BULLETIN OF CANADIAN PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

VOL. 56, NO. 3 (SEPTEMBER, 2008), P. 209—234

Lithofacies and depositional history of Midale carbonate-evaporite cycles in a Mississippian ramp

setting, Steelman-Bienfait area, southeastern Saskatchewan, Canada

HAIRUO QING ANDREW R. NIMEGEERS1

Department of Geology Department of Geology
University of Regina University of Regina
Regina, SK S4S 0A2 Regina, SK S4S 0A2

ABSTRACT

Carbonate-evaporite cycles in the Mississippian (Osagean) Midale Beds of southeastern Saskatchewan were deposited over a
shallow homoclinal ramp along the northern margin of the Williston Basin. Fourteen lithofacies, including nine limestone facies
(C1 to C9), two dolostone facies (D1 and D2), and three anhydrite facies (A1 to A3), were identified from cores (46 wells)
and geophysical well logs (750 wells) in the Steelman-Bienfait area. These lithofacies represent a range of subtidal to supratidal
settings and are interpreted to be related to four transgressive-regressive parasequences (S1 to S4, in ascending order). Paleosols
and microkarst features (T1) characterize parasequence boundaries and provide evidence for subaerial exposure.
Oolitic grainstones and packstones were deposited as shore-parallel, shoals and barrier islands in the S2 and S3 parasequences
along the western margin of the Steelman and Bienfait oilfields. Paleotopographic hinge-zones were an important control on the
distribution of shoals, lagoons, algal marsh sediments, salinas and algal/ostracod mounds. Abrupt thickness changes and lateral,
carbonate-evaporite facies transitions were observed across the hinge-zones.
Facies distributions in the Midale Beds were related to sea level fluctuations, paleotopography, and the availability of
accommodation space. Minor sea level fluctuations in this shallow ramp setting resulted in major lateral shifting of facies,
significant migration of the paleocoastline, and periodic exposure of the upper to middle ramp environments, producing
stratigraphic traps as exploration targets, in addition to the traditional sub-crop “plays” in the study area.

RÉSUMÉ

Les cycles de carbonates évaporitiques, présents dans le Midale Beds du Mississippien (Osagien), dans le sud-est de la
Saskatchewan, se sont déposés sur une rampe homoclinale peu profonde, le long de la marge septentrionale du bassin de
Williston. Quatorze lithofaciès, incluant neuf faciès calcaires (C1 à C9), deux faciès dolomitiques (D1 et D2), et trois faciès
anhydritiques (A1 à A3), ont été identifiés à partir de carottes (46 forages) et de diagraphies géophysiques (750 forages) dans
la région de Steelman-Bienfait. Ces lithofaciès représentent une gamme de cadres sédimentaires s’étalant d’infralittorales à
supratidales, et sont interprétés comme étant reliées à quatre paraséquences transgressives -régressives (S1 à S4, par ordre
ascendant). Les caractéristiques de paléosols et de microkarst (T1) démarquent les limites des paraséquences et révèlent
l’évidence d’une exposition subaérienne.
Des grainstones et des packstones oolitiques se sont déposés comme des hauts-fonds et des îles de barrières qui sont
parallèles à la côte, dans les paraséquences S2 et S3, le long de la marge ouest des champs de pétrole de Steelman et de Bienfait.
Des zones charnières paléotopographiques ont exercé un contrôle important sur la distribution des hauts-fonds, des lagons, des
sédiments de marais algueux, des lacs salifères et des monticules d’ostracodes et d’algues. Des changements abrupts d’épaisseur,
et des transitions latérales de faciès de carbonates à évaporites, ont été observés à travers les zones charnières.
Les distributions des faciès dans le Midale Beds ont été reliées aux fluctuations du niveau de la mer, à la paléeotopographie,
et à l’espace disponible d’accommodation. Des fluctuations mineures du niveau de la mer le long de cette rampe peu profonde
ont eu pour résultat un déplacement latéral majeur des faciès, une migration notable de la paléo- ligne de côte, une exposition
périodique des environnements des rampes allant de supérieure à moyenne, produisant des pièges stratigraphiques pouvant servir
à des objectifs d’explorations, en plus des “thèmes” traditionnels de sous -affleurements dans la région étudiée.
Traduction de Gabrielle Drivet

1 Present address: Caprice Resources Ltd., 312 – 2505 11th Avenue, Regina, SK S4P 0K6

209
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INTRODUCTION
The Mississippian Midale Beds of the Charles Formation
(Osagean) in southeastern Saskatchewan (Fig. 1) are dominated
by peritidal carbonates and evaporites that were deposited over
a broad, gently sloping ramp in the northern Williston Basin
(Reid and Dorobek, 1993; Lake, 1998a; Kent, 1999). Dolostone
and limestone reservoirs in the Midale Beds have been major
producers of hydrocarbons since the late 1950s (Fuzesy, 1960).
Most oil is trapped beneath a post-Mississippian unconformity
surface that progressively truncates Mississippian strata in a
northeastward direction (Figs. 1 and 2). As a result, several
major oilfields parallel the northwest-trending sub-crop edge of
the Midale Beds. Recent horizontal drilling has targeted
unswept reserves in relatively homogeneous, high-porosity
dolostone reservoirs of the upper Midale (Fig. 3). Limestone
reservoirs of the lower Midale are heterogeneous with variable
porosity and permeability. Reservoir compartmentalization
results from complex lateral and vertical facies changes and
patchy distribution of diagenetic cements.
Recognition of depositional trends has become increasingly
important for finding potential horizontal targets in rapidly
depleting Midale reservoirs. In the Steelman-Bienfait area
Fig. 1. Location map showing the Mississippian Williston Basin, Montana Trough, and study area (Steelman field). Cross sections A–A′ and
B–B′ are shown in Figure 10.
H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
(Fig. 1), an important trapping mechanism in the upper Midale
unit is related to an up-dip facies change from porous dolostone
to non-porous limestone. Dolomudstone reservoir rocks thin
progressively in a northeastward direction, grading laterally
into algal-rich limestone facies of non-reservoir quality.
Within the lower Midale unit of the study area (Fig. 1), sub-
tle stratigraphic traps may occur unrelated to the post-
Mississippian unconformity surface. These potential traps
result from: 1) interfingering of anhydrite and limestone facies
(Smith, 1980); 2) lateral facies changes and; 3) landward
pinch-out of lower Midale facies against the underlying
Frobisher Evaporite due to progressive on-lap (Figs. 2 and 3)
(Lake, 2001). Although it has been suggested that most recov-
erable oil in the lower Midale has already been produced
(Henry, 1998), the local distribution of hydrocarbon-bearing
facies supports the likelihood for “hidden” reserves in the form
of stratigraphic traps.
The Steelman field of southeastern Saskatchewan (Fig.1)
covers an area of approximately 660 km2 with hydrocarbon
production primarily from high-porosity dolostone reservoirs
in the upper Midale unit. Production in the smaller Bienfait
field (13 km2) occurs almost exclusively from limestone reser-
voirs of the lower Midale unit. The purpose of this paper is to:
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK
1) describe lithofacies and their distribution; 2) establish
regional subsurface correlations, and; 3) develop a depositional
model for cycles in the Midale Beds of the Steelman-Bienfait
area. Previous studies have applied mainly lithostratigraphic
principles to understand Midale geology (e.g. Fusezy, 1960;
Smith, 1980; Kaldi, 1982; Wegelin, 1984; Kent, 1987; Henry,
1998; Burrowes, 2001; Lake, 2001, 2002). Sequence stratigra-
phy provides a better framework for understanding complex,
carbonate-evaporite facies transitions that are characteristic of
inner-ramp, pertidal settings (e.g. Sarg, 2001). This paper uses
a sequence stratigraphic approach to describe and interpret
depositional cycles and facies changes in the Midale Beds.
The study area is situated between Townships 3 to 5 and
Ranges 04W2 to 07W2 and covers an area of approximately
746 km2 (Fig. 1). The Bienfait field (Fig. 1) was included in the
study area in order to gain a better understanding of the facies
changes that occur between lower Midale facies in both fields.
Approximately 910 m of core from 46 wells was examined to
establish facies relationships and develop regional correlations.
Fig. 2. Mississippian stratigraphy of southeastern Saskatchewan and North Dakota.
211
Isopach and structure maps were constructed using geophysical
well log data from over 750 wells. Density/neutron logs were
chosen whenever possible because they provide good defini-
tion of limestone, dolostone and anhydrite facies.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
During Late Devonian to early Mississippian times, major reori-
entation of the intracratonic Williston Basin took place when
southern Saskatchewan became isolated from the northern
extension of the larger Western Canada Sedimentary Basin.
Open-marine circulation was reestablished through the Montana
trough (Fig.1), which connected the Williston and Antler
Foreland basins (Gerhard et al., 1991; Ettensohn, 1993; Reid
and Dorobek, 1993). The change in basin configuration likely
resulted from regional uplift and bulge migration related to the
late Devonian to early Mississippian Antler orogeny (Ettensohn,
1993; Reid and Dorobek, 1993). During Mississippian times,
the Williston Basin was situated approximately 10 to 12º north
212
of the paleoequator (Grogan and Lund, 2002; Scotese and
McKerrow, 1990) and covered parts of Saskatchewan,
Manitoba, North Dakota and Montana (Fig.1). Along the north-
eastern flank of the basin, Mississippian strata dip southwest
toward the basin center and are progressively truncated in a
northeastward direction by a post-Mississippian unconformity
surface (Fig. 2). The paleogeography and distribution of exten-
sive, sabkha-playa evaporite deposits indicate that semi-arid
conditions probably existed in the region (Ettensohn, 1993).
Mississippian rocks consist primarily of carbonate and evap-
orite deposits with only minor clastic sediments. Stratigraphic
relationships indicate that the entire Mississippian succession
(Fig. 2) represents one major transgressive-regressive cycle or
supersequence related to second-order, eustatic sea level
changes (Vail et al., 1977; Reid and Dorobek, 1993). Several
smaller-scale, third- and fourth-order cycles are superimposed
on this larger cycle and are separated by regional erosional sur-
faces (Van Wagoner et al., 1988). The major cycle reflects a
gradual transition from a distally steepening ramp to a homocli-
nal ramp setting (Lake, 1998a; Kent, 1999).
STRATIGRAPHY
In the study area, the Midale Beds have been informally subdi-
vided into a basal evaporitic unit called the Frobisher Evaporite
and an upper carbonate interval called the Midale Carbonate
(Figs. 2 and 3). The basal contact of the Midale Beds is defined
Fig. 3. Typical well-log signatures of the Midale Beds in the Steelman area showing informal stratigraphic subdivisions used in previous
studies and those proposed in this paper; lithofacies are also illustrated on the well logs.
H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
by a porous regional dolostone marker bed (State A marker)
that forms the uppermost unit within the underlying Frobisher
Beds. The dolostone unit grades upward and landward into
nodular anhydrite of the Frobisher Evaporite (Figs. 2 and 3).
In previous studies (e.g. Fusezy, 1960; Smith, 1980;
Wegelin, 1984; Henry, 1998; Burrowes, 2001), the upper con-
tact of the Frobisher Evaporite was picked where evaporite
facies are abruptly overlain by limestone facies of the Midale
Carbonate (Fig. 3). In this paper, the contact is redefined by an
erosional surface that separates limestone and vertically-
elongated anhydrite deposits (‘S2 anhydrite’; Fig 3) from
underlying nodular to nodular mosaic anhydrite (Nimegeers
and Qing, 2002). In a basinward direction (southwest),
vertically-elongated anhydrite grades laterally into algal/
peloidal packstone with abundant nodular anhydrite, which in
turn, grades into limestone facies of the “traditional” Midale
Carbonate. Nimegeers and Nickel (2003) first described this
lateral carbonate-evaporite facies transition on a regional scale
in southeastern Saskatchewan and subsequent studies have
documented similar facies relationships (Halabura, 2006).
Previous studies (Henry, 1998; Burrowes, 2001) have infor-
mally subdivided the Midale Carbonate into a lower limestone
interval called the ‘Midale vuggy’ and an upper interval, dom-
inated by dolomitic mudstone, referred to as the ‘Midale marly’
(Fig. 3). The Midale Beds are gradationally overlain by the
Midale Evaporite of the Ratcliffe beds, Charles Formation
(Figs. 2 and 3).
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK
Lake (2001) first mapped a mid-Midale unconformity sur-
face on a regional scale across parts of southeastern
Saskatchewan (e.g. Weyburn, Midale, Benson and Steelman
fields; Fig. 1). Paleosol, microkarst, and erosional features
defining this regional unconformity were described in several
other core studies (Burrowes, 2001, 2006; Lake, 2002;
Nimegeers and Qing, 2002; Nimegeers, 2006). In the Weyburn
area (Fig.1), Keswani and Pemberton (2007) locally identified
the Midale unconformity surface using evidence from ichnofa-
cies, describing a lower restricted lagoon facies capped by a
bored hardground and overlain by skeletal-rich sediments with
open marine fauna.
Previous regional sequence stratigraphic models of the Midale
Beds (Nimegeers and Qing, 2002; Burrowes, 2006; Halabura,
2006) describe three important correlative, depositional
sequences or ‘parasequences’ in southeastern Saskatchewan:
1) The first initiated during underlying Frobisher time and ter-
minated following deposition of sabkha sediments of the
Frobisher Evaporite (Fig. 3); 2) The second sequence is prima-
rily comprised of shoals, restricted lagoon and peritidal facies,
and is capped by a regional subaerial exposure/flooding sur-
face; 3) The third and final sequence consists of a basal, trans-
gressive, open-marine limestone that grades upward into
progressively more restricted dolostone and evaporite facies
(e.g. Midale Evaporite, Fig. 3).
Although these earlier models include further stratigraphic
subdivisions for the lower Midale Carbonate, the stratigraphic
position of the three main sequences and overlying flooding sur-
faces are essentially the same (Burrowes, 2006; Nimegeers,
2006; Halabura, 2006). The terminology used for these subdivi-
sions, however, differs considerably. In this study, individual
parasequences are designated S1 to S4, in ascending order, and
we retain the upper and lower Midale nomenclature (Fig. 3) pro-
posed by Kent and Nimegeers (2002) with the regional mid-
Midale unconformity surface (S3/S4 contact, Fig. 3) forming
the boundary between these subunits. The lower and upper
Midale nomenclature (Fig. 3) is preferred to the traditional
“Vuggy” and “Marly” terminology because it emphasizes depo-
sitional cyclicity rather than variable petrophysical properties.
Reid and Dorobek (1993) used biostratigraphic zonations
(Sando, 1985) from Mississippian strata in the northern Rocky
Mountains (U.S.A.) to construct regional, biostratigraphic cor-
relations into the Williston Basin interior (North Dakota). Their
data indicate that the Midale Beds (Rival-Midale units, North
Dakota; Harris et al., 1966) represent three to four million years
of geologic time, approximately from 346 to 343 million years
ago (c.f. Reid and Dorobek, 1993).
LITHOFACIES DESCRIPTIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
The Midale Beds in the study area consist of three main litholo-
gies: limestone, dolostone, and anhydrite, with a gradation
existing between rocks of dolostone and limestone composi-
tion. Fourteen lithofacies, including nine limestone facies
(C1 to C9), two dolostone facies (D1 and D2), and three
213
anhydrite facies (A1 to A3), were identified in the Steelman-
Bienfait area based on their composition, texture, structure,
and occurrence (Table 1).
LIMESTONE LITHOFACIES
Facies C1: Crinoidal-Oncoidal Wackestone/Open to Semi-
Restricted Marine Subtidal
The allochems in Facies C1 include crinoidal and brachiopod
fragments, peloids, oncoids, and micritized calcareous algae.
Allochems are moderately sorted and vary in diameter from
0.5 to 4 mm. The facies is characterized by a burrow-mottled
texture, and recognizable trace fossils include Planolites and
Chondrites.
Facies C1 occurs locally at the base of the lower Midale
unit in the southwestern part of the study area. It is typically
less than 60 cm thick and abruptly overlies dolomitic mud-
stone of the Frobisher Beds and nodular anhydrite of the
Frobisher Evaporite. The facies may be sharply or gradation-
ally overlain by algal/peloidal packstone or oolitic/peloidal
grainstone (Facies C6 and C4, respectively). The skeletal and
trace fossil assemblage indicates that this facies was probably
deposited in an open to slightly restricted marine setting. The
presence of oncoids suggests relatively shallow water and
moderate energy conditions with episodic agitation (Jones and
Goodbody, 1985).
Facies C2: Bioturbated Fossiliferous Wackestone-
Packstone/Open-Marine Subtidal
Facies C2 contains a diverse skeletal assemblage including
crinoids, Syringapora and rugose corals, brachiopods and
bivalves within a muddy, fine-grained matrix (Fig. 4A and 4B).
Sharp contacts separate wackestone and packstone beds (10–30
m thick) and may be marked by coarse skeletal material and/or
subrounded intraclasts. Bioturbation is common within this
facies, and recognizable trace fossils include Thalassinoides,
Rhizocorallium, Chondrites and Planolites (Fig. 4A). Exten-
sive bioturbation is also inferred by an overall burrow-mottled
appearance, with no clearly discernible traces. In the south-
western part of the study area, Facies C2 is interbedded
with dark-grey, skeletal lime-mudstone. Upper contacts of this
organic-rich mudstone are occasionally marked by subvertical
burrows of the Glossifungites ichnofacies (Fig. 4A).
In the study area, Facies C2 is laterally extensive in the basal
part of the upper Midale unit and averages approximately 3 m
in thickness. Distribution appears to have been partly con-
trolled by paleotopography, with thicker deposits generally fill-
ing paleo-troughs. The wide diversity fossil and trace fossil
assemblages are characteristic of normal-marine subtidal set-
tings in a predominantly low to moderate energy regime (James
and Kendall, 1992). In the Weyburn field, Kenswani and
Pemberton (2007) described a similar dolomitized facies in the
upper Midale with a higher diversity of trace fossils (e.g.
Zoophycos, Planolites, Chondrites, Helminthopsis, Asterosoma,
Teichichnus and Palaeophycus), which they characterized
as distal-Cruziana, suggesting fully open marine conditions.
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Table 1. Midale lithofacies, descriptions and interpretations.
H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 215

Table 1. Continued.
216 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS

Coarse, graded skeletal packstone beds likely reflect periodic

storm influence and introduction of storm derived materials
(Aigner, 1982) in an open shelf environment.

Facies C3: Skeletal Packstone/Bioclastic Washover Fans

Facies C3 contains a variety of bioclastic fragments, including
well sorted, fine (<2 mm), fragmented crinoids, brachiopods,
bivalves and gastropods (Fig. 4C). Unlike Facies C2, bioturba-
tion is rarely observed except at the basal contact where abun-
dant Thallassinoides burrows were identified. Well-sorted
skeletal packstone becomes progressively muddier in an
upward direction, grading into moderately-sorted, bioturbated
fossiliferous wackestone (Facies C2).
Facies C3 occurs locally at the base of the upper Midale
with a thickness of up to 1.5 m and may contain planar- and/or
cross-bedding. It is closely associated with the distribution of
underlying oolitic shoals of the lower Midale (Facies C4);
skeletal packstone deposits are thicker along the leeward flanks
of the shoals and thin or absent over shoal crests.
The well-sorted, fine-grained and bedded nature indicates
that the skeletal material underwent earlier, extensive rework-
ing/abrasion in a high-energy beach or shoal environment.
These well-sorted bioclastic sediments were probably origi-
nally deposited in a shoreface setting on the wave-dominated,
seaward side of underlying lower Midale shoals and were sub-
Table 1. Continued.

sequently transported into a more protected back-barrier envi-

ronment during storms and minor sea level fluctuations (Halley
et al., 1983).

Facies C4: Oolitic-Peloidal Grainstone and

Packstone/Shoal-Barrier Island
Facies C4 consists almost entirely of well-sorted ooids and
peloids (Fig. 4D and 4E) with very minor amounts of skeletal
debris. Sedimentary structures include cross-bedding (Fig. 4D),
planar stratification, and laminations. Oolitic/peloidal grainstone
occurs in beds 0.3 to 2 m thick that are often interbedded with
intraclastic/peloidal packstone and wackestone (Facies C5).
Thinly-laminated crusts with microstalactitic (pendent) cement
indicate periodic exposure and vadose diagenesis (Esteban and
Klappa, 1983). Fenestral and solution-enhanced vuggy porosity,
planar stromatolites, desiccation cracks and flat subangular intr-
aclasts (Fig. 4D and 4E) were also observed in the upper part of
this facies.
Oolitic grainstone and packstone reach a maximum thickness
of about 6 m and occur locally within the lower Midale unit
along a relatively narrow (2–4 km wide) belt that extends south-
ward from the West Kingsford area to the western margin of the
Bienfait field (Fig. 1). The linear distribution of ooid sands, low-
angle planar stratification, cross-bedding, and subaerial exposure
features are diagnostic of shoal/beach-barrier deposits (Inden
and Moore, 1983). Similar features have been described from
modern barrier-island complexes of northern Andros Island,
Bahamas (Boardman et al., 1993). Oolitic/peloidal grainstone
and packstone sharply or gradationally overlie muddy, poorly-
sorted packstone and wackestone deposits, suggesting an upward
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 217

Fig. 4. Core photos of limestone depositional facies. A). Facies C2. Bioturbated, fossiliferous wackestone facies with rugose
coral fragments. Subvertical burrows of the Glossifungites-assemblage penetrate darker, organic-rich bed near base of photo.
Smaller burrows observed throughout the sample include Planolites, Chondrites and Thalassinoides (06-10-03-06W2, 1588.2 m).
B). Basal contact of Facies C2. Fossiliferous/intraclastic wackestone immediately above the S3 boundary (marked by dissolution
seams) that separates the lower and upper Midale Beds. Dark brown chert nodule is shown at top of photo (16-14-03-06W2,
1535.3 m). C). Facies C3. Fine skeletal packestone of the upper Midale unit. Most skeletal fragments are less than 2 mm in size
(07-26-04-07W2, 1468.2 m). D). Facies C4. Oolitic/peloidal grainstone. Cross-bedded oolite overlain by exposure surface with
desiccation cracks. Planar bedding (base) show birds-eye vugs filled with bladed anhydrite cement (13-28-04-06W2, 1436.82 m).
E). Alizarin-stained thin section of lower Midale oolitic grainstone. Note intergranular porosity and well-rounded ooids indicating
early cementation and lack of soft-sediment compaction (15-20-04-07W2, 1492.2 m). F). Facies C5. Intraclastic/peloidal pack-
stone. Subangular intraclasts, peloids, calcareous algae, and ooids are poorly sorted and intensely micritized (06-10-03-06W2,
1594.1 m). G). Algal/peloidal packstone with replacive nodular anhydrite. Nodules are rounded to subangular in shape and have
sharp contacts. Uppermost nodule on left side of photo truncates vertical fracture, suggesting anhydrite replacement occurred after
lithification (lower Midale, 06-10-03-06W2, 1595.7 m). H). Facies C8. Muddy peloidal packstone with moldic vuggy porosity. Note
large algal fragment (center), bivalve fragments and unidentified burrows (03-21-04-05W2, 1432.15 m). I). Facies C8.
Ostracod/algal wackestone with dark wispy-laminations, and fine ostracod and algal fragments. Oncoids and Thalassinoides
burrows are shown by arrows (upper Midale, 11-35-03-05W2, 1465.5 m). J). Thin section showing amorphous calcareous algae
cemented with sparry calcite in algal grainstone (Facies C8). Note micritization of grain interiors (upper Midale, 03-26-03-04W2,
1419.3 m). K). Alizarin-stained thin section of ostracod/algal packstone. Notice intense micritization of ostracod debris and replace-
ment by microspar (upper Midale, 03-26-03-04W2, 1414.2 m). L). Facies C9. Dolomitic algal laminite with wavy to contorted
laminae, dark organic-rich partings and desiccation cracks. Algal/peloidal packstone with replacive anhydrite nodules sharply
overlies this facies (lower Midale, 16-14-03-06W2, 1541.1 m). M). Brecciated, intraclastic laminated unit (Facies C9) overlying
intraclastic/ peloidal grainstone. Note sharp upper contact, brecciate texture (Esteban and Klappa, 1983) and fenestrae typical of
subaerial exposure surface (lower Midale, 11-15-04-06W2, 1462.5 m).
218 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS

transition from lower-energy lagoon/back-barrier setting to a and presence of oncoids indicate restricted, slightly agitated,
higher-energy shoaling environment. An overall lack of normal shallow-water conditions (Jones and Goodbody, 1985).
marine fauna indicates a semi-restricted or relatively hostile
environment. Facies C7: Peloidal Packstone and Wackestone/Subtidal
Low-Relief Bank
Facies C5: Intraclastic-Peloidal Packstone and This facies is comprised mainly of peloids, but ostracods, ooids,
Wackestone/Back-barrier Washover and algal fragments are also present (Fig. 4H). Peloidal lime-
This facies consists of poorly sorted intraclasts, peloids, ooids, stone varies from 1 to 3 m in thickness, with planar bedding
and calcareous algal fragments (Fig. 4F). Subangular intra- defining packstone and wackestone beds. This facies occurs
clasts vary in diameter from 0.5 to 3 cm. The facies generally near the base of the upper Midale in the central and eastern parts
coarsens upward, with a corresponding increase in intraclasts. of the Steelman field where it sharply overlies laminated dolo-
Individual beds range from about 0.2 to 1 m in thickness with mudstone or vertically-elongate anhydrite. Facies C7 also
local occurrence of cross-bedding. The unit has an overall max- occurs locally in the lower Midale unit in the western part of the
imum thickness of about 5 m. study area where it is interbedded with intraclastic/peloidal
This facies is observed locally within the lower Midale unit packstone (Facies C5). Peloidal packstone is commonly thicker
where it is interbedded with oolitic/peloidal packstone (Facies over areas of interpreted paleotopographic relief. Facies associ-
C4) and/or muddy algal/peloidal packstone (Facies C6). ations and lack of normal marine fauna suggest that peloidal
Intraclastic/peloidal packstone occurs primarily on the land- packstone was deposited as subtidal, low-relief banks in a shal-
ward side of oolitic shoals/barrier islands and grades landward low, restricted lagoon environment. Similar peloidal mudbanks
(east-northeastward) into more algal-rich facies. The aerial dis- are described from recent coastal lagoon areas of central Florida
tribution, poorly-sorted texture, and composition of this facies Bay (Bosence, 1995).
suggest deposition in a back-barrier setting. Periodic storms
likely transported eroded shoal sediments into low-lying and Facies C8: Algal-Ostracod Packstone/Algal
relatively protected areas immediately landward of the ooid Flats and Algal Mounds
sand belt (Major et al., 1996). This facies does not generally The most abundant allochems in this facies are thin-walled
extend more than 1.5 km away from associated shoals. Marine ostracods, calcareous algae, and oncoids (Fig. 4I, 4J and 4K).
fossil material is rarely observed in this facies, indicating semi- Rare bioturbation includes Thalassinoides, Chondrites and
restricted to restricted conditions. Planolites burrows. This facies is commonly interbedded with
peloidal packstone (Facies C7) and can be distinguished by the
Facies C6: Algal-Peloidal Packstone/Algal Marsh abundance of ostracod and algal fragments, and slightly higher
This facies is made up primarily of calcareous algae, peloids, degree of bioturbation.
and oncoids (Fig. 4G). Micritized algal material occurs as Facies C8 exhibits an overall fining-upward trend and may
rounded to irregularly shaped grains up to 5 cm in diameter. reach 5 m in thickness, with individual beds varying from 10 to
Planar stromatolites and microbial laminites are present locally. 50 cm. Rare interbeds of well-sorted oolitic packstone and intr-
Facies C6 may reach thicknesses of up to 6 m. aclastic/fossiliferous packstone suggest episodic, high-energy
White nodules of fibrous and cryptocrystalline anhydrite are conditions and probable storm events. This facies is observed
common in this facies (up to 40 percent) and appear to replace within the upper Midale unit in the eastern and northern parts
limestone matrix. Nodules vary in size from 1 to 10 cm, and are of the study area. Algal/ostracod packstone occurs landward
commonly subangular and/or horizontally elongate in shape of laterally adjacent bioturbated dolomudstones and skeletal
(Fig. 4G). Bedding and fractures are rarely truncated by nod- wackestones. This relatively abrupt, lateral facies change
ules, indicating that at least some of the anhydrite formed after (<1 km) appears to occur across a hinge-zone identified in the
lithification. central part of the study area (Fig. 7).
This facies is found within the lower Midale, where it is pri- The grainy texture and low diversity fauna of this facies are
marily interbedded with Facies C5. Algal material was consistent with restricted shallow-water settings of moderate
deposited preferentially along the seaward edge of a paleoto- energy where microbial flats and low-relief biodetrital mounds
pographic hinge-zone identified in the western part of the study develop (Bosence, 1995; Tucker and Wright, 1990). Interbeds of
area (Fig. 7). The unit thins progressively in a landward direc- oolitic/peloidal packstones may suggest localized shoaling.
tion (northeastward) toward the hinge-zone where it interfin- Algal/ostracod mounds are interpreted to have developed across
gers with dolomitic mudstone containing abundant slightly uplifted areas along the eastern hinge-zone (Fig. 8B).
vertically-elongate nodular anhydrite (Facies A2). In a seaward
direction (southwestward), algal packstone grades into back- Facies C9: Laminated-Intraclastic Limestone and
barrier sediments (Facies C5). Dolostone/Hypersaline Shallow Lagoon
Algal packstones and microbial mats are interpreted to have Laminated cryptocrystalline limestone and dolostone occur in
formed in shallow algal-marsh/lagoon and tidal flat settings beds that vary from 5 to 50 cm in thickness. Sedimentary struc-
(Ogg, 1995; Lake, 1998b). The lack of normal marine fauna tures in this facies include irregular to planar laminations
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 219

(Fig. 4L) and hemispherical and planar stromatolites. Subaerial observed between laminated anhydrite and patterned dolostone.
exposure features are common and include desiccation cracks Rare subangular intraclasts were the only carbonate grains iden-
(Fig. 4L), flat-pebble intraclasts and teepee structures (Shinn, tified in this facies. Subaerial exposure features were not com-
1983). Laminar fenestral fabric was observed locally in micro- monly observed. The facies is interbedded with laminated
bial laminite (Fig. 4M). Skeletal fragments are extremely rare dolomite, laminated anhydrite, and nodular anhydrite. Beds of
in this facies. patterned dolomitic mudstone vary in thickness from 0.2 to
This facies is observed in several intervals of the Midale 1.5 m.
Beds: 1) immediately overlying the Frobisher Evaporite; 2) Massive dolomudstone with good intercrystalline porosity
interbedded with grainstones and packstones in the lower was observed immediately underlying and adjacent to nodular-
Midale, and; 3) overlying bioturbated dolomitic mudstone in mosaic anhydrite (Facies A3) of the Frobisher Evaporite. This
the upper Midale. The presence of fenestral fabric, irregular facies occurs within a widespread marker bed (2 to 4 m thick)
lamination, and desiccation cracks indicate that deposition at the top of the Frobisher Beds (State A marker, Fig. 3). Like
occurred in a shallow restricted lagoon/tidal-flat environment the patterned mudstone, this unit shares a gradational upper
characterized by periodic emergence (Kendall, 1992). contact with the overlying anhydrite, and generally lacks nor-
mal marine fauna.
DOLOSTONE LITHOFACIES Faunally-impoverished patterned and massive dolomud-
Facies D1: Bioturbated Dolomudstone and stone was likely deposited under very shallow water conditions
Wackestone/Restricted Lagoon on evaporitic mud flats during minor flooding events. The
cyclical nature of these deposits probably reflects small fluctu-
Facies D1 (Fig. 5A), bioturbated dolomudstone, typically has
ations of relative sea level on a very gently-dipping ramp.
distinctive chalky and ‘marly’ texture. It occurs as two main
beds in the upper Midale unit that vary in thickness from about
ANHYDRITE LITHOFACIES
0.3 to 3 m and are separated by a layer of nondolomitized to
slightly dolomitized fossiliferous wackestone-packstone. The Facies A1: Interbedded Laminated and Nodular
lower dolomudstone bed is the thickest and most laterally con- Anhydrite/Extensive Playa-Lake
tinuous. Recognizable trace fossils include Chondrites, This facies consists of interbedded nodular and laminated
Planolites and Thalassinoides. Thin-walled bivalves and algal anhydrite (Fig. 5C) that is commonly interbedded with pat-
fragments are minor components. terned dolomudstone (Facies D2). Planar to wavy laminated
In several cores, a third dolomudstone bed was observed anhydrite lacks evidence of exposure, suggesting subaqueous
near the base of the upper Midale, where it is usually less than deposition of gypsum, which converted to anhydrite during
1 m thick (Fig. 10A). The dolomitic mudstone is greenish- burial diagenesis (Kendall, 1992). Contorted and folded lami-
grey in colour and typically has a more silty texture than over- nae indicate early soft-sediment deformation. In some beds, the
lying mudstones. The lower contact is commonly gradational deformation of laminites may have produced a nodular texture
with underlying facies. The upper contact is always sharply similar to displacive nodular anhydrite (Kendall, 1992). The
overlain by bioturbated fossiliferous wackestone-packstone widespread distribution, thickness (6–12 m), and cyclical
(Facies C2). nature of this facies probably reflect episodic flooding and
Facies D1 is thickest in topographic depressions and grades shallowing in an extensive playa-lake environment.
landward and basinward into limestone facies. The low diver-
sity fauna and bioturbated texture indicate that Facies D1 was Facies A2: Vertically-elongated Nodular Anhydrite/Salina
deposited in a restricted, low-energy lagoon/shelf environment Vertically-elongated nodules of anhydrite are up to 6 cm in
as it shares many similarities with present-day and ancient, length (Fig. 5D and 5E) and occur in a matrix of brownish-
coastal lagoon deposits described by Tucker and Wright orange or red dolomitic mudstone. Up to 95 percent of this
(1990). facies may consist of anhydrite nodules, leaving only thin
stringers or cm-sized patches of carbonate matrix. Locally
Facies D2: Patterned-Massive Dolomitic within the study area, however, the red iron-stained dolomud-
Mudstone/Evaporitic Mud-Flat stone may comprise nearly 90 percent of the facies. In this
‘Patterned’ cryptocrystalline dolomitic mudstone (Fig. 5B) is study, vertically-elongated anhydrite and adjacent
recognized by its characteristic burrow-shaped structures that algal/peloidal packstone with nodular anhydrite (Facies C6) are
produce grey to red mottling in the rock. The variable size, collectively, and informally, referred to as the ‘S2 anhydrite’
irregular shape and indistinct contacts of the mottling suggest (Fig. 3).
that they are not related to burrowing, but possibly to former Facies A2 typically occurs in beds 30 to 50 cm thick and
calcium sulphate nodules destroyed by sulphur-reducing may be interbedded with laminated/intraclastic dolostone
microorganisms (Dixon, 1976; Kendall, 1977). (Facies C9) and algal/peloidal packstone (Facies C6). In the
Patterned dolomudstone overlies bioturbated dolomitic mud- south-central part of the Steelman field, a scoured surface
stone of the upper Midale unit and grades upward into anhydrite marked by angular limestone clasts (up to 4 cm across) sepa-
facies of the Midale Evaporite. In several cores, a gradation was rates Facies A2 from underlying nodular to nodular mosaic
220 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS

anhydrite facies (Frobisher Evaporite). In more basinward gypsum under subaqueous conditions in shallow hypersaline
regions (southwest), a 10 to 30 cm thick bed of laminated lakes and coastal ponds based on its vertically-elongated mor-
limestone was observed separating these anhydrite facies. phology of anhydrite (Loucks and Longman, 1982; Warren
Facies A2 is interpreted to have been deposited initially as and Kendall, 1985).

Fig. 5. Core photos of dolomite and anhydrite depositional facies. A). Facies D1. Bioturbated microsucrosic dolomitic mudstone (reservoir
rock). Abundant Chondrites and Planolites burrows are seen in the central part of the photo (07-21-04-06W2, 1464.7 m). B). Facies D2. Patterned
cryptocrystalline dolomudstone with iron-stained, burrow-shaped structures (15-26-04-06W2, 1414.5 m). C). Facies A1. Planar and wavy lami-
nated anhydrite (15-26-04-06W2, 1410.8 m). D). Facies A2. Vertically-elongate nodular anhydrite in an argillaceous, brown-coloured dolomitic
mudstone matrix (05-28-03-05W2, 1500.9 m). E). Facies A2. Thin section of vertically elongate anhydrite within a cryptocrystalline dolomudstone
matrix. Note several large (50–60 micron) dolomite rhombs within the matrix (05-28-03-05W2, 1500.7 m). F). Facies A3. Nodular-mosaic anhy-
drite with thin dark brown dolomite stringers (15-26-04-06W2, 1430.9 m).
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 221

Facies A3: Nodular to Nodular-Mosaic Anhydrite/Sabkha OTHER SEDIMENTARY FEATURES

Facies A3 consists of white- to blue-mottled, cryptocrys-
talline anhydrite with few pink to brown dolostone stringers
(Fig 5F). Nodules vary from 1 to 6 cm in diameter. Iron stain-
ing of dolostone is common and may indicate a nearby
terrestrial sediment source. This facies reaches 5 m in thick-
ness in the Steelman field and thins in a southwestward direc-
tion. It is typically interbedded with 10- to 15-cm thick beds
of wavy to crinkly laminated dolostone. Nodular-mosaic
anhydrite is observed at the base of the Midale Beds
(Frobisher Evaporite, Fig. 3) where it overlies microcrys-
talline dolomitic mudstone of the underlying Frobisher Beds.
The upper contact is an erosional surface that is commonly
marked by angular clasts. Based on facies associations, the
nodular mosaic texture, and similarities to modern analogues
(e.g. Abu Dhabi coast of the Persian Gulf), this facies is inter-
preted as a coastal sabkha evaporite (Shearman, 1978; Butler
et al., 1982; Kendall, 1992).
Facies T1: Pendent Cements, Brecciation, Laminated
Crusts/Caliche and Microkarst
Caliche profiles are typically less than 1 m thick and are char-
acterized by: 1) discontinuous vertical fracturing and color
mottling (Fig. 6A and 6B); 2) brecciation (Fig. 6C and 6E),
and; 3) scoured upper surfaces (Fig. 6A and 6B). Chalky hori-
zons may destroy original rock textures, producing a massive
mudstone appearance. In underlying transitional zones, origi-
nal textures and relict sedimentary structures may be identified.
Root casts lined with pyrite were identified in rare core samples
(Fig. 6F).
Thin crusts (<10 cm) of cryptocrystalline dolostone
(<1.0 micron) or limestone with irregular laminations may be
observed within caliche profiles (Fig. 6F). Crumbly, ‘fall-apart’
textures (Esteban and Klappa, 1983) related to soil-ped forma-
tion likely developed during periodic wetting and drying of
earlier sediments (Fig. 6I). Corroded clasts of brecciated

Fig. 6. Core photos of terrestrial depositional facies (Facies T1). A). Erosional contact (arrow) at top of lower Midale (S3 sequence boundary).
Note discontinuous vertical fracturing and colour mottling at the contact. Two cm-sized oncoids can be seen at top of sample (12-20-04-06W2,
1463.6 m). B). Erosional surface at the S2 sequence boundary (lower Midale). Note flat intraclasts above the contact and vertical fractures in
underlying unit (12-20-04-06W2, 1469.5 m). C). Caliche facies with overlying collapse breccia. Caliche crust consists of greenish-grey
cryptocrystalline dolostone with colour mottling related to dissolution (S1 sequence boundary). Collapse breccia occurs in a silty matrix of dolomitic
lime-mudstone (05-28-03-05W2, 1499.5 m). D). Solution-enhanced vuggy porosity development below irregular surface marking the upper
contact of lower Midale (13-28-02-06W2, 1608.4). E). Karst features within algal/peloidal packstone facies. Note solution-collapse breccia partially
replaced by anhydrite. Flow banding in centre of photograph has been truncated. Abundant, fine detrital anhydrite occurs in a green, silty
mudstone overlying karst features (16-14-03-06W2, 1539.0 m). F). Root casts filled with sparry calcite and pyrite (opaque). Note branching of the
root cast (in small inset) in three places and thinner nature of successive branches (11-15-04-06W2, 1459.2m). G). Thin section showing micro-
stalactitic cement underlying peloidal grainstone. Alternating layers of micrite and microspar occur in laminae (12-20-04-06W2, 1469.7m). H). Thin
section showing crumbly, ‘fall-apart’ texture (Esteban and Klappa, 1983) associated with ped development in caliche facies (12-20-04-06W2,
1469.5 m). I). Pendent vadose cement along former roof of caliche crust. Bluish-green sediment (clay cutan?) fills former void space
(07-21-04-06W2, 1476.5 m).
222
limestone are also rarely observed in a chalky dolostone or
limestone matrix. Green and red color mottling may be
related to iron mineralization and/or clay minerals in the
matrix (Esteban and Klappa, 1983). Caliche facies developed
at the tops of; 1) the Frobisher Evaporite; 2) the S2 parase-
quence (lower Midale), and; 3) at the top of the lower Midale
unit (Fig. 3).
Microstalactitic (pendent) cement is commonly associated
with microkarst features (Fig. 6G, and 6J). Solution-collapse
breccia (Fig. 6C and 6E) and flow banding (Fig. 6E) may be
present at exposure surfaces and provide evidence for
microkarsting. Brecciated units contain poorly sorted, angular
to subrounded clasts (up to 7 cm across) that typically show
corrosion along their edges.
Carbonate mud and replacive anhydrite fill karst cavities
and contrast sharply with the host lithology (Fig. 6E). Facies
underlying these surfaces may show development of solution-
enhanced vuggy porosity (Fig. 6D).
STRUCTURE, ISOPACH DATA AND FACIES DISTRIBUTIONS
The average structural dip of the Midale Beds in the Steelman-
Bienfait area is about 10 m/km in a south-southwestward
direction. A structure map on the top of the Midale Beds
(Fig. 7) shows several prominent anticlinal structures trending
Fig. 7. Structure map of the Midale Beds, Steelman-Bienfait area. Note the three linear paleo-
structural features that intersect the study area and their relationship to important depositional hinge-
zones. Contour interval is 5 m.
H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
approximately northeast-southwest across the oilfield. Their
orientation parallels the trend of the most dominant principal
shear direction identified in the Williston Basin region
(Gerhard et al., 1991).
Paleostructural elements in the study area (Fig. 7) are
masked by present day, Laramide-related structural trends
(Brown and Brown, 1987) and were identified primarily
through examination of sediment geometry (e.g. isopach and
facies maps). Detailed isopach maps of strata within the
Mission Canyon and Charles formations were constructed to
identify local thickness anomalies possibly associated with
paleostructures (Nimegeers, 2006). Three local linear struc-
tures were observed in the study area, two trending north-south
and one east-west (Fig. 7, dashed lines). These structures
appear to have persistently affected deposition and later erosion
of Mississippian strata, suggesting structural controls spanning
10s of millions of years. Facies analysis helped to confirm
these structural trends, and abrupt transitions from grain-domi-
nated to mud-dominated rocks were observed across these local
features. Unlike the more dominant, present-day, northeast-
southwest structural orientation, these linear structures are ori-
ented approximately north-south and east-west (Fig. 7).
Paleostructure had a pronounced effect on sediment thick-
ness, facies distributions, and associated hydrocarbon trapping
in the Midale Beds of the Steelman-Bienefait area. In the study
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK
area, two important depositional hinge-zones (western and
eastern hinge-zones; Fig. 7) were identified that had a pro-
nounced effect on Midale deposition. The coincident and local
occurrence of the following features helped to define deposi-
tional hinge-zones using core and geophysical data (Brown and
Brown, 1987); 1) abrupt lateral facies changes (e.g. carbonate-
evaporite transitions); 2) rapid thickness changes with evidence
for onlapping; 3) abrupt changes in geophysical rock properties
(e.g. porosity “pinchouts”) and; 4) evidence for similar deposi-
tional/structural controls in vertically and laterally adjacent
strata that define linear trends. The location of the hinge-zones
appears to be closely associated with paleostructural trends
however their orientation is not correlative to a single linear
feature, but rather is deflected at the intersection of interpreted
structures (Fig. 7). Detailed observations from the study area
are provided in the following section.
Thickness and facies associations in the Midale Beds indi-
cate that the depositional hinge-zones likely controlled, in-
part, the orientation of the paleoshoreline during Midale times.
The isopach map of the lower Midale (Fig. 8A) shows abrupt
thickening (>18 m thick) in the southwest corner of the study
area where shoals/barrier-island and back-barrier sediments
(Facies C4 and C5, respectively) were deposited (Fig. 8B).
This thicker section is interpreted to reflect the topographic
relief of shoals, their lack of compaction over geologic time,
and local subsidence in this region. Shoal and back-barrier
deposits are confined to areas with slightly higher accommo-
dation space, seaward of the western hinge-zone (Fig. 8B).
The lower Midale subunit progressively thins toward the
western hinge-zone (Fig. 8A) where algal/peloidal packstone
and wackestone (Facies C6) was preferentially deposited (Fig.
8B). In areas north and east of the western hinge-zone the
thickness of the lower Midale remains fairly constant (3 to 6 m
thick) and is comprised primarily of vertically-elongate anhy-
drite (Facies A2) interpreted to have been deposited under
hypersaline conditions (Fig. 8B).
The overlying upper Midale subunit averages between 8 to
12 m in thickness but shows local areas of thinning (5–6 m
thick) in the southwestern corner of the study area. The thin
nature of this unit in this region is related to the lack of accom-
modation space over topographically positive 1) lower Midale
shoals (Fig. 9B) and 2) the western hinge-zone (Fig. 9A). The
upper Midale thickens in a landward direction, reaching a max-
imum thickness of approximately 12 m in the southeastern part
of the study area. Thickening in this area is interpreted to be
primarily related to the deposition of algal/ostracod packstone
(low-relief algal mounds, Facies C7) in the vicinity of the east-
ern hinge-zone (Fig. 9B).
The thickest dolomudstone reservoirs of the upper Midale are
confined to the area lying between lower Midale shoals and the
eastern hinge-zone (Fig. 9B). The eastern hinge-zone (dashed
line) roughly defines a transitional area, where porous dolomud-
stone grades into less-porous, algal-ostracod limestones. In a
westward (seaward) direction, the dolomudstone facies thins
toward the lower Midale shoal trend (Fig. 9A and B), and, in
many cases, ‘pinches out’ across the crests of the shoals.
223
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY
The depositional history of the Midale Beds is reconstructed
using architecture and stacking patterns of lithofacies, and cor-
relations of regional exposure surfaces in eleven cross-sections
(Nimegeers, 2006), two of which are presented in this paper
(Fig. 10). The top of the Midale Evaporite was chosen as a
datum because: 1) it is a relatively flat-lying progradational
unit; 2) it is regionally extensive, and; 3) it has a distinct log
signature. The Midale Beds can be subdivided into four trans-
gressive-regressive parasequences, S1 to S4 in ascending order
(Figs. 3, 11 and 12). The sequence boundaries are marked by
regional exposure surfaces that are characterized by caliche
deposits, terra rosa, microkarst features, and solution-
enhanced porosity.
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF S1
The transgressive phase of the S1 parasequence was initiated
during deposition of the underlying Frobisher Beds (Figs. 3, 10
and 11A). Most available accommodation space across the
inner ramp had been already filled during earlier Frobisher
depositional cycles. Sea level highstand was characterized by
widespread restricted conditions across the inner to middle
ramp. A faunally- impoverished dolomudstone facies (Facies
D2) was deposited under shallow to emergent conditions in a
tidal mud-flat setting. This facies grades upward and landward
into nodular and nodular-mosaic anhydrite (Facies A3;
Frobisher Evaporite) that was deposited in a sabkha setting.
During lowstand, a regional subaerial exposure surface (SB1)
developed on the sabkha facies as relative sea level continued
to fall (Fig. 11A). The surface is characterized by solution-col-
lapse breccia (Fig. 6E) and terra rosa paleosols.
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF S2
The S2 parasequence occurs in the basal part of the lower
Midale (“Vuggy”) unit (Fig. 3). In the western and southwest-
ern parts of the study area, the S1/S2 parasequence boundary is
characterized by an abrupt change from often silty dolomud-
stone (State A marker bed) to overlying crinoidal/oncoidal
lime-wackestone and packstone or intraclastic/peloidal pack-
stone (Figs. 3 and 11B), representing a transgressive lag
deposit. During S2 transgression, oolitic/peloidal shoals
(Facies C5) developed within a relatively continuous, shore-
parallel belt in the southwestern part of the study area
(Fig. 8B). Sedimentation across the shoals appears to have kept
pace with sea level rise because there is no evidence of drown-
ing or abandonment on the ramp. Only minor seaward progra-
dation of the shoals is evident, suggesting that shoal growth
was primarily aggradational during sea level highstand.
A semi-restricted, back-barrier and lagoon setting separated
the shoal complex from the landward hinge-zone (Figs. 8B and
11B). Poorly-sorted intraclastic/peloidal packestone (Facies
C5) is interpreted as a back-barrier washover facies that was
deposited on the leeward side of the shoals during storms and
minor sea level rise (Fig. 11B). Algal/peloidal packestone
(Facies C6) was deposited preferentially along the flanks of the
224 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS

Fig. 8. Comparison of the lower Midale (“Vuggy”) isopach and associated lithofacies.
A). Lower Midale isopach map. Note abrupt thickening in the southwest corner of the map and
position of the western and eastern hinge-zones. Contour interval is 1 m. B). Major lithofacies
distribution in the lower Midale unit. The western hinge-zone (dashed line) defines an important,
lateral carbonate-evaporite transition in the lower Midale.
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 225

Fig. 9. Comparison of the upper Midale (“Marly”) isopach and associated lithofacies. A). Upper
Midale isopach map. Contour interval is 1 m. B). Major lithofacies distribution in the upper Midale
unit. The eastern hinge-zone roughly defines the transition zone between porous dolomudstone
and significantly less-porous limestone. Dolomudstone beds are also thin or absent overlying
lower Midale shoals.
 226

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic cross-sections A–A′ and B–B′ of Midale Beds, Steelman-Bienfait area. A). Cross-section A–A′. Note the eastward thinning and ‘pinch-out’ of the upper Midale
dolomudstone reservoir toward the eastern hinge-zone. B). Cross-section B–B′. Note the lateral carbonate-evaporite facies transition in the lower Midale and onlapping of the S3
parasequence in an eastward (landward) direction.
H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK
western hinge-zone in a shallow algal marsh setting (Figs. 8B
and 11B). This facies grades landward into vertically-elongate
anhydrite (Facies A2) that was precipated in salina lakes land-
ward of the hinge-zone (Fig. 11B). The seaward edge of the
anhydrite is closely related to the position of the shoal complex
(Nimegeers and Nickel, 2005), suggesting that the shoals were
important barriers that created hypersaline conditions in land-
ward areas. Sea level lowstand exposed the shoals and arrested
carbonate and evaporite sedimentation in landward areas. An
irregular erosional surface with microkarst features character-
izes the S2 parasequence boundary (Fig. 6).
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF S3
In response to a relative sea level rise after deposition of S2,
oolitic/peloidal grain-packstone (Facies C4) and intraclastic/
peloidal pack-wackestone (Facies C5) were deposited on ear-
lier S2 shoals (Fig. 11C). Back-barrier/lagoon deposits on-lap
the western hinge-zone (Fig. 10B), suggesting that paleo-
topography associated with this feature continued to be an
important control on sedimentation patterns.
In areas landward of the hinge-zone, the S3 parasequence is
extremely thin (<1m thick) or absent (Figs. 8A and 11C) and
consists of wavy laminated dolomitic lime-mudstone that con-
tains little skeletal material. Thinning of the S3 parasequence
may be related to erosion and/or an overall lack of accommo-
dation space in landward areas. This facies is interpreted as an
extremely shallow lagoonal deposit based on the presence of
desiccation cracks, intraclasts and contorted laminae (c.f.
Tucker, 1991). Relative sea level fall eventually exposed the
inner ramp and caliche-microkarst facies developed at the
S3/S4 parasequence boundary (Fig. 6).
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF S4
The S4 (upper Midale) transgression deposited bioturbated,
fossiliferous wackestone and packstone (Facies C2) across the
western and central parts of the Steelman area (Fig. 12A).
Coral, brachiopod and crinoid fragments, and a diverse assem-
blage of trace fossils (Keswani and Pemberton, 2007) suggest
open to semi-restricted marine conditions existed. Skeletal
packstones (Facies C3) are localized along the landward flanks
of earlier, lower Midale shoals and are interpreted as washover
fans deposited under high-energy conditions (Fig. 12A).
In the central part of the study area, low-relief peloidal
banks (1–2 m thick) are commonly interbedded with biotur-
bated skeletal mudstones and wackestones. A lateral facies
change occurs along the eastern hinge-zone where algal/ostra-
cod packstone (Facies C8) becomes the dominant facies in the
lower part of the S4 parasequence (Figs. 9B and 10B). This
facies is interpreted to have been deposited under slightly-agi-
tated conditions in a shallow marginal setting where algal flats
and low-relief, algal/ostracod mounds developed (Bosence,
1995). Muddy oolitic packstone interbedded with mound facies
also suggests moderate energy conditions.
Minor sea level fluctuations during early highstand exposed
lower Midale shoals/barrier-islands and created restricted con-
227
ditions in landward areas (Fig. 12B). Bioturbated dolomud-
stone (Facies D1) with restricted marine fauna was deposited in
a relatively shallow marginal lagoon environment (Figs. 10 and
12B) landward of earlier-deposited shoals (Fig. 9B).
Dolomudstone thins progressively toward the crests of under-
lying shoals where it occasionally grades into patterned evap-
oritic mud-flat deposits (e.g. Bienfait area). In a landward
direction, bioturbated dolomudstone grades into, and on-laps,
algal/ostracod mounds (Facies C8) toward an eastern hinge-
zone (Fig. 9B). This relationship is illustrated between wells
05-03-04-05W2 and 07-01-04-05W2 of cross-section A–A′
(Fig.10A).
A minor sea level rise temporarily introduced more normal
marine conditions in the area and deposited fossiliferous
packstone and wackestone primarily in topographic depres-
sions, causing further loss of accommodation space on the
ramp (Fig. 12C). During late highstand, a barrier system
likely developed in more distal areas outside of the study
area, causing widespread restriction of the inner-middle ramp
(Fig. 12C). Bioturbated, faunally-impoverished, dolomud-
stone was deposited in shallow embayments separated by
algal/peloidal wackestones at the top of the upper Midale unit
(Figs. 10 and 12C).
Continued restriction during sea level highstand resulted in
the development of an extensive playa-lake (Midale Evaporite)
that covered much of the middle-inner ramp (Fig. 12D).
Patterned dolomudstone (Facies D2) was deposited in evapor-
itic mud flat-settings while laminated dolomudstones domi-
nated shallow lake-bottom areas. As the playa-lake became
progressively more hypersaline, laminated anhydrite was
deposited under subaqueous conditions in shallow depressions.
Minor sea-level rise periodically diluted the playa-lake and
provided accommodation space for further sedimentation. This
interpretation accounts for the interbedded nature (dolostone
and anhydrite) and the overall thickness of the playa-lake
deposits (Figs. 10 and 12D). Nodular anhydrite at the top of the
S4 parasequence records a final sea level fall and transition into
a supratidal environment.
DISCUSSION
Peritidal-supratidal facies dominate the Midale Beds and are
widespread across most of southeastern Saskatchewan suggest-
ing that deposition occurred in a shallow evaporitic ramp set-
ting (c.f. Warren, 1999). Minor sea level changes resulted in
major lateral shifting of the paleocoastline and periodic expo-
sure/flooding of the upper to middle ramp environments. The
presence of m-thick paleosols and paleokarst features at
sequence boundaries (Figs. 6 and 10) indicates that significant
time had elapsed between initial exposure and subsequent
transgression. In the central part of the basin, subintervals in
the Mission Canyon and Charles formations (i.e. Rival,
Midale) range from approximately10–40 m in thickness, and
are interpreted as fourth-order sequences or ‘parasequence sets’
that are superimposed on larger, third-order sequences of
228 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 229

106–107 years duration (Reid and Dorobeck, 1993). Along the
northern flanks of the basin (e.g. Steelman area), parase-
quences become thinner, ranging from 3 to 20 m in thickness,
which is likely a function of very gentle depositional slopes,
lack of accommodation space, and proximity to the paleocoast-
line. Reid and Dorobeck’s (1993) biostratigraphic correlations
of Mississippian strata in Montana and North Dakota indicate
that the Midale Beds (Rival-Midale in N.D.) represent approx-
imately 3 to 4 million years of geologic time. Based on these
age constraints, the four transgressive-regressive parase-
quences in the Midale Beds probably developed in response to
fourth-order (i.e. 105/106 year) sea level fluctuations (Van
Wagoner et al., 1988).
In marginal carbonate-evaporite environments, sequences
are generally dominated by transgressive-highstand deposits,
and lowstand systems tracts are usually thin or absent (Tucker,
1991). This is especially true for homoclinal ramp settings
where there is very little available accommodation space and
widespread, shallow-water conditions exist. During minor rel-
ative sea level fall, carbonate and evaporite sedimentation is
often suspended and the upper-middle ramp is typically
exposed, producing a sequence boundary (Warren, 1999).
In the Steelman area, evaporite deposits were identified
within highstand, lowstand and transgressive systems tracts of
various parasequences in the Midale Beds. Lowstand evaporite
deposits probably only occur within thin (1–3 m thick) suprati-
dal facies that cap the S1 and S4 parasequences. Interbedded
anhydrite and dolostone in the upper part of the S4 parase-
quence (Midale Evaporite) is interpreted as mostly highstand
evaporite deposits (Fig. 10A and B). Sarg (2001) suggests that
highstand evaporite facies interfinger basinward with mesoha-
line carbonates and landward with continental siliciclastics.
The highstand interpretation is also supported by the lateral
extent (several 10s of km) and highly aggradational nature of
the S4 playa-lake facies (c.f. Sarg, 2001). Highstand and low-
stand evaporites in the Midale and Ratcliffe beds (S1 and S4)
provide extensive vertical and bottom seals for hydrocarbon
reservoirs (Fig. 10A and B).
Transgressive systems tract evaporites have not been docu-
mented in the Midale Beds in previous publications. These
deposits consist primarily of salina lake facies (Facies A2) with
only minor interbeds of supratidal anhydrite (Facies A3).
According to Sarg (2001), transgressive evaporites can be dif-
ferentiated from those in the other systems tracts because they:
1) fill residual space on the platform; 2) on-lap platform top
and pinch-out landward and; 3) onlap back-barrier facies or
grade into marine facies in a seaward direction. Vertically-elon-
gate anhydrite of the S2 parasequence shares all of these char-
acteristics (Fig. 10A and B). During the transgressive systems
tract, subaqueous deposition of evaporites typically occurs in
isolated, evaporitic lagoon settings on the landward side of
beach-barrier systems (Warren, 1999).
Algal marsh/restricted lagoon facies, such as algal/peloidal
packstone (Facies C6), occur adjacent to transgressive evapor-
ites and often contain abundant diagenetic replacive anhydrite
(Fig. 10A and B). This diagenetic anhydrite may be related to
the proximity of this facies to more landward evaporitic pond
facies (vertically-elongated anhydrite, Facies A2). Diagenetic
anhydrite was likely precipitated from sulphate-rich groundwa-
ter that had dissolved the more landward anhydrite during low-
stand and S2 exposure (c.f. Rouchy et al., 2001). The lateral
transition from anhydrite-plugged, algal/peloidal packstone to
vertically-elongate anhydrite occurs approximately across the
western hinge-zone (Figs. 8 and 10).
Abrupt facies changes are observed in the lower Midale unit
(S2 parasequence) between wells 13-04-03-06W2 and 15-04-
03-06W2 (Fig. 10B), where intraclastic/peloidal packstones
and grainstones (back-barrier, Facies C5) grade landward into
algal/peloidal packstone with abundant secondary anhydrite
(algal-marsh, Facies A2). Local variations in depositional slope
likely controlled the landward extent of the algal
marsh/restricted lagoon facies. In areas of increased slope (e.g.
Twp 4, Rge 7; Fig. 8B), a more narrow belt of restricted lagoon
sediments was deposited between the barrier system and the
western hinge-zone (paleoshoreline).
Another trend observed on both stratigraphic cross-sections
is the coastal on-lapping relationship of lower Midale parase-
quences, where S2 and S3 become thinner in a landward direc-
tion and progressively on-lap the Frobisher Evaporite (Fig.
10A and B). Intraclastic/peloidal packstone facies (Facies C5)
in the S3 parasequence (Fig. 10B) contains fair to good poros-
ity and on-laps the S2 parasequence boundary between the
Bienfait and Steelman fields. This stratigraphic relationship is
probably the primary trapping mechanism for a lower Midale
reservoir in the Bienfait field.
An overall lack of core and well data in the western part of
the study area (e.g. west and northwest of the Bienfait field,
Fig. 1) resulted in difficulties defining the precise morphology,
seaward extent and orientation of oolitc shoal/barrier islands in
the Steelman/Bienfait region (Fig. 8B). Kent (1999) identified

Fig. 11 (opposite). Schematic diagrams illustrating depositional processes and environments for parasequences (S1–S3) of the Frobisher
Evaporite and lower Midale Beds in the study area. A). S1 Parasequence (Frobisher Evaporite). Sabkha deposits prograde over restricted inner
ramp facies during late highstand and lowstand. B). S2 Parasequence (basal lower Midale unit). Transgressive-highstand systems tract shows
shoal/barrier-island complex, back-barrier sands and lagoonal facies overlying earlier-deposited restricted ramp and sabkha deposits of the S1
parasequence. A shallow salina-lake develops landward of the western hinge-zone. The S2 parasequence is subsequently exposed following
relative sea level fall. C). S3 Parasequence (upper part of lower Midale). The underlying S2 sequence is partly eroded (black dashed line) during
early transgression of the S3 parasequence. A shoal/barrier-island system is reestablished during sea level rise and back-barrier/ lagoonal
deposits on-lap the western hinge zone. The highstand system is characterized by aggradational growth of barrier-islands. Laminated limestone
and dolostone were deposited in areas landward of the western hinge-zone under restricted shallow water conditions. Subsequent sea level fall
causes extensive subaerial exposure and erosion across the study area (red dashed line).
230 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS
MIDALE CARBONATE-EVAPORITE CYCLES, STEELMAN-BIENFAIT AREA, SK 231

Bahamian-type ooids locally in the Bienfait area, and sug-
gested that wind and wave controls, similar to those in the pres-
ent-day Caicos Shelf (Bahamas), were likely a major control on
ooid formation in the Midale Beds.
Paloegeographic reconstruction of the Williston Basin in rela-
tion to the paleo-equator indicates that prevailing winds were
from the south-southeast during Midale times, subparallel to the
interpreted paleoshoreline (Kent, 1999). A series of lower Midale
(“Vuggy”) shoal complexes in the Weyburn area, are described
as having a predominantly northeasterly trend (Burrowes, 2006).
Kent’s (1999) study of coated-grain accumulations in
Mississippian strata of southeastern Saskatchewan suggests that
Midale shoal complexes are limited to relatively narrow bands,
flanked on the seaward side by deeper water facies and on the
landward side by more restricted environments.
In the study area, the southern edge of the salina-lake facies
(Fig. 8B) likely reflects the general orientation of the lower
Midale paleoshoreline. A shore-parallel interpretation for the
orientation of Midale shoals in the study area is based on two
main data sources: 1) direct examination of shoal facies from
core and well logs, and; 2) indirect evidence from facies closely
associated with the distribution of shoals, such as back-barrier
sediments (Facies C5). A more detailed description of shoal
complexes in the Steelman area (West Kingsford, Fig.1) is pro-
vided by Nimegeers et al. (2006).
The distribution of depositional facies in areas seaward
(south-southwest) of the Steelman shoal complex is not known
with a great degree of certainty (Fig. 8B). However, regional
core data collected by the authors (e.g.Twp 3 Rge 8W2) indi-
cate relatively persistent shallow-water and semi-restricted
marine conditions existed in many areas seaward of the
Steelman shoal complex. Faunally-impoverished and algal-rich
lagoon facies (Facies C6) were observed interbedded with
oolitic packstones (Facies C4) and poorly-sorted, intraclas-
tic/peloidal packstones (Facies C5). Relatively widespread dis-
tribution of shallow marine facies in the lower Midale reflects
the gentle-sloping nature of the Mississippian ramp and sug-
gests the likelihood of other, presently undocumented,
shoal/barrier island trends in southeastern Saskatchewan.
IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION-EXPLOITATION
The Steelman field has traditionally been described as an east-
ward continuation of the Mississippian sub-crop ‘play’ that
characterizes the nearby Weyburn, Midale and Benson oil-
fields. Hydrocarbon exploration and development in the
Midale Beds has traditionally focused on sub-crop trapping,
‘step-outs’ along the edges of established fields, and local
structural traps. However, the most productive Midale wells in
the Steelman area are relatively far (15–20 km) from the
Midale sub-crop edge (Fig. 1), and produce from dolomudstone
reservoir (Facies D1) in the upper Midale and porous lime-
stones (Facies C4 and C5) of the lower Midale.
Our study suggests that an up-dip lateral facies change from
reservoir-quality dolostone to nonporous limestone is an
important local trapping mechanism in the Steelman field
(Fig. 13). This facies change is coincident with a paleotopo-
graphic hinge-zone (Figs. 9B and 10) that affected sedimenta-
tion during Midale time. Across this ridge, dolomudstones
grade laterally into low-relief, algal/ostracod mud mounds.
Generally, the mound and algal-flat facies contain lower
porosities and permeabilities due to abundant micrite and
microspar filling pore space (Fig. 4J and 4K). Thin oolitic
packstones (<50 cm thick) are observed interbedded with these
facies and may form local reservoirs in the southeastern part of
the Steelman field (Fig. 13).
Shoal and back-barrier facies of the lower Midale (Fig. 8B)
form important reservoirs in the western part of the study area
due to progressive thinning and on-lap against the underlying
Frobisher Evaporite (Figs. 10 and 13). Additional stratigraphic
traps and pools related to facies changes can be identified
by careful core examination, well log correlations, and facies
analyses.
CONCLUSIONS
Fourteen marginal marine lithofacies were identified in four
carbonate-evaporite parasequences (S1–S4, in ascending order)
that characterize the Mississippian Midale Beds in the
Steelman-Bienfait area of southeastern Saskatchewan. These
facies represent a variety of depositional settings including
shoal/barrier-island, open marine, restricted lagoon, peritidal
and coastal evaporites. Deposition occurred across a shallow
homoclinal ramp that was very sensitive to minor sea level
fluctuations. Parasequence boundaries commonly show evi-
dence of subaerial exposure, such as micro-karsting and local
caliche development.
Parasequence architecture and facies distributions in the
Midale Beds were primarily controlled by minor sea-level
changes, availability of accommodation space and local pale-
otopography. Stratigraphic data and facies analyses were used
to identify three linear paleostructures and two associated
depositional hinge-zones in the study area. These hinge-zones

Fig. 12 (opposite). Schematic diagrams illustrating depositional processes and environments for the S4 parasequence of the upper Midale
Beds of the study area. A). Relative sea level rise causes flooding of study area. Normal-marine to semi-restricted facies of S4 are deposited land-
ward of the flooded barrier-island complex. B). Minor sea level fall causes former barrier-island complex to become exposed. In landward areas,
restriction and evaporation produce higher salinities in lagoonal settings. C). During early sea level highstand, available accommodation space is
gradually filled. Sedimentation occurs primarily through aggradation. D). Accommodation space continues to be filled during late highstand.
Extensive areas of inner and middle ramp are covered by a widespread shallow playa-lake (Midale Evaporite). Small sea-level fluctuations cause
minor refreshening (dilution) of the lake, resulting in the interbedded nature of patterned dolomudstone with laminated anhydrite. Sabkha deposits
eventually cap the S4 sequence during sea level lowstand.
232 H. QING and A.R. NIMEGEERS

were important controls on lateral carbonate-evaporite facies
changes in the lower Midale and dolostone-limestone facies
changes in the upper Midale unit.
Oolitic shoal/barrier-islands and back-barrier washover
deposits of the lower Midale are locally prolific reservoirs in
the western part of the study area where trapping occurs due to
facies change, progressive onlap and ‘pinch out’ of reservoir
rocks in a northeastward (landward) direction. Stratigraphic
trapping in the upper Midale is primarily associated with an
updip lateral facies change from porous dolomudstone into
less-porous algal/ostracod limestone in the central part of the
Steelman field. Parasequences and facies relationships
described in this depositional model may help to predict areas
with further economic potential in the Midale Beds of south-
eastern Saskatchewan.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express sincere gratitude to geologists and staff
at the Saskatchewan Industry and Resources Subsurface
Geological Laboratory for providing access to core and
library materials. The manuscript has benefited greatly from
the discussions with and comments by I. Al-Aasm, C. Gilboy,
F. Haidl, D. Kent, J. Lake, B. Pratt, and S. Whittaker. We
gratefully acknowledge the critical review by G. Burrowes,
A. Desrochers and editorial comments by Associate Editor
Nancy Chow and Editor Glen Stockmal, which improved
the manuscript. We thank Nexen Inc. and NSERC
(CRDPJ237438 to H. Qing) for funding the project.
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Manuscript received: December 10, 2007
Date accepted: May 20, 2008
Associate Editor: Nancy Chow