_ Flow of FluidsFLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PIPE METRIC EDITION — SI UNITS CRANE {All rights reserved. This publication is fully protected by copyright and nothing that appears in it may be re printed, either wholly or in part, without special per rission. Crane Co. specifically excludes warranties, express or implied, as to the accuracy of the data and other information set forth in this publication and dees not assume liability for any losses o damage resulting from the use of the materials or application of the data discussed in this publication, CRANE CO. 200 Park Avenue Now York, N.¥, 10022 © 1982—CRA Price $8.00 Price Outside U.S.A, $10.00CRANE Bibliography *R. A. Dodge & M. J. Thompson, "Fluid. Mechanics NeGiaw tl Book Company, ne 1997; pass 193,286 *H, Rowe, “Elementary Mochancs of Fluids"; John Wiley Sons fie, New Vouk, 1586 °F. Grizz, “Simplification of Gay Flow Culeulations by Meni of Now Spacil Sige Rule"; Perolown Bnginoor, Sepember, 205 *H. Kuchbach, “Lose of Energy in Miter Bends"; Trane actions of the Munich Hydraake Inttue, Balen No 3, faptin Solty"or Mechanical Enact, New York, is *“Dowthem, Handbook”; Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Michigan, 1984; pape 1. "RJ, S, Pigott, “Pressure Lovet in Tubing, Pipe, and Ftc lungs"; Tramsctions of the American Socley of Mechanicel Brginers, Volume 72, 1950; pages 679 10 688. ‘Steam Tables 1964” * Nation Engineering, Laboratory, MSO Eainbargh, UK *R.P, Stgamns, R. M. Jackson, RR. fobason, and C. A. Larson, Flow) Measurement with Orifice Mote” D. Van ‘Nostrand Compary, Ine, New York, 198), * setuid Meters”; American Society of Mechanical Engineers, art T~61h Eaton, New York, 1991 *R. G._Cunninghap, “Osco Meters with Supereritia! Compressile Flow"y ASME Paper No. S0-4-45 Ale Congoning Retienting aes Book Deg” _Amercan Sockty of Regering Engines, Sth Editon, Sow York 1338 See W. L. Nelson, “Poucleum Refinery Bnglncering"; McCrae: iat Book Co, New York 1a * Lional Marks, “Meshagical Engineers Handbook’ MoGrawtiat Hook Co, New Vere, 981 "YR. Mayhew & G. F.C Ropers, “Theemodyonmic sid Tiangpor? Properties of Fields" Bas lark, Ontord. UR DT2 1. B Mpxwell, “Data Book on fiyérocarbons"s D. Ven Nostrand Company. tne. New York, 1980, 1. Cop and BO. Rute “Loss of Head i Yates an Gf Onell to Twelve Inches Damier Lnvrersts of tuconsin Experimental Station Fealetin, Volume 9B 92s "GL. tuve and RE. Sprenle, “Orifice Discharge Cost ‘ian fr Viscous Liguiee"-Insraiments, November. 1a page 201 "LF. Moody, “Friction Factors for Pipe Haw” Tre sgtions of the American Society 0f Mecha! Emenee ‘Yotume'@6, November 1944; pages 71 Wo 8 MA. H. Shapico, “The Dynamics and Thermedynuna of Compressible Fluid Flow": The Konald Frew Compr 1955) Chapter 6 % ASME Steam Tables, 1967 °K. Hi ue), “Presute Loves for Fluid Flow in 90 Deptee Pipe Bends": Journal of Reveoreh of the National Barsot of Standards, Volume 2, uly 1938 Honfarke’ Standard Handbook for Mechonigol Liner Seventh Edition 1966, MeGraw-flt Book Ca, New Singha, EC. and Jaskion, RF, Burau of Sond Buen 14; pages 38 1 86 (S298. August. 19% ats) *T. R. Weymouth, Trnsations of the america Sets Mechanical Engrs, Voluoie 34,1912 pane 19 YR 1S, Pigott, “the Few of Fide in Chesed Combis” ‘Mechanical Engineering, Volume 82,6. Suo 13 paseo? “Emory Kemer, “A Study of Data on the Flow of Puids In Pipes,” Tragetins of the American Soctet) of Mecha. Eel Brgincers, Nol. 38,1935, 55 jandbook of Chemistry and, Physics,” 44:h Edition, 196251963 Chena Rubber Publishing Co, Cleland V1 Suetes, “Fluid Mechanles", Ist Eaton, 1951 Standards of Hydnalic Insitute", Eighth Eton, 1947, luernatonal Gas Union, Appendix 1 of sepost "Probes ising fom snterchangeabisty of scone amy ater" ay 9%6FOREWORD ‘The more complex indusiry becomes. the more vital becomes the role played by fuids in the industrial machine, One hundzed years 2g0 Water was the only important fluid which was conveyed from one point to another in pipe. ‘Today, almost every conceivable Auld is handled in pipe during #s production, processing, trans- portation, oF utihzation, The age of atomic ‘eneegy and rocket power has added fluids such as liquid metals... . ie, sodium, potassium, and bismuth, as well 35 lguid oxygen, nitrogen, fe... to the list of more common fluids such as oll, water, gazes, acids, and liquors that are being seansported in pipe today. Nor is the lwansportation of fluids the only phase of hydsaulics which warants attention now. Hydraulle and pneumatic mechanisms are used extensively for the controls of modern sicralt, seagoing vessels, awomotive equipment, machine tools, earth-moving and road-building machines, and even in scientific laboratory equipment where precise control of fluid flow ssrequized, So extensive are the applications of hydraulies ‘nd Duid mechanics that almost every engineer has found it necessary to famiarize himself ‘with at least the elementary laws of fuid flow To satisfy a demand for a simple and practical treatment of the subject of flow in pipe, Crane Co. published in 1935, « booklet entitled Flow fof Fluids and Heat Transmission. A revised edition on the subject of Flow of Fluids ‘Through Valves, Fitungs, and Pipe was pub: lished in 1942. Technical Paper No. 410, 8 com= pletely new edition with an all-new fosmat was introduced in 1957, In TP. 410, Crane has endeavoured to present the latest available Information on flow of fluids, in summarized form with all auxiliary data necessary to the sphition of all but the most unusual fluid flow problems, From 19S7 until the present, there have been ‘numerous printings of Technical Paper No. 410. Each successive printing is updated, as neces: sary, to reflect the latest low information aval able. This continual updating, we believe, serves the best interests ofthe users ofthis publication, ‘The fifteenth printing (1976 edition) presented a conceptual change regarding the valves of Equivalent Length “L/D” and Resistance Co- efficient "K™ for valves and fitings relative 10 the fiction factor in pipes. This change had relatively minor effect on most problemsdealing with flow conditions that result in Reynolds ‘numbers Falling in the turbulent zone. However for flow in the laminar zone, the change avoided 4 significant overstatement of pressure drop. Consistent with the conceptual revision, the resistance to flow through valves and fittings ‘was expressed in terms of resistance coefficient “K™ instead of equivalent length “L/D”, and the coverage of valve and fitting types was expanded: Further important revisions included the up ating of steam viscosity date, orifice costfi- cients, and.nozzie coefficients. TP, 410M was introduced in early 1977 as a metric version of the fiteenth printing of TP ‘410, Technical data, with eertsin exceptions, ate presented in terms of SI metre units. Exceptions Decur in instances Where present units outside the SI system (eg. nominal pipe sizes in inches) fare expected 10 continue in vee for an indefinite period, or whofe agreement has not yet been Feached on the specific metric units to be used (as for flow coefficients) Successive printings of T.P. 410M, like TP. 4410, ate updated as necessary 10 reMlect latest, low information availble, Aerangement of material i alike in both editions. Theory is presented in Chapters 1 and 2... practical ap- lication to low problems in Chapters 3and 4 Physical properties of fluids and flow charac: teristics of valves, fittings, and pipe in Appendix A... and sorversion units and other useful engineering dats in Appendix B. Most of the data on flow through valves and fittings were obtained by carefully conducted experiments in the Crane Engineering Lebo ratories. Liberal use his been made, howeves ‘of other reliable sources of data on this subject land cue credit har been given these sources in the text. The bibliography of references will provide a source for further study of the sub: Jeet presented CRANE co.Table of Contents — CHAPTER 1 Theory of Flow Introduction Physical Properties of Fluids Viscosity’ Density Specific volume Specific gravity Nature of Flow in Pipe Laminar and Turbulent Mean velocity of flow Reynolds number, Hydraulic radius General Energy Equation — Bernoulli's Theorem... Measurement of Pressure Darey’s Formula ~ General Equation for Flow of Fluids Friction facios Effect of age and use on pipe friction Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe: ‘Complete isothermal equation Simplified compressible flow ~ 3s pipe fine formula ‘Other commonly used formulas for ‘compressible flow in long pipe lines Comparison of formulas for compressible flow in pipe lines . Limiting flow of gases and vapors Steam ~ General Discussion. charter 3 Formulas and Nomographs for Flow Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Introduction, Summary of Formulas Formulas and Nomographs for Liguid Flow Velocity Reynolds number; friction factor for clean steal pipe Pressure drop for turbulent flow Pressure drop for laninar Hlow Flow through aozzies and orifices Formulas and Nom Compressible Flow Velocity 7 Reynolds numbe ‘lean steel pipe Pressure drop Simplified flow fi Flow through nozz pbs letion factor for CHAPTER 2 Flow of Fluids Through Valves and Fittings Introduction ‘Types of Valves and Fittings Used in Pipe Systems Pressure Drop Chargeable to Vaives and Fittings .. Crane Flow Tests Description of apparatus used Warer flow tests... Steam flow tests Relationship of Pressure Drop to Velocity of Fiow Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length, LID, and Flow Coefficient ‘Laminar Flow Conditions Contraction ané Enlargement... Valves with Reduced Seats Resistance of Bends Resistance of Mitre Bends Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices General data Liguid Flow Gas and vapor flow. Maximum flow of compressible fluids in a nozdle Flow through short tubes Discharge of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Lighid flow Compressible Haw CHAPTER 4 ——— Examples of Flow Problems Introduction 7 Reynokis Number and Frietion Factor for Pipe Other ther Stee! Determination af Valve Resistance in L. L/D, K, and Flow Coefficient Cy Check Vaives ~ Determination of Size Reduced Port Valves ~ Velocity and Rate cof Dischat Laminar Flow’ in Valves Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Sy Pipe Line Flow Discharge of Flu Fitsings, and PipeAPPENDIX A Physical Properties of Fluids and Flow Characteristics of Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Introduction Physical Properties of Fluids Viscosity of steam Viscosity of water Viscosity of liquid petroleum products Viscosity of vatious liquids Viscosity of gases and hydrocarbon vapors Viscosity of refrigerant vapors Physical properties of water... Specific gravity ~ temperature relationship for petroleum oils Density and specific gravity of Various liquids Physicel properties of gases Steam — values of 7 Density and specific volute of gases and vspors Volumetric composition and specific gravity of gaseous fuels . Properties; saturated steam Properties, superheated steam Flow Characteristies of Nozzles and Oritices Flow coefficient C for nozzles Flow coefficient C for square edged orifices Net expansion factor Y for compressible flow Critical pressure ratio, 7. for compressible flow Flow Charscterist ‘of Pipe, Valves, and Fittings Net 2xpansion factor ¥ for compressible flow through pipe (o a larger flow atea Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction facior for complete turbulence Friction factors for any type of commercial pipe Friction factors for cleas, eel pipe Representative Resistance Coefficients (K) for Valves and Fittings ~- “K" Factor Table Pipe friction factors 7 Formulas; contraction and enfargement Formulas, reduced port Gate, globe and angle valv Cheek valves ne Stop-check and foot va Ball and butterily valves Plug valves and cocks Bends and Lengths £ ang Resistance Coe K Nomezraph es and Fitings: Srp peer ee A A A & APPENDIX B Engineering Data age Introduction .. Bol Equivalent Volume and Mass Flow Rates of Compressible Fluids Equivalents of Viscosity Absolute (Dynamic) renee Kinematic Kinematic and Sayboli Universal. Kinematic and Saybolt Furol Kinematic, Sayboit Universal, Saybolt Furol, and Absolute Suybolt Universal Viscosity Chart Equivalents of Degrees API, Degrees Baumé, Specific Gravity, ond Density... B-7 {International System of Units (SI) B-8 Conversion Equivalents Length nesses seonnree BoA Area oo B10 Volume. aa B-10 Liquid Measure citrate C2 B10 Velocity «. 7 OI Bell Mass vonnaananmnene Bold Mass Flow Rate 7 . Boil Volumetric Rate af Flow Force Pressure and Liguid Head .cnscncrscesesn BHT? Energy, Work, Heat Sees tad De Power a Boi2 Flow Through Schedule 40 Stel Pipe Water Air Commercial Stee! Pipe Data ‘Schedules 10 10 160 B16 Standard, extra strong, and double extra sttong BI? Stainless Steal Pipe Dats sinners BB Commercial Stee Pipe Data ISO 336 and BS 3600. B19 Power eoquired for Pumping .ovsrnnennernnin Bo) Fahrenheit — Celsius Temperature Conversion... B22 Uustrations of Typical Va Globe, angle, and stop-check Lift and swing check Tilting dise check and foot Gate, ball, and butterfly Cocks Bibliography «see second page of book Foreword see thi page of book Nomenclature see next paseAPPENDIX A APPENDIX B Physical Properties of Fluids Engineering Data pees and Flow Characteristics of Rabaatuon a Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Equivalent Volume and Mast Flow Rates of Compressible FIUIES wns BH2 pas | Equivalents of Viscosity Incroduction . we ACL “Absolute (Dynami) Kinematic « = Physical Properties of Fluids Kinematic and Saybolt Universal Viscosity of steam. Ad Kinematic and Saybolt Fuel. Viscosity of water a Aa Kinematic, Saybolt Universal, Viscosity of liquid petroleum products A3 ‘Saybolt Furol, and Absolute Viscosity of various liquids fnnenonnnane A : YieoS Optus and hydrocarbon vapors. A-S_ | Ssvbolt Universal Viscosity Chart Viscosity of refrigerant vapors LACS Physical properties of water. “A-6 | Equivalents of Degrees API. Specific gravity — temperature Duzrees Baumé, Specific Gravity, and Density... B-7 relationship for petroleum oils. Ag Density and specific International System of Units (81). BB i of aus i At |g, aad yysical properties of gases Ao8 ‘onversion Equivalents Steam — Wales OF see AS Length Density and specific Area woltime of gases and vapors A-10 Volume Volumetric composition and Liquid Measure specific gravity of gaseous fuels AW Velocity Properties; saturated steam .. A-13 Mass Properties; superheated steam AA15 Mass Flow Rate sos Volumetric Rate of Flow . Flow Characteristics of FORCE nnn i Nozales and Oritices Pressure and Liquid Head Flow coefficient C for nozzles .. A-20 Energy, Work, Heat Flow coefficient C for square edged orifices Net expansion factor ¥ for compressible flow Critical pressure ratio, 7, for compressible flow Flow Characteristios of Pipe, Valves, and Fittings [Net expansion factor ¥ for compressible flow through pipe to a larger flow area Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction factor for complete turbulence ... Friction factors for ‘any type of commercial pipe Friction facters for clean commercial steel pipe Representative Resistance Coefficients (K) for Valves and Fittings — "K” Factor Table Pipe friction factors ct Formulas; contraction and enlargement een Formulas; reduced port valves and fittings Gate, globe end angle valves Cheek valves : ‘Stop-check and foot valves .. Ball and butterfly valves Plug valves nd cocks Bends and fittings ... Pipe entrance sad exit Equivalent Lengths L ané L/D ‘and Resistance Coefficient K Nomograph Ad ABB A-24 w AHDS Power sane Flow Through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe Water B-13,B-15 Alt ccc B14, B-15 Commercial Steel Pipe Dato Schedules 10 to 160 B16 Standard, extra strong, and double extra strong... Bat Stainless Stee! Pipe Data on BAB Commercial Steel Pipe Data TSO 336 and BS 3600. B19 Power required for Pumping «nme B-2t Fahrenheit ~ Celsius Temperature Conversion... B22 MISCELLANEOUS IMlustrations of Typical Valves oe Globe, angie, ard stop-check .... ove AB Lift and swing check 2T and A-18 Tilting disc check and foot .. ones AAD Gate, ball, and butterfly a9, Cock’ SC An19 Bibliography see second page of book Foreword see third page of book Nomenclature soe next pageNomenclature Uniess otherwise stated, all symbols used in this book are defined as follows: ‘A = cross sectional area of pipe or orifice, in square meties a= cross sectional area of pipe or orifice, oF flow ‘area in vale, in square milimetres rate of flow in bareis (42 US gallons) per hour flow coefficient for orifices and nozzles = dis- charge coefficient corrected for velocity of approseh= Ca Vip = discharge coefficient for orifices and nozzles = flow coefficient for valves intemal diameter of pipe, in metres internal diameter of pipe, in millimetres base of natural logarithm = 2.718 friction factor in formula hz = {L0*/D 26m friction factor in zone of complete turbulence acceleration of gravity = 9.81 metres per second per second H- = total head, in metses of uid /h = static prestare head existing ata point, im metres of fluid hy, = loss of static pressure head dve to fluid flow, in metres of uid Jig = static pressure head, in millimetres of water K- = resistance coefficient or velocity head loss in the formula, fi, = Ko*/28, L_ = length of pipe, in metres s 8 ‘equivalent length of a resistance to flow, in pipe diameters length of pipe, in kilometres molecular weight (molecular mass) = pressure, in newtons per square metre (pascals) gauge P’ = pressure, in newtons per square metre (pascals) ‘absolute (see page 15 for diagram showing relation- ‘hip between gauge and eBsolute presture) p= pressure, in bars gauge PY = pressure, in bars absolute rate of flow, in litres per minute rate of flow, in cubic metres per second at flow- ing conditions tate of flow, in cubic metres per second at metric standard conditions (MSC)-1.013 25 bar absolute and 15°C @'z = rate of flow, in millions of cubic metres per day at MSC rate of flow, in cubic metres per hour at MSC rate of flow, in cuble metres per minute at flowing conditions rate of flow, in cubic metres per minute at MSC universal gas constant = 8314 J/kg--mol K individual gas constant = Ro/M J/kg K (where ‘molecular weight of the gas) Reynolds number hydraulic radius, in metres critical pressure ratio for compressible flow specific gravity of liquids at specified temper- ature relative to water at standard temper- ature (15°C) ~ (elative density) ‘) wep M Sg = specific gravity of a gas relative to air = the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas 10 that of air (relative density) T = absolute temperature, in kelvins (273 + £) = temperature, in degrees Celsius 7 = specific volume of fluid, in cubic metres per kilogram mean velocity of flow, in metres per minute volume, in cubic metres mean velocity of flow, in metres per second sonic (or critical) velocity of flow of a gas, in metres per second rate of flow, in kilograms per hour rate of flow, in kilograms per second ‘mass, in kilograms net expansion factor for compressible flow through orifices, nozzles, or pipe Z = potential head or elevation above reference level, in metres Greek Letters ratio of small to large diameter in orifices and nozzles, and contractions or enlargements in pipes ‘y= satio of specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant volume = ¢p/¢y differential between two points € = absolute roughness or effective height of pipe ‘wall irregularities, in millimetres = dynamic (absolute) viscosity, in cent nu’ = dynamic viscosity, in newton seconds per square ‘metre (pascal seconds) kinematic viscosity, in centistokes kinematic viscosity, metres squared per second p= weight density of fluid, kilograms per cubic metre p’ = density of fluid, grams per cubic centimetse ‘Sigma = = summation Thee 6 = angle of convergence or divergence in enlarge ‘ments or contractions in pipes ‘Subscripts for Diamoter (1). defines smaller diameter (2) .- defines larger diameter Subscripts for Fluld Property (1) .--dlefines intet (upstream) condition (2) 1. .defines outlet (downstream) conditionTheory of Flow CHAPTER 1 ‘The most commonly employed method of transporting Aiuid from one point to another is to force the fluid to flow through 4 piping system. Pipe of eircular section is most Frequently used because that shape offers not only greater Stractural strength, but also greater cross sectionel area per ‘nit of wall surface than any other shape. Unless otherwise ‘suted, the word “pipe” in this book will always refer to a Closed conduit of cireular section and constant internal digmeter. Only a few special problems in fluid mechanics ... laminar fow in pipe, for example . . . . can be entirely solved by rational mathematical means; all other problems require methods of solution which rest, at least in part, on experi- Inentally determined coefficients. Many empirical formules Te been proposed for the problem of flow in pipe, but these are often extremely limited and can be applied only \uhon the conditions of the problem closely approach the Conditions of the experiments from which the formulas were derived. Because of the great variety of Muids being handled in jmodem industrial processes, 8 single equation which can be used for the flow of any fluid in pipe offers obvious fdvantages, Such an equation is the Darcy* formula. The Darey formula can be derived rationally by means of dimen- Sonal analysis; however, one variable in the formula the friction factor . ... must be determined experimentally. ‘This formula hes # wide application in the field of fluid mechanics and is used extensively thronghout this paper. The Dorey formes is also known as the Webbach formula of the Darcy, Fe are rorgrais, as the Fanming formula, sometimes modified so that Wetbact sefactor is one-fourth the Day friction factor.12 CHAPTER } — THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE CRANE Physical Properties of Fluids ‘The solution of any flow problem requires a knowledge of the physical properties of the fluid being handled. Accurate values for the properties affecting the flow of fluids . namely, viscosity and mass density... have been estab- lished by many authorities for all commonly used ffuids and many of these data are presented in the various tables and charts in Appendix A. Viscosity: Viscosity expresses the readiness with which a fluid flows when it is acted upon by an external force, The coefficient of absolute viscosity or, simply, the sbso- Jute viscosity of a fluid, is a measure of its cesistance to internal deformation or shear. Molasses isa highly viscous fluid; water is comparatively much less viscous; and the Wacosity of gates is quite small compared to that of water. Although most fluids are predictable in their viscosity, in some, the viscosity depends upon the previous working of the fluid. Printer’s ink, wood pulp slurries, and catsup are examples of fluids possessing such thixotropic properties of viscosity. Considerable confusion exists concerning the units used to express viscosity; therefose, proper units must be employed whenever substituting values of viscosity into formulas. Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity: The coherent SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal second (Pa s) which may also be expressed as the newton second per square metre (N sim*), of as the kilogram per metre second kg/(m s). ‘This unit has also been called the poiseuille (PI) in France but it should be noted that it is not the same as the polse {P) described below. ‘The poise is the corresponding unit in the CGS system of units and has the dimensions of dyne seconds per square centimetre or of grams per centimetre second. The sub- multiple centipoise (cP), 10-* poise, is the unit most com- monly used at present to express dynamic viscosity and this situation appears likely to continue for some time, For this reason, and since most handbooks and tables follow the same procedure, all viscosity data in this paper are expressed in centipoise. The relationship between pascal second and centipoise is: 1Pa 1eP ANsfm? = 1 kg/m s) = 10* cP = 107 Pas In this paper the symbol pis used for viscosity measured in centipofse and ji’ for viscosity measured in pascal second units, The viscosity of water at temperature of 20°C is very nearly 1 centipoise* or 0.001 pascal seconds, ‘Actually the viscosity of water at 20°C ie 1.002 centipaise Kinematic Viscosity: This is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the density. in the SI system the unit of kinematic viscosity is the metre squared per second (m1"/5) ‘The corresponding CGS unit is the stokes (St), dimensions, centimetres squared per second and the centistoke (cSt), 10° stokes, is the submultiple commonly used, 1 mijs= 10° eSt 1eSt = 10-* mys »(Centistokes) = —#eeatipoise) _ B Grams per cubic cm) Factors for conversion between the Si and CGS units described above and also for Imperial units of dynamic and kinematic viscosity are given on page B-3 of Appen- dix B. The measurement of the absolute viscosity of fluids {especially gases and vapours) requires elaborate equipment and considerable experimental skill. On the other hand, 2 rather simple instrament in the form of a tube viscometer ‘or viscosimeter can be used for measuring the kinematic viscosity of ofls and other viscous liquids. With this type of instrument the time required for 2 small volume of liquid to flow through an orifice is determined and the measurement of kinematic viscosity expressed in terms of seconds. Various forms of tube viscosimeters are used resulting in empirical seales such as Saybolt Universal, Saybolt Furol (for very viscous liquids), Redwood No 1 and No 2 and Engler. Information on the relationships between these empirical viscosities and kinematic and dynamic viscosities in absoluie units is included in Appendix B. ‘The ASTM standard viscosity temperature chart for liquid petroleum products, reproduced on page B-6 is used to determine the Saybokt Universal viscosity of 2 petroleum product at any temperature when the viscosities at two different temperatures are known. The viscosities of some of the most common fluids are given on pages A-2 to A It will be noted that, with a rise in temperature, the vis cosity of liquids decreases, whereas the viscosity of gases increases. The effect of pressure on the viscosity of liquids, and perfect gases is so small that it is of no practical interest in most flow problems. Conversely, the viscosity of satureted, or only slightly supetheated.vapours appreciably altered by pressure changes, as indicated on age A-2 showing the viscosity of steam. Unfortunately the data on vapours are incomplete and, in some cases, contradictory. Therefore, it is expedient when dealing ‘with vapours other than steam to neglect the effect of pressure because of the lack of adequate date, dbook of (Chemisty and Physiess4th Fuition 1973-4 CRC Press)CRANE CHAFTER 1 ~ s Physical Properties of Fiuids Density, specifie volume and specifie gravity: The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The coherent SI unit of density is the Kilogram per cubic metre (ke/m?) and the symbol designation used in this paper is (Rho). Other commonly used metric units are gram per cubic centimetre (g/emn’)} Lglem* or or i giml gram per miliitre (g/ml) = 1000 kg/m? ‘The coherent SI unit of specific volume P, which is the reciprocal of density, is the cuble metre per kilogran (en'ykg) a bie Other commonly used metric units for specific volume are litre per kilogram (litze/kg) 4 hitee/ or or} dm*p cuble decimetre per kilogram (dm*/kg)| = 0.001 m’/ke ‘The variations in density and other properties of water ‘with changes in temperature are shown on page A-6. The densities of other common liquids are shown on page A-7 Unless very high pressures are being considered the effect, of pressure on the density of liquids is of no practical importance in flow problems. ‘The densities of gases and vapours, however, are greatly altered by pressure changes. For the so-called “perfect” gases, the density can be computed from the formula, sae Rr ‘The individual gas constant R is equal to the universal gas. constant Ro (8314 J/kg-mol K) divided by the molecular ‘weight M of the gas, Ree MM 314 R= tke K Values of R, as well as other useful gas constants, are given on page AS. The density of air for various conditions of temperature and pressure can be found on page A-10, Specific volume is commonly used in steam flow com- pputations and values are listed in the steam tables shown fon pages A-13 to Ad7. A chart for determining the density and specific volume of gases is given on page A-11 HEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE continued Specific gravity (or relative density) is a relative measure of density. Since pressure has an insignificant effect upon the density of liquids, temperature is the only condition that must be considered In designating the basis for specific gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio OF its density at a specified temperature to that of water at some standard temperature, Usually the temperatures are the same and 60°F/60°F (15.6°C/15.6°C) is com- monly used. Rounding off to 15°C/15°C does not create any significant exror any liquid at 5 < P-speeiied temperature p water at 60°F (15.60) ‘A hydrometer can be used (o measure the specific gravity of a liquid directly. Two hydrometer scales in comrnon vse are: API scale, used for oils. Baumé sesles. There are two kinds in use: one for liquids heavier than water and one for liquids lighter ‘than water. ‘The relationships between these hydcometer scales and specific gravity are For ois, Mis s(eorrjerm) = 4S S(OFIOOE) = 575 + deg. ADL origi iehtes than water, 40 Ss ate » 130+ deg. Baumé For liquids heavier than water, 145 S(OUFIOOE) = 35a waa For converting hydrometer readings to more useful units refer to table on page B-7. ‘The specific gravity of gases is defined as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gosto that of air, and asthe ratio. of the individual gas constant of air to that of gas. Revit) _ Migs) Ries)” Mei) SeCRANE CHAPTER 1 — THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE Physical Properties of Fluids — continued Density, specific volume and specific gravity: The density ‘of substance is its mass per unit volume, The coherent ST unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m?) and the symbol designation used in this paper is o (Rho), Other commonly used metric units are 1 glem* or} git 1000 ke/m* sgram per cubic centimetre (g/cm?) gram per milliite (g/ml) ‘The coherent SI unit of specific volume V7, which is the reciprocal of density, is the cubic metre per kilogram (mn'}kg) Other commonly used metric units for specific volume are: litte per kilogram (litre/kg) Dlitee/kg or or | dm/kg cubic decimetre per kilogram (dm*/kg)} = 0.001 m*/kg ‘The variations in density and other properties of water with changes in temperature are shown on page A. The densities of other common liquids are shown on page A-7 Unless very high pressures are being considered the effect of pressure on the density of liquids is of no practical importance in flow problems. ‘The densities of gases and vapours, however, are greatly dered by protute changes For the socaled “perfect” tases the density can be computed from the formol, Heit ios, ar O° Rr ° ‘The individual gas constant R is equal to the universal gas constant Ry (8314 3/ke-mol K) divided by the molecular weight M of the gas, Ro _ 8314 R=5 Jike K. Values of R, as well as other useful gas constants, are given on page AS. The density of air for various conditions of temperature and pressure can be found on page A-10. Specific volume is commonly used in steam flow com: puitations and values ate listed in the steam tables shown fon pages A-l3 to A-I7. A chart for determining the density and specific volume of gases is given on page A‘I 1 Specific gravity (or relative density) is & relative measure of density. Since pressure has an insignificant effect upon the density of liquids, temperature is the only condition that must be considered in designating the basis for specific gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio ‘af its density at a specified temperature to that of water, at some standard temperature. Usually the temperatures fre the seme and 60°F/60°F (15.6°C/15,6°C) is com- monly used, Rounding off to 15°C/15°C does not create any significant error, any liquid at 6 specified temperature p water at 60°F (15.6°C) A hydrometer can be used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid directly, Two hydrometer scales in common use are API seale, used for oils. Baumé scales, There are two Kinds in use: one for liquids heavier than water and one for liguids lighter than water. The relationships between these hydrometer scales and specific gravity are For oils, 141s s (6orR/6rR) = —— MS ___ i or 131.5 + deg. API For liquids lighter than water, 5 (60°F/60°F) For liquids heavier than water 145 145 — deg, Baume 5 (60°F/60"F) For converting hydrometer readings to more useful units refer to table on page B-7. The specific gravity of gases is defined as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to that of air, and as the ratio of the individual gas constant of air to that of gas. Rear) _ Migs) Rigs) M(ain)1a CHAPTERY “THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE CRANE Nature of Flow in Pipe — Laminar and Turbulent Figura 12 low in Critieal Zone, Between ond Transition Zonee |At the critical velocity, the filaments rea up, indicating flow is Laminar Flow ‘Actual photopranh of coloured filaments being carried long undisturbed by 3 besin to becoming turbulent ‘A simple experiment (illustrated above) will readily show there are two entirely different types of flow in pipe. The experiment consists of injecting small streams of a coloured fluid into a liquid flowing in a glass pipe and observing the behaviour of these coloured streams at different sections downstream from their points of injection. If the discharge or average velocity is small, the streaks of coloured fluid flow in straight lines, as shown in Figure 1-1 As the flow rate is gradually increased, these streaks will ‘continue to flow in straight Lines untila velocity is reached when the streaks will waver and suddenly break into diffused patterns, as shown in Figure 1-2. The velocity at which this occurs is called the “critical velocity”. At velocities higher than “critical”, the filaments are dispersed at random throughout the main body of the fluid, as showa in Figure 1-3, ‘The type of flow which exists at velocities lower than “critical” is known as laminar flow and, sometimes, as viscous or streamline flow. Flow of this nature is character- ized by the gliding of concentric cylindrical layers past ‘one another in orderly fashion. Velocity of the fluid is at its maximum at the pipe axis and decreases sharply to zero at the wall 'At velocities greater than “critical”, the flow is turbulent, In turbulent flow, there is an irregular random motion of fluid particles in directions transverse to the direction of the main flow. The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more uniform across the pipe diameter than in laminar flow, Even though 2 turbulent motion exists throughout the greater portion of the pipe diameter, there is always a thin layer of fluid at the pipe wall . . . . known as the “boundary layer” or “laminar sub-ayer” . . .. which is ‘moving in laminar flow. Mean velocity of flew: The term “velocity”, unless other: wise stated, refers to the mean, or average, velocity at a given cross section, as determined by the continuity equa- tion for steady state flow eee gestion 1-4 A Ap A . (For nomenclature, se page preceding Chapter 1) “Reasonable” velocities for use in design work are given con pages 3.6 and 3-46. Figure 13 Turbulent Flow “This itustration shows the turbulonce in the straum completly “spersing. the coloured Wiamentsa shart distance down Stream from the point of injection. Reynolds number: The work of Osborne Reynolds has shown that the nature of flow in pipe... that is, whether it is laminar or turbulent depends on the pipe diameter, the density and viscosity of the flowing fluid, and the velocity of flow. The numerical value of a dimen- sionless combination of these fous variables, known as the Reynolds number, may be considered to be the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass flow to the shear stress due to viscosity. Reynolds number is: Equation 12 {other forms of this equation; page 3-2.) For engineering purposes, flow in pipes is usually con sidered to be laminar if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, and turbulent if the Reynolds number is greater than 4000, Between these two values lies the “critical zone” where the flow . ... being laminar, turbulent, or in the process of change, depending upon many possible varying conditions . .. . is unpredictable. Careful experi mentation has shown that the laminar zone may be made to terminate at a Reynolds number as low as 1200 or extended as high as 40,000, but these conditions are not expected to be realized in ordinary practice. Hydraulic radius: Occasionally a conduit of non-circular cross section is encountered. In calculating the Reynolds number for this condition, the equivalent diameter (Four times the hydraulic radius) is substituted for the circular diameter. Use friction factors given on pages A-24 and ADS. Ry = "oss sectional flow ares wetted perimeter ‘This applies to any ordinary conduit (circular conduit not flowing full, oval, square or rectangular) but not to extremely narrow ‘shapes such 2s annular or elongated ‘openings, where width is small relative to length, In such ‘cases, the hydraulic radius is approximately equal to one bhalf the width of the passage. To determine quantity of flow in following formula iD Tt the value of d* is based upon an equivalent diameter + actual flow area and 4), is substituted for D. @ = 0.2087" v‘CRANE CHAPTERLT THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE: 15 General Energy Equation Bernoulli's Theorem ‘The Bernoulli theorem is a means of expressing the application of the law of conservation of energy to the flow of fhuids in a conduit. The total energy at any par- ticular point, above some arbitrary horizontal datum eee aa A S180 Line plane, is equal to the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head, and the velocity head, as follows: z+te H PB If friction losses are neglected and no energy is added to, ‘or taken from, a piping system (Le., pumps or turbines), the total head, 1. in the above equation will be a constant for any point in the fluid. However, in actual practice, losses or energy increases or decreases are encountered and must be included in the Bernoulli equation. Thus, an ‘energy balance may be written for two points in a fluid, as shown in the example in Figure 1-4, in Note the pipe friction loss from point 1 to point 2 (hy) may be referred to as the head loss in mettes of fluid. ‘The equation may be written as follows: - 7 Z, 2 2 J) arpivery Horitontl pete Pine z AP Tira eet taeeerer gt ett Rif 28a P:8n 28m poate trary Calne i Pe PoloiaFd srs aan Do Al practical fonulas for the ow of foids are derived em ra Mechvig' odee fp emul hee, Wh micas fo assoit sad Br eenpes Torlets duet cton, Measurement of Pressure Pennine atte enti Figue 1-5 graphically lustates the relationship between wy Reet see St gauge and absolute pressures. Perfect vacuum cannot exist 2 ee auctace of the earth, butt nevertheless makes F | CUuvontnt datum forthe mesnuromoot of prestar =| Aurometricpressr isthe lee the atrosphei pre a “Start” atmospheric _premure ts 1.01325 bet ik 5 4 any tras sion ssmossre Sl i |absotuse Presure = Gouge + Baremetre Protura Absoluce Zero of Pressure Perot Vacuum Figure t Relationship Between Gauge and Abrotte Pressures (14.6959 Ibflin*) or 760 millimetres of mercury Gauge pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure, while absolute pressure always refers to perfect vacuum asa base. Vacuum is the depression of pressure below the atmo- spheric level. Reference to vacuum conditions is often ‘made by expressing the absolute pressure in terms of the height of 2 column of mercury or of water. Millimetre of ‘mereury, micrometre (micron) of mercury, inch of water and inch of mercury, are some of the commonly used conventionat units ‘ll superior Fgures used as reference marks refer to the Bibliography1-6 CHAPTER 1 ~ THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE CRANE Darcy's Formula General Equation for Flow of Fluids Flow in pipe is always accompanied by friction of fluid particles rubbing against one another, and consequently, by loss of energy available for work; in other words, there must be a pressure drop in the direction of flow. If ordinary Bourdon tube pressure gauges were connected to apipe containinga flowing fuid,as shown in Figure 1-6, gauge P, would indicate 7 2 higher static pressure” 7 than gauge P, ‘The general equation for pressure drop, known as Darey’s formula and expressed in metres of fluid, is hy, = fL1/D 2eq. This equation may be written to express pressure drop in newtons per square metre (pascals) by substitution of proper units, as follows: pho ap (ince AP = hy, x PX Bq) Equation 1.4 For other forms ofthis equation, see page 32 The Darcy equation is valid for laminar or turbulent flow of any liquid in a pipe. However, when extreme velocities ‘occurring in a pipe cause the downstream pressure to fall to the vapour pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and calculated flow rates will be inaccurate. With suitable restrictions, the Darcy equation may be used when gases and vapours (compressible fluids) are being handled, These restrictions are defined on page 1-7 Equation 1-4 gives the loss in pressure due to friction and applies to pipe of constant diameter carrying fluids of reasonably constant density in straight pipe, whether horizontal, vertical, or sloping. For inclined pipe, vertical pipe, or pipe of varying diameter, the change in pressure ‘due to changes in elevation, velocity, and density of the fluid must be made in accordance with Bernoulli's theorem (page 1-5), For an example using this theorem, see page 43. Friction factor: The Darcy formula can be rationally derived by dimensional analysis, with the exception of the friction factor, f, which must be determined experi- mentally. The friction factor for laminar flow conditions (Re < 2000) is a function of Reynolds number only; whereas, for turbulent flow (Re > 4000), itis also a funce tion of the character of the pipe wall, ‘A region known as the “critical zone” occurs between Reynolds number of approximately 2000 and 4000. In this region, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent dopending upon several factors; these include changes in section or direction of ow and obstructions, such as valves, in the upstream piping. The friction factor in this region is indeterminate and has lower limits based on laminae flow and upper limits based on turbulent flow conditions ‘At Reynolds numbers above approximately 4000, flow conditions again become more stable and definite friction factors can be established. This is important because it enables the engineer to determine the flow characteristics of any fluid flowing in a pipe, providing the viscosity and density at flowing conditions are known. For this reason, Equation 1-4 is recommended in preference to some of the commonly known empirical equations for the flow of, water, cil, and other liquids, as well as for the flow of compressible fluids when restrictions previously mentioned are observed If the flow is laminar (Re < 2000), the friction factor may be determined from the equation: 64 | 84ut 64 R.” Dep f dvp If this quantity is substituted into Equation 14, the presse drop in newton per square metre Le ap = 3200045" Equation 15 which is Poiseuille’s law for laminar flow. When the flow is turbulent (Re > 4000), the friction factor depends not only upon the Reynolds number but also upon the relative roughness, ¢/d .... the roughness of the pipe walls (e), as compared to the diameter of the pipe (@). For very smooth pipes such as drawn brass tubing and glass, the friction factor decreases more rapidly with inereasing Reynolds number than for pipe with compara- tively rough walls, ‘Since the character of the internal surface of commercial pipe is practically independent of the diameter, the roughness of the walls has a greater effect on the friction factor in the small sizes. Consequently, pipe of small diameter will approach the very sough condition and, in general, will have higher friction factors than large pipe of the same material. ‘The most useful and widely accepted data of friction factors for use with the Darcy formula have been pre~ sented by L. F, Moody” and are reproduced on pages 4-23 to A-25. Professor Moody improved upon the well- established Pigott and Kemler** friction factor diagram incorporating more recent investigations and developments of many outstanding scientists. ‘The friction factor, f, is plotted on page A-24 on the br of relative roughness obtained from the chart on pag A-23 and the Reynolds number. The value of fis deter- mined by horizontal projection from the intersection of the 4 8 6 7 ver eon ie vate Vt toms Pere 1 kPa = 0.01 bar ire Water Flow Tests — Curves 1 to 18 CRANE Class 150 Brass Conventional Globe Velve with ‘Composition Disc ~ Flat Seat [rw | tee age Lon ae | je ; | | ‘Class 150 Brass Angle Vah D | ist SESE erePeatteeeeeada Cee | Winer A | ae Te wig fois 1 4 x cl Check Valve: romeas| | A 2 La fo jas 195 ran Body So mL. eck Vale fo chock valves at lower velooiies where curves (24 to 17) bene, al valves were tested with diss fully ites28. CRANE ‘CHAPTER 7 = FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS. Crane Steam Flow Tests eo ol Pressure Drop, in kPa oT pa a Be ‘Steam Velocity, in Thousands of Metres per Minute Figure 26 1 kPa = 0.01 ber Pressure Drop, in kPa oo eo LL Zi I oy 7S f SStaam Vetority, in Thousands of Metres per Minute Figure 27 Steam Flow Tests ~ Curves 19 to 34 Valeo? or Eating Type | igute 26 ‘Saturated | Plug type Seat | Plug Type Seat Plug Type Seat Ball to Cone Seat | ‘Clase 300 Brass Conventional Globe Valve ‘Gass 300 Stee! Conventional Globe Valve ‘Class 800 Steel Angle Valve (lass 300 Steel Angie Valve ass 600 Steal Angle Stop-Check Valve | {Glass 600 Steet Pattern Clabe Stop Check Valve ‘Gass 600 Steal Angle Valve (ints 600 Steel ¥-Pastera Globe Valet | | asm | ; 90 | 7 s | as | frmear | > | § | te ' Silat | Eo uff | | i L 90° Short Radius Elbow for Use with Schedule 40 Pipe | ass 250 Cast Iron Flanged Cozventional 90° Blbow i lass 600 Stee! Gate Valve | (Gass 125 Cast ton Gate Valve Gaze 150 Stead Gate Valve TEncoh for check vales at lower volociios where curve (23 and 24) bend, sl valves were tested with diss folly bite.cereus Figure 28 Flows tat piping for 34 inch (69 m0) cast steel angle valve Figure 29 ‘Steam capacity te ota inen (15 mn brat ale! valveCRANE CHAPTER 2 — FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS Relationship of Pressure Drop to Velocity of Flow Many experiments have shown that the head loss due to valves and fittings is proportional to a constant power of the velocity, When pressure drop or head loss is plotted against velocity on logarithmic co-ordinates, the resulting curve is therefore a sirsight line. In the tur bulent flow range, the value of the exponent of ? has been found to vary from about 1.8 to 2.1 for different designs of valves and fittings. However, for all practical purposes, it can be assumed that the pressure drop or hhead loss due to the flow of fuids in the turbulent range through valves and fittings varies a8 the square of the velocity ‘This relationship of pressure drop to velocity of flow is valid for check valves, only if there is sufficient flow to hhold the dise in a wide open position. The point of deviation of the test curves from a straight line, as iMustrated in Figures 2.5 and 2-6, defines the flow conditions necessary to support a check valve disc in the wide open position, Most of the difficulties encountered with check valves, both lift snd swing types, have been found to be due to oversizing which results in noisy operation and pre ature wear of the moving parts, Referring again to Figure 2.6, it will be noted that the velocity of 3.5 bar saturated steam, st the point where the two curves deviate from a straight line, is about 4000 to 4500 metres/minute. Lower velocities are not sufficient to lift the dise through its full stroke and hold it in a stable position against the stops, and can actually result in an increase in pressure drop as indicated by the ‘curves. Under these conditions, the disc fluctuates with each minor flow pulsation, causing noisy operation and Figure 211 Yee Swing Chose Valve Life cheek rapid wear of the contacting moving parts, ‘The minimum velocity required to lift the disc to the fullopen and stable position has been determined by tests for numerous types of check and foot valves, and is given in the “K” Factor Table (see pages 4-26 thru A.29). It is expressed in terms of a constant times the square root of the specific volume of the fluid being handled, making it appliable for use with any ful. Sizing of check valves in accordance with the specified minimum velocity for full dise lift will often result in valves smaller in size than the pipe in which they are installed; however, the actual pressure drop will be little if any, higher than that of a full size valve which is used in other than the wide-open position. The advantages are Jonger valve life and quieter operation, The losses due to sudden or gradual contraction and enlargement which will occur in such installations with bushings, reducing flanges, or tapered reducers can be readily calculated from the data given in the “K” Factor Table. Figure 2612 oth water ce ao tats are conducted 09 Mi sep28. “CHAPTER 2~-FLOW OF 106 THROUGH-VALVES AND FIT: CRANE Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length L/D. ‘And Flow Coefficient Pressure loss test data for a wide variety of valves and fittings are available from the work of numerous investi- gators. Extensive studies in this field have been con- ducted by Crane Laboratories. However, due to the time-consuming and costly nature of such testing, it is virtually impossible to obtain test data for every size and type of valve and fitting, It is therefore desirable to provide a means of reliably extrapolating available test information to envelope those items which have not been or cannot readily be tested. Commonly used concepts for accomplishing this are the “equivalent length L/D", “*tesistance co- efficient K”, and “flow coefficient C, 0 Ky” Pressure losses in a piping system result from a number of system characteristics, which may be categorized as, follows 1. Pipe friction, which is a function of the surface roughness of the interior pipe wall, the inside diameter of the pipe, and the fluid velocity, density and viscosity. Friction factors are dis ‘cussed on pages 1-6 and 1-7, For friction data, see pages A.23 thru A.25. ‘Changes in direction of Bow path. Obstructions in flow path Sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of flow path Velocity in a pipe is obtained at the expense of static head, and decrease in static head due to velocity is, Equation 241 Which is defined as the “Velocity head”. Flow through a valve or fitting in 2 pipe line also causes a reduction in static head which may be expressed in terms of velocity head, The resistance coefficient X in the equation Equation 22 thetefore, is defined as the number of velocity heads lost due to a valve or fitting. It is always astociated with the diameter in which the velocity occurs. In most, valves or fittings, the losses due to friction (Category 1 above) resulting from actual Iength of flow path are minor compared to those due to one or more of the other three categories listed. The resistance coefficient K is therefore considered as being independent of friction factor or Reynolds num ber, and may be treated a: a coastant for any given obstruction (ic., valve or fitting) in a piping system under all conditions of flow, including laminar flow. ‘The same loss in straight pipe is expressed by the Ducey 2 ot D) 2, «@) ‘The ratio L/D is the equivalent length, in pipe diameters of straight pipe, that will cause the same pressure drop as the obstruction under the sume flow conditions. Since the resistance coefficient K is constant for all conditions of flow, the value of L/D for any given valve or fitting must necessarily vary inversely with the change i friction factor for different flow conditions. The resistance coefficient K would theoretically be a constant for all sizes of a given design or line of valves and fittings if all sizes were geometrically similar However, geometric similanty is seldom, if ever achieved because the design of valves and fittings dictated by manufacturing economies, standards structural strength, and other considerations 0mm i2inen size 300 mp 12 ne) size Hescate oe oS sone aie st Figure 2-13, Geometrical dissiitarity between 50 mm {2 inch} an "300 min 112 inch) standard cast fron flanged woe ‘An example of geometric dissimilarity is shown in Figure 2-13 where 2 300 mm (12 inch) standard elbow hhas been drawn to 1/6 scale of a $0 mm (2 inch) stan dard elbow, so that their port diameters ate identical ‘The Bow paths through the two fittings drawn to these ales would also have to be identical to have geometr similarity; in addition, the relative roughness of th surfaces would have to be similar Figure 214 is based on the analysis of extensive test data from various sources. The K coefficients umber of lines of valves and fittings have been against size. It will be noted that the & a definite tendency to follow the same slope vs tt (continued on nes! oerCRANE CHAPTER 7 = FLOWOF FLUIDS. Resistance Coefficient THROUGH VALVES AND EITTINGS. K, Equivalent Length L/D, And Flow Coefficient - continued 2 £ 3 2 2 Say Et 2 2 |*s fi 0 i hg be ae 8 13 $e I TET SOT ETO IK ~ Resistance Coetticiont Figure 2-14, Variations of Resistance Coefficient K (= { L/D) with Size [Bravo Prada Teed] aut 7 © Schedule 40 Pipe, 30 Diameters Long (K = 30/9" Moody ASME. Trans., Nov-1944 Class 125 tron Body Wedge Gate Valves: Univ. of Wise. Exp. Sta, Bul, Vel. 9, No. 1, 19227° |g — chase 600 Stat Woe Gate Vares, Texts | |. — 90 Degree Pipe Bends, R/D = 2 Pigott AS.M.E. Trans. 1950° 1 = so Degree ripe nevis, 10 = 2 Pigott AS ME, Tras, 19808 | + — 90 Degree Pipe Bends, R/D = I Pigott A.S.M.E. Trans., 1950° |G — Cass 600 Steet Wedge Gate Valves, Sear Reduced Crane Tests 14 Class 300 Steel Venturi Ball Cage Gate Valves. Crane-Armour Tests | — case 25 won Body VPs lone Ves © Crane Aamour Tests 1 = eas 125 trae Ange Vales, Composition Die © Geane Teste [yeu 125 mis Globe Valves, Compostion ie Crane Tests f= fition factor for flow in the zone of complete turbulence: {continued from the preceding pase} H{(LID} carve for straight clean commercial steel pipe at flow conditions sesulting in a constant friction factor. It is probably coincidence that the effect of geometric dissimilarity between different sizes of the same line of valves or fittings upon the resistance coefficient K is similar to that of relative roughness, or size of pipe, upon friction factor Based on the evidence presented in Figure 2-14, it can be said that the resistance coefficient K, for a given line of valves or fittings, tends to vary with size as does the friction factor, J, for straight clean commercial Steel pipe at flow conditions resulting in a constant friction factor, and that the equivalent length L/D 00 page A-26. tends toward a constant for the various sizes of a given line of valves or fittings at the same flow conditions On the basis of this relationship, the resistance co- efficient K for each illustrated type of valve and fitting is presented on pages A-26 thru A-29. These coefficients are given as the product of the frietion factor for the desired size of clean commercial steel pipe with flow in the zone of complete turbulence, end 2 constant, which represenis the equivalent length L/D for the valve or fitting in pipe diameters for the same flow conditions, con the basis of test data, This equivatent length, or constant, is valid for all sizes of the valve or fitting type with which it is identified,2=10 (CHAPTER 2 = FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS Resistance Coef icient K, Equivalent Length L/D, And Flow Coefficient - continued The friction factors for clean commercial steel pipe with flow in the zone of complete turbulence (f;), for nominal sizes from % to 24-inch (15 to 600 mm), are tabulated at the beginning of the “K” Factor Table (page A-26) for convenience in converting the algebraic expressions of K to arithmetic quantities. There are some resistances to flow in piping, such as sudden and gradual contractions and. enlargements, and pipe entrances and exits, that have geometric similarity between sizes, The resistance coefficients (K) for these items are therefore independent of size as indicated by the absence of @ friction factor in their values given in the “A” Factor Table. ‘As previously stated, the resistance coefficient K is always associated with the diameter in which the velocity in the term v /2g,, occurs. The values in the “K” Factor Table are associated with the intemal diameter of the following pipe schedule numbers for the various ANSI Classes of valves and fittings. (Cass 300 and lower, Scbedule 40 (Cass 400 ane 600. Schedule 80 Gass 900. Schedule 120 lass 1500, 7 ‘Schedule 160 (Class 2500 (s2as 4 106") meth XXS Class 2500 (sizes 8 and up) Schedule 160 When the resistance coefficient K is used in flow equation 2-2, or any of its equivalent forms given in Chapter 3 as Equations 3-14, 3.16, 3-19 and 3.20, the velocity and internal diameter dimensions used in the equation must be based on the dimensions of these schedule numbers regardless of the pipe with which the valve may he installed. An alternate procedure which yields identical results for Equation 2-2 is 10 adjust K in proportion to the fourth power of the diameter ratio, and to base values of velocity or diameter on the internal diameter of the connecting pipe. ci) Subscript “e’ defines K and ef with reference to the Internal diameter of the connecting pipe Equation 25, Subscript "b"" defines K and d with reference 10 the internal diameter of the pipe for which the values of K were established, as given in the foregoing list of pipe schedule numbers. When a piping system contains more than one size of pipe, valves, or fittings, Equation 2-5 may be used 10 express all resistances in terms of one size, For this cease, subscript “2” relates to the size with reference to which all resistances ate to be expressed, and subscript “pb” relates to any other size in the system, For sample problem, see Example 4-14, It is convenient in some branches of the valve industry, particularly in connection with control valves, to express the valve capacity and the valve flow characteristics in terms of a flow coefficient. In the USA and UK the flow coefficient at present in use is designated C, and is defined as: C, = Rate of flow of water, in either US or UK. gallons per minute, at 60F, at a pressure drop of one pound per square inch across the valve, (See Equation 3-16, page 3-4) Another coefficient, Ky, 8 used in some countries, particularly in Europe, and this is defined as: K,= Rate of flow of water in cubic metres per hour (m?/h) at a pressure drop of one kilogram force per square centimetre (kgi/em*) across the valve. One kgfjem? is equal to 0.980 665 bar (exactly) and in some continental countries the name kilopond (kp) is used in place of kilogram ferce, ie. 1 kpfom? = 1 kgfjem? At the time of preparation of this paper there is no agreed international definition for a flow coefficient in terms of SI units. Liquid flow capacity in metric units can be converted to Cy as defined above. For example: C, = 0.0895 @ (in U.S. gallons) 4p (999) where: Q = rake of flow, litresimin, P= density of fluid, kgim? 4p = bar‘CRANE ‘CHAPTER 2 = FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS: aot Laminar Flow Conditions In the usual piping installation, the flow will change from laminar to turbulent in the range of Reynolds numbers from 2000 to 4000, defined on pages A-24 and ‘A25 as the critical zone, The lower critical Reynolds ‘number of 2000 is usually recognized as the upper limit for the application of Poiseuille’s law for laminar flow in straight pipes, Equation 28 which is identical to Equation 2-3 when the value of the fraction factor for laminar flow, f = 64/R,, is Contraction ‘The resistance to flow due to sudden enlargements may be expressed by, ay? ae and the ‘esiiance due to sudden contractions, by ae a nas(-] :) a Subscripts 1 and 2 define the intemal diameters of the small and large pipes respectively. ky Equation 23 Equation 240 It is convenient to identify the ratio of diameters of the ‘small to Jarge pipes by the Greek letter 8 (beta). Using this notation , these equations may be written, ‘Sudden Enlargement k= a-ey Equstion 29.1 Sudden Contraction Ky = 050-8) Equation 2.9 is derived from the momentum equation together with the Bernoulli equation. Equation 2-10 uses the denvation of Equation 2-9 together with the continuity equation and a close approximation of the Equation 2.10.4 contraction coefficients determined by Julius Weisbach." The value of the resistance coefficient in terms of the larger pine is determined by dividing Equations 29 and 2:10 by Ky Ka Equation 211 8 ‘The losses due io gredual enlargements in pipes were jnvestigaged by A.H. Gibson, and may be expressed 3s 4 coefficient, C,, applied 19 Equation 2.9, Approximate averages of Gibson's coefficients for different included angles of divergence, 8, are defined by the equatio factored into it. Laminar flow at Reynolds numbers above 2000 is unstable, and the critical zone and lower range of the transition zone, turbulent mixing and laminar motion may alternate unpredictably. Equation 2:2 (fy, = K0*/2g,) is valid for computing the head loss due to valves and Titings forall conditions of flow, including laminar flow, using resistance coefficient K as given in the “K” Factor Table, When this equation is used to determine the losses in straight pipe, it is necessary to compute the Reynolds number in order to establish the friction factor, f, to be used to determine the value of the resistance coefficient X for the pipe in accordance with Equation 24 (K'= L/D). See examples on pages 4 and and Entargement a 8 Fore Za) C,#2.6sin 5 Equation 22 For 45°<0 2 y80°..c, Equation 2.12.1 ‘The losses due to gradual contractions in pipes were established by the analysis of Crane test data, using the same basis as that of Gibson for gradual enarge~ ments, to provide a contraction coefficient, C, {0 be applied tw Equation 2-10. The approximate averages of these cveflicients for different included angles of ‘convergence 0, are defined by the equations: ‘ @ Ford 245° C= 16 sin > Equation 213 For4s° 5h" (G3) Equation 2.19 In the absence of experimental dato, itis sssumed thet fy, = in Equation 2-16. On this bass, the total value of K for a pipe coil ot expansion bend made up of continuous 90 degree bends can be determined by multi plying the number (n) of 90 degree bends less one Contained in the coil by the value of K due to length, plus one-half of the value of K due to bend resistance, land adding the value of K for one 90 degree bend (page 429), Ky = (0-1) 025 Fy Equation 220 £4 OSK)+Ks d Subscript 1 defines the value of K (see page A29) for one 90 degree bend. Example A 2" Schedule 40 pipe coil contains five complete tums, ie., twenty (7) 90 degree bends. The selative radius (7/d) of the bends is 16, and the resistance co- efficient Ky of one 90 degree bend is 42fp (42 x 019 = 80) per page A-29 Find the total resistance coefficient (K,,) for the coil, Ke 11) (0.25 x 0.0198 x 16 $0.5 x08) +0.8 3 Resistance of mitre bends: The equivalent length of mitre bends, based on the work of H. Kirchbach* is also shown on page A-29. “The relative rags of a band ie the ratio of the radius of the bend axis ‘ve intereat Gaineter of the pape Hoth dimensions must be in the214 CHAPTER 2 — FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES ANO FITTINGS, CRANE Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices Orifices and nozzles are used principally to meter rate of flow. A portion of the theory is covered here. For more complete data, refer to Bibliography sources 8, 9, and 10, For installation or operation of commercial meters, refer to in- formation supplied by the meter manufacturer. Orifices ate also used to restrict flow or to reduce pressure, For liquid flow. several orifices are sometimes used to reduce pressure in steps so as (0 avoid cavitation. Overall resistance coefficient K for an orifice is given on page A-20. For a sample problem, see page 4-7. ‘The rate of flow of any fluid through an orifice or nozzle, neglecting the velocity of approach, may be expressed by: a* GAVE A, Euston 221 Velocity of approach may have considerable effect on the quantity discharged through a nozzle or orifice ‘The factor correcting for velocity of approach, L as follows: Visi, Equation 2.22 ver is defined as the flow coefficient C. Values of C for nozzles and orifices are shown on page A.20. Use of the flow coefiicient C eliminates the necessity for calcu- lating the velocity of approach, and Equation 2.22 may now be written: Equation 2.23 Otifices and nozzles are normally used in piping systems as metering devices and are installed with flange taps or pipe taps in accordance with ASME or other standard specifications. The values of fy and Ap in Equation 2.23 fare the measured differential static head or pressure ‘across pipe taps located 4 diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face of the orifice plate or nozzle, when values of Care taken from page A- 20, The flow coefficient C is plotted for Reynolds num- bers based on the internal diameter of the upstream pipe, Flow of liquids: For nozzles and orifices discharging incompressible fluids to atmosphere, C values may be taken from page A-20 if fiz or Ap in Equation 2-23 is taken as the upstream head or gauge pressure Flow of gases and vapors: The flow of compressible Auids through nozzles and orifices can be expressed by the same equation used for liquids except the net expansion factor Y must be included, 2 Ap Equation 2.24 ‘The expansion factor Y isa function of 1, The specific heat ratio7. 2. The ratio (9) of orifice or throat diameter to inlet diameter, Ratlo of downstream to upstream absolute pressures ‘This factor?” has been experimentally determined on the basis of air, which has a specific heat ratio of 1.4, and steam having specific heat ratios of approximately 1.3, The data is plotted on page A-21 Values of 7 for some of the common vapors and gases are given on pages A.B and A‘. The specific heat ratio 77 may vary slightly for different pressures and temperatures but for most practical problems the values given will provide reasonably accurate results. Equation 2.24 may be used for orifices discharging compressible fluids (o atmosphere by using 1, Flow coefficient C given on page A-20 in the Reynolds number range where C is a constant for the given diameter ratio, 6 Expansion factor ¥ per page A-21 Differential pressure Ap, equal to the inlet auge pressure. This also applies to nozzles discharging compressible Auids to atmosphere only if the absolute inlet pressure is less than the absolute atmospheric pressure divided by the critical pressure ratio 7,; this is discussed on the next page, When the absolute inlet pressure is greater thare this amount, flow through nozzles should be calculated! 4s outlined on the following page.CRANE, CHAPTER 2 — FLOW FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices — continued Maximum flow of compressible fluids in a nozzle: A smoothly convergent nozzle has the property of being able to deliver a compressible fluid up to the velocity of sound in its minimum cross section of throat, providing the aveilable pressure drop is sufficiently high. Sonic velocity is the maximum velocity that may be attained in the throat of a nozzle (supersonic velocity is attained in a gradually divergent section following the convergent nozzle, when sonic velocity exists in the throat), The critical pressure ratio is the largest ratio of down: stream pressure to upstream pressure capable of producing sonic velocity. Values of critical pressure ratio , which depend upon the ratio of nozzle diameter to upstream diameter as well as the specific heat ratio y are ‘given on page A-21 Flow through nozzles and venturi meters is limited by critical pressure ratio and minimum values of Y to be used in Equation 2-24 for this condition, are indicated ‘on page A-21 by the termination of the curves at P’,/P’, Equation 2-24 may be used for discharge of compressible ‘fluids through anozzle to atmosphere, or to a downstream pressure lower than indicated by the critical pressure ratio rc, by using values of: y minimum per page A-21 Cocsccce page 20 APL. cce. PC -7e)ire per page ADL 2 + density at upstream condition Flow through short tubes: Since complete experimental das for the discharge of fluids to atmosphere through short tubes (L/D is less than, or equal to, 2.5 pipe dia- rciers)' are not available, itis suggested that reasonsbly accurate approximations’ may be obtained by using Equations 223 and 2-24, with values of C somewhere between those for orifices and nozzles, depending upon entrance conditions. If the entrance is well rounded, C values would tend to approach those for nozzles, whereas short tubes with squate entrance would have characteristics similar to ‘those for square edged orifices. Discharge of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Liquid flow: To determine the flow of liquid through pipe, the Darcy formula is used. Equation 1-4 (page 1-6) hhas been converted to more convenient terms in Chapter 3 and has been rewritten as Equation 3.14. Expressing this equation in terms of flow rate in litres per minute: 22-96 KQ* tmode af sete pole Ire. sale inorder "9 ‘ecbishsptinem dean. Solving for Q, the equation can be rewritten, @ = 0.208742 / Equation 2-25 can be employed for valves, firtings, and pipe where K would be the sum of all the resistances in the piping system, including entrance and exit losses ‘when they exist, Examples of problems of this type are shown on page 4-12. Equation 225, Compressible flow: When a compressible fluid flows from a piping system into an area of larger cross section that that of the pipe, as in the case of discharge to atmosphere, a modified form of the Darcy formula, Equation 1-11 developed on page 1-9, is used. we iiixtoe yd? / x ‘The determination of values of K, ¥, and AP in this equation is described on page 1-9 and fs illustrated in the examples on pages 4-13 and 4-14. This equation is also given in Chapter 3, page 3-5, Equation 3.22, in terms of pressure drop in bas (Ap ).216 oo GHAPTER 9 FLOW OF FLUIOS THROUGH VALVES ANO FITTINGS Figure 2.18 Flow test on plastic pipe 19 determine pressure ‘rap due to 90 degree bends, SS eRANEFormulas and Nomographs For Flow Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe CHAPTER 3 Only basic formulas needed for the presentation of the theory of fluid flow through valves, fittings, and pipe were presented in the first two chapters of this paper. In the summary of formulas given in this chapter, the basic fom- ulas aze rewritten in terms of the SI metric units which itis anticipated will be commonly used following the change- lover to the metric system or, where this is already in being, ‘the adoption of SI units. In each case a choice of equations is given enabling the user to select the formula most suited to the available data, Nomographs presented in this chapter are graphical solutions of the flow formulas applying to pipe. Valve and fitting flow problems may also be solved by means of these nomo- graphs by determining their equivalent length in terms of metres of straight pipe. Due to the wide variety of terms and the variation in the ‘physical properties of liquids and gases, it was necessary to divide the nomographs into two parts: the first part (pages 36 to 3415) periains to liquid flow, and the second part (pages 3-16 to 3-27), pertains to compressibie flow. [All nomographs for the solution of pressure drop problems fare based upon Darcy's formula, since it is a general form ‘ula which is applicable to all fluids and can be applied to all, types of pipe through the use of the Moody Friction Factor Diagram. Darcy's formula also provides 2 means of solving problems of flow through valves and fittings on the basis of cquivalent longth or resistance coefficient, Nomographs provide simple, rapid, practical, and reasonably accurate solutions to flow formulas and the decimal point is a ately located. AC obtained by caleulation, racy of & nomograph is limited by the available page space, length of scales, number of units provided on each seale, and the angle at which the connecting line crosses the scale. Whenever the solution of a problem falls beyond the range of a nomograph, the solution of the formula mast becarr: ~ FORNULAS ANS NOWOGARPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PrPE a CRANE Summary of Formulas To eliminate needless duplication, formulas have been written in terms of either specific volume V or density p, but not in terms of both, since one is the reciprocal of the other. 1 ad These equations may be substituted in any of the form- ulas shown in this paper whenever necessary. ‘© Bernoulli's theorem: Pow z+ ek Pia 28 z+ of Pies ¢ Mean velocity of flow in pipe: (Continuity Equation) © Reynolds number of How in pie: equation 23 a = De. te, dow ia ra T000n" 4 peed nine Re = 1273000 7 222g © Viscosity equivalents: Equation 3-4 aHee 5 ‘© Head loss and pressure drop in straight pipe: Pressure loss due to flow is the same in a sloping vertical, or horizontal pipe. However, the difference in pressure due to the difference in head must be con sidered in pressure drop calculations: see page 1-5. ares forte Equation 25 Lv st he = IB, if hy = oA? ~ 29 959 22! hy, = 8265 x10» AL = 22950 28 hy = 161 200 28" « 6 376.000 EP ap = cos 22 ~ e000 00139 2! fg? 2.282 00 : LAG Se? aps 936s EGrSe (© Head loss and pressure drop. ‘with laminar flow in straight pipe: For laminar fow conditions (Re < 2000), the friction factor is a direct mathematical function of the Reynolds umber only, and can be expressed by the formula: f = G4/Re. Substituting this value of fin the Darcy formula, ican be rewritten. fe Equation 36CHAPTER 2 CRANE FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE 33 ‘Summary.of Formulas — continued © Limitations of Darey formula ‘Non-compressble flow; Haus ‘The Darcy formula may be used without restriction for the flow of water, oil, and other liquidsin pipe. However, when extreme velocities occurring in pipe cause the downstream pressure to fall to the vapour pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and calculated flow rates are inaccurate, ‘Comprasribl flow; guees and vapours: When pressure drop is less than 10% of D,, use p or F based on either inlet or outlet conditions. ‘When pressure drop is greater than 10% of p, but less than 40% of p,, use the average of p or V based on inlet and outlet conditions, or use Equation 3:20. When pressure drop is greater than 40% of p, , use the rational or empirical formulas given on this page for compressible flow, or use Equation 3-20 (for theory, see page 1.9). © Isothermal flow of gas in pipe lines Equation 37 [A oF w=31623 cr J'Xo 7%) w =0,000 2484 7 wy ey Doe, a (Gamo / ‘© Simplified compressible flow or long pipe linas Equation 3.7 : @) for oF w= oasn00r 986/ (o zz) FF i J ‘¢ Maximum (sonic) velocity of compressible fluids in pipe ‘The maximum possible velocity of a compressible fluid in a pipe is equivalent to the speed of sound in the fui this is expressed as Equation 3 ‘© Empirical formulas for the flow of water, steam, and gas Although the rational method (using Darey's formula) for solving flow problems has been recommended in paper, some engineers prefer to use empirical formule, E where: 140 for new steel pipe 130 for new cast iron pipe 140 for riveted pipe Equation 3:10 teeieted! ‘Spitaglae formula for low pressure 9s: (pressure lee than 7000 Niev" (7 HP 3) sgt (2 BE conse) Equation 3-11 Flowing temperature is 15°C Weymouth formula ‘or high pressure gas: Hane Gre) & ga +0026 nse ZEB (@ Panhandle formula? for natural gas pine tines 150 to,600 mmm diameter Gnd Res tS 10"! to (18 x TOT: Equation 3.13 are = ons og azsin EAL ED Lm where: pas temperature S, = 0.6 flow efficiency E = 1.00 (100%) for brand new pipe without any bends, elbows, valves, and change of pipe diameter or elevation E = 0.95 for very good operating conditions 0.92 for average operating conditions 0.85 for unusually unfavourable operating conditionscHapTeR 3 a4 FORMULAS ANG NOMOGRAPRS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES; FITTINGS AND PIPE ‘Summary of Formulas — continued (© Had loss and pressure drop ‘through valves and fittings Head loss through valves and fittings is generally given in terms of resistanice coefficient K which indicates static ‘head loss through a valve in terms of “velocity head”, or, equivalent length in pipe diameters L/D that will cause the same head loss as the valve. From Darcy's formula, head loss through a pipe is: Le Mn = Tig, Eauation 6 and head loss through a valve is: fy = K 7g equation 334 therefore: K = S$ Equation 245 To. eliminate needless duplication of formulas, the following are all given in terms of K, Whenever necessary, substitute ({L/D) for (K). in, = 606521052 « 229652 squire AS gy KO hy » 1612: Me = aA Ap 0.000 005 Kpe® = 0.000 1389 x 104 Ka? ap = s10s so ABH" = oonn 2s Kae! Ap = oo1ssS2E ape ap ap = 0.93654 Fe For compressible ow with kr, or Ap grester than approx imately Ibe of inet absolute presire, the denominator should be tuultiptiea by V5. For values oF ¥, se2 pape Aw 22 © Flow coefficient hs explained on page 2-10 there is not yet an agreed deviniton for a. fow coefficient i tence of SU units Sh cguasions giver delow relate fo Cy a6 expressed in Inperbl ums with low rate in UK or US gallons per mate row rat in UK gli En Mod v SPOR” VFB ow rate 0 in US ain ca-¢ {= + / AP CRA)” VLD where _ p= density of ligt in /FO ab = pressure drop in hin? Perma dameterin inches uivlent length of valve in pipe diameters Feetionfctor Equation 598 Ge bi ‘© Resistance coofficient, .X, for sudden and gradual enlargements in pipes For 9 245", K= 26 sin (1 ~ BF Equation 3.17 For 45° <6 = 180°, a-ey K equation 247-2 © Resistance coefficient, K, for sudden and gradual contractions in pipes For 245°, K,= 08sin5(1 6") Equation 3.18 For 45° < 9 180°, K,= 05 v *Equation 3-18. 50-6) *Note: The values of the resistance coefficients (&) in ‘equations 3-17, 3.17.1, 3-18, and 3-18.1 are based on the velocity in’ the sinall pipe. To determine K values in terms of the greater dlameter, divide the equations by & fittings, and pipe; Darcy's formula Liquid flow: q = 0000003 4782 Q=0.2087 a fe w= 0.000008 478 pa" /M = 000035124, Are fi (sp [IE 1 268.0» / VE v compres tow va W=0.012 $2 pd’ Equation 3:20 VET, Se sizvar /BE 1.268 ve /AE ooo asi2¥ae zee WE 1206S TU Ay Values of ¥ are shown on page A-22.For £. Yat Spo snitation, se examples on pages 4-13 ad 4-14cHapren 3 CRANE FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE 3-5 ‘Summary of Formulas — concluded ‘© Flow through nozzles and orifices (i, and Ap measured across taps att diameter and 0.5 diameter) Ligue Equation 321 qe dv=AC VT hi, = AC\/-78P w=0.000003.48%, C /fze* = 0.003512" ¢ /Bpp W=0.012 52.4, CV Iga = 1.265 &, CVEPD Values of Care shown on page A-20 dd, = nozale of orifice damece Compressible Huds: Equation 322 an evaivec / v7 ws “, <03217 Ya, C (APBD am = 03217 Yad, C/E en soir 22° Vamp, a =0008368 van, c ABR i ¢ w Cate shown on page 420 Fate shown om pee A! ‘poze of orifice dlameter © Equivalents of head loss and pressure drop Equation 3:23 2 hus wo2004p 4. hue a 6 © Changes in resistance coefficient K required to compensate for different pipe inside diameter a, * Equation 324 Kory a (see page AO) Subscript ¢ refers to pine in which valve willbe insted. Subscript P selers 0 pipe for which the resstance coefficient Revue eriablithed. © ‘Specific gravity of igus Any Fai (oy gud a 60 F156 0) p Cantos otherwise specified p (water at 60 F (15.6 C)) oils Euston 3:25 Mus 1513+ Deg APT Equation 325 5(60 F/60 F agus ihe than waar: Eauion3.27 140 150 Deg Baum Ligeia near than wate: Des Baus S60 F/60 F) Equation 328 5 (60 F/60 F) 4 Specific gravity of gues Rai) 287° Rigas) R (eas) 5, =) Bed s M (ait) 29 Equation 9:29 s © General gas laws for porfect gases PV, =W, RT Equstion 3:30 Equation 31 Equation 332 MRT = 1,8314 ME g3147 Gqustion 333 M Equation 336 we , PM_ | PS _ 3484p 'Se Pry ~ anaT ° 287T T where tig = Wa/M = number of mols of « g85 © Hydraulic radius Equation $35 Rg = ossseaton fare mettes) wetted perimeter (metres) Equivalent diameter relationship D=4Ra d= 400020 * Spe page 1-4 fo limitationscHAPTER 3 a6 FORMULAS AND NOMOGAAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE Velocity of Liquids in Pipe The mean velocity of any flowing liquid can be calculated from the following formula, of, from the nomograph on the opposite page. The nomograph is a graphical solution of the formula, 73.2 10-4 = 21.2 1273.2 x10 = 21.229 ‘The pressure drop per 100 metres and the velocity in Schedule 40 pipe, for water st 15°C, have been calculated for commonly “CRANE used flow rates for pipe sizes of '/s to 24 are tabulated on page B-13. th; these values Example 1 Given: No 3 Fuel Oil at 15°C flows through 2 inch Schedule 40 pipe at the rate of 20,000 kilograms per hour. Find: The rate of flow in litres per minute and the mean velocity in the pipe. solution 1 p=097 pees AT Connect 2 |w a= 87 3s fo 2" Sched 40 | | Example 2 Given: Maximum flow rate of @ liquid will be 1400 litres per minute with maximum yelocity limited to 3 metres per second Find: The smallest suitable size of steel pipe to ISO 336. Solution: 2, From the table om page B19 the smallest suitable size of steel pipe to ISO 336 is seen to be nominal size 4”, inside diameter 100.1 mm, Reasonable Velocities for the Flow of water through Pipe Boiler Feed... 2... Pump Suction and Drain Lines General Service Lory . 24 to 4.6 metres per second | 12 to 2.1 metres per second 1.2 to 3.0 metres per second | to 2:1 metzes per second |cHaPreR 3 FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE 347 CRANE iquids in Pipe Velocity of (continued) youn Jods so epueano MOH JO 08 TIT TTT THT 8 eR & a suesGoy jo spuennays Mota 9 80K, Tr ancy 28:HAPTER 3 FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE. CRANE 328 Reynolds Number for Liquid Flow Friction Factor for Clean Stee! Pipe coset =v | too = f 00 000 1 =" |v xopy) © (000 0001 =" ~ xp 9 is =? | one =a | z xePu | o00z6 =a | ue = 4 | 9000-8) 7 (00026 = At $96 = J] ost =O | + pee yeeuu09, oat feo) ota ated “Par = P ey ated ico = 7 uopmpos. oy aed 96 dT 01985 uonauy 947 pute aqui spjouday ayy ‘anoy nod strerBOpy waves MOY ay, puoses 10d sonjow signa gog'9—-SPIOUAH au “an go ower e ye add janis royourep aprsuy uu 1g & Bros ‘astodnaa 476 ANSOOSIA pu | 1pm | 's ep [coo =f | t= 0) + pew ome, ge oid 7 adage = fe Leg afed ‘ydasfowou goo => oz we=4 1 onnyas ‘adid jo sonout 091 20d doup ainssasd ou, :puey -puoods sod sonaw ¢ jo ApopA v ye adid oyu opi Lu Ts E YBnonR smog 700 F s00 AP 10 F-s00 2 «oo ‘Rate of Flow, in cubic matras pr second 10? i i : £ 5 ot : E 74g Ee ais 2 3 3 6 2 ross Equivalents: Viscosity, 1 Cp = 10Pas Pressure, 1 bar = 10°Pa = 100 KPaCHAPTER 3 a4 FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE ‘CRANE Flow of Liquids Through Nozzles and Orificos The flow of liguids through nozales and orifices can be Example 2.— cont determined from the following formula, or, from the nomograph on the opposite page. The nomograph 2 Solution: saphical solution of the formula in cane Lp = 999 page AG 4=348x 10% d} CYR, =3.51 x10" dC poe ae 70.209 di CVA, =21.07 a} C Peeeee tee page 39 4 Assume a § ratio of say 0.50 nozzle or orifice diameter 5. dy inlet diam) = 150.7 6& d,= 050d, =0.50x 150.7=75.35 Head Jos or pret- aphz! C42 dy 2 C= 062 = page A-20 Sere eras tap | scree ||| Cones Re Stream and’ i 3 [a= 2 | C= 06 | Index tmeter downstream. Example 1 Given: & differential pressure of 0.2 bar is measured across taps of a 50 mm inside diameter nozzle assembled in 3-inch Schedule 80 steel pipe carrying water at 15°C. Find: Tae flow rate in litres per minute Solution: 1 dy (inlet diam) 73.7. 3” Sched 80 pipe page B-16 d, 2 p= 5 0.68 3 C = 1.12. turbulent flow assumed; page A-20 4p = 9% page AS 1.12 contest for Re = 220 000; page A-20 When the C factor assumed in Step 3 is not in agreement with page A-20 for the Reynolds number based on the calculated flow the factor must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 3 to 11 inclusive Example 2 Given: The flow of water, at 15°C through a 6-inch pipe, 150.7 mm LD., isto be restricted to 850 litres per minute by means of a square edged orifice, across which there will be ¢ differential head of 1.2 mettes of water. Find: The size of the orifico opening, 6. [a =2t [nex % [index "|" 4, =30_| = 830 | & — Calculate R, based on LD. of pipe (73.66 mm) SPS BE ea cr ft page A: 10 220 000 page 39 n index OF 30 ae 7 10, ~ Rnoritice diameter of 77 mim will be satistactory, since this is reasonably close to the assumed value in Step 6 11, If the value of d, determined from the nomo- ‘gyaph is smaller than the assumed value used in Step 6 repeat Steps 6 to 10 inclusive, using reduced assumed values ford until it isin reasonable sgreement with the-value determined in Step 9. Example 3 Given; A differential pressure of 3.5 Kilopascals is measured across taps of a 25 mm inside diameter square edged orifice assembled in 1-1/2-inch Schedule 80 stec! pipe carrying lubricating oil of 897 kg/m? density and 450 Centipoise viscosity Find: The flow rate in cubic metres per second Solution: 1 Ap= 3SKPa = 0.035 bar 2 p= 097 3d, inlet diam) = 38. page B16 4. B (25 = 38.1) = 0.656 3. = 450 suspect flow is laminar since viscosiy : pure A3 e "assumed page A-20 ____ Connect 7. [Be= 0035 | p = 897 8 [az 0a | O= 0s 7 9. Dintex [a 16, Galcolate R, based on ED. of pipe 8.14 man) i. 0 38 2 0.84 for R pee A This sin reasonab value in Step 6. 13, When the C factor assumed in Step 6 is not io agreement with page A-20 for the Reynolds number based on the calculated flow it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reachew! Dy repeating Steps 6 to 12 inclusive le agreement with the assuresCHAPTER 2 CRANE FORMULAS ANG NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROU! Flow of Liquids Through Nozzles and Orifices a (continued) 00 Ap, tnden c coo] pp 124 E7 Etcco v4 so pa Es wd 490 q 104 oe 4 200. E sso J po td L std Nore i Fi 3 i ad 4 gE 80 E eo] a 3 é & 4: ee nt Fe z 434 BEw Es 5 5 i 43 : Ens i i 3 a od i i By g A i £ 0 i i Bey fu : é : Eps = : : $ wo ES fat, 2 in Es aot 4 Cos Pressure Equivalents: { ber = 10*Pa 100 KP 04 4 4JE CRAN CHAPTER 3 FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE 3-16 Velocity of Compressible Fluids in Pipe 009 01 0002 She Spey sugars put JRO [oaepue pr | paveowiodag ‘000 OF 008T aia Burdyd ssaoGid uautdynbe asnoy Hmog [Fee ee 008T O 0071 a paremes, San Had sone ates | w son. AMDOPA aIQBUOsTAT ‘did WBnosgi wi8aig jo Mold 40} SONDOIEA ojquUOSeOY oor =a | f0r= 7 wpa | Ooet = A ald os Paws we] 9 xepuy_ | oor =m | Sie= 7) © ayaeINs S OR aNPAMPS ¢ Pay Pau, _ ve = Pl bose = xepuy | > Oy aed Ef sia dt 7 ‘xopuy] 000 ST = MH 60 = 4 | © Ta aied= + = fun ‘QO6r u} 24) pur seq anoy sed suas Youry © yBno sMoy 3,Osy PUE sea Op 18 wIENg -wOKD Zeyawexg spjoukoy xp ‘moy sod swesBopy ur oes MOY aL puny snot 20d sostot ofqno prepueis QO ¢ Jo 218 ye JerouFEP ont 007 did [Boys YBnoMP SHOU “ZorD Jo KyAE oigioads © Yita 3,5 | pue and akg Z| 1B SEE) TEIMIN -U9KID, aytuiexg 12-8 0: 9} sa8ed 208 p30 tone so paremnoye Aq pounutiarap oq uRD 2 404 0}90y oR Hy “ydesBowoU a4} Jo e119 lwo paureigo 2q ura uj nyos jeowde w sp ait, ‘aed aysoddo a1 uo ydeouou oxCHAPTER 3 CRANE FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOA FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE g=19 Reynolds Number for Compressible Flow Friction Factor for Clean Steel Pipe (continued) saan 0f03hg OF NEEDS Jo BRIS PUILON, é Ba ee 3 8 8 Fs E eS EESEEE 3 # € @ 38 3 ‘asodiauas up ‘AUIs008,A BUMIOSAY Tia Viscosity equivalent: 1 centipoise (eP) sno se ses yo spursnown Ws moHs )9 MI ETT TTT T TT 28 stateie isa tates eet oqCHAPTER 3 2 e 5 Pressure Drop in Compressible Flow Lines sco = “ay [ ser=¢[ ixopm] x er = May =4 Depu | Lxepuy | F100 = zxepay | 9 1 x9pur =f Txopuy |v Txepay_ | 00e + 009 =H | [exept u6 = P| O00 oT © Peo | Pea Foouvoy “Ory aed =o + STV 10 L1-¢ ood ** swoo=4 + ore sed - =So¢€ ore afd Lwo= J sy oie =" 7 zy ated eoo=0 Z 7a o8ed =m 1 Og oe pT nonntos won (001 104 doxp ainssaid at pur snoy aad suBoyry Gt oes MOY OUR, PME 29°0 5 Siaei8 aytoads sy unoy ad sennaus27qn9 prepueis 990 F¢ J0 oes # ye Zojoursp apisur ina QQz add oars E yBeonn SmOG 9, ST pur oBne8 seq 2} 10 $09 yeIMEN -uaUD 2 eydwexg “did Jo sorjew 99 | 29d doup oimssoud aig, ;puy sod swesioyey 990 1 Jo o1e eye adid og sImpoyog yout B yNoN sMOY D,0Sp pur a¥ne eq OF VP MUEEIg waar boyd ne req pW HE 105 add loip ainssoid 104 say ‘pia aed 998°9.S1 OF eINpaYPS Jo Soeu DOF Jad svg Ay" bse =m “(h) sn0q sod suresopy 03 post09 0} 2. atp 10 wonenbs Supsofioy ye soy tad sonour 24qno uaa st a1e1 soy (12-8 0% 91-3 008 Jo songea so) Finun1o} 243 Jo VoRLA|OS aU, “aed apsoddo ayy wo ydesioutou Wwioy Aaie oy wos} pare|noqso 9 Huo Jo doxp aunssasd sup eonydest » s; ydesdour ey Wors “30 ‘mojeq 9q urO spinyy sq)CHAPTER 3 CRANE FORMULAS AND NONOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THAOUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE 3221 Prossure Drop in Compressible. Flow Lines {continued mow sed swe Jo eeueenON! WF oIg 1 OE 38888 2 Be sse8 2 feeeve w Seance ao 888s ibe cede dtuudusdibalt Ds Lust bbbE TT Daud ts tsalauboe abt poise wong Be 8 SHiattittS Sebi | 21 aa op erp 40 as wuHON R222 6 vee oda FE ~ SES 3 “pee8 3 22 88 Bee 8 & eee ‘nou 'eckg 40 01001 YUAN] 28. ££ 5 a «© wanead 2 s 9 « geneat 4 bbs soleus tititital Lorber deditelit seg oy erin gg) 98 G5IG 2184 4 7 a8 i 28 + union 88 sean grow Anta Buon 39 BINION HERES Shyu Joust itd tht tid att PAH eee Perret nous 24g ed auvesB4 4 “ASUHAPTER 3 —-FORMUEAS-AND-NOMOGRAPHS-FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE CRANE ‘Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids Pressure Drop, Rate of Flow, and Pipe Size ‘The simplified flow formula for compressible Muids is accurate for fully tusbulent flow; in addition, its use provides @ good approximation in calculations involving compressible fluid Values of C1 (metric) flow through commercial steel pipe for most normal flow conditions. If velocities are low, friction factors assumed in the simplified formula may be too low; in such cases, the formula and nomograph shown on pages 3-20 and 3-21 may be used to ‘ provide greater accuracy. is i ‘The Darcy formula can be written in the following form; u Bove 62530709. (W)(62 S303 10 ET (OSE iB, 80073 — e000 SW gp yw 2530. 1082 Let 6, = JG; and Cy = 92530 ‘The spite ow Formica thn be ween we E soeo AP up , AP? eet av a = F-2000 = charg factor, fom chart a ht Boo CC ssn ator from able on pages 323 to : . 4 The limitations ofthe Darcy formula for compressible flow,as— 2 gee Sistas pas opt ss ods eled no emt PE Fw é on ee Examplet poe red Ghen Siam at 24 barabslste and 250°C ows throughon ES EE S.inch Schedule 40 pipe at a rate of 100 000 kilograms per 3 2f=0a wd-so 3 hour. : 20 Find: The pressure drop per 100 metres of pipe 2 3 F oo Solution C= 100 i fo oF G = 0257 facing page oz E70 7 = 00 whg wc ppsireats £ Ef E Oem * loxoastaocs = 236be — F p Example 2 aad 400 100-100 Given; Pressure drop is 1 bar with 7 bar gauge air at 30°C ‘S09 flowing through 100 meties of 4 inch nominal size ISO steel Saf 008 pipe, 6.3 mm wall thickness. ah eee Find: ‘The Tow rate in eabic meee per minute st mete standard conditions (1.013 25 bar and 15°C). 7 aa Solution: Apyyy = 1 ei a” 2942 ee itt Peta fee ios eee teeter eae a aaa pleat ; A221 - oars Tpestebeer ees ete eee eee ee ) tees m= 99005 (73.581) = 134.7 m? fincHaPTER 3 ‘CRANE FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW-THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE 3223 Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids (continued) Values of C2 (metric) 1970 and BS1600: Part 2: 1970. capa | Sicha | Vawe] Nowa] Sevedae Nonna [Secmie ve | [Rocizt | Siete ] Yue Pesue | Number Romie | inter | 3h | Te | ee a | aGs | 13 940000 5 16 | aooeas | De Te aaa see 1 | 0.009 66 } oe | ae | pmo i (ax | 7530000 | 000% | ieraaes ae | | 0,019 34 ol | gee ie |g | wet | ned asaue 8 | o.008 35 = |e | jaa peu «| ge | am a | err licam eae j) | a | eB tee | oo | HBB 8a | 2.006 6 1 | 4s 10470 Bone 6s |g | 3B ane # | Be a [we | or | ae i abl | fox | 3720 | 0.002 65 ieee $40 0.002 83 ote a = Bois us |g [a | oe eg | ) fu 1 0.005 89, | in 0.006 78 ae A 4 10 0.000 940 oo | 8, | ggepase x 41582 | 0.001 ast | leet igs 12 & | Boni 300 | 80 0.001 470 | eles 13 ee los 405. 377 | | Bo | 001 970 160) 853.0 oorsas. | 160 | 22002 600 om 1100 | coisa | | 001934 | | Oe | 0.02033 | 0x | oat a8 i | 3 | | ages 92 ote | | 10 B0340 | ot Schedule Numbers indieate Stan | | | 160 | oo38 37 Sire, Exura Strong, and Double Extza | [eeestee ates [ieee | BiBecome | per hour flow is permitted 2 maximum pressure drop of 24 boar per 100 metres of pipe Find: The smaliest size of ISO 336 steel pipe suitable. Reference to the table of Ce values for ISO 336 pipes on page 3. OR x0I73 10.85 £24 shows that 2 4 inch nominal size pipe with 7.1 mm wall thickness has the C2 value nearest to. but less than, 10.85 “The actual pressure dxop per 100 metres of 4 inch, 7.1 mma wall thickness, pipe is AP 1 CaP Al x 10,22 x 0.273 = 2.26 barCHAPTER 3 FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE CRANE 3224 ‘Simplified Flow Formuta for Compress Values of C; (metric) For steel pipes to ISO 336 — 1974 ogayaesaes SREERSESSARLS. Sédcscessccsesa ongesengenensse eridag TSSSCRANAR 10 Value of Cr SEATGRESREREE S8395333. FipeSte | Thickness Inches m8 Nominat | Wail BIAReTSISIAY 28 segnaresnngs | SESRAMgaSagg asageaesen7g Value of 00 00 Walt | | Tnches % Pipe Size | Thickness [ Nomina | 436 000 363 000 732 000 967 000 1 300 000, 88283888 HBRESAES 9089933 238238833238 RSSGSBELSS SS RBRESESRESES RESLERRITAEER SERESRAREEES Neonm senor SSRCHAPTER 3 CRANE FORMULAS AND NOMOGRAPHS-FOR PLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PE 3225 simplified Flow Formule for Compressible Fluids (continued) ‘Vatues of C2 (metric) For steel pipes 10 180 396 — 1974 Nona own [ vane [Nominal | wat | vatee [Semin [vat [Vane Reremt | syttty | Wet | Retest | aalltten | Fr | Apesiee | mitines | oft: Rete Ector | “mn tan | ae ) 12 0.027 6 16 | 0.008 14 20 6.3 0,002 48 | aes Sane st S32 | eam 3 | dea s ties 3 zo Base | | 0.0300 0,008 68 8B 0.002 61 | oon | bas 93 yao | agoaes | ito | aes | 809 36 it) | oo 4 oem 0p 4 BS | Geoas tases 01083 ta | eons S| nae cai0s3 13 | Stoo | dates cei es BS atone bis 6 aon s3 Boo | R008 3 | | cates fore! eed | bose aoi3ss Bo | 88082 2012 38 feo | Ss ois 83 30 | coe 6 tates 30 | ie : ens oe nt 8 ann i) | RRR s 6 ais 30 1 8S | dons 3% | 8 | $5 | 808% | xb 8 | 0434 Fe oe Hy | SRS 138 ne $1 “ 63 | 9000 ie oot 33 $2 | 833 is otoat eo | com ase | 14.2 0.004 86 | 8B 0.000 980 | ie | cls 88 188 | Bast 00a | is oars 19 | ator et | | deo is 4 Hs overeat BS ins e7 13 | Geet Bat Bo bite 0 19 | door fia XB dieu 38 162 | ctor tae 3a deve 31 Soo | Qont ioe | 30 | ees 3s 35 | door a8 es oor 13 Ho | Goo Sas | ons at 30 | dons 8 | Ss fg Sao | Root as | 0.010 14 32.0, 0.001 500 | | ont er 3a | dani eat es S0 39 | don ras | Bo | Boot a0 | | $a | Boos iar 320 | Boog a72, | dio | 880834) ‘The values of C, for ISO ses! pipes given above and on page 3~24 have bven determined by interpolation based on the valies of C, established for ANSI Schedule pipes shown on page 323 “The sizes of 150 pipes included in the above table andthe table on page 3—24 also cover mast ofthe pipe sizes contain 3600: 1973, within the same eanges of wal thicknesses3226 CHAPTER 3 FORMU! “OF FLOW THROUGH VALVES; FITTINGS AND PIPE CRANE Flow of Compressible Fluids Through Nozzles and -Orifices, The flow of compressible fluids through nozzles and orifices can be determined from the following formula, ‘or, by using the nomograph on the next page. The ‘nomograph is graphical solution of the formula we aside 10% Ya, CV pA = 3512x104 ae c [BE sesvases ign -insvace JE wei dy = nozale or orifice diameter (Pressure drop ix measured across taps located 1 ‘diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream, fom the Inlet face of the nozzle or orifice) Exemple 1 Given: A differential pressure of 0.8 bar is measured across tapslocated 1 diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face of a 25 mm inside diameter nozzlo assembled in 2 2inch Schedule 40 steel Pipe, in which, dry carbon dioxide (CO:) gas is lowing at 7 bar guuge pressure and 90°C. Find: The flow rate in cubic metres per hour at metric standard conditions (MSC = 1.013 25 bar and 15°C), Solution: 1 R= 189 2 Sp= 1529f......... for COs gas; page AS. 3 7213 Stops 3 thoogh 7 are used to determine the ¥ factor. 4 P= p+1.013=7+41.013 = 8.013 5. pip! = 08% 8.013=0.0998 6 dy inlet diam) = 525... 2” Sched 40 pipe; page 16 7 B= adsfds 5 +52.5= 0.476 & ¥=093 page A21 9% C= 1.02. turbulent flow assumed; page A-20 10. T = 273 += 273 +90 = 363 p= 1176. + page AIO [ Read wo, (ip 0s ]a = The | nex 13, [index 1.02 | Index 2 14, [Index 2 25 | Index 3 4s, [index3 [= 093 | W= 16. 1220 m?/h at MSC . page B-2 n. ons page AS 18, 860 000 or 8.6 x 10° page 3-2 19, = 1.02 is correct for R. = 8.6 x 10° page A:20 20, When the C factor assumed in Step 9 isnot in agreement with page A-20, for the Reynolds number based on the calculated low, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 9 through 19. ke Ww Example 2 Given: A differential pressure of 0:2 bar is measured across tepslocated | diameter upstream and 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet face of an 18 mm inside diameter square edged orifice essembled in a 25.7 mm inside diameter steel pipe, in which, dry ammonia (NHs) sasis flowing at 2.75 bar gauge pressure and 10°C. Find: The flow rate in kilograms per second and in cubic metres per minute at metric standard conditions (1.013 25 bar and 15°C). Solution: as u. 12 1B. 14 1. 16 7. 18, 19, 20, 490 0.596 132} ‘Steps 3 through 7 are used to determine the ¥ factor BI= P+ 1.013 = 2,75 + 1.013 = 3.763 ‘Apip{ = 0.2+3.763 =0.0831 i fda = 18 + 25.7 =0.700 rificedlameter.d_ “inet diameter) 098 : + =page A21 = 0.70 turbulent flow assumed. . page A-20 R= 5, for NHs gas; page A 7 T = 273 4 ¢=273 + 10= 283 Pr= LG ove ve eee = page Al or 3-5 Connest Read ap = 02 276 | index 1 1 Index 1 0.70 | Index 2 page B2 = page AS page 3-2 0.70 is correct for Re = 2.82 x 10° page A-20 When the C factor assumed in Step 8 is not in agreement with page A-20, for the Reynolds number based on the calculated flow, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps B10 19cuarren a FORWULAS ANO NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FIT (GS AND PIPE CRANE Flow of Compressible Fluids through Nozzles and Orifices (continued) us 319n2 sa swesBOH U “ASU se iH Pesisdpryeetdttctete tected = SPT PEyTt : repu) 2B 8 8 B— pvc sed swesioyy us mois so 0104 sry se seston gone "mols 40 31eH Exp Txepuy senna uf 30110 30 seu Feu aga a eq ‘00g e8143-28 CHAPTER 3 FORMULAS ANO NOMOGRAPHS FOR FLOW THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE CRANEExamples of Flow Problems ‘Theory and answers to questions regarding proper application of formulas to flow problems can be presented (0 good advantage by the solution of practical problems. 'A few simple flow problems were presented in Chapter 3 to illus trate the use of the nomographs. Other problems, both simple and complex, ate presented in this chapter. Many of the examples given in this chapter employ the basic formulas of Chapters 1 and 2; these formulas were rewritten in more commonly used terms for Chapter 3, Use of nomographs, when applicable, are indicated in the solution of these problem. ‘The controversial subject regarding the selection of a formula most applicable to the flow of gas through long pipe lines is analyzed in Chapter 1. It is shown that the three commonly used formulas are basically identical, the only difference being in the selection of friction factors. A compatison of results obtained, using the thtee formulas, is presented in this chapter. ‘An original method has been developed for the solution of problems jnvolving. the discharge of compressible fluids from pipe systems. Illustrative examples applying this method demonstrate the simplicity of handling these, heretofore camplex, problems. —— Reynolds Number and Friction Factor For Pipe Other Than Steel The example below shows the procedure in obtsining the Reynolds number and friction factor for smooth pipe (plastic). The same pro- {Cedare applies for any pipe other than steel or wrought iron, such as Concrete, wood stave, riveted stcel, etc. For selative roughness of these ‘and other piping materials, see page A-23. Example 4-1... . Smooth Pipe (Plastic) Given: Water at 30 C is flowing through 20 metres of 2. * 995.6 inch standard wall plastic pipe (smooth wall) a arate Z of 200 litres per minute. eda eae 4 we08 ae Find: The Reynolds number and friction factor. 21.22 X 200 X 995.6 32.5 X 0. R, '» = 100 600 or 1.006 x 10* 6, f= 0.0177 for smooth pipe Solution: R, e = page 3-2 CHAPTER 4 page AG page BIT page Ad page A244-2 ~Cuapten 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEWS Determination of Valve Resi ance In L, L/D, K, and Flow Coefficient C, Example 42...L, L/D, and K from C, for Conventional Type Valves Given: ‘A 150 mm (6:inch) Class 125 iron Y-pattern globe valve has « Now coefficient, C,, of 600 (US gal/min). Find; Resistance coofficient K and equivatent lengths LID and L for flow in zone of complete turbulence Solution 1K, L/D, and £, should be given in terms of 6inch Schedule 40 pipe; see page 20. 98 | 801d Cy In this equation d is in inches (1 inch = 25.4 mm). G ork page 34 3, d= 154.) mm+25.4= 6.067". page B-16 4 KROL S.067" 5 95 based on 6" 600° oa [Sched 40 pipe 5 veces sees paige 34 for 154 mm LD. pipe in fully turbulent flow range; page A-25 7 8 Example 43...L, L/D and K for Conventional Type Valves Given: ‘A 100 mm (4-inch) Class 600 steel conventional angle valve with full area seat. Find: Resistance coefficient K and equivalent lengths L{D and L. for flow in zone of complete turbulence. Solution 1. K, L/D, and L should be given in terms of inch Schedule 80 pipe; se pape 2-10. 2 R150f, pac AZ garbookek pes (etacipt “Tale $0 flow In sone of aomia mae B16 fr=0.017 page A-26 vd ond 4 K=150x 0.01 Sched. 80 pipe Example 43... . continued For graphical solutions of steps $ and 6, use page A-30 a iQ gg 19492 Nem Example 4-4... Given: A150 x 100 mm (6x 4-inch) Class 600 steel gate valve ‘with inlet and outlet ports conieally tapered from back of body rings (0 valve ends, Face-to-face dimension is 560 mm and back of seat ring to back of seat ring is about 150mm, = Venturi Type Valves Find: K for any flow condition, and L/D and L for flow in zone of complete turbulence Solution: L Kz, L/D, and L. should be given in terms of Ginch ‘Schedule 80 pipe; see page 2-10. Zoe fee «page ADT oki tsin€ (080-7) +260 ~FF) = page A-26 Ke page 34 + page A26 : Vale Seat Bore 6” Sched. 80 pipe: page BIG for 6” size; page A-26 B= 0.48 as 23 tang = 0.11 sin$ approx. 840.015 + 0.11(0.8 x 0.5242.6%0.52°)_ 0.23 diameters 6” Sched. 80 pipe metres of 6” Sched. 80 pipe (For graphical solution of Steps 6 and 7, see poze 430.)CRANE CHAPTER 4 — EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS coeees 43 Check Valves Reduced Port Valves Determination of Size Velocity and Rate of Discharge Example 45... . Lift Check Valves Example 46. . Reduced Port Ball Valve Given: A globe type lift check valve with a wing-guided ise is required in a 3inch Schedule 40 horizontal pipe carrying 20 C water at the rate of 300 litres per rminate Find; The proper size check valve and the pressure drop. The valve should be sized so that the dise is fully lifted at the specified flow; see page 2-7 for discussion. Solution: Onin «page A2T page 32 ap » 0002.25 Kol pred 007 i page A27 x 2 Eto fOs 0-8) 40-8 2 e page A27 4 page A-26 2 dy=62.7 ... for 2%” Sched. 40 pipe; page B16 a,=719 for 3” Sched. 40 pipe: page B-16 V = 0.001 002 . 20 C water; page AS 9=9982 20 € water; page AG fr = 0.018 for 24” or 3” size; page A-26 2 min SOV TOOT = 1.585 21.22 x 300 77x92 in as nmuch as is less than Dig, 8 3inch valve will be too large. Try s 2Hinch size 21,22 x 300 2 Based on above, a 2inch valye installed in 3.inch Schedule 40 pipe with reducers is advisable. = 1.05 for 3” valve 62 for 248" valve 4 p= 04t 7 10 x 0.018 + 0.8 [0.5 (1- 0.64) +(1- 0647] 04i K,=27 aap 0.002 25 x 27x 998.2% 308 9 148 bar 719 Given: Water at 60 F discharges from a tank with 7 mmoires average head to atmosphere through: 0 metres — 3" Schedule $0 pipes 63" standard 90° tysadedstbows, 1-3" flanged all valve having a Osa mote sea, 16° conical init nd 30° eonial out en Sharpedged cnrance is flush with inside of ok Find: Velocity of flow in the pipe and rate of discharge in litres per minute Solution ns Fi Lo hy=Ky- =a cree page 3-4 21.229 019 = 008m? page 32 2 K-05 entrance; page A-29 K=10 eee + exits page A-29 fr= 0.018 coves page A-26 3 For K (ball valve), page A-28 indicates use of Formula 5. However, when inlet and outlet angles (0) differ, Formula $ must be expanded to: 2) 426 sing G-A? _ Kit 8 sin a, _ 60 4 pa dba 077... page a 5, sin8/2= sin 8° =0.14 valve inlet 6 sinO/2= sin 157=0.26 ......-+- valve outlet pe BXOIS+08x0.14 0 -0.77F) 2 KF Sx.0ls rosa gd 077) + 2.60260 -0.7P Yo sg oa valve = 6x 30fy-= 180 x 0.018 = 6 elbows; K= 6x 30/7 = 180x 0.018 = 3.24 eee = 9.018% 60% 1000 2353.9 pipesp. 34 779 & Then, for entire system (entrance, pipe, ball valve, six elbows, and exit), K=05 413.9 40.58 +3.244 L0= 19.2 9, p= UISIR N= I= TOTS mS Q= 0.087 x 2.675 x 77.97 = 763 litres/smin. 10, Caleulste Reynolds number to verify that friction factor of 0.018 (zone of complete turbulence) is correct for flow condition . . . or, use “vd” scale at top of Friction Factor chart on page A-25. ud = 2.675 x 77.9 = 208 L. Enter chart on page A-25 at ad = 208. Note f for inch pipe is less than 0.02. Therefore, flow is in the transition zone (slightly Jess than fully tur- bulent) but the difference is small enough to forego any correction of K for the pipe.4-4 CHAPTER 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS — CRANE Laminar Flow in Valves, Fittings, and Pipe In flow problems where viscosity is high, calculate the Reynolds Number to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Example 47 Example 48 Given: SAE. 10 Lube Oil at 15 C flows through the Given: S.A.E. 70 Lube Oil at 40 C is flowing at the System described in Example 4-6 at the same differentiel rate of 600 barrels per hour through 60 metres of & head. inch Schedule 40 pipe, in which on 8-inch conventional Find: ‘The velocity in the pipe and rate of flow in litres lobe valve with full area seat is installed per minute, Fina: The pressure drop due to flow through the pipe Solution and valve, Solution: Lohes page 3-4 0.0158 KoB? Te ata page 3-4 pe [teh K $6.23 pB : Ree SE page 3-2 vend eee page 32 Ky 40 fr valves page A-27 = 0.047 oa K 4 pipe; page 3-4 Rew 22 = page 3-2 # pipe 64 $= Se pipes laminar Bows page 322. page A? page AT ceveeeeeee eres IPOs ake 4 8” Sched, 40 pipe: page B16 page A3 2 valve; Example 4.6 meas Setbows; Example 46 2 : age A6,A7 c+ entrance; Example 46 eae exit; Example 46 5 332 age ACT - Re-< 2000; therefore flow is laminar. page AS Example 464 & =0.193 i 32 = 0-198 7 Pipe 3 K,=340x0.014= 4.76 oo. valve 719% 22 0193 x60x 1000 _ 55 RcLER CE K 5s 0 713... pipe = 0.063 : pipe K2d7645713= 61.89... total system Z 0.0158 x 61.89 x 899 x 600" 021000 ass... ip 5 9 2 1 099 600 K 248.5 +05843.24 +05 +10 4p = 0.188 bar KPSBR ceecseeeseees entire system 2 oe f DEE 16 mys $3.8 5. Q=0.047 x 1.6 x 77.9? = 456 litres/min. ‘*Note: This problem has two unknowns and, therefore, requires 2 Npatanderror solution. Two. or thee igh sumptions will sual bring the solution and final assumption into agreement ‘within desied Lilt,CRANE EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS. 4-5 Laminar Flow in Valves, Fittings, and Pipe — continued In flow problems where viscosity is high, calculate the Reynolds Number to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, Example 49 Given: S.A. 70 Lube Oil at 40 C is flowing through. Scinch Schedule 40 pipe at a rate of 2300 litres per minute, as shown in the following sketch. 5" Clas 160 Steet Ancle Valve wi full area 6” clase 180 S108! Gate Find: The velocity in metres per second and pressure difference between gauges 7, and p, 21.22.x 2300 x 899 page 3.2 4 Re Saso = 760 ome 32 Re < 2000: therefore flow is laminar. 5 Late 5 fe JG = 0.084 Ap = 202-75 KPO” Joss due to lows page 3-4 i: jos & Summarizing K for the entie system (gate valve Ap= THF due to elevation change: page 3 angie valve, elbow, and pipe), K=(8 x 0.016) + (150 x 0.016) + (20 x 0.016) 4 (0.084 x 85 x 1000) = gate valve; page A27 angle valve; page A.27 elbow; page A-29 pipe; page 34 pipe; page 3-2 5S" Sched. 49 pipes page B16 0.916 at 60 F (5.6 ©) page AT S= 0.900140 page A:T 50 eit page AS 9 =999 x 0.9 = 899 page A-6, AL? Sr= 0.016 page A-26,4-6 _CHAFTER 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS CRANE Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems Example 4-10... . Piping Systems ~ Steam Example 4-11... Flat Heating Coils ~ Water Given: 40 bar abs. steam at 460 € flows through 120 metres of horizontal 6-inch Schedule 60 pipe at a rate of 40 000 kilograms per hour. “The system contains three 90 degree weld elbows having 1 rolative rodius of 1.5, one fully-open 6 x inch ‘Class 600 venturi gate valve as described in Example 4-4, and one éinch Class 600 y-pattem globe valve. Latter has @ seat diameter equal to 0.9 of the inside diameter of Schedule 80 pipe, disc fully lifted. Find: The pressure drop through the system. Solution: 1 tow DSRERSIET age 2. For globe valve (see page 4-27), Ki +8108 Wet 1-6) 3 90° weld elbows: page A-29 L K-t% «pipes page 3-4 w ae SE eeseeeeceeees pages? 4 d= 1864 6" Sched. 80 pipes page B-16 P= 0.081 440 bar steam 460 C: page A16 n= 0.027 page A, f= 0015 page A26 5. For globe valve o1s+.9 [50 9")+0-97)) Ky * Koad = 354% 40.000 = 5 5 4 108 5 Re Tagaxoon7 ~ *8%10 f= 0.015 cesses pipes page A25 = 9.015 x 120% 1000 . 5 Ke a6 = Pipe 14x0.015=0.63 3 elbows; page 4-29 44 _. 6x 4” gute valve; Example 44 7. Summarizing K for the entire system (globe valve, pipe, venturi gate valve, and elbows), K= 144412340634 144=15.8 0.6253 x15.8x 40 000? x 0.08] 146.47 Ap Sber Given: Water at 80 C is flowing through a flat heating coil, shown in the sketch below, at a rate of 60 litres per minute. igen Find: The pressure drop from Point A to B. Solution: 2 4p page 3-4 = page 3-2 straight pipe; page 3-4 «pipe bends 90° bends; page A29 Ky = (nl) (25 why a +5 Kyo) + Koo . 180° bends; page A-29 2 pegs water 40 C; page AG 42035 cee water 40 C; page A'S d= 266 <1" Sched. 40 pipe; page B16 fr 9.023 1” Sched. 40 pipes page A-26 322x60x 971.8 7 3 Re= Oa 1.33 x 105 0.024 eee 7 pipe 0,024 x 5.4 x 1000 ae ee 87 5.4m straight pipe K=2x14x0.023 0.64 two 90° bends 4 Forseven 180° bends, Ke TQ) (0.250 x 0.023 x 4) + (05 x0.32)+0.32] = 387 5. KTOTAL= 4.87 +0.64+3.87= 9.38 (002 25 x9.38x 971.8 x 60" ra 6. = 0.152 barCRANE” Pressure Drop and Vel Example 4-12. . Orifice Size for Given Pressure Drop and Velocity Given: A 12 inch nominal size, ISO 336 steel pipe, 11 mm. wall thickness, 18 metres long contsining a standard gate valve discharges 15 C water to atmosphere from a reservoir. The entrance projects inward into the reservoir and its centre line is 3.5 metres below the water level in the reservoir. Find: The diameter of thin-plate orifice that must be installed in the pipe to restrict the velocity of flow to 3 metres per second when the gate valve is wide open. Solution: “x = 28 ag 1 hye K SF orSystem k= FP page 34 se age 3-2 Re= = age 2 k=078 cos entrance; page A29 K=10 «exits page A29 Kor gate vale; page A27 pipe; page 3-4 3 + pipes page B-20 pipe: page A26 page A-6 page Ad = 0123x999 5 gs 4 2 82x10 fr0018 coe page A-25 5 Total K require 19.62 x 3.5 +3? = 7.63 K,=8x0013=0.10 spate vale = 18x 1000 . ‘pe k= E1000 9013084 pis ‘Then, exclusive of orifice, Kiotsl 0.78 + 1.0 40.1 + 0.84 = 2.72 7.63 ~ 2.727491 Korifice 7. Korifice = 8 Assume B=0.7 +. C= 0.7 page A-20 then K = 4.3 B is too large 9. Assume B = 0.65 . C= 0.67 page A-20 then K= 7.1 B is too small JO. Assume B = 0.69: then Kx 4.9 use B = 0.69 Orifice size ~ 0.69 x 301.9 208 mm page A-20 © = 0.687 page A-20 /APTER 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLENS 4=7 y in Piping Systems ~ continued Example 4-13... . Flow Given in Traditional Units Given: Fuel oil, with a specific gravity of 0.815 anda kinematic viscosity of 2.7 centistokes flows through 2 2inch Schedule 40 stee! pipe, 100 feet long, at arate of 2 US gallons per second. Find: The pressure drop in bars and in pounds force per square inch, Saiton b apnnase HOP... page 8200330 20 2 age 3. 120 SF age 3.2 2 Convert units given to those used in this paper: refer to page B-10. 1 ft= 0.3048 m 1 US gallon = 3.785 litres 2 L=100ft= 100 x 0.3048 = 30.48 m 4 d=52.5mm : page B16 5. p=999xS=999 xO.815 + page AT p= 814 kg/m? 6 — 2USgallons= 2x 3.785 = 7.57 litres . (isriine) fos). 4. o- é a ) mn) 7 4542 resin & v= 2.7 centistokes 2220x4582 | 9 Rox A BORE = 68 000 or 6.8 x 10° 10, f= 00230. page A25 1, ap= 2252x007908 3048 x44 45477 Ap = 0.665 bar 12, Pressure dsop in pounds force per square inch =0.665414.5 oo... page B12 = 9.64 Ibn?CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems — continued Example 4-14... Bernoulli's Theorem — Water Given: Water at 15 C is flowing through the piping system, shown in the sketch below, at a rete of 1500 lites per minute. 5” Welding Etbow aoripe Find: The velocity in both the 4 and S-inch pipe sizes, ‘and the pressure differential between gouges p, and pa. Solution: 1. Use Bernouilli’s theorem (see page 3-2) 2 page 3-4 page 3-2 page 34 xe small pipe, in terms of DP larger pipe; page 2-11 Ke 14 fp 90° elbow; page A-29 reducing 90° elbows page A-26 = ose Ae 3 p=9990 pe As jeu pee 1023. 1. #” Sa aD plpespge IS y= 1282 5” Sched. 40 pipes page B-16 fr = 0.016 5” size: page A-26 _ 1023. foieme tere Zy ~2y = 22 ~O= 22 metres 23.04 ee eeeeees 4” pipe. page B13 py = 194 5S” pipe, page BAS 2, _ 1.936" — 3.0417 oe 0.28 metres For Schedule 40 pipe, 21.22 x 1500 x 999 7 Rew “Tonsx 1d eerie pipe 21.22 x 1500999 5 95. age Re 7382 x11 eee pipe f 4or 5” pipe K=94 for 67 m of 5" Sched. 40 pipe 0.018 x34. 1000 Ke 102.3 K=60 for 34 m of 4" Sched. 40 pipe With reference to velocity in 5” pipe, = 6.00.8" = 146 page 2413 14 x 0.016 = 0.22 5° 90° elbow K20.22+ pe 54. 5x4” 90° elbow os Then, in terms of S-inch pipe, KTOTAL= 94 + 14.6 +0,22 +0.54= 24.8 ~ 0.28 + 4.74)6116 x 10° x07 RANE CHAPTER 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS 428 Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems — continued Example 4-18 ... Power Required for Pumping For 150 metres of 3.inch Schedule 40 pipe, Given: Water at 20 C is pumped through the piping “= 9.021 x 150.x 1000 system below ata rate of 400 lites per minute. Kes 404 and, Eteveion Zp 7 120 KTOTAL= 2.16 +0.14427.0+ 404+ 1=70.7 Schedule 40 ine = 22.96% 70.7 x 400" _ 0m hye ae 7 sr sunawe [| FLOW Four 3” Standard 902 a ad ‘Threaded Elbows Power demand = 400%127x 998.2 1) sa yw Find: The total discharge head (#) at flowing conditions and the power demand (brake power) required for a pump having an efficiency (ep) of 70 per cent. Solution: 1, Use Bernoulli's theorem (see page 32): y+ A ee Mh ay PB By P28, En 2 Since py = p; and v = v2, the equation can be rewritten to establish the pump head, H: page 3-4 page 3-2 page 3-2 page B-21 29 90° elbow: page gate valve; page A-27 straight pipes page 3-4 exit; page A-29 hed. 40 pipe; page B-16 page A-6 page A-3 page A-26 6 = T79x 1.4% 998.2 e 0.98 f= 0021 2 Ke4x30x0018=216.. x0.018= 0.14 = Li x 108 page 4-25 four 90° elbows gate valve 7.0 lift check with reducers; Example 4$ Example 4-16 Given: Air at S bar gauge and 40 C is flowing through 25 metres of Linch Schedule 40 pipe at a rate of 3 standard (MSC) cubic metres per minute (see page B-12). «Air Lines Find: The pressure drop and the velocity at both ‘upstream and downstream gauges. Solution: 1. Referring to the table on page B14 read pressure drop of 0.565 bar for 7 bar, 15 C sir at a flow tate of 3 cubic metres per minute through 100 metres of 1-inch Schedule 40 pipe. 2 Comrection for length, pressure, and temperature (page B-15) ne sg (25) (7+ (273 + 40 sveosss (iS) (Csr) Cas) .208 bar 3. To find the velocity, the rate of flow in cubic rmottes per minute at flowing conditions must be determines (a age BS. one (GAMES) BE) =a 1.013) /273 +40 3s) At downstream gauge f__1013__) (273 +40 FOIS+ S-0305)) 28s 4 page 3-2 5 page B16 6. = 0.000 556 2 os upstream 7 GDaSgE = BT m/min. upstream) ee aae ee 23 m/min, (downstream, Ve gaPSee = 1023 m/min, Ut ) Note: Example 416 may also be solved by uso of the pressure Grap formula and nomegraph shown on pages 3-2 and 323 Scspectively oe the velocity formule and nomosriph shown on pogee 3. and 317 respoctvaly_ CHAPTER 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEWS CRANE Pipe Line Flow Problems Example 4-17 ... Sizing of Pump for Oil Pipe Lines Given. Cuade oil 30 degree API at 15.6 C with a viscosity of 75 Universal Sayoolt seconds is flowing through a BS 1600, 12 inch, Schedule 30 steel pipe at a rate of 1900 barrels per hour. ‘The pipe line is 80 kilometres long with discharge at an elevation of 600 metres abore the pump inlet. Assume the pump has an efficiency of 67 per cent. Find: The power demand of the pump, Solution: f Equation 3-5 on page 3-2 2 dp=isei A or, after converting B 10 Q, use nomograph on page 3-11 page 3:2 or 38 page 3-5 power demand (KW)= gq SHB page B21 Sx 10" Xa, 2 1=156C 2 p= 8153 page BT $= 0.8762 page BT 4 d=3071 ceeeceeeeeesees alge BAG 5. TSUSS= 12.5 centipoises. eeeeeees page BS 56.23 x 1900 875.3 _ & Rem “sonixias 24360 7 f= 0025 ceceseesesesy page ADS gaps 1581x0025. 80000» £7532 1900 10. The totl discharge head at the pump i H= 42633 +600 = 10263 ._(1voovel | UL \ n\. \ 12, Then the power demand is: 5035 x 1026.3 x 875.3, oer aoe , say BUG x10 x 0.67 NOH say 1110 RWCRANE CHAPTER 4 — EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS an Pipe Line Flow Problems — continued Example 418... Gas Given: A natural gas pipe line made of BS 3600 14-inch pipe, wall thickness 11 mm, is 160 kilometres long. ‘The inlet pressure is 90 bar absolute, the outlet pressure is 20 bar absolute and the average temperature is 4°C. The gas consists of 75% methane (CH,), 21% ethane (CaN). and 4% propane (CoH). Find: The flow rate in millions of cubic metres per day at Metric Standard Conditions (MSC). Solutions: Three sotutions to this example are presented for the purpose of illustrating the variations in results obtained by use of the Simplified Compressible Flow formula, the Weymouth formula and the Panhandle, formula. Simplifid Compressible Flow Formula (S08 paxe 231 Lg =001361 2 d=336 0. page B20, 3 0128 turbulent flow assumed; page A. 4 Te273e19273 042207 Approximate atomic weights Carbon ...sss. C= 120 Hydrogen... He 1.0 5. Approximate molecular weights Methane (CH) M=(1 x 12.0) # (4x 1.0)= 16 thane (C2 Me) M= (2x 12.0) #6 x 1.0 Propane (Cais) M= (x 12.0) +(8 x 1.0) Natural Ges M= (16 x 0.75) + (30 x 0.21) + (44 x 0.04) M~ 20.06, or say 20.1 44 (gas) _ 20 Mais) 29 [GEE fy oor, OO =20 x: Bh = O18 So r38 5160277 x 0688 0.693 page 35 10. a7 3B, i. 15. 46. 1 18, \ » _ (22400m? \ /r4se\ _ % - (ere Se (4) = 2088 42a} Sp Reo aE coos page 32 H= 0011 ceeceves estimated; page AS Rex 232% 122.400 x 0.693 e 333.6 x 0.011 Re 9.986 000 oF 9.986 x 10° 0.0128 page A-25 Since the assumed friction factor (f= 0.0128) is correct, the flow rate is 2.938 million m®/d at MSC. If the assumed friction factor were incorrect, it would have to be adjusted and Steps 8, 9, 12, and 13 repeated until the assumed friction factor ‘vas in reasonable agreement with that based upon the calculated Reynolds number. Weymouth Formula (cee page 33) |) aj, =0.002 61 de? P87 3 5.363.000 a 90? — 20°) 288) 1 = (uss) (au % * \Too0 000%) aay) “75% Panhandle Formats ‘see page $3), gh, =0.008 sees [es cl aan Assume average operation conditions: ficiency is 92 per cent: 092 a, big) dc = (i830) (2) sea (roove0o%) Cean12 __ CHAPTER 4 — EXAMPLES __CRANE Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems Example 419... Water Given; Water at 20 C is flowing from a reservoir through the piping system below. The reservoir has a constant head of 3.5 metres, 17 Standard Gate Valve — Wie Oven 3 Seneaule 40 Pipe le Muu the am om Find: The Slow rate in litres per minute. Sol 1. Q= 0.2087 d® fi 34 lution: 1. Q ae |e . page page 32 ceceesess pipe A26 2 entrance; page A-29 «mitre bends page A-29 K,=8fr gate valve; page A-27 Kh. straight pipes page 3-4 K os R)¥ 2 e sudden contraction; page A-26 smal pipe, in terms of lasger pipes page 2-5 uae exit from small pipe F in terms of larger pipe 3% d=525 2” Sched. 40 pipe; page B-16 a=719 3” Sched. 40 pipe: page B-16 weld ees page AS p= 998.2 page A6 f= 0.019 2” pipe; page A-26 Fr= 0018 : 3” pipe; page A-26 4 B=5282779=067 K=08 ou entrance K=60x0018= 1.08 3° mniue bend K,=8x0.018=0.14 3° gate vale 6 8 9.018 x 3x 1000 K 779 0.69. 3 metres, 3” pipe For 6 metres of 2-inch pipe, in terms of inch Pipe, 0.019. 6x 1900 Ko “S255 067° =108 For 2-inch exit, in tenms of 3-inch pipe, K=15067 =5.0 For sudden contraction, + 1.08 40.14 +0.69 + 10.8 + 5.0 +1375 19.58 Q= 0.2087 x 17.9? VST TTSE = 535 (this solution assumes flow in fully turbulent zone) and, KTOTAL™ Caleulate Reynolds numbers and check friction factors for flow in straight pipe of the 2-inch size 21.22 x 535 x 998.2 € 325% L = 1.96 x 108 f= 0.021 7 page A-25 ‘and for flow in straight pipe of the 3.inch size: axTT = 1.32x 10° = 0.020 page A-25 Since assumed friction factors used for straight pipe in Step 4 are not in agreement with those based on the approximate flow rate, the X factors for these items and the total system should be corrected accordingly. 0.020 x 3.x 1000 779 Ke £0.77 3 memes, 3" pipe For 6-metres of 2inch pipe, in terms of 3:nch pie, 9.921% 6x 1000 $2.5x 067) 1s S+108+0.14+ 0.775 119 +5.0+1.37 = 20.76 ané, KTOTAL = 0.2087 x 77.9 J35*20.76 = 520 litres/minCRANE 5 CHAPTER 4 — EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLENS. Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems — continued Example 4-20. .. Steam at Sonic Velocity Given: A header with 12 bar absolute saturated steam is feeding 2 pulp stock digester through 10 metres of 2+nch, ISO 336 steel pipe, 4mm wall thickness, which includes one standard 90 degree elbow and a fully-open conventional plug type disc globe valve ‘The initial pressure in the digester is atmospheric. ‘Find: The initial flow rate in kilograms per hour, using both the ‘modified Darcy formula and the sonic velocity and continuity uations. Solutions ~ for theory, see page 1-9: Modified Darcy Formia page 34 pipe; page 3-4 lobe valve; page A-27 90° elbows page A-29 ntrance from header; page A-29 exit to digester; page A-29 page AD page B19) page A-26 page A-13 10 metees pipe 2” globe valve 2” 90° elbow K = 30x 0.019 =0.57 and, for the entice system, K= 3.634646 +057 +05 + 10° 12.16 Se vi 12 Using the chart on page 8-22 for y= 1.3, itis found that for K = 12.16 the maximum Sp! is 0.786 (interpolated from table on page Since Ap/py is less than indicated in Step 5, sone velocity oceurs at the end of the pipe, and Ap in the equation of Step J's Ap = 0.786 129.432, say 9.43 interpolated from table; page A-22 30 W= 1.265 x 0.71 x 52.3 56 kg/h. ‘Sone Velosty and Continuity Equations 9. m=3162VT ee page 33 Equation 3-2; page 3-2 3547 10, Ap determined in Step 6. LL. fg = 2782.7... 12 bar abs. sat. steam; page A-13 12, At 2.57 dar abs. the temperature of steam with total heat of 2782.7 kJ/kg equals 159 C and = 0.7558 v 13, NOTE: in Steps 11 and 12 constant total heath, is assumed. But the increase in specific volume from inlet to outlet re- ‘quites that the velocity mast inerease. Source of the kinetic energy increase is the internal heat energy of the fluid. Con- sequently, the heat energy actually decreases toward the ult, Calculation of the correct he at the outlet wil yield a Flow rate commensurate to the answer in Step 8.aaa ‘CHAPTER 4 ~ EXAMPLES OF FLOW PROBLEMS CRANE Discharge of Fluids from Piping Systems — continued Gases at Sonic Velocity Example 4.21 Given: Coke oven gas having a specific gravity of 0.42, a header pressure of 8.0 bar gauge and a temperature of 60 C is flowing through 6 metres of inch Schedule 40 pipe before discharging to atmosphere. Assume ratio of specific heats, y = 1.4. Find: ‘The flow rate in cubic metres per hour at Metric ‘Standard Conditions, Solution ~ for theory, 382 page 1-9 oe 2 /ApPy a nod sane epee page 34 =p k Kath page 34 2 py =8.0+1.013=9.013 3 f=0.0175 cesses page A2S Note: The Reynolds number need not be calculated since Bs Sishaned fo ainephare scugh thor pipe ive a. high Ry and flow will always ‘bein 2 fully {totaled tigen which te fstion fates i constant, 4. = 77.9; D=0.0779 page B16 Z O.0175x6 55 fea «+ for entrance; page A29 for exits page A-29 ceeeee ces total 8 eo 9.013 go13 “0-888 7 Using the chart on page A-22 for = 1.4, itis found that for K = 2.85, the maximum Ap/e' is 0.685 (interpolated from table on page 22), Since Api) is less than indicated in Step 6, sonic velocity occurs at the end of the pipe and Ap in Step J is Sp =0.655p;, =0.655 x 9.01 & 7, 604273=333 59 : interpolated from Pa ere table; page A-22 19. aly ‘sequal wo [BaxTas— 333x042 19.31 x 0.636 x 77.9? vi aj, = 27200 mth Example 4-22... . Compressible Fluids at Subsonic Velocity Given: Aic at a pressure of 1.33 bar gauge and a tem. perature of 40-C is measured at a point 3 metres from the outlet of « Yinch Schedule 80 pipe discharging to atmosphere. Find: The flow rate in cubic metres per minute at Mettic Standard Conditions Solution 1 40-20 20 40 60 ao 100 -120~«440~=«SO F080 1 Temperature, in osgroos Celsius (°C) 1. exon Bionée..c0, 2 Ammonia Ney 9. Ett Aleono! 10. 10% Sodium Chiovde Brine. 10% NaCl 3. Merny Cronies “CHC) 10. anropyt Alco 15; 20 Seam Chiou Brine. 20% Nect Sulphur Bonde ‘SO 13° ZOeSuiphune Acid... 20KH,80, 16. ON Eueum Guondeenne. aUe eet 5. Fron i2,cc-crt2 12. Dowrorme 48, 208 Calum Ghlrte Bie. 20% Gach, 8. freon tid. spate 13. Downer A * 2 Freon tes. Rt 1d, 20 Sum Hydroxide, 20% Noo Example: The viscosity of ammonia at 8 Freon 1300S 18. Mercury O°C 120.15 centipoise Adapated from data extracted from Bibliography references 5, 8, 11APPENDIX CRANE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE _A 6 Viscosity of Gases end Vapours the curves for hydrocarbon vapours and natural iceland gases in the chart at the upper right are adapted or T! A" based upon Sutherland’s formula, as follows: aa 1 Air q+ c) r oh a Ne noe\ (x , « (B34) (2) % ol perature 7. 7 ner a T= absolute temperature, in Kelvin a (273 + °C), for which viscosity is Bova : required. 7.020} for which viscosity is known. aint Note: The variation af viscosity with pressure r is small for most gases. For gases given on this on page, the corcton of vistosty for presure is Jess than 10 per cent for pressures up to 35 bar. 10) | oa 100-200-300, 400 800 Fluid Approximate Mer Cadielicontihcatecha RSS o al | a bo Visosty of Refiorant Vapours x mt Imtd ve nnores ena co, 140 Pree | T co ne | ore _| 8 as | | I Ss | ot Ld a ne Coeeer tt n ore Hut } contipeise Viscosity, Upper chart example: The viscosity of sulphur dioxide pas (SO,) at 100°C is0.0162 centipois Lower chart example: The viscosity of carbon dioxide gas (CO,) at about 30°C is 0.0152 - TT centipoise. ju PERSIE eee eee ee eee 1 = Temperature, in dagrees CelsiusAn6 APPENDIX A PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS A Physical Properties of Water CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE — T Teqgaere | Samaton Spastic ‘otWater Pressure Volume | ‘ P vx 10° ° | Depress cubic Decmoues | Kilogram pet Cait er Riopsan’” | "ewe Met 0 1.0002 2998 3 {eer 333 ri {003 39 & Hore 330 % rors ea x 1.0030 a0 | % | eRe we 3 | Ko oe % aro | Looe 32 4s 93592 1.0099 9302 | 8 TBS tora sana 8 ino | tants oe? a op tons 382 65 oxo % ons 3 He & ons 8s | 3686 3 | 8 fr io Lo Bo He 10 to io 0 10 ito oe ah: Bo 382 ns 7594 Et ies Bi ei Mo Siu Blas a8 ‘To convert Specific Volume from cubic decimetres per kilogram (dm‘/kg) to eurbie metres per kilogram (m°/kg) divide values i table by 10°. ‘To convert Density from kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m?) to kilograms per litre (kgilitre) divide values in table by 10 00, Specific gravity of water at 15°C Data on pressure and volume abstracted from UK National Engineering Laboratory “Steam Tables 1964” with permission of HMSO.APPENDIX A, CRANE _ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE A = Specific Gravity-Temperature Relationship for Petroleum Oils (Adanted from bibliography reference 12 data) [UI Lt] ra sreeiric GRAVITY 60F/60 188.6/196.0 8 i 7 Tt = os da chaviey g ot tLR AL anger asso Bos SETS & _| 2 ~O> sh 5 npc yeitsoe. E Wee $02 iso. = 2 2 tS tI z 2, ty i > hed gos Me Pak y Sekt SSS RCA VAAL _ \ feretetnt_) o2 i LTT | oa S — Specific Gravity of Oil at Any Temp rH Ethane uly = Propane FH, Cebje= Butone CH lwopentane To find the density in kilograms/cubic metre of a petroleum oil at its flowing Example: The specific gravity of an temperature when the specific gravity at 60 F/60 F (15.6 C/15.6 C) is known, Eramole, The spesiic aavity of a2 multiply the specific gravity of the oil at flowing temperature (see chart above) pravity a0 SOC 083 by 999, the density of water at 60 F (15.6 ©), Density and Specific Gravity* of Various Liquids Liquid ‘Temp. | Density | Specine “Liquid ‘Temp. Density, cc ' | » s | + | sete | tain? | Loe te | gine rom Ter] ae | mia | oz | Neco Teale 18 | AGwMa satuatca | $0] 2 | essa | ease | Nesey % | 2] BS) Sse | iemrene [22 [0 | oe) 0899 | Meany & || B37 | ise FEmccc |B | 8 | Ber | er | Mee Blas BSy | BE Bima Nets. | 20 | tse | 103 | Toe | Mae *, | Csdorowupne” | 52] O° | 38k | 122 | Olne ou ® d|) size | die sean? Bla, | | EBS | ince S/S) gee | oR ea ee @ | ise | case | sarrouser | go | age | area | oats Betis & | 136 | GRE | Sabwus | | SE) Bad | bee uals Mi & | 38 | GS | eset: | 80 | is] aise | ste | Roa ie | 1S 1 OSS | SkPouv te | 8 | 38] eas | 0B | ise ozs: | 32s: ances | 60 | a6 | sera | ager SESH wou | 88 | 38 Gass | BEANES |G | S| se | obs Kecere & | Se GER | deamon’ | 6 | ise | mez | os SC isaom | eo | 8 S583 | a Arena | eo | ise | tars | otes 7 Lig at speciod Wmperatrs aa a waar at FRC (607 Vos fo abprb lable a7 bated on Slaton 1 MAK ass densty of 1028 1035 kg™ Pica! Tables Mar’s BnincrsHonabook and 1) $00 Viscosity Index "Nelson's. Perralewm Refinery gineering