Sec. 3.7 \Vibration-Measuring instruments 5 For an empty vebicte z thy | 10.15 raiser m ~ ¥ 3000/3386 wo 3.6K om ~ 101s = 9383 Substituting for a /ay and ¢ in Eq. (3.6.5) gives eo 1+ (2(0.462)40.363)72 Me a (I~ (0.363) F + [2(0.4620.363) y Wf, = 1.133up9 = 1.133(3) 3.40 in. Derivation 3,5 Equation (3.6.2) is first rewritien as a linear combination of sine and cosine functions. This an be accomplished by substituting Egs (3.2.11) and (3.2.12) for the Ry and ¢, respectively, or by replacing py in Eq, (3.2.4) with ~miig. and substituting in Eq, (3.2.3). Either way the relative displacement is a(t) = Stee = Coleoy sin wt — [24 (w/a )} 208 wt . & U1 (eo/aog)? P + [25 (co/ang) P ing this twice and substituting it in Eq. (3.6.3) together with Eq, (3.6.1) gives HCE) & lige (Cy sinaot + Dy cos cat) tb) where = ee] a 3 oe eT GrP oT aeteraranaaee ‘The acceleration amplitude is Et lps jc} +Df (a) ‘This result, after substituting for C) and 2) from Eq. (c) and some simplification, leads w- Eq. (3.6.4),Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations Chap. 3 a (magnified) ' Flgere 27-1 Schovatic drawing ofa sibratio-measurig instrument and recorded motion, motion of a support point; three separate transducers are required to measure the three com. poncats of motion, When subjected ta motion of the support point, the transducer mass moves relative to the frame, and this relative displacement is recorded after suitable mag. hification, 1t is the objective of this brief presentation to discuss the principle underlying the design of vibration-measuring instruments so that the measured relative displacement provides the desired support motion —acceleration or displacement. 3.7.1 Measurement of Acceleration The motion to be measured generally varies arbitrarily with time and may include many harmonic components covering a wide range of frequencies. It is instructive, however, to ‘consider first the measurement of simple harmonic motion described by Eq. (3.6.1). The displacement of the instrument mass, ive to the moving frame is given by Eq. (3.6.2), which can be rewritten as ui) =~(Rs) ie(?~£) an a @ ‘The recorded u(t) is the base acceleration modified by a factor — Ry /w? and recorded with atime lag @/e, As shown in Fig, 3.2.6, Ry and @ vary with the forcing frequency , but of isan instrument constant independent of the support motion. ‘The object of the instrument design is to make Ry and o/q as independent of exciti- tion frequency as possible because then each harmonic component of acceleration willl be recorded with the same modifying factor and the same time lag. Then, even if the motion 10 ‘be recorded consists of many harmonic components, the recorded u(y) will have the same oak ping ariemg with a constant shift of time, This constant time shift simply lite, which is usually not important, According to Fig. 3.7.2 (which is a magnified plot of Fig. 3.2.6 with additional damping values), ice tae ee ‘ semen jet cy range 0 < «/u, < 0.50, Ry is-close to | (less than 2.5% error) and the variation — ey oS0.98 OO 02 oF 06 os Lo. a0 o2 04 0.6 O8 10 Frequency ratio ava, Figure 3.7.2 Variation of Ay and cb with frequency ratio ar/oa, for ¢ = 0.6, 0165, 0:7, and 0.75, _ Figure 3.7.3 shows a comparison of the actual ground acceleration ii,(t) = ‘O.lgsin(2x 1) and the measured relative displacement of Ryiip(t — /a), except for the instrument constant —I /a? in Eq. (3.7.1). For excitationLe pereet aly gar ec mammiamaeaae aa a st ariaSec. 3.8 Energy Dissipated in Viscous Damping 7} it moves. Such an instrument is unwickly because of the heavy mass and soft spring, und ibecause it must accommodate the anticipated support displacement, which may be as tange as 36 in. during carthqukes, Toexamine the basic concept further, consider harmonic support displacement tpt) = tye Sint (3.7.2) With the forcing function payit) = —nnii,(r) = mes%a,, sinat, Eq. (1.7.4) governs the relative displacement of the mass; this governing equation applied harmonic forse with p, replaced by may. Making this substitution in Eg, (3.2.10) and using Eqs. (3.1.9) and (3.2.20) gives wit) = Ratt, sinfan — o) 3.7.3) For excitation frequencies « much higher than the natural frequency a», Ry is close to unity (Fig. 3.2.7c) and © is close to 130°, and Eq. (3.7.3) becomes wit) go SH Ca (3.74) This reconded displacement is the same as the support displacement [Eq. (3.7.2)] except for the negative sign, which is usually inconsequential. Damping of the instrument is not a critical parameter because it has little effect on the recorded motion if a1/0, is very (Consider the steady-state motion of an SDF system due to p(t) = p,. sinat. The energy dissipated by viscous damping in one cycle of harmonic vibration is ie in Ev= | foau= [ (eiyiat -{ cif dt I, jas we =f Lou, costaat — @)/ dt = mewn, = Int kus B81 0 i orice ihn Sgt of Io oe cae th iis not a constant for any given amount of damping and amplitude since the energy dissipated increases linearly with excitation frequency, In steady-state vibration, the energy input to the system due to the applied force is in viscous damping. The external force pir) inputs energy to the system, which foreach eye of vibration isResponse to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations ‘Chap 3 Utilizing Eq. (3.2.12) for phase angle, this equation can be rewritten as (see Derivation 3,6) Ey = 2ac mG G83) Equations (3.8.1) and (3.8.3) indicate that Ey = Ep. What about the potential energy and kinetic energy? Over each cycle of harmonic vibration the changes in potential energy (equal to the strain energy of the spring) ang kinetic enengy are zero. This can be conlirmed as follows: ace ts= f saw -{ (kuyie dt I ad = i Au, sin(ar — 6) ][an, cosiat — @)] dt =O fe anja Ex= [ fidum f (indi jet dt la -[ ma", sinlat — @)lou, cos(or — 6)) dt =0 ho ‘The preceding energy concepts help explain the growth of the displacement ampli- tude caused by harmonic force with w = o, until steady state is attained (Fig. 3.2.2), For @ = a, & = 9 and Eq. (3.8.2) gives Er = 7 Patt (G84) ‘The input energy varies linearly with the displacement amplitude (Fig. 3.8.1). In contrast, the dissipated energy varies quadratically with the displacement amplitude (Eq. 3.8.1). As shown in Fig. 3.8.1, before steady state is reached, the input energy per cycle exceeds the energy dissipated during the cycle by damping, leading to a larger amplitude of dis- placement in the next cycle. With growing displacement amplitude, the dissipated energy increases more rapidly than does the input energy. Eventually, the input and dissipated energies will match at the steady-state displacement amplitude u,, which will be bounded no matter how small the damping, This energy balance provides an altemative means of Ey‘See. 38 Energy Dissipated in Viscous Damping ™ finding u, due to harmonic force with a = ay; equating Eqs. (3.8.1) and (3.8.4) gives F Polly = Fewgite 385) Solving foray beads w u, = fe G86) Cy This result agrees with Eq, (3.2.7), obtained by solving the equation of motion. ‘We will now present a graphical interpretation for the energy dissipated in viscous damping. For this purpose we first derive an equation relating the damping force fy to the displacement a fo = cit(t) = cont, cos(wt — o) = con uz — ui sin"(wr — 6) = cw) ut — [aye z 2 (+) +(4) al B87 Me Canty which is the equation of the ellipse shown in Fig. 3.8.2a. Observe that the fp-w curve ‘is not a single-valued function but a loop known as a hysteresis loop. The area enclosed bby the ellipse is m(up)(com,) = srcwu2, which is the same as Eq. (3.8.1). Thus the area within the hysteresis loop gives the dissipated energy, This can be rewritten as 0) = fo+Ss02 r ‘Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations Chap, - Weis of interest to examine the total (elastic plus damping) resisting forse becaugg this is the force that is measured in an experiment: Ss + fio = kur) + cw = hu + co, GAs) A plot of fe + fv against w is the ellipse of Fig. 3.8.2 rotated as shown in Fig. 338.2) because of the ku term in Eq, (3.8.8). The energy dissipated by damping is still the area gn. closed by the ellipse because the area enclosed by the single-valucd elastic force, fis = ku, is zera, ‘The hysteres sis since it is related to the op associated with viscous damping is the result of dynamic hystere. vnamic naiure of the loading. The loop area is proportional to excitation frequency. implies that the force—deformation curve becomes a single. valued curve (no hysteresis loop) if the cyclic load is applied slowly enough (a = 0), A distinguishing characteristic of dynamic hysteresis is that the hysteresis loops tend to be clliptical in shape rather than pointed, as in Fig, 1.3.1¢, if they are associated with plastic deformations. In the latter case, the hysteresis loops develop even under static cyclic loads, this phenomenon is therefore known as static hysteresis because the force—deformation curve is insensitive to deformation rate. In passing, we mention two measures of damping: specific damping capacity and the specific damping factor. The specific damping capacity, Ey / Ese. is that fractional part ‘of the strain energy, which is dissipated during each cycke of motion; both Ep and E,, are shown 8.3, The specific damping factor, also known as the Jose factor, is defined as. 1 Ep eee aa & ix Ess Gan Ifthe energy could be removed at a uniform rate during a cycle of simple harmonic motion {such a mechanism is not realistic), € could be interpreted as the energy loss per median3 Sec. 3.9 Equivalent Viscous Damping 103 divided by the strain energy, £5... These two measures of damping are not often used in structural vibration since they are most useful for very light damping (e.g., they are useful in comparing the damping capacity of materials). Derivation 3.6 Equation (3.8.2) gives the input energy per cycle where the phase angke, defined by Eq, (3.2.12) ‘can be expressed as singe (2¢-".) rym (29%) 2 a EE Eo ) alk Substituting this in Eq. (3.8.2) gives Eq. (3.8.3), 3.9 EQUIVALENT VISCOUS DAMPING As introduced in Section | 4, damping in actual structures is usually represented by equiv- alent viscous damping. It is the simplest form of damping to use since the governing differential equation of motion is linear and hence amenable to analytical solution, as seen in earlier sections of this chapter and in Chapter 2. The advantage of using a linear equation ‘of motion usually outweighs whatever compromises are necessary in the viscous damping i ‘approximation. In this section we determine the damping coefficient for viscous damping so that it is equivalent in some sense to the combined effect of all damping mechanisms Present in the actual structure; these were mentioned in Section 1.4. The simplest definition of equivalent viscous damping is based on the measured re- Sponse of a system to harmonic force at exciting frequency a equal to the natural frequency OF the system. The damping ratio Cay is calculated from Eq. (3.4.1) using measured val- Hes of w, and (a..)o. This is the equivalent viscous damping since it accounts for all the ___ Snergy-dissipating mechanisms that existed in the experiments, f Another definition of equivalent viscous damping is that it is the amount of damping that provides the same bandwidth in the frequency-response curve as obtained experimen- tally for an actual system. The damping ratio gq is calculated from Eg. (3.2.24) using the excitation frequencies f,, f,, and f, (Fig. 3.4.1) obtained from an experimentally deter- mined frequency-response curve. ‘The most common method for defining equivalent viscous damping is to equate the _ Snergy dissipated in a vibration cycle of the actual structure and an equivalent viscous 4 For an actual structure the force-displacement relation obtained from an experi- ‘Ment under cyclic loading with displacement amplitude tq is determined; such a relation ‘arbitrary shape is shown schematically in Fig. 3.9.1. The energy dissipated in the actual : ‘STucture is given by the area Ep enclosed by the hysteresis loop. Equating this to the dissipated in viscous damping given by Eq. (3.8.1) leads to i wo ial A Athy Biv = En Or ty = came sei siete @9.1) ssResponse to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations — Chay 4 Figure 3.9.1 Energy dissipaued Ep ing eyele of harmonic vibration determined fram experiment. where the strain energy, Es, = kw2/2, is calculated from the stiffness & determined by experiment. ‘The experiment leading to the force-deformation curve of Fig. 3.9.1 and hence Ep should be conducted at o = a. where the response of the system is most sensitive 1p damping. Thus Eq. (3.9.1) specializes to 1 Ep dn E. tes G92) Seq determined from a test at @ = a, would not be correct at any other ‘exciting frequency, but it would be a satisfactory approximation (Section 3.10.2). It is widely accepted that this procedure can be extended to model the damping in ‘systems with many degrees of freedom. An equivalent viscous damping ratio is assigned to cach natural vibration mode of the system (defined in Chapter 10) in such a way thatthe energy dissipated in viscous damping matches the actual energy di jpated in the system when the system vibrates in that mode at its natural frequency. In this book the concept of equivalent viscous damping is restricted to systems vi brating at tudes within the linearly elastic limit of the overall structure. The energy dissipated in inelastic deformations of the structure has also been modeled as equivalent viscous damping in some research studies. idealization is generally not satisfactory, ‘however, for the large inelastic deformations of structures expected during strong earth- quakes, We shall account for these inclastic deformations and the‘Sec. 2.10 Harmonic Vibration with Rate-Independent Damping 105 ‘Solution IF time is measured trom the position of largest negative displacement, the har Wit) = wy cos wot The energy dissipated in one cycle of mation is Dafa jae t= f son f epeuastiai| eae fn oa fee =f (ai? hi dt = zoos f sin? cot dt = awn 0 Equating this to the energy dissipate in viscous damping [Eq. (3.8.1)] gives 8 8 Reagents = Fae) OF ey = _me (a) Substituting c = 0 ing. () and te cq for ¢ in Eq. (3.2.15) gives ‘ ar acd (Fg 40 HARMONIC VIBRATION WITH RATE-INDEPENDENT DAMPING 3.10.1 Rate-Independent Damping Experiments on structural metals indicate that the energy dissipated internally in cyclic straining of the material is essentially independent of the cyclic frequency. Similarly, forced vibration tests on structures indicate that the equivalent viscous damping ratio is ‘oughly the same for all natural modes and frequencies, Thus we refer to this type of damping as nate-independent linear damping. Other terms used for this mechanism of in- temal damping are structural damping. solid damping, and hysteretic damping. We prefer ‘ot to use these terms because the first two are not especially meaningful and the third is ous because hysteresis is a characteristic of all materials or structural systems that hysteresis due to plastic strain, crystal plasticity, and plastic flow in a range of stresses ee ee eee ‘crystal boundary intersections106 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations Cay 5 ‘The simplest device that can be used to represent rate-independent linewr tering bernesee nce & henocney wie w assunve thatthe damping force is properad to velocity and inversely proportional to frequency: aie fox sa Gain) where & is the stiffness of the structure and 9 is a damping coefficient. The energy diss, pated by this type of damping in a cycle of vibration at frequency « is independent of «, (Pig. 3.1 It is given by Bg. (3.8.1) with ¢ replaced by pk ax: En = ku, = 2mEse (3.10.2) In contrast, the energy dissipated in viscous damping [Eq. (3.8.1)] increases linearly wig the forcing frequency as shown in Fig. 3.10.1. Viscous damping Rate-independent damping, Energy dissipated Ey, - SMO.1 Energy dissipated in vscom Forcing frequency w sorecenl aor teinaaerae __ Rate-independent damping is easily described if the excitation is harmonic and we are interested ‘only in the steady-state response of this system. Difficulties arise in trans lating this damping mechanism back to the time domain. ‘Thus it is most useful im the frequency-domain method of analysis (Appendix A). 3.10.2 ‘Steady-State Response to Harmonic Force ‘The equation governing harmonic motion of an SDF system wit damping. denoted crossed box in i: eee, Fig. 3.10.2, is Eq. (3.2.1) with the damping bad a ak a lt - est bem wf ee csahh em aatte )r Sec. 3.10 Harmonic Vibration with Rate-Independent Damping 107 ae) Friction-tree surface Figure 3002 SDP system with ratesindependent hear damping. pit) = p, sina, which is described by u(t) =n, sinteat — 6) (3.10.4) The amplitude w,, and phase angle ¢ are I Me = gp 105) y [l= Caf] +o? acre Bee fi Gol G.10.6) ‘These results ure obtained by modifying the viscous damping ratio in Eqs. (3.2.11) and (3.2.12) to reflect the damping force associated with rate-independent damping, Eq, (3.10.1), In particular, ¢ was replaced by © Akl " Uma 2ewfern) cbs Shown in Fig. 3.10.3 by solid lines are plots of u,/(1), and as a function of the frequency ratio m/e, for damping coefficient » = 0, 0.2, and 0.4; the dashed lines are described in the nest section, Comparing these results with those in Fig. for viscous damping, two differences are apparent: First, resonance (maximum amplitude) occurs at = @,, NOL at w ) and the negative sign is for motion from right to left (@ < 0). Each of the two differential equations is linear, but the overall problem is nonlinear because the governing equation changes every half-cycle of motion. Therefore, exact analytical solutions would not be possible except in special cases. & ee friction. _ 3.11.2 Steady-State Response to Harmonic Force _ A exact analytical solution for the steady-state response of the system of Fig. 3.11.1 to harmonic force was developed by J. P. Den Hartog in 1933. The analysis cluded here, but his results are shown by solid lines in Fig, 3.11.2; the dashed lines | in the next section. ‘The displacement :Bi. Sec. 3.11 Harmonic Vibration with Coulomb Friction 14 diagram (Fig. 3.11.3): Ey =4F i 3.11.3) Figure 3.11.3 Hysteresis loop for Observe that the dissipated energy in a vibration cycle is proportional to the ampli- tude of the cycle. The energy Ey input by the harmonic force applied at w = a, is also Proportional to the displacement amplitude. If Eq. (3.11.2) is satisfied, itcan be shown that ‘rate-independent damping. For these forms of damping, as shown in Section 3.8, the dis- _Sipated energy increases quadratically with displacement amplitude, and the displacement amplitude is bounded no matter how small the damping. In connection with the fact that - amplitudes occur at « = w, if Eq. (3.11.2) is satisfied, the phase angle shows a ous jump at. =w, (Fig. 3.11.2).Fora gven vale of F/p the tans constan! bat with a positive value ify < apprenit i ofa In this section an imate solution for the steady-state harmonic Fesponse Of a system with Coulomb friction is obtained by modeling this damping mechanism by equivaten, viscous damping. Substituting Fy, the energy dissipated by si Sr friction given by Eg. (3.11.3), for Ep in Eq. (3.9.1) provides the equivalent viscous ping ratio Soy = GLa where wp = F/k. The approximate solution for the displacement amplitude w, is obtained by substituting gy for ¢ in Bq. (3.2.01: er ta" aaa ee (de [ft jax? P + 1A/r vir ft This contains w, on the right side also. Squaring and solving algebraically, the normalized ‘displacement amplitude is te _ (1-1 KF / poll (ade = (w/w, This approximate result is valid provided that F/p, < a/4. The approximate solution cannot be used if Fp, > 27/4 because then the quantity under the radical is negative and the numerator is imaginary. ‘These approximate and exact solutions are compared in Fig. 3.11.2. If the friction force is small enough to permit continuous motion, this motion is practically sinusoidal and the approximate solution is close to the exact solution. If the friction force is large, discontinuous motion with stops and starts results, which is much distorted relative toa sinusoid, and the approximate solution is poor, ” een solution for the phase angle is obtained by substituting fay for ¢ in G.ILS) at (Afr) g uy) 1 = (efor? ‘Substituting for u,, from Eq. (3.11.5) gives er (4/2 )F / me) {1 14/.F pF} tang tive value if w/c, > 1. This is shown “elaine This “ peorSee. 11 Harmonic Vibration with Coulomb Friction +e Selution The data (given and from Example 2.7) are (ahy = SE = Din, wr = 0.15 io om os Sete =05 oy I Calculate a, from By. (3.11.5), gs AP SE DS Ss Po Poft tale 2 My = 132 T(2) om 2.654.in. D: RESPONSE TO PERIODIC EXCITATION A periodic function is one in which the portion defined over To repeats itself indefinitely (Fig. 3.12.1). Many forces are periodic or nearly periodic, Under certain conditions, Propeller forces on a ship, wave loading on an offshore platform, and wind forces induced by vortex shedding on tall, slender structures are nearly periodic. Earthquake ground mo- ‘Gon usually has no resemblance toa periodic function. However, the base excitation arising. from an automobile traveling on an elevated freeway that has settled because of long-term creep may be nearly periodic.‘3.12 FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATION A function pir) is id 10 be periodic with period To if it satisfies the following relatiog. ship: POE IT) = pl) J 00.0 BD, 12,32 0 {A periodic function can be separated into its harmonic components usityg the Fourier series. 2 2 pl) = aay + a, cos jan) + by sin Jorot) G21 fel et ‘where the fundamental harmonic in the excitation has the frequency 2 w= 7, Qn The coefficients in the Fourier series can be expressed in terms of p(t) because the sine and cosine functions are onhogonal: is a= > f pr) de B.123) To Jo Ain? a= =f pti) cos(fagi)d? fm I, G24) Toto 2/7" =e , plt)sinijaw dt = jf =1,2,3,. G.12.5) ‘The coefficient ay is the average value of p(?); coefficients ay and d; are the amplitudes of the jth harmonics of frequency jon. Theoretically, an infinite number of terms is required for the Fourier series to con- ‘verge to pir). In practice, however, a few terms are sufficient for good convergence. At a discontinuity, the Fourier series converges to a value that is the average of the values immediately to the left and to the right of the discontinuity, -Sec. 3.13 Response to Periodic Force “115 leaving the steady-state solution. wolf) = ; B.13.1) The steady-state response of a viscously damped SDF system to harmonic cosine force p(t) = a; cos( jot) is given by Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.26) with w replaced by jam: ay 268; Sint font) + (1 — 6?) cos( fat gin= (G.13.2) ‘ k = BYP + cA? where AW (3.13.3) hy : Similarly, the steady-state response of the system to sinusoidal force pir) = by sin( jaar) is given by Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) with w replaced by jan: b, (1 — BP) sin jane) ~ 268; cost jens) Mp = (3.13.4) ae O-#Y + ecaF betas Tf ¢ = 0 and one of f; = 1, the steady-state response is unbounded and not meaningful because the transient response never decays (see Section 3.1); in the following it is assumed that ¢ # Oand A) # 1. ‘The steady-state response of a system with damping to periodic excitation p(r) is the combination of responses to individual terms in the Fourier series: wet) = molt) + > user) + Yo wj(ed G.13.5) j=l Jt Substituting Eqs. (3.13.1), (3.13.2), and (3.13.4) into (3.13.5) gives 1 I i w= = Seta aoar {[a(2e8)) + 8/01 — BP] sinCieyr) + (a) — BF) = b(2CH))]cosCieme)] (3.13.6)Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations == Chan 5 Example 5 ‘The perindiic force shown in Fig. E3.8a is defined by u[re Oss Ti? no={%, Te/2st [ sin( jot) dr + cro | sition a] a 0 Ts rit 0 jeven =) 4polix jodd id) ‘Thus the Fourier series representation of pit) is 4p p= Fp = a a 5 sin owt) (e) pels ‘The first four terms of this series are shown in Fig. E3.8b, where the frequencies and 4 relative amplitudes—1, 4, {, and 1—of the four harmonics are apparent. The cumulative sum Pr of the Fourier terms is shown in Fig. E3.8c, where four terms provide a reasonable represen : tation of the forcing function, Att = Th/2, where p(t) is discontinuous, the Fourier series: converges to zero, the average value of p(Tp/2). ‘The response of an SDF system to the forcing function of Eq. (e) is obtained by substi- ‘turing Eqs. (b). (c). and (d) in Eq, (3.13.6) to obtain 7 4 1 (= BP sin jan) — 258; cos ant) oe Bm bade 2 7 C= oF + Gra 2 | Shown in Fig. E3.8d are the responses of an SDF system with natural period Ty, = To/4 and = Fig. ee eee thems oF i 0. fe plots of individun = japan = iTn/To = j/4. The relative eM fepdianssd tates cially lange because none of theResponse to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations = Chap 4 FURTHER READING REL, “Basic Vitwation Theory.” Chapter 2 in Shock and Vibration Handbook, rd ed. (eg, ©. M. Harris), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988. Hudson, D, E., Reading anal Inverpreting Strong Moriow Accelerograms, Eartbasake Engineering Research Institute, Berkeley, Calif, 1979. Jacobsen, L. S., amd Ayre, R. S., Engineering Vibrations, MeGraw- tion 5.8 Il New York, 1958, Sc, APPENDIX 3: FOUR-WAY LOGARITHMIC GRAPH PAPER A, is plotted as a function of w/w, on log-log graph paper [ic., log Ry is the ordinate and logi@/m,) the abscissa}. Equation (3.2.21) gives log Ry = log “ + log Ry (ALD) If Ry is a constant, Eg. (A3.1) represents a straight line with slope of +1. Grid lines showing constant Ry would therefore be straight lines of slope +1, and the Ry-axis would bbe perpendicular to them (Fig. A3.1). Equation (3.2.21) also gives log Re = —log ~ + og R, (AR2) m i” Re is @ constant, Eq. (A3.2) represents a straight line with slope of —1_ Grid lines showing constant R, would be straight lines of slope —1, and the X-axis would be per Pendicular to them (Fig. A3.1) ‘With reference to Fig. A3.1, the scales are established as follows: Loja, = 1) as the origin, draw a vertical R,-axis and & = f with equat logarithmic scales, ‘The mark A on the R,-axis would be bocated Va. e 7 atthe point (R, = AY?, asfay, = AM)Frequency rio 0 / a, Figure A3.1 Construction of four-way logarithnsic graph paper, and the condition that the Ry-axis has a slope of —1. This procedure is shown for D = 4, leading to the scale mark 2 on the R,-axis and to the scale mark 5 on the 1 /ay-axis, ce ‘The logarithmic scales along the Ry and R, axes are equal but not the same as the Ry und aa/o, scales. PROBLEMSResponse to Harmonic and Periodic Excitallons Chap. 9 Syston itu An SDF s ined by 4 sinusoidal force. At resonance the amp! seas mearead to be 2am, Aran exciting frequency of one-tenth the eatural Frequency of he fDatem, the displacement amplitude was meastired to be 0,2 in. Estimate the damping rato og 2 the system, harmonic excitation it was foted that the amplitude of forced vibration test under Motion 7 es ras cnacly fou cs the amplisude wan excitation freqiency 20% higher thay the nesunant frequency. Determine the damping ratio of the system. AA Amachine is supported on four sicel springs for which damping can be neglected. The natura frequency of vertical vibration of the machine-«pring system is 200 cycles per minute. The machine generates a vertical force pis) = pp sinax. The amplitude of the resulting steady. sate vertical displacement of the machine is w» = 0.2 in, when the machine is. running at 29 ul revolutions per minute (rpm), 1.042 in, at 1480 rpm, and 0.0248 in. at 600 rpm. Calculate the amplitude of vertical motion of the machine if the steel springs are replaced by four ruttber isolators which provide the same stiffness, but introduce damping equivalent to { = 25% for the system. Comment on the effectiveness of the isolators at various machine speeds, 25 An air-conditioning unit weighing 1200 Ib is bolted at the mixklle of two parallel simply supported steel beams (Fig. P35) The clear span of the beams is fl. The second mo- ment of cross-sectional area of each beam is 10 in’, The motor in the unit runs at 300 rpm and produces an unbalanced foree of 60 Ib at this speed. Neglect the weight of the beams and assume 1% viscous damping in the system: for steel £ = 30,000 ksi, Determine the am- plitudes of steady-state deflection and steady-state acceleration (in g's) of the beams at their midpoints which result from the unbalanced force. t ue Air-conditioning unit ¥ s ——— Figure P35 36 (a) Show that | in neces the steady-state response of an SDF system to a cosine force, p(t) = Po COS in 7 {ar/ain)®] 608 0 + [25 (w/a) Sime [ 1 (ofa?) + 26 a/em)P‘Chap. 3 Probioms: 39 a) Show that ay = sy inthe eee ta Wis Beecreaas Pits teuleweengipa em iz velocity amplitude of an SDP system, vat PartB 410 A one-story reinforced concrete building has a roof mass of SOO kips/g, and it quency is 4 Hz. This building is excined by a vibration generator with two w Fotating about a vertical axis at an ecoe at the natural frequency of the building, the amplitude of roof acocleration is measured to be ‘0.02g, Determine the damping of the structure. ‘The steady-state acceleration amplitude of a structure caused by am cocemtric-mass vibration Bencrator was measured for several excitation frequencies. These data are as folhows: Frequency (Hz) Acceleration (10-"g) | Frequency (Hz) Acceleration (107g) 1337 0.68 1.500 7.10 1.378 0.90 L513 540 1.400, Lis 1,520 4.70 Lay 1.50 1.530 3.80 1.438 2.20 1.540 3.40 1.453 3.05 1.550 3.10 1462 4.00 | L567 2.60 1a77 7.00 1.605 195 1.487 8.60 L628 1.70 1493 R15 1658 150 1.497 7.60) Determine the natural frequency and damping ratio of the structure. 3.12 Consider an industrial machine of mass supported on spring-type isolators of total stiffness &. The machine operates at a frequency of f hertz with a force unbalance p... (a) Determine an expression giving the fraction of force transmitted to the foundation a8 a function of the forcing frequency f and the static deflection dg = mg/k. Consider only the : {by cron fe see econ forthe fre amrahid to be 10% ofp f= 20H [3 For the automobile in Example 3.4, determine the amplitude of the force developed in the eae is tigi vies vimneenids hartng ts rah ¢ the spe eee, ees the suspension system, sae122 416 AIT AB a Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitatlons Chap, 3 determine the stiffness of the isolation system such that the motion af the isolation black jy limited to 10% of the floor vibration; neglect damping, Isolation block ' Figure P3.15 |An SDF system is subjected to suppor displacement up(t) = ga sina, Show that the amplitude 1, of the total displacement of the mass is given by Eq. (3.6.5), ‘The natural frequency of an accelerometer is 50 Hz, and its damping ratio is 70%, Com. pate the recorded acceleration as a function of time if the input acceleration is dig(r) = O.lg sin(2aft) for f = 10, 20, and 40 Hz, A comparison of the input and recorded accelerations was presented in Fig. 3.7.3. The accelerometer is calibrated to read the input acceleration correctly at very low values of the excitation frequency, What would be the enor in the measured amplitude at each of the given excitation frequencies” Anaccelerometer has the natural frequency f= 25 Hz and damping ratio = 60%. Write an equation for the response w(t) of the instrument as a Function of time if the input acceleration is digit) = digo sin(2a ft). Sketch the ratio aZuy/iipy as a function of f / fq. The accelerom- eter is calibrated to read the input acceleration correctly at very tow values of the excitation frequency. Determine the range of frequencies for which the acceleration amplitude can be carb lane 1%, Identify this frequency range on the above-mentioned ‘The natural frequency of an accelerometer is f, = 50 Hz, and its damping ratio is ¢ = TO. Solve Problem 3.18 for this accelerometer, Ifa displacement-measuring instrument is used to determine amplitudes of vibration at fre quencies very much higher than its own natural frequency, what would be the optimum instru ‘ment damping for maximum accuracy? A displacement meter has a natural frequency f, = 0.5 Hz and a damping ratio ¢ = 06. Determine the range of frequencies for which the displacement amplitude can be measared ‘with an accuracy of 41%, = Repeat Problem 3.21 for ¢ = 0.7. ‘Show that the energy dissipated per cycle for viscous damping can be expressed by apmA, Ses 2s ee eg ae 2 een eT ee ees Sis F = Se = 0.25 sec. Determine an approximate value for the displacement amplitude due 1a SMe ee a ae Part D 4.26 An SDF system with natural period 7;, and damping ratio ¢ is subjected to the periodic force shown in Fig. P3.26 with an amplitude p, and period Tp. (a) Expand the forcing function in its Fourier series. (b) Determine the steady-state response of an undamped system. For what values of Yi is the solution indeterminate? (¢) For To/T, = 2, determine and plot the response to individual terms in the Pour series. How many terms are necessary to- obtain reasonable convergence of the series solution? Pp Po] Pate 4.2