Chapter 9.2 ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES CHaries H. DowpINc AND C.T. AIMONE. 9.2.1 BLAST DESIGN CT. AIMonE ‘The application of explosives to the fragmentation of rock for mining or extractive purposes is often referred to asa science ‘aswell asa art. In early years, explosives development became 2 Science as chemists strove to perfect stable yet powerful explosive ‘mixtures for a variety of parposes. In recent years, the needs to ‘minimize the costs of blasting and to control the environmental ‘effects of noise and ground motions have brought about carefully engineered blast designs, aided by research. The research in- cludes computer modeling, explosives formulation, high-speed photography, and development of new initiators. In addition, Improved quality control inthe manufacturing of explosive prod- ‘ucts and devices has evolved. Scientists and engineers, however, along with peacticing blasters, continue to agonize over the ideal approach to optimizing the fracturing process. Systematic re- search in rock blasting has provided a good understanding of the many factors that influence fragmentation. Many of these factors involve site geology, explosives selection, timing for indi- vidual detonations, drilling pattern, and explosives loading char- acteristics, Parameter studies in blasting research are limited to two to three factors, The cumulative effects ofthese factors can only be obtained through costly trialand-error blasts. As a re- Sull, obtaining precise control of these factors is a constant chal- Jenge. The art in blasting evolves from the skilful way in which the blaster uses an understanding of the influencing factors to ‘maximize blasting efficiency. ‘Chapter 9.2 provides a basic understanding of the principles involved in the selection and application of commercial explo- ‘ves to rock blasting in the mining industries and of the monitor- ing and control of blast effects. In 9.2.1, entitled blast design, the calculations and examples presented are to be used as guide~ lines and are representative of the many different methods of calculation and design. This chapter begins with a discussion of tthe chemical and physical properties of explosive mixtures. The following deseription of explosive products and initiating sys- tems includes a discussion on comparative properties of explo- sives. An overview of important explosive thermodynamic prop- erties is given with example calculations. Rock blasting practices fe presented with fracture theory and the effects of geology. “Aspects of safety in the transportation, storage, and handling of explosives are discussed, Blast-design procedures and examples ‘applied to surface and undecground mining are presented. Esti- rating drilling and blasting costs and an overview of recent ‘advances in rock blasting conclude this portion of the chapter. ‘Throughout this segment, units of cubic centimeters (em*) are used for numerical examples that involve explosive quantities fon e bulk or volumetric basis. Nobwithstanding usage norms {involving ST units, x is used extensively inthe explosives indus- ‘ty to describe explosive properties. Density values appear in this text without units; however, for calculation purposes, the wnits are assumed to be g/em. ‘Segment 9.2.2, monitoring and control of blast effects, sum- marizes vibration measurement and structaral response associ fated with rock blasting. Experimental observations are included a8 we Petey —Lunsercren exmccive Fig. 92.LL The detonation process for oyindrcal explosives. to demonstrate the effects of blasting on ground motion parame- ters, Blast design procedures to set safe criteria for the control of blast effects are exemplified. Blasting regulations and compu- terized monitoring instrumentation are also discussed. 9 1 Classification of Commercial Explosives Detonation Theory: An explosive, or basting agent, is a compound or a mixture of compounds, which, when initiated by heat impact, friction, or shock, i capable of undergoing a rapid decomposition, releasing tremendous amounts of heat and gas. ‘The decomposition isa seltpropagatng, exothermic reaction called an explosion, The stable end prodicts are gases that are ‘compressed, under elevated temperature, to very high pressures. It's the sudden rise in temperature and pressure from ambient conditions thet results ina shock wave, oa detonarion, traveling through the unreacted explosive. The velocity of detonation ies in the approximate range of 3000 to 30,000 fps (1500 to 9000, 12/9), well above the speed of sound in the explosive materia ‘Deflagration is the chemical burning of explosive ingredients at 2 rate well below the sonic velocity. Tt is associated with heat only and carries no shock. Deflagration occurs when less then {deel hole loading conditions of explosive formulation are in- volved ‘All commercial explosives are mixtures of earboo, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, The maximum energy release upon deto- tation oecurs when the explosive mix i formulated for oxygen balance. An oxygen-balanced mixture is onein which there is no excess of Geficiency in oxygen, such that the gaseous products formed are chiefly H,O (Water vapor), CO, (carbon dioxide), and Ny (nitrogen). In actual blasting practice, small amounts of noxious gases such as NO (nitric oxide), CO (Carbon monoxide), NH, (ammonia), CH, (methane), and solid carbon, are formed resulting in nonideal detonations and somewhet less than ideal presses and energies. Commercial explosive formulation at fempls to achieve an exygen-balanced mixture, The work done by chemical explosives i the fragmentation and displacement of rock depends on the shock energy as well fs the energy of the expanding eases. Fig. 92.1.1 shows anii ee ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES 723 Fig. 9.2.1.2. Pressure pulse shapes for a high explosive (A) and a ‘Commercial explosive containing high gas volume (2) idealized detonation wave traveling through a cylindrical explo- sive shape, producing an inerease in pressure. The steady-state chemical reaction takes place behind the shock front within the reaction zone. At the end of this zone, a nonsteady-state region exists. Is created by a flow of expanding gases in a direction ‘opposite to that of the traveling wave front. The boundary be- ‘tween the steady and nonsteady states is referred to as the Chapman-Jouget (C-l) plane. At this plane, the chemical reac- tion is complete, assuring an ideal detonation. It is at the C-T plane that all the thermodynamic properties of pressure P, veloc- ity V, temperature 7, internal energy F or heat of formation Q, and density p, are calculated. Fig. 9.2.12 shows generalized pressure waves produced from two detonations. The maximum pressure and duration of a wave pulse is directly proportional to the shock energy and gas pressure of the explosive, respectively. High explosives such as military explosives or highly sensitive ‘commercial explosives are characterized by an intense shattering effect upon detonation (known as brisance). They liberate gas- cous products very quickly. The distance between the shock front and the C-J plane is very short and results in a pressure pulse of high amplitude and short duration. The pressure pulse for less-sensitive commercial explosives shows a decreased pres- sure amplitude and a longer pulse length. In this case, the reac- tion is slower and the gas volume is greater ‘Comparative Properties of Explosives: Explosives and blast- ing agents are characterized by various properties that indicate hhow they will perform under field conditions, These properties include fume class, density, water resistance, temperature effects, detonation velocity, detonation pressure, borehole pressure, se sitivity, and strength, Fume Class—Fumes are noxious gases that are produced from the detonation of explosives. The production of these gases is most critical in underground and other confined workings. Many factors affect the volume of poisonous gas produced in- cluding oxygen balance and adverse loading of explosives. The fume class is 4 measure of the toxic gases in cubie feet per 0.44 1b (200 g) of unreacted explosive. Table 9.2.1.1 lists the eurrent fume classifications as adopted by the Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME). The US Bureau of Mines (USBM) limits the volume of poisonous gases produced by permissible explosives (those used in underground coal and other gaseous mines) to 28 1b (14 kg). Table 9.2.1.1. Standards for Fume Class Volume poisonous ga Per 0.44 ib explosive, © lass 7 076 2 016-08 3 033-087 ‘Source: Dek etal, 19883 Dénsity-—The density of an explosive is defined asthe weight per unit volume or the specific gravity. Commercial explosives ange in density from 0.5 to 1.7. Explosives with a density less ‘han 1 will float in water. Therefore, in water-filled holes, an explosive with a density greater than 1 is required, For certain granular explosives such as dynamite, density correlates to the nergy released in a given borehole volume. However, for water- based explosive, this is not the case, and often the reverse is true, Density is most useful ia determining the loading density LD ot the weight of explosives one can load per unit length of borehole (in pound per foot or kilogram per meter), and is calculated in English units as LD = 03405 p D» 211) where p is density, and D is explosive columa diameter in in, Knowledge of loading density is required for blast-design calcu lations Water Resistance—The ability of an explosive to withstand exposure to water for long periods of time without loss of strength or ability to detonate defines the water resisiance. A ‘numerical rating is used based on the results of tests performed ‘on the explosive. However, explosive manufacturers individually rate products based on a relative basis as good, fair, or poo rating. The presence of moisture in amounts greater than 5% dissolves chemical components in dry blasting agents and alters the composition of gases produced, contributing tothe formation of noxious fumes and lower energy output. Gelled granular prod. lucts have good water resistance, and certain water-based mix- tures have an excellent rating. Temperature Effects—Extreme low temperatures affect the stability as wel asthe performance of explosives. The sensitivity land detonation velocity are hampered for certain water-based explosives at low temperatures while dyaamites can become dan ‘gerously unstable below freezing temperatures, Explosives man ‘facturers recommend the appropriate range of temperature for storage and use Detonation Velocity—Tihe detonation veloclty isthe speed at which the detonation front moves through a coluran of explo sives. For high explosives such as dyziamite, the strength of an explosive increases with detonation rate. For dry blasting agents and water-based explosives, field loading conditions greatly af- fect detonation velocity. Such conditions include borehole diam- eter, density, confinement within the borehole, the presence of water, and other factors. The speed of detonation is important. ‘when blasting in hard, competent rock where a brisance effect is desired for good fragmentation For most explosives, there isa minimum diameter Dy, below which detonation velocity inereases nonlinearly with increasing borehole diameter (Fig. 9.2.1.3). Above Dry the explosive has reached its steady-state velocity. At this point, all thermody. namie properties are at a maximum as the reaetion front ap- roaches @ plane shock front. At diameters less than Day COm~ i | j724 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Fig, 92.1.3, Generalized relationship between detonation velocity ‘and borohole ameter. plete reactions do not take place, and less than ideal energy and pressure evolve from the slower detonation rates. This represents 4 loss in terms of dollars spent on explosive energy. ‘Detonation Pressure—The detonation pressure is the maxi- ‘mum theoretical pressure achieved within the reaction zone and measured at the C-J plane in a column of explosives. The actual pressure achieved is somewhat less than this maximum due to ronideal loading conditions always present in practice and due to ceriain explosive formulation. Most commercial explosives achieve pressures in the range of 0.29 to 3.48 X 10* psi (2.10 24 GPa), Although detonation pressure is related to the tempera- ture of the reaction, a number of simplifying formulas are avail- able for estimating detonation pressure for granular explosives ‘based on detonation velocity and density, such as (in English units): P= 337 (10)* pV? 0212) where P is detonation pressure in psi, p is density, and V is detonation velocity in fps (Anon., 1987). ‘Borehole Pressure—Borshole pressure is the maximum pres- sure exerted within the borehole upon completion of the explo- sive reaction measured behind the C-J plane. Such measurements ‘eannat be made directly and are done during underwater tests ‘performed for energy and strength determinations. With the use of hydrodynamic computer codes, theoretical calculations of borehole pressures are made. There is little agreement in the literature regarding specific estimates of actual borehole pres- sures, In general, pressures after detonation within the borehole are estimated to be less than 30% of the theoretical detonation pressure. "Sensitivity The definition of explosive sensitivity is two-fold. It includes sensitivity against accidental detonations in addition to the ease by which explosives can be intentionally detonated From the standpoint of safety and accidental detonations, the sensitivity of an explosive to shock, impact, friction, and heat determine its storage and handling characteristics, Standardized tests for high explosives have been adapted for commercial explo- sives that include the friction (pendulum), impact (fallhammer), land projectile tests, among others. These tests are explained by Meyer (1981). "The term properly used to define the propagating ability of aan explosive is sensitivenes. In this respect, tests such as the No. 8 strength blasting cap tes, air-gap test, and the minimum critical diameter test are used, The cap sensitivity test measures the ‘minimum energy required for initiation and is used to classify ‘explosives (e.g, cap Sensitive vs. noncap sensitive products) or the ability to initiate an explosive directly with a standard cap. ‘The No. 8 cap isan industry standard cap of specific dimensions and charge characteristics. The air-gap test measures the dis- tance between the ends of adjacent eartridge explosives for which reliable initiation can be propagated from one cartridge to an- other. The evtical diameter of an explosive is the smallest diame- ter at which an explosive will maintain a steady-state detonati Below this critical diameter, explosives may deflagrate or “dead press." Dead pressing occurs when an explosive is densified to a point that no free oxygen is available to ensure the start or rogresion of detonation. Establishing the critical diameter of all explosives is an important explosive selection criteria ‘Strength—The strength of an explosive is a measure of its ability to break rock. The terms “weight strength” and “bulk strength” were useful many years ago when explosives were primarily comprised of nitroglycerin cartridges, packaged in 50- 1b (23-kg) boxes. In recent years, with the development of bulk basting agents and less sensitive ingredients, new testing meth- ods have been established to determine relative energies for all commercial products regardless of ingredients or packaging, The performance potential of an explosive isa function ofthe detona- tion velocity and density, as well asthe volume of liberated gases and the heat of the reaction. A number of methods are used to ‘establish this energy including the use of theoretical computer ‘models and tests such as crate, ballistic mortar, and underwater tests. Of these methods, underwater tests give the best correlation 10 rock-breakage performance. Underwater tests were developed to measure both the shock ‘energy and the gas (bubble) energy released during the detona- tion of standard test samples. Cole (1948) describes the calcula- tions involved while the testis detailed by Anon. (1987) and Anon.(1977). These energy values have teen useful in predicting the rock-breaking capabilities of explosives for comparative pur- ‘Other terminology widely used by manufacturers is based ‘on the theoretical heat of reaction determined by explosive for- mulation. Absolute bulk strength (ABS) in calories per cubic ‘centimeter and absolute weight strength (AWS) in calories per gram are computed from the heat liberated during the detonation ‘and formation of gaseous end products. Note ABS and AWS. can be computed from one another if density is known, and itis the volumetric basis of reaction heat which correlates with en- cexgy. Mast manufacturers of explosives will include either value with technical product literature. ‘A mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) is by far the most widely used commercial blasting product. De- pending on the proportions of the mix, the heat of reaction is approximately 850 cal/g. As a dry, free-running blasting agent, ANFO is capable of being loaded Or packaged at varying densi- ties. For a typical density of 0.85 and an AWS of 850 cal/g, the ABS = (850 cal/g) (0.85) = 723 cal/ea’. ‘Other common strength terms are the relative weightstrength (RWS) and relative bulk strength (RBS) in which the relative measure of energy available per unit weight or volume of an ‘explosive is compared to an equal weight or volume of the stan- 13.21 CO, + 2202/2 HLO + 1321/2 Ny +0962 “1321 “tloay0, 621.2) wi) 50 where subscripts denote mole numbers of each element in 1 kg Onygen in excess +1.095 moles 0, = +219 moles 0 ‘Oxygen balance (OB) = {{O (excess)]/0 (available)} (100%) = 5.53% ‘With the exception of ammonium nitrate and nitroglycerin, ‘most explosive components are oxygen deficient. Oxygen balance for TNT is given next in Ex. 9.213. Example 92.1.3, Find the oxygen balance for TNT, CHLON:. Solution. CynsaHlaseOax Nuss 7 30.82 CO + 22.02/20 + 132/2N, + (264/2 — 3082 — 2201/4) 0, 42.25 moles O (213) ‘Oxygen balance for an oxygen-deficient component is {0 (eficent)/[O (deficient) ~ © (equized]} (100%) = 63.1% Exaraple 9.2.1.4. Find the oxygen balance for the mixture, ANFO,730 Solution. Por the mix of 94.5% AN, NHNOs, 5.5% FO, CH, (approximate) For I kg of each component, the subseripted mole numbers are AN FO Mass balance for the mixture wes Percentage of Mole contribution to each element component i mixture sas AN — A722. 3542 30D 33% FO | 205785 s Total moles intigmis 205-5507, «35422262 CoeHaeiOnaNnre ~ 2.05 CO, i + 55.07/2 HO + 2362/2 NO j + 1.890, = +378 moles 0 op = 10.7% 0214 Explosive Energy: Energy is expressed in terms of heat of formation (or enthalpy) for areaction involving constant volume, siven as kilocalories (kcal). It is computed as the sum of the heats of formation for the products minus the sum for the re factants. The reaction is based on 1 kg of explosive component ‘or mixture (reactants). The enthalpies are given for the reactants {n terms of kilocalorie per kilogram (calorie per gram or weight strength), and for the gaseous products, in terms of kcal/mole. ‘Using the single component NG and the number of moles formed of the various gas products as shown in Eq. 9.2.1.3, Ex. 9.21.5, cealoulates energy. Example 92.1.5. Energy (heat of formation) for nitro- slyeerin Solution, Q= (13.21 moles (~94.05 keal/mole) + 11,01 moles (=57.8 keal/mote)] — (—392.0 keal))= #1487 keal/ag of NG For mixtures, the enthalpy contribution of each component ‘must be determined, ‘Example 9.2.1.6. Find the energy for ANFO. Solution. Net eathalpy (1091 keal/tee)(0.945 kg AN) + (698 keal/kg (0.055 kg FO) = =981.61 keal Energy, Q [2.05 mole (—9405 keal/mole) + 27.54 mole (—57.8 kcal/mole) ~ (—981.61 Kesl)) = —803.64 keal/kg 215) MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Explosion Temperature: The theoretical temperature can be calculated assuming that the detonation reaction takes place ‘under an adiabatic condition, and that the reaction takes place fsa constant pressure process from ambient temperature 1, In this case, the temperature of the explosion 7; is calculated by expressing the enthalpy of the products as a function of their temperature, The enthalpy Q is expressed in terms of 7, and 7; for n moles of product as Q=n p «jar 0216 Expressing C,, molal heat capacity, as a quadratic function of temperature, C, =a + 67 + ef”, wherea, b, and care constants, experimentally derived and available in standard chemistry hand ‘books. Tateprating Eg. 9.2.1.6 the heat of formation is, Qa nla — 7) + 62 (TF ~ 7 + eR TS - TM 21.7) For a reaction involving more than one product, the enthalpy of ‘each product is obtained in the form of Eq. 9.21.7. The sum of all products is set equal to the heat of formation of the renction, (based on 1 mole of explosive), and explosion temperature 73 is, determined. “The following example involving ANFO illustrates the eal- culations involved to compute explosion temperature. The con- ‘stants for heat capacity of the products are given in Table 9.2.15. ‘Example 9.2.7. Find the temperature of ANFO detonation. Solution. Heat of formation based on eal/mole: Weighted Atomic Mass, Atomic Mass, Component Percentage /mole p/mole AN 94.5% 80 75.0) FO 55% 14 O77 Total 7637 -mole/kg = (10008/kg)/(76.37 g/mole) = 13.08 mole/kg, Eathalpy (—808.6keal/kg)/(13.09 mole/kg) ~61,393 cal/mole (9.2.1.8) 4 02.18) From Eq, 92.15, for 1309 moles of ANFO explosive, 1 mole cof ANEO produces i 0.157 mole CO, + 2.104 moles H,O + 0.9 mole Ns ++ 0.144 0, = 3:31 moles of gas products Substituting T, = 298°K in Eq. 9.2.1.7 for each gas product gives the following results: (CO, = 157 [6.85 (7, ~ 298) + 8533/2 1O-=\(T" — 298°) ~ 2.48/3 G0-(7) — 298°)] HO = 2.104 [6.89 (7, — 298) + 3.28/2 (10™\(T? — 2989) — 0434/3 (1O-*(7;8 — 298%)) 0.90 {6.30 (7 — 298) + 1.82/2 (1O~>)(7y? — 298°) — 0.35/3 (l0"(7? — 238°)) {ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES (0.144 [6.13 (1, — 298) + 2.99/2 (10-\(T7? — 298%) — 081/38 (10-7, — 298) ‘The sum is equal to ~61,393 cal/mole, and the cubie form (Eq. 9.2.1.7) becomes 22.137 T, + 0.00516 T3 — 5.13 (10~7) T* — 68365 ‘The solution to the cubic equation has three roots (determined ‘xaphically or solved numerically), one of which lies between reasonable values of 2000 to 5000'K, The graphical solution ‘ives the explosion temperature for ANFO as 2204’. Detonation Pressure: The equation of state for explosive ‘gases produced by detonations must define the temperature: ‘pressure-volume relationships at high temperatures and pres- ‘sures. Many equations of state for nonideal gas pressure ealcula- tions are proposed (Cook, 1958; Fickett and Davis, 1979; Mader, 1979; Johansson and Persson, 1970), These solutions require the use of large hydrodynamic computer codes and the knowledge ‘of empirically derived constants from high-pressure experiments. ‘A simple expression used to estimate pressure is the covolume equation of state: PW.- a) = "RT 021.9) ‘where Vis specific volume of the explosive (inverse of p explo- sive density), Tis explosion temperature in‘K, n is the number ‘of gas moles, and 2 is the gas constant, 82.06 em-atm/mole"K. Covolume ais a measure of the actual volume of gas molecules Pressure is thus related to the inverse of P — a, or free volume. Experimental values of care given by Cook (1958) asa function of p and approximated by, a= O% x 10° emi/ig 2.1.10) Example 9.2.1.8, Caleulate the detonation pressure for ANFO. Solution Given 1 kg of ANFO mixture, n= 43.285 mole T = 22040 K p=o08s a = T1L8 em'/kg (from Eq. 9.2.1.9) V, = (1000 g/ka)/Ap) = 1176.5 om*/eg (21285 mol (0.05 om /moe RYRIOAEKLET psn) a TES eg = THB mB) = 0247 x 10* psi (1.7 GPa) Prose, P (2.1.11) For explosives that are not oxygen balanced such as TNT, experimental data for m ate required and vary widely among cexperimentalists. Cook (1958) among others gives experimental data for TNT. ‘Example 9.2.1.9, Caleulate the detonation pressure for TNT. Solution. Given I kg of TNT, n= 23 moles T= 400K 731 Dynamic COMPRESSIVE StmenctH RADIAL COMPONENT ee a ‘DYNAMIC. 3 TENSILE et STRENGTH Fig. 9.2.1.6. Goneralzed stress vs. time for radial and tangential components of stress at two distances A trom the borehole center (2, = orginal borehole radius). p= 159 P= 11 x 106 psi (7.57 GPa) which agrees with experimental results 9.2.1.3 Blasting Practices The use of explosives to break rock roquity the proper sclction of eaplosives and Basing devi, the caefl design of torehole pattems, loading charecieristcs, and. delay. Basing Sequence, and the contro of ground vibration, alas, a My Tovk: Efficient bast designs proce the desired parle size © distributions and placement of muckpiles for case of YOck re- tmoval and handling mo Rock Brenags Using Explosives: There are a number of tories used to dseibe rock fragmentation by blasting (Winzer fant Riter, 1980, Anon 19873. Two broad areas of breakage ‘mechanisms include (1) the role of stress waves generated from the explosive detonation (shock) force, and @) the ole of bore hele presures created by the detonation ges products “Byer of Sires Wayes—‘The theoreti extent of expl- sively generatd sree waves i given by Kutter and Fairhurst 971) Rinehart (1973) and Mohanty (1989) Upon detonation Sritina borehole, a shock wave generated and tenels into the ook, quilly decaying in pak pressure amplitude and dispersing in shape asthe wave anes avay fom the borehole. The cae ically divergent wave cacrisboth ada and angel sess fomponent whose stress time histories are shows, idealized, in Fip 921.6 The response of the rock adjacent to the bjehole y | | |