he period of reign of Sat yasraya was 997 t o 1008 AD. T hough, t o st ar wit h,
he adopt ed t he aggressive policy of his f at her had enmit y wit h t he east ern
Chalukyas and Cholas. His 11 years reign was dist urbed and was f inally f aced
t he disast rous consequence of a war wit h t he great Chola Rajaraja-I. Rajaraja-
I overran t he Chalukya count ry and loot ed and killed a large number of men,
women and children. Sat yasraya was f ollowed by Vikramadit ya V and
Jaysimha II. T he next import ant king was Someshwara I.
Someshwara I
T his able king of t he West ern Chalukya Empire ended his lif e by drowning
himself in t he river T ungabhadra, due t o his inabilit y t o endure a f ever.
Someshwara I was succeeded by his elder son Someshwara II, but
Someshwara II was soon deposed by his younger brot her Vikramaditya VI,
whose reign is f rom 1076 - 1126 AD.
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramadit ya VI capt ured Kanchi in lat e in his career and engaged wit h serious
bat t les wit h a Hoyasala King of Dorsamudra known as Vishnu. In t he capit al
Kalyani during t he t imes of Vikramadit ya VI, a celebrat ed jurist of t he 12t h
cent ury called Vijñāneśvara lived. Vijñāneśvara has writ t en a t reat ise on
inherit ance which is among t he most inf luent ial legal t reat ises in Hindu Law
out side Bengal. T he t it le of t his work was Mit āksarā.
Cont ent s
Gadag Style: T he Gadag St yle ref ers t o the ornate columns in t he t emples.
T his st yle originat ed in t he period of t he West ern Chalukya King Someshwara
I. T he f inest example of Gadag st yle is T rikuteshwara T emple at
Gadag.
Lakkundi is a t iny village in Gadag Dist rict of Karnat aka. Here, we f ind 50
t emples of t he West ern Chalukyan Empire, most import ant of which are
Mahadeva T emple and Kahi Visheveshwar T emple. T he place is also a
source of around 30 inscript ions of t he Chalukyas, Kalachuris, Seunas,
Kadambas and Hoysalas.
T he earliest known king of t his empire is Nripa Kama II who lived around 1026-
1047 AD. He was probably a f eudat ory of t he Western Gang Dynasty and is
known t o have indulged in f ut ile wars against t he Cholas.
Vishnuvardhana
Veera Ballala II (1173–1220 AD) was anot her great est monarch of t he
Hoyasala Empire. He put t he Chalukyas of Kalyani t o en end by def eat ing
Someshwara IV. Af t er t his def eat Someshwara IV shif t ed his capit al t o
Banavasi, and t he Kalyani passed t o t he hands of Yadavas of Devagiri. Wit h
Cholas he had f amily relat ionships. T he successors of Vera Ballala II were
most ly unimport ant rulers. T he last great King was Veera Ballala III.
Veera Ballala III was t he last great ruler of t he Hoyasala Empire. His reign was
f rom 1291 AD t ill 1343 AD. In 1310, t he commanders of Sult an Alauddin Khilji
had invaded t he Deccan devast at ing most of t he count ries. By 1318 Devagiri
was occupied by Sult an of Delhi and by 1336, almost all Hindu Kingdoms of t he
sout h except t he Hoyasala Empire were annexed t o t he Delhi Sult anat e. A
muslim Madurai Sult anat e was also f ormed in t hose years. Veera Ballala III
campaigned against t he muslims. He made T iruvannamalai as his new capit al
and f ounded anot her capit al at t he banks of River T ungabhadra at
Hosapattana where his able commanders Harihara and Bukkaraya
(popularly known as Hakka and Bukka) f ounded t he Vijayanagar Empire in 1336.
Veera Ballala III was killed in one of t he bat t les against t he Delhi Sult an in 1343.
He was succeded by Harihara Raya I who f ounded t he Sangama Dynast y of
t he Vijayanagar empire. T he f ollowing pict ure shows t he dynast ies in t he 12th
cent ury in India.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Temple Architecture of Hoyasala Empire
2013- 05- 23 17:05:34 GKToday
Cont ent s
By t he 13t h cent ury, t he power of t he Cholas had declined. T his was t he t ime
f or a great and sophist icat ed cult ure when marvellous t emples were built in
Karnat aka and part s of T amil Nadu. Hoyasala inf luence was at it s zenit h
during t he 13t h cent ury and t he art ist s of t his empire f reely borrowed f rom t he
Chalukya and Chola t radit ions and creat ed a st yle unique in many ways.
Hoyasala hist ory is clear f rom t he t ime of King Vishnuvardhana, who ruled
f rom A.D. 1108 t o A.D. 1142. Inscript ions show t hat t he king, his wif e and his
minist ers were generous pat rons of t emples.
T he Hoyasala built around 1500 t emples at 958 cent ers bet ween 1000
AD t o 1346 AD. T he f inest t emples were commissioned during t he t imes
of Vishnuvardhana.
He was a subordinat e t o t he West ern Chalukyas and probably af t er
declaring independence want ed t o excel in t his art also. T his is evident
f rom one of his inscript ions which says "built it f rom t he wealt h which he
amassed f rom t he sword".
T he Hoyasala t emple archit ect ure was heavily inf luenced by t he
West ern Chalukyas, Cholas as well as Pallavas, t hough t here was a
depart ure f rom t he Chalukyan st yle.
T his is evident f rom t he f act t hat in t he beginning, t he t emples were not
over decorat ed, but t he lat er t emples have t his f eat ure in almost of it s
t ot alit y.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Yadavas of Devagiri
2013- 05- 23 17:05:34 GKToday
T he most import ant t errit ory which t hey had under t hem was bet ween
Devagiri (Modern Dault abad) and Nasik and was known as Sevana or Seuna,
t hough t hey had inf luence in
modern Maharasht ra, Nort h
Karnat aka and part s of
Sout hern Madhya Pradesh.
Bhillama 1173-1191 AD
Singhana II
Raja Ramchandra
When Alauddin Khilji, sult an of Delhi crossed t he Narmada River, t he nort hern
f ront ier of Yadavas in 1294, t he Yadava Ruler Raja Ramchandra (1291-1309
AD) was obliged t o surrender and was ransomed his lif e by a large t reasure
t hat included 600 maunds of pearls, t wo Maunds of Diamonds, rubies,
emeralds and sapphires. (One maund was aro und 40 Kilo grams, tho ugh Maund was
o fficially pegged at 37.3242 kilo grams in British India/ independent India ).T he Sult an's
incursions were again repeat ed by Malik Kaf ur in 1309 and Ramchandra again
submit t ed t o t he invader.Af t er his deat h, his son in law Harpala revolt ed
against t he Muslim Sult an in 1318 and was def eat ed, t hen f layed (skinned)
alive and was decapit at ed. T his was t he miserable end of t he Yadavas of
Devagiri.
Ramchandra like ot her Yadava rulers was a pat ron of art and lit erat ure. In his
court , t he celebrated Sanskrit author Hemadri or Hemadpant served as a
Chief Minist er. Chaturvarga Chintamani was his encyclopedic Sanskrit work.
Cont ent s
T he scient if ic analysis of t he Sangam lit erat ure says t hat t his work was
composed in 120-150 years and most of t he lit erat ure was composed f rom
100 AD t o 250 AD. T his is ent ire dif f erent f rom what has been ment ioned in
t he Iraiyanar Akapporul and Sangam legend. T here are 2289 poems available
under Sangam Lit erat ure now; many of t hem are very short having only 3-5
verses. 102 of t hem are anonymous. T he number of poet s est imat ed is 473.
However, t he f irst work on T amil Grammar, which is not ext ant and is lost
irret rievably, is Agattiyam. Rishi Agast ya wrot e it . T olakappiar who wrot e t he
above-ment ioned T olkāppiyam is said t o be a disciple of Rishi Agast ya. As
per t he T amil t radit ions, Rishi Agasyt a invent ed t he T amil Language and
brought it s synt ax f rom t he lord Shiva.
On t he basis of int erpret at ion and cont ext , t he Sangam lit erat ure can be
described int o t wo t ypes viz. Agam (inner) and Puram (out er). T he t opics of
Agam are relat ed t o personal and human aspect s such as love and sexual
t hings. T he t opics of Puram are relat ed t o human experiences and emot ions
such as Heroism, Valor, Et hics and Philant hropy. T he poems have also been
classif ied on nat ure t hemes which are known as T hinai. T he t hemes are as
f ollows:
T he lit erat ure was lost and f orgot t en. T he T amil Scholars S V Damodaram
Pillai and U V Swamit ha Iyer brought it int o light . T hey print ed and published
dif f erent works such as T holkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar urai, T holkappiyam
Senavariyar urai, Manimekalai, Cilappat ikaram, Pat t upat t u, and Purananuru in
dif f erent part s of t he 19t h cent ury, all wit h comment aries.
Patinenmēlkanakku
Patinenkīlkanakku
T he T amil language and lit erat ure did not f lourish in isolat ion and was
inf luenced by Sanskrit . T he Aryans had penet rat ed t he whole of t he T amil
Land by 6t h cent ury AD and Post Sangam lit erat ure cont ains some t races of
Aryan Cult ure. Inf luence of Sanskrit is more on t he f ive epics of T amil
Lit erat ure, which were writ t en bet ween 1st cent ury AD t o 9t h cent ury AD. Out
of t hem Silappatikaram, which was writ t en by Ilango Adigal, brot her of
Senguvat t an, a Chera King and who was a Jain monk is a highly regarded epic.
T he ot her f our epics are
Cont ent s
T he Pandya count ry, as per t he t radit ions ext ended f rom t he Podukottai
dist rict t o Kanyakumari in sout h and Achankovil River in Kerala (west ) t o River
Vegai (Madura) in East . T he kingdom was ordinarily divided int o 5 principalit ies
which were known as "Five Pandyas". T he early days capit al of Pandyas is
Korkai.
Visit of Marcopolo
Marcopolo landed in Pandya Empire (at Kayal) in 13t h cent ury and impressed
by t he wealt h and magnif icence of t he King, Prince as well as people, t agged
it as the richest kingdom in existence. However, t he same silt ing process in
14t h cent ury caused t he abandonment of t he Kayal t oo, and t he Port uguese
were compelled lat er t o shif t t heir business t o a port of T uticorin, which was
f ree f rom silt ing of Delt a. T he capit al of Pandyas was lat er shif t ed t o Madura
(now Madurai).
No cont inuous hist ory of t he Pandya Kings prior t o 12th century AD has been
clearly writ t en. In Maurya Period, t he Pandya Kingdom was independent . One
of t he Pandya Kings had sent an embassy t o August us Caesar. Pandya
Kingdom was well known t o Greeks and Romans f or it s pearl t rade. Many
Roman coins have been f ound on many places in Pandya Empire, which shows
an exist ence of a well-developed t rade bet ween t he Romans and Pandyas in
t he early cent uries AD.
Post Sangam period, t he f irst Pandyan empire was est ablished by a King
named Kadungon, who def eat ed Kalabras in 6t h cent ury AD. T he
successors of Kadungon indulged in f ight ing wit h t he nearby Chera and Chola
Kings. Huen T sang, who visit ed in 6t h cent ury AD t raveled up t o Kanchi which
was sout hernmost point of his it inerary. He has ment ioned t he people of t his
area as Malakot t ai. Malakot t ai may ref er t o t he Pandyan kingdom. Huen
T sang ment ions t hat t he people in t his reason lit t le cared f or learning; t here
were Buddhist Monast eries, which were almost in ruins.
Sundara Pandyan
Cont ent s
Not many det ails are available about t he pre-Christ ian era hist ory of t he
Chera, Keralaput ra and Sat yaput ra.
Satyaputras
T he f irst hist orical evidence about Kerala is f ound in t he inscript ions of Asoka
who cit ed f our kingdoms viz. Choda (Chola), Pada, (Pandya), Ket ala Put o
(Keralaput ra), Sat iya Put o (Sat yaput ra) in t he sout h of his empire. Keralaput ra
and Sat yaput ra is ment ioned in t he Rock Edict II and Girnar
Inscript ion.However, it ref erred t o which t errit ory and which dynast y was
most ly unknown. T he hist orians have ident if ied it wit h t he port ions of t he
Malaya Mount ains of t he West ern Ghat s and cert ain lowlands around t hose
areas. Sat yaput ra are ment ioned in t he Puranas and T amil Lit erat ure as well.
In t he Asoka's edict s, t hey f ind t heir place wit h Cholas, Pandyas and
Keralaput ra.
T his means t hat Sat yaput ra had rose t o prominent power by t he t ime of
Asoka. However, af t er t hat , t here are not many det ails available about t his
dynast y.
Kerala
However, Pandyas, Cheras and the Cholas were ment ioned in surviving
T amil Lit erat ure (comprising of Chilappat ikaram, T irukkural et c),
complement ing t heir ment ion in t he exist ing Sanskrit Lit erat ure viz. Puranas,
Vedas, Ramayana and t he Mahabharat a. Few hist orians now believe t hat
ancient Chera Kingdom included t he t oday's Kerala but separat ed in 389 AD
and t he Chera Realm was rest rict ed t o T amilnadu (around Coimbat ore) and
sout hern part s of Karnat aka.
Insignia of Cheras: Bow and Arrow
First recorded King of t he Cheras is Ut hiyan Cheralat han, who ruled anyt ime
bet ween 1st t o 3rd cent ury AD. He f ought numerous bat t les and in one such
bat t le wit h Cholas, he was def eat ed and due t o humiliat ion, he commit t ed
suicide t hat was a common pract ice t hose days. T he second king of t he
Chera Dynast y was Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan , who died in a
bat t le wit h Chola Kings. T he next import ant ruler was Senguttuvan, who is
hero of a f amous T amil Epic Silapathikaram. Sengut t uvan is best known
f or sending t he f irst embassy t o China f rom Sout h India. His capit al was Karur.
T he navy of Senguvattan was the best navy in the world.
Af t er Kulashekhara Alwar, all kings are insignif icant and some of t hem
became saint s. T he last Chera King was Rama Varma Kulashekhara who
ruled f rom 1090 t o 1102 AD. His cont emporary Chola ruler was Kulothunga
Chola-I wit h whom he f ought a war. His lif e is shrouded in myst ery as af t er
t his war, he is supposed t o have lef t India and embraced Islam. T his ended
t he Chera dynast y and t he rulers were conf ined t o t he area around
T ravancore.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Chola
2013- 05- 23 18:05:16 GKToday
Cont ent s
Early Cholas
Dark Period
Medieval Cholas
Lat er Cholas
T he Chola dynast y is one of t he longest ruling dynast ies of Sout h India, and it
exist ed f rom 300 BC unt il lat e 13t h cent ury AD, t hough t he t errit orial limit s
kept varying f rom t ime t o t ime. T his period of around 1500 years can be
divided int o 4 part s as f ollows:
Early Cholas
Dark Period
Medieval Cholas
Lat er Cholas
Early Cholas
Dark Period
Af t er t his early Chola Kingdom f ell, t here is a dark period, in which t hey exist ed
but insignif icant ly.
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya Chola
Adit ya Chola I
Parant aka Chola I
Rajaraja Chola I
Rajendra Chola –I
Rajadhiraja Chola
Rajendra Chola II
Virarajendra Chola
Later Cholas
From 1070 AD t ill 1279 AD, is t he period assigned t o t he lat er Cholas. During
t his t ime, t he Chola Empire reached it s Zenit h and became t he "Most
Powerf ul Count ry" of t he world. T hese Cholas colonized t he Sout h East Asian
Count ries and had t he most powerf ul army and navy of t he world at t hat t ime.
T he siginif icant rulers of Lat er Cholas were as f ollows:
Not much aut hent ic inf ormat ion is available about t he Early Chola Kingdom.
T he main source of it s knowledge is t he Sangam Literature. T he ot her
sources are Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which is a work of an anonymous
merchant of Alexandria, works of Pt olemy, Mahavamsa- t he Buddhist T ext of
Ceylon, Pillars of Asoka, Hat higumpha descript ion of Kharvela- t he Kalinga
King and ot her numerous st one inscript ions f ound at various part s in t he
Sout hern Peninsula.
Karikala Chola
T he most signif icant Early Chola ruler is Karikala Chola, who ruled around 270
BC and is ment ioned in t he Sangam Literature. T he meaning of his name
"Kari + Kalan" ref ers t o "Slayer of Elephant s" but also means "t he one wit h
burnt limbs". T his indicat es a f ire accident in his early age, which lef t his legs
charred. One of t he Sangam Poems t est if ies t his. Karikala Chola is best known
f or winning t he f amous "Battle of Venni" in which bot h t he Pandyas and
Cheras were crushed by him. T he current locat ion of Venni is near
T hanjaur.T he "Bat t le of Venni" was a t urning point in his career and he was
est ablished as a f irm power in t he Sout h. Some legends say t hat he won t he
whole of Ceylon Kingdom, af t er t he Bat t le of Venni.
Cont ent s
Vijayalaya Chola
Adit ya Chola I
Parant aka Chola I
Gandaradit ya Chola
Rajaraja Chola I
Rajendra Chola -I:
Rajadhiraja Chola 1018-1059 AD
Rajendra Chola-II (1051-1063 AD)
Virarajendra Chola (1063-1070 AD)
T rouble in Chola Kingdom
Kalabras was probably a t ribal clan f rom t he Deccan and t hey did not speak
T amil. T hey might be t he ascendant s of t he Saat vahana, whose empire had
demised by early 3rd cent ury AD. Kalabhras were pat rons of Buddhism and
also Jainism. T he demise of t he Saat vahana dynast y in Deccan creat ed a
chaos and out of t his chaos t he Kalabhras t ried t o creat e a niche f or
t hemselves. T hey invaded t he sout hern T amil count ries which were not in a
posit ion t o count er at t ack. T he Pallavas drove out t he Kalabhras.
Lat er, most of t he Chola t errit ories were lost t o Pandyas and Pallavas. In t he
medieval period, Chalukyas rose t o power. T he Cholas and Chalukyas kept
f ight ing over cont rol on Vengi Kingdom f or a longer period of t ime.
Vijayalaya Chola
T he f irst medieval Chola ruler was Vijayalaya Chola who in 848 AD re-
est ablished t he Chola rule. His capit al was T hanjaur. Vijayalaya was a Pallava
f eudat ory. Because of t his vict ory, t he Cholas became powerf ul and
Vijayalaya wiped out bot h t he Pandyas and Pallavas f rom t he T hanjaur area.
Vijayalaya renovat ed T hanjaur and built solesvara t emple at Padukot t ai.
Aditya Chola I
Adit ya Chola I was son of Vijayalaya and he succeeded him af t er his deat h. He
was a great Shiva devot ee and built a number of Shiva T emples on t he banks
of river Cauvery. Wit h Cheras he had f riendly relat ions. He died in 907 AD and
his son Parantaka Chola I succeeded him.
Parantaka Chola I
Gandaraditya Chola
Rajaraja Chola I
Rajendra Chola I succeeded his f at her Rajaraja Chola I in 1014 AD and reigned
t ill 1044 AD. He was an able son and prince. He cont inued t he ambit ious career
of his f at her and added more and more t errit ories t o t he Chola Dominions.
Know more here about t his Gangaikonda.
Virarajendra Chola was a signif icant Chola ruler who reigned f rom 1063-1070
AD. He was younger brot her of Rajendra Chola II and Rajadhiraja Chola. We
see t hat in a span of around 18-20 years, t here was a rapid succession in t he
Chola Kings as t hree brot hers ruled one af t er anot her. T his gave an
opport unit y t o Someshwara-I t o launch a campaign against t hem. T hey
conf lict ed in 1066 but t he Chalukyas led by Someshwara I were again
def eat ed. In Virarajendra Chola we f ind a brave, able, wise and st rong King
who not only maint ained t he st at us of t he Cholas but also was able t o
increase t he in Chola st rengt h. He died in 1070 AD. In his lif e he pat ronized art s
and cared f or t emples of all deit ies specially Lord Vishnu. Virarajendra Chola
was succeeded by Athirajendra Chola who reigned only f or f ew mont hs of
1070 AD. T here was a civil unrest in t he Chola kingdom and he was killed in t his
unrest .
Cont ent s
From 1070 AD t ill 1279 AD, is t he period assigned t o t he lat er Cholas. During
t his t ime, t he Chola Empire reached it s Zenit h and became t he "Most
Powerf ul Count ry" of t he world. T hese Cholas colonized t he Sout h East Asian
Count ries and had t he most powerf ul army and navy of t he world at t hat t ime.
Kulot t hunga Chola I led t wo milit ary campaigns in Kalinga and annexed some
part s of t he t errit ories of Sout hern Kalinga int o Chola Empire. T he rivalry
bet ween Kulot t hunga and Vikramadit ya VI let Kulot t hunga assume a t it le "
Viruduraja Bhayankara" i.e. Fright ning f or t he Vikramadit ya, as his inscript ions
say. A war was f ought bet ween t he combined armies of Kulot t hunga &
Someshwara II and Vikramadit ya VI. T his bat t le ended in conf usion.
Under Kulot t hunga, t he empire remained int act except Sri Lanka. St ill t he
boundary bet ween t he West ern Chalukya and Chola was T ungabhadra river.
He was succeeded by his son Vikrama Chola in 1120 AD.
Kulot t hunga Chola II was son and successor of Vikrama Chola. T here are no
signif icant warf are in his account . He was a pat ron of t he Chidambaram
t emples. His reign was generally peacef ul. He was succeeded by Rajaraja
Chola II in 1150 AD.
Kulot t hunga Chola III had made Rajaraja Chola II his heir apparent and
coregent in 1146 AD. T he t errit ories remained int act , but t he weakness of t he
Kingdom administ rat ions had st art ed becoming apparent in his rule. He st ill
had f ull cont rol over t he Vengi, Kalinga, Pandya, Chera et c. t errit ories and also
invaded Sri Lanka, but t he closing years of his reign saw a civil Unrest in t he
kingdom, in t he f ormer Pandya T errit ories. Bef ore he died, he made
Rajadhiraja Chola II as his heir appparent and coregent in 1163 AD. During his
reign t he Airavat eswarar T emple at Darasuram near Kumbakonam was built . It
is a world herit age sit e t oday. He made grant s t o t he t emples at T anjore,
Chidambaram, Kanchi, Srirangam, T richy and Madurai. He was succeeded by
his son Rajadhiraja Chola II.
Rajadhiraja Chola II 1166 AD -1178 AD
Rajaraja Chola II was succeeded by Rajadhiraja Chola II, who was most
probably not his son. His reign is known f or f urt her weakness in t he Chola
Kingdom and uprising, f ollowed by independence of local f eudat ories
part icularly among t he Pandyas. T he Pandyas were allowed t o rule as t hey
wished during t he reign of Kulot t hunga I, subject ed t o subordiness t o t he
Cholas. T here was a civil war among t he Pandyas, which required Chola's
at t ent ion and int ervent ion. But , t he Pandyas st art ed gaining prominence and
t he cent ral Chola Kingdom got weakened day by day. Rajaraja Chola II was
succeeded by Kulot hunga Chola III in 1178 AD.
Kulot hunga Chola III was able t o crush t he Pandyas in Madurai, Cheras of
Venad, Hoysalas of Mysore as well as t he Sinhala Kings of Sri Lanka. T he
cent ury t ook a t urn and a Pandya vassal of Chola Empire named Jat avarman
Kulasekaran I ascended t o t he Madura T hrone in 1290, t urned rebel t o Cholas.
But , vict ory of Sundar Pandyan over Cholas was f ollowed by a march of t he
Hoyasala army t owards Sri Rangapat t am. Kingdom of t he Cholas was
ret urned af t er int erf erence of Hoyasala king Veera Ballala III, but now Cholas
accept ed suzeraint y of t he Sundar Pandyan. T his was t he revival of second
Pandyan Empire and decline of t he might y Chola Power.
When Rajaraja Chola III, son of Kulot hunga Chola III came int o
power in July 1216, t he Chola Kingdom had reduced t o a very small t errit ory
compared t o t he earlier Cholas. In t he graphic, t he green shaded area shows
t he t errit ories of Rajaraja Chola III in 1246 AD, 10 years prior t o his demise.
His reign was of cont inuous t roubles. T he Pandyas had become t he import ant
power in Sout h and Vengi and ot her areas were now under t he Hoysalas. Since
Rajaraja III was now a vassal of Pandyas, he did not pay t ribut es t o t he
Pandyan overlord. T he Pandyan army ent ered his Chola Capit al and Rajaraja
III f led. He was capt ured at Sendamangalam. T he Hoyasala King Narsimha
int erf ered and t hen only t he Chola King was released. T he Hoysalas at t acked
t he Pandya army and def eat ed t hem on t he banks of river Cauvery. For rest
of his lif e Chola King Rajaraja III was dependent upon t he Hoysals f or aid and
help. He recognized his son Rajendra Chola III as heir apparent in 1246 AD.
Rajendra Chola III came t o power in 1246 AD, when his f at her was alive. He
t ried t o st op t he rapid decline of t he Chola Kingdom, but at t his t ime, t he
Hoysalas t urned host ile and Pandyas became powerf ul. T he sudden t ide of
t he Sundar Pandyan and his able successors swept out t he Chola Kingdom.
Rajendra III f aced a war and def eat in t hat war in t he hands of Pandyas. T he
remaining t errit ories of t he Cholas were annexed t o Pandya T errit ory and t he
new king was Kulasekara Pandyan I , who was in reign since 1268, but got t he
Chola t errit ories in 1280. T he Chola Kingdom ended t hus wit h Rajendra Chola
III. Whet her Rajendra Chola III died in t he war or else, is a quest ion, which has
not been resolved.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Chola Architecture
2013- 05- 23 18:05:04 GKToday
Cont ent s
T he Chola period saw t he culminat ion of t his t radit ion, which result ed in t he
most sophist icat ed buildings of t hat era. T he T amil Nadu t emples were f ully
evolved in t heir st yle and design by t he 8t h cent ury.
Muvarkovil, Pudukkottai
Cont ent s
Pallava lit erally means a Branch. T he Pallavas were a prominent power in India
f or more t han 4 cent uries but t here are no records about t hem in t he
vernacular legends. T hey were f orgot t en unt il discovery of a copper plat e
grant in 1840. T he name "Pallava" appears t o be ident ical t o Pahalva, t he
f oreign clan which is f requent ly ment ioned in t he Inscript ions and Sanskrit
lit erat ure. T his led t o development of a t heory t hat t he Pallavas who became
a ruling dynast y of t he Sout h India might have come f rom t he Nort h West ern
Front ier of India. T his t heory has been support ed on t he basis of t he f act t hat
t he Pahalavas were prominent in t he 2nd cent ury AD and were classif ied wit h
t he Sakas and Yavanas by t he local hist orians.
Sivaskanda Varm an
T he pict ure about t he Pallava dynast y st art s get t ing cleared f rom
Simhavarman, who ascended t he t hrone in somet imes around 570 AD. He
was a great milit ary man and is known t o have def eat ed t he T amil Count ries
and kings of Ceylon. His son Simhavishnu was t he f irst Pallava monarch
whose domain is believed t o have ext ended beyond Kanchipuram.
Simhavishnu was pat ron of Bharavi, t he great poet who wrot e t he f amous
Kiratrjuniya, t he dialogue bet ween Arjuna and Shiva and in which Shiva
blessed Arjuna wit h t he Pasupat a Shast ra. In t he early 7t h cent ury, t he
Pallavas succeeded in imposing t heir rule f or a f ew years upon t he whole of
t he West ern Chalukya Kingdom and at an unspecif ied dat e, t hey levied t ribut e
even f rom t he Kalinga t errit ories.
He def eat ed is Chalukyan count erpart Pulkesin II in 642 AD and t hus t ook t he
revenge of his f at her's def eat . Pulkesin II was killed f ight ing him. He assumed
t he t it le "Vatapikonda" af t er def eat ing t he Chalukyan Monarch and sacking
t he capit al Vat api (Badami). Nayanmar saint s like Appar and
T irugnanasambandar lived during his reign. Huen T sang visit ed t he Pallava
kingdom during t he reign of Narsimhavarman-I. Among t he successors t he
import ant ones were Nripat unga who def eat ed a Pandya King Shrimara.
Articles from General Knowledge Today
Pallava Architecture
2013- 05- 23 18:05:00 GKToday
Cont ent s
T he Pallava archit ect ure shows the transition f rom t he Rock Cut
Archit ect ure t o t he St one built t emples.
T he earliest examples of t he Pallava art are t he rock cut t emples of t he
7t h cent ury AD, while t he lat er examples are of st ruct ural t emples built
in 8t h and 9t h cent ury.
T he rock cut relief s of t he Pallavas are t he earliest surviving royal
port rait s af t er t he Kushana images.
At t he end of 6t h cent ury, King Harsha ruled in t he Nort h and he pat ronized t he
Buddhist Inst it ut ions. In Sout h, Pallavas expanded t hemselves f rom t he much
of t he Andhra Pradesh of t oday t o much of T amil Nadu. T he Pallava Kings are
known t o be one of t he great est pat rons of t he art , music, archit ect ure, dance
and lit erat ure. King Mahendravarman was a poet and a playwright who wrot e a
sat ire on cont emporary lif e t it led "Mattavilasa Prahasana". Anot her King of
Pallava Dynast y named Rajsimha (Narsimhamvaraman) was such a great
lover of art t hat he used t he t it le "Kalasamudra" f or himself .
Mandagapattu rock cut temple
T he earliest monument of
Mahendravarman was Mandagapat t u rock
cut t emple which was a single rock cut
t emple built wit hout any wood, brick or
met al. It is locat ed near Villupuram in T amil
Nadu. T his t emple has t he icons of large
Dwarapalas which lat er became a
charact erist ic of almost all sout h Indian
t emples.
Kailasanat har T emple is best building creat ed during t he reign of Pallava King
Narsimhamvaraman. T his t emple is one of t he most beaut if ul t emples in India
which has well balanced sculpt ures like a jewel box. T his t emple is import ant
f or hist oric point of view because:
T his t emple inspired Rajraja Chola I t o built anot her great beaut y
Brihadeshwar T emple at T anjore.
T he direct & close int ervent ion of t he rulers st art ed af t er creat ion of t his
t emple.
T hus, t he Kailasanat har t emple began a new t radit ion in India where t he kings
t ook deep int erest in building t he t emples wit h great st ruct ural design and
ant iquit y. T his t emple has t he Lion Sculpt ors everywhere. Lion was t he insignia
of t he Pallavas.
T he mystery of 7 Pagodas