Thiet Ke Ket Cauthep Ch1-3

Trường Đại học Giao thông Vận tải
BÀI GIẢNG TÍN CHỈ HỌC PHẦN: THIẾT KẾ KẾT CẤU THÉP
BÀI GIẢNG TÍN CHỈ

THIẾT KẾ KẾT CẤU THÉP
Structural Design of Steel
Bộ môn Công trình Giao thông Thành phố & Công trình Thủy
Division of Urban Transport and Coastal Engineering
http://ctgttp.org
Hà Nội, 2017
GIỚI THIỆU HỌC PHẦN
• Tên học phần: THIẾT KẾ KẾT CẤU THÉP
• Viết bằng tiếng Anh: Structural Design of Steel
• Mã số: CIVE2107
• Số tín chỉ học phần: 03
• Thời gian của học phần:

• Lý thuyết: 30
• Bài tập : 5
• Bài tập lớn 10
• Thực hành: 15
• Thảo luận: 10
• Tự học: 90
Bộ môn Công trình Giao thông Thành phố và Công trình Thủy 2
Nguyễn Hữu Hưng
Bộ môn Công trình GTTP và CTT, p307A6
Email nhhunggttp@utc.edu.vn
Sđt 0912178594
• TÓM TẮT NỘI DUNG HỌC PHẦN

• Tiếng Việt:
 Giới thiệu về kết cấu thép, các dạng kết cấu bản, dầm, cột,…
 Triết lý thiết kế theo Trạng thái giới hạn
 Quan hệ ứng suất/biến dạng của thép
 Thiết kế kết cấu chịu uốn bao gồm mô men uốn, độ cứng và phân bố mô men
 Thiết kế kết cấu chịu cắt
 Kiểm tra kết cấu theo Trạng thái giới hạn sử dụng (vd ứng suất, nứt, võng).
 Thiết kế cột chịu lực dọc trục và mô men uốn
 Tổng quan về tính toán ổn định và độ bền, thực hành thiết kế và sử dụng tiêu
chuẩn thiết kế.
 Đối với phần thực hành, sinh viên sẽ được xem các tư liệu phim về thí nghiệm
nén phá hoại dầm thép, thực hành mô phỏng thí nghiệm trên máy tính và thăm
quan phòng thí nghiệm công trình..
Tiếng Anh:
• Design of Steel Elements
• Introduction to Steel structures, types of slabs, beams and columns
• Limit state design philosophy
• Stress/strain properties for steel
• Design for flexure including moment curvature, ductility and redistribution of bending
moments
• Design of shear reinforcement
• Empirical methods for checking Serviceability (ie deflection an vibration).
• Design of columns for axial load and bending moment
• Introduction to Stability and Robustness, Practical Design and the use of Codes of
Practice (to be covered in more detail in next semester with Integrated Design Project).
• For practice time, show students the video clips about I steel beam testing, try for
simulation the test on FEM program and visit the construction laboratory
• NỘI DUNG ĐỀ CƯƠNG CHI TIẾT

Số giờ (1 tiết = 50 phút)
Thứ tự Lý Thảo Bài tập Thí Thực Tự học
Nội dung thuyết luận nghiệm hành
chương mục
Chương 1 Tổng quan về Kết cấu thép 3 1 7

1.1 Giới thiệu chung
1.2 Vật liệu Kết cấu thép
Chương 2 Kết cấu chịu kéo 6 2 1 3 18
2.1 Khái niệm
2.2 Đặc điểm cấu tạo
Ứng xử của kết cấu chịu kéo đúng tâm
2.3
2.4 Tính toán kết cấu chịu kéo đúng tâm

Chương 3 Kết cấu chịu nén 6 2 1 4 19
3.1 Khái niệm
3.3 Khái niệm về ổn định của cột
2.4 Tính toán kết cấu chịu nén đúng tâm
Chương 4 Kết cấu chịu uốn và cắt 6 2 1 4 19
4.1 Khái niệm
4.3 Ứng xử cấu kiện uốn và cắt
4.4 Ổn định tổng thể dầm chịu uốn
4.5 Ổn định cục bộ dầm chịu uốn
4.6 Sức kháng cắt của mặt cắt
4.7 Kiểm soát độ võng
Chương 5 Liên kết 5 2 1 4 17
5.1 Giới thiệu chung về liên kết
Liên kết bu lông

5.2
Liên kết hàn
5.3
Thiết kế Kết cấu thép theo Tiêu chuẩn 22

Chương 6 4 1 1 10
TCN 272-05
6.1 Các quan điểm thiết kế
6.2 Sự phát triển của quá trình thiết kế

Nguyên tắc thiết kế theo tiêu chuẩn 22TCN
6.3 272 - 05
6.4 Các yêu cầu cấu tạo
6.5 Các trạng thái giới hạn
6.6 Mô men chày và mô men dẻo
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF STEEL STRUCTURE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
To clarify the meaning of what we call structural design, it is important to avoid any
confusion, as it often unfortunately happens, between architectural structural design,
structural elements design and analysis.
Analysis is a verification process, using knowledge of applied mechanics and technical
tools, of the dimensions of a project, which in a more or less definitive way has already
been defined by a design process.
It is clear that structural analysis procedures can be taught in schools as every well-
defined and formalized subject can. In fact, structural analysis is a branch of applied
physics.
However, it is less clear to understand to which extent a correct design procedure can
be acquired by more or less conventional teaching procedures, because design implies an
ill definable quality called creativity.
In this section the basic steps of structural design and analysis are explained first,
together with the tools that are needed to execute them, including the use of databases and
expert systems
1.1 Phases of structural design
• Conceptual design, creative and dimensioning phase, in which the structural form is
created. The structural type, materials and the basic dimensions of the members are
chosen.
• Planning or development phase of the preliminary design, in which details are
defined and the final modelling and analysis of the structure are made.
• Documentation phase, in which the final drawing, cost estimates and contracts are
prepared.
Flow-chart of the
structural design process
1.2 The meanings of structural design
Structural design means artistic invention and dimensioning.
• Invention is the creation of a structural form, dimensioning is to assign to

every structural member adequate dimensions for stability, serviceability,
suitability and sustainability.
• Dimensioning is usually obtained through a ‘trial and error’ procedure,

involving repeated analysis of the structure. Only in some particular cases
this process can be rationalized using an optimization algorithm.
1.2 The meanings of structural design
The starting point in this process is usually the adoption of dimensions

derived from similar projects.
Therefore, structural design intended as dimensioning, is strictly related to

analysis and prediction of the sizes for the structural elements: it can be
reduced to repeated analysis and, therefore, to an essentially mechanical
process.
The confusion between design and analysis stems from this limited view of
the design process in which analysis plays such an essential role
1.3 Can structural design be taught?
If we give to structural design the first meaning, that is, artistic invention of
new structural forms, the answer is basically no.
We can, however, as we will see later, help inventive people to better express
their qualities.
In fact a subject can only be taught that can be formalized in some way and
can be expressed by rules and objective principles.
1.3 Can structural design be taught?
We could say that all kind of teaching can be reduced to three basic categories:
• Scientific teaching where the laws and principles that govern nature are taught.
• Technical teaching where the techniques and tools (often but not necessarily
derived from scientific principles) that interact with nature are taught and
described.
• Historical teaching (in the broader sense) where what man has done in the
past (also the very near past) is described and commented on
1.4 Databases and expert systems in structural design
From these databases, knowledge base systems, such as neural network

systems, can be derived, organized in rules and introduced in an expert
system, which, according to a suitable inference mechanism, can help in
choosing the most suitable structural type that satisfies given boundary,
loading and environmental conditions
1.4 Databases and expert systems in structural design
Instruments, such as neural network systems and databases, are tools that
help in selecting a reasonable structural type to suit given external
objective boundary conditions
Simplified example of application of neural networks to structural design
1.5 The importance of the computer modelling process
Digital computers make both simple and complex structural matrix analysis possible.
The structure can be analyzed as a single entity, possibly including the subsoil, modelled
as an assemblage of finite elements. To get realistic results, therefore, correct modelling
for these structures becomes imperative.
Engineers are always aiming for simple structural forms which gives a qualitative
understanding of the structural behaviour (which is sometimes lacking in more
sophisticated holistic approaches), and results which are on the safe side. The designer is
looking for a sense of control on the design process, which may not become available
when sophisticated computer programs are used. A careful examination of the results of
the structural analysis must be performed especially with reference to displacements.
Computer methods of analysis and, in particular, the finite element method has permitted
the designer to analyze very complex three dimensional structural schemes, taking into
account, sometimes, the soil structure interaction
There are however limits to this possibility. These limits are determined by
• the intrinsic complexity of the structural geometry;
• the degree of detail required in the results;
• the required degree of accuracy;
• the intrinsic complexity of the constitutive laws of the materials in non-linear analysis;
• the number or type of loading conditions
However, the following are important in modelling structures for analysis
• the choice of plane or space scheme;
• the modelling of the influence of joint dimensions in frames;
• the realistic modelling of supports, for example, the introduction of soil structure interaction by
modelling the soil as an elastic medium, or, more accurately, as an assemblage of non-linear finite
elements having the stress deformation characteristics of the layers involved;
• the taking into account of non-intentional imperfections and existing fractures in the structural
material;
• the taking into account of construction phases
In the case of two-dimensional, three-dimensional and non-linear analysis, the

following are important too:
• the choice of the types of finite elements;
• the fineness of the mesh to be used in the various zones of the structure according
to the stress gradients;
• the choice of the type of analysis;
• the choice of the constitutive laws of the materials.
2. STRUCTURAL STEEL
Steel is extensively used for the frameworks of bridges, buildings, buses, cars,
conveyors, cranes, pipelines, ships, storage tanks, towers, trucks, and other
structures
2.1 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
2.1.1 High Strength

The high strength of steel per unit of weight means that the weight of structures will
be small. This fact is of great importance for long-span bridges, tall buildings, and
structures situated on poor foundations.
2.1.2 Uniformity
The properties of steel do not change appreciably with time, as do those of a
reinforced-concrete structure.
2.1.3 Elasticity
Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than most materials because it follows
Hooke’s law up to fairly high stresses. The moments of inertia of a steel structure can be
accurately calculated, while the values obtained for a reinforced-concrete structure are
rather indefinite.
2.1.4 Permanence
Steel frames that are properly maintained will last indefinitely. Research on some of
the newer steels indicates that under certain conditions no painting maintenance
whatsoever will be required.
2.1.5 Ductility
The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation without
failure under high tensile stresses is its ductility
2.1.4 Permanence
Steel frames that are properly maintained will last indefinitely. Research on some of the
newer steels indicates that under certain conditions no painting maintenance whatsoever
will be required.
2.1.5 Ductility
The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation without
failure under high tensile stresses is its ductility. When a mild or low-carbon structural steel
member is being tested in tension, a considerable reduction in cross section and a large
amount of elongation will occur at the point of failure before the actual fracture occurs. A
material that does not have this property is generally unacceptable and is probably hard and
brittle, and it might break if subjected to a sudden shock.
In structural members under normal loads, high stress concentrations develop at various
points. The ductile nature of the usual structural steels enables them to yield locally at
those points, thus preventing premature failures. A further advantage of ductile structures is
that when overloaded, their large deflections give visible evidence of impending failure
(sometimes jokingly referred to as “running time”).
2.1.6 Toughness
Structural steels are tough—that is, they have both strength and ductility. A steel
member loaded until it has large deformations will still be able to withstand large
forces.
2.1.7 Additions to Existing Structures
Steel structures are quite well suited to having additions made to them. New
bays or even entire new wings can be added to existing steel frame buildings, and
steel bridges may often be widened.
2.1.6 Toughness
Structural steels are tough—that is, they have both strength and ductility. A steel member
loaded until it has large deformations will still be able to withstand large forces. This is a
very important characteristic, because it means that steel members can be subjected to large
deformations during fabrication and erection without fracture—thus allowing them to be
bent, hammered, and sheared, and to have holes punched in them without visible damage.
The ability of a material to absorb energy in large amounts is called toughness
2.1.7 Additions to Existing Structures
Steel structures are quite well suited to having additions made to them. New bays or even
entire new wings can be added to existing steel frame buildings, and steel bridges may often
be widened.
2.1.8 Miscellaneous
Several other important advantages of structural steel are as follows:
(a) ability to be fastened together by several simple connection devices, including
welds and bolts;
(b) adaptation to prefabrication;
(c) speed of erection;
(d) ability to be rolled into a wide variety of sizes and shapes,
(e) possible reuse after a structure is disassembled; and
(f) scrap value, even though not reusable in its existing form. Steel is the ultimate
recyclable material.
2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

In general, steel has the following disadvantages:
2.2.1 Corrosion
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and
water, and therefore must be painted periodically. The use of weathering
steels, however, in suitable applications tends to eliminate this cost.
2.2.2 Fireproofing Costs

Although structural members are incombustible, their strength is
tremendously reduced at temperatures commonly reached in fires when
the other materials in a building burn
2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

In general, steel has the following disadvantages:
2.2.1 Corrosion
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water, and therefore
must be painted periodically. The use of weathering steels, however, in suitable applications
tends to eliminate this cost.
Though weathering steels can be quite effective in certain situations for limiting corrosion,
there are many cases where their use is not feasible. In some of these situations, corrosion may
be a real problem. For instance, corrosion-fatigue failures can occur where steel members are
subject to cyclic stresses and corrosive environments.
The fatigue strength of steel members can be appreciably reduced when the members are
used in aggressive chemical environments and subject to cyclic loads.
The reader should note that steels are available in which copper is used as an anti-corrosion
component. The copper is usually absorbed during the steelmaking process
2.2.2 Fireproofing Costs

Although structural members are incombustible, their strength is tremendously reduced
at temperatures commonly reached in fires when the other materials in a building burn.
Many disastrous fires have occurred in empty buildings where the only fuel for the fires
was the buildings themselves. Furthermore, steel is an excellent heat conductor—non
fireproofed steel members may transmit enough heat from a burning section or
compartment of a building to ignite materials with which they are in contact in
adjoining sections of the building. As a result, the steel frame of a building may have to
be protected by materials with certain insulating characteristics, and the building may
have to include a sprinkler system if it is to meet the building code requirements of the
locality in question
2.2.3 Susceptibility to Buckling
As the length and slenderness of a compression member is increased, its danger of
buckling increases. For most structures, the use of steel columns is very economical
because of their high strength-to-weight ratios.
2.2.4 Fatigue
Another undesirable property of steel is that its strength may be reduced if it is
subjected to a large number of stress reversals or even to a large number of variations of
tensile stress. (Fatigue problems occur only when tension is involved.)
2.2.5 Brittle Fracture
Under certain conditions steel may lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at
places of stress concentration. Fatigue-type loadings and very low temperatures
aggravate the situation. Tri-axial stress conditions can also lead to brittle fracture.
2.2.3 Susceptibility to Buckling

As the length and slenderness of a compression member is increased, its danger of buckling
increases. For most structures, the use of steel columns is very economical because of their high
strength-to-weight ratios. Occasionally, however, some additional steel is needed to stiffen them
so they will not buckle. This tends to reduce their economy.
2.2.4 Fatigue
Another undesirable property of steel is that its strength may be reduced if it is subjected to a
large number of stress reversals or even to a large number of variations of tensile stress. (Fatigue
problems occur only when tension is involved.) The present practice is to reduce the estimations
of strength of such members if it is anticipated that they will have more than a prescribed number
of cycles of stress variation.
2.2.5 Brittle Fracture
Under certain conditions steel may lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at places of
stress concentration. Fatigue-type loadings and very low temperatures aggravate the situation.
Tri-axial stress conditions can also lead to brittle fracture.
2. 3. MATERIALS
2.3.1 Stress-Strain Behavior of Structural Steel
Structural steel is an important construction material. It possesses attributes such as
strength, stiffness, toughness, and ductility that are very desirable in modern constructions.
Uniaxial stress-strain
behavior of steel
• Strength is the ability of a material to resist stresses.
It is measured in terms of the material’s yield strength, Fy, and ultimate or

tensile strength, Fu.
For steel, the ranges of Fy and Fu ordinarily used in constructions are 36

to 50 ksi (248 to 345 MPa) and 58 to 70 ksi (400 to 483 MPa),
respectively, although higher strength steels are becoming more common
• Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
It is measured as the slope of the material’s stress-strain curve. It is seen

that the modulus of elasticity, E, does not vary appreciably for the
different steel grades. Therefore, a value of 29,000 ksi (200 GPa) is often
used for design
• Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy before failure.
It is measured as the area under the material’s stress-strain curve.
• Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large inelastic, or plastic,

deformation before failure.
It is measured in terms of percent elongation or percent reduction in area of the

specimen tested in uniaxial tension. For steel, percent elongation ranges from
around 10 to 40 for a 2-in. (5-cm) gage length specimen. Ductility generally
decreases with increasing steel strength. Ductility is a very important attribute of
steel
The ability of structural steel to deform considerably before failure by

fracture allows an indeterminate structure to undergo stress
redistribution. Ductility also enhances the energy absorption
characteristic of the structure, which is extremely important in seismic
design
Uniaxial stress-strain behavior of steel

2.3.2 Types of Steel

Structural steels used for construction purpose are generally grouped
into several major American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
classifications:
+ Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM 709)
+ High Strength Low Alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572)
+ Corrosion-Resistant High Strength Low Alloy Steels (ASTM A242,
ASTM A588)
+ Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514,
ASTM A709, ASTM A852)
2.3.3 Fireproofing of Steel
Although steel is an incombustible material, its strength. Fy;Fu/and stiffness. E/reduce
quite noticeably at temperatures normally reached in fires when other materials in a
building burn.
Exposed steel members that will be subjected to high temperature when a fire occurs
should be fireproofed to conform to the fire ratings set forth in city codes. Fire ratings are
expressed in units of time (usually hours) beyond which the structural members under a
standard ASTM Specification (E119) fire test will fail under a specific set of criteria.
Various approaches are available for fireproofing steel members. Steel members can be
fireproofed by encasement in concrete if a minimum cover of 2 in. (51 mm) of concrete is
provided.
For a more detailed discussion of structural steel design for fire protection, refer to the
latest edition of AISI publication No. FS3, Fire-Safe Structural Steel-A Design Guide.
Additional information on fire-resistant standards and fire protection can be found in the
AISI booklets on Fire Resistant Steel Frame Construction, Designing Fire Protection for
Steel Columns, and Designing Fire Protection for Steel Trusses as well as in the Uniform
Building Code
2.3.4 Corrosion Protection of Steel
Atmospheric corrosion occurs when steel is exposed to a continuous supply of
water and oxygen.
The rate of corrosion can be reduced if a barrier is used to keep water and
oxygen from contact with the surface of bare steel.
Painting is a practical and cost effective way to protect steel from corrosion. The
Steel Structures Painting Council issues specifications for the surface
preparation and the painting of steel structures for corrosion protection of steel.
In lieu of painting, the use of other coating materials such as epoxies or other
mineral and polymeric compounds can be considered. The use of corrosion
resistance steel such as ASTM A242 and A588 steel or galvanized steel is
another alternative.
2.3.5 Structural Steel Shapes
Steel sections used for construction are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. In
general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot-
rolled, cold-formed, and welded.
All steel shapes must be manufactured to meet ASTM standards. Commonly used
steel shapes include the wide flange (W) sections, the American Standard beam (S)
sections, bearing pile (HP) sections, American Standard channel (C) sections, angle
(L) sections, and tee (WT) sections as well as bars, plates, pipes, and tubular
sections. H sections which, by dimensions, cannot be classified as W or S shapes
are designated as miscellaneous (M) sections, and C sections which, by
dimensions, cannot be classified as American Standard channels are designated as
miscellaneous channel (MC) sections
2.3.6 Structural Fasteners

Steel sections can be fastened together by rivets, bolts, and welds.
While rivets were used quite extensively in the past, their use in modern steel
construction has become almost obsolete.
Bolts have essentially replaced rivets as the primary means to connect non
welded structural components.
2.3.7 Weldability of Steel
Most ASTM specification construction steels are weldable. In general, the

strength of the electrode used should equal or exceed the strength of the steel
being welded. The table below gives ranges of chemical elements in steel within
which good weldability is assured.
Weldability of steel is closely related to the amount of carbon in steel.
Weldability is also affected by the presence of other elements. A quantity known
as carbon equivalent value, giving the amount of carbon and other elements in
percent composition, is often used to define the chemical requirements in steel.
One definition of the carbon equivalent value Ceq is
A steel is considered weldable if Ceq 0.50% for steel in which the carbon
content does not exceed 0.12%, and if Ceq 0.45% for steel in which the carbon
content exceeds 0.12%
[1] Jack C. Mccormac, Stephen F. Csernak. Structural Steel Design. Pearson

Education Limited 2012
PROBLEMS FOR SOLUTION
1-1. List the three regions of a stress–strain diagram for mild or low-carbon structural steel.
1-2. List the specifying organization for the following types of steel:
a. Cold-formed steel
b. Hot-rolled steel
1-3. Define the following:
a. Proportional limit; b. Elastic limit; c. Yield stress
1-4. List the preferred steel type (ASTM spec) for the following shapes:
a. Plates; b. W shapes; c. C sections
1-5. List the two methods used to produce steel shapes.
1-6. List four advantages of steel as a structural material.
1-7. What type of steel (ASTM grade) has made the cost of 50 ksi the same as 36 ksi steel
because of the use of scrap or recycled steel in the manufacturing process?
1-8. What are the differences between wrought iron, steel, and cast iron?
1-9. What is the range of carbon percentage for mildcarbon steel?
1-10. List four disadvantages of steel as a structural material.
1-11. List four types of failures for structural steel structures
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Tension members are linear members in which axial forces act so as to elongate
(stretch) the member. A rope, for example, is a tension member. Tension
members carry loads most efficiently, since the entire cross section is subjected
to uniformstress. Unlike compression members, they do not fail by buckling.
Ties of trusses [Fig 1(a)], suspenders of cable stayed and suspension bridges
[Fig.1 (b)], suspenders of buildings systems hung froma central core [Fig.1(c)]
(such buildings are used in earthquake prone zones as a way of minimising
inertia forces on the structure), and sag rods of roof purlins [Fig 1(d)] are other
examples of tension members.
Fig. 1 Tension Members in Structures
The tension members can have a variety of cross sections. The single angle and double
angle sections [Fig 2(a)] are used in light roof trusses as in industrial buildings. The
tension members in bridge trusses are made of channels or I sections, acting individually
or built-up [Figs. 2(c) and 2(d)]. The circular rods [Fig.2 (d)] are used in bracings
designed to resist loads in tension only. They buckle at very low compression and are
not considered effective. Steel wire ropes [Fig.2 (e)] are used as suspenders in the cable
suspended bridges and as main stays in the cable-stayed bridges.
Fig. 2 Cross Sections of Tension Members

2.2 BEHAVIOUR OF TENSION MEMBERS
The load-deformation behaviour of an axially loaded tension member is similar to the basic
material stress-strain behavior. When a member is subjected to tension, the area of cross
section and the gauge length continuously change due to the Poisson effect and longitudinal
strain, respectively.
Stresses and strains may be calculated using the initial area of cross section and the initial
gauge length, which is referred to as the engineering stress and engineering strain or using
the current area of cross section and the current gauge length, which is referred to as the
true stress and true strain.
The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation
characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on the original dimensions of the
specimen, and these dimensions change continuously as the load increases.
In fact, post-ultimate strain softening in engineering stress-strain curve caused by the
necking of the cross section is completely absent in the true stress-strain curve.
When the true stress based on the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen is used, it is
found that the stress-strain curve increases continuously until fracture occurs. The true
stress-strain curve is also known as flow curve since it represents the basic plastic flow
characteristics of the material.
Any point on the flow curve can be considered as the local stress for a metal strained in
tension by the magnitude shown on the curve. However, since it is difficult to obtain the
ordinates of true stress-strain curve, the engineering stress-strain curve is often utilized.
As discussed in above section, high-strength steel tension members do not exhibit a well-
defined yield point and yield plateau. Hence the 0.2% offset load is usually taken as the
yield point for such high-strength steel.
2.3 MODES OF FAILURE
In the following sections, the different modes of failure of tension members are discussed:
2.3.1 Gross Section Yielding
Generally a tension member without bolt holes can resist loads up to the ultimate load
without failure. But such a member will deform in the longitudinal direction considerably
(nearly 10%-15% of its original length) before fracture.
At such a large deformation a structure becomes unserviceable. Hence, code limits design
strength; substituting for m0, which is the partial safety factor for failure in tension by
yielding (m0=1.l0), we get
Tdg = 0.909 Fy Ag
Where Ag is the gross area of cross section in mm2, and Fy is the yield strength of the
material (in MPa)
2.3.2 Net Section Rupture
A tension member is often connected to the main or other members by bolts or welds.
When connected using bolts, tension members have holes and hence reduced cross section,
being referred to as the net area
Holes in the members cause stress concentration at service loads, as shown in Fig. (a)
From the theory of elasticity, we know that the tensile stress adjacent to a hole will be
about two to three times the average stress on the net area, depending upon the ratio of the
diameter of the hole to the width of the plate normal to the direction of stress.
Stress concentration becomes very significant when repeated applications of load may
lead to fatigue failure or when there is a possibility of a brittle fracture of a tension
member under dynamic loads.
Stress concentration may be minimized by providing suitable joint and member
details.
When a tension member with a hole is loaded statically, the point adjacent to the hole
reaches the yield stress Fy first. On further loading, the stress at that point remains
constant at yield stress and each fibre away from the hole progressively reaches the yield
stress Fy .
Deformations continue with increasing load until finally rupture (tension failure) of
the member occurs when the entire net cross section of the member reaches the ultimate
stress Fu. The design strength due to net section rupture for plates is given in Section
6.3.1 of the code. Substituting the value for m1 which is the partial safety factor for
failure due to rupture of cross section (= 1.25), we get
Tdn = 0.72 Fu An
Where An, is the net effective area of the cross section in mm2, and Fu is the ultimate
strength of the material in MPa
2.3.3 Block Shear Failure
Originally observed in bolted shear connections at coped beam ends, block shear is now
recognized as a potential failure mode at the ends of axially loaded tension members also.
In this failure mode, the failure of the member occurs along a path involving tension on
one plane and shear on a perpendicular plane along the fasteners as shown in Fig.
Fig. Block shear failure in plates and angles
It can be observed as shown in Fig.(a) that the gusset plate may fail in tension on the net
area of section a-a, and in Fig.(c) it may fail on the gross area of section a-a. The angle
member in Fig.(a) may also separate from the gusset plate by shear on net area 1-2
combined with tension on net area 2-2 as shown in Fig. (b).
A similar fracture of the welded connection of Fig. (c) is shown in Fig. (d). The fracture of a
gusset plate for a double angle member or of one of the gusset plates for an I-Section [Fig.
(e)] is shown in Fig. (f). The gusset plate in Fig. (d) may also fail on the net section a-a. All
these failures [Figs (b), (d), and (f)] are called block shear failures
Fig. Examples of block shear failure

The block shear phenomenon becomes a possible mode of failure when the material
bearing strength and bolt shear strength are higher. As indicated earlier, the appropriate
model of the block shear failure is the rupturing of the net tension plane (BC) and yielding
on the gross shear plane (AB and CD), as shown in Fig. (f), which results in rupturing of the
shear plane as the connection lengths become shorter.
The block shear strength is given in section 6.4.1 of the code. Substituting the value of
m0 (= 1.1) and ml (1.25), we get the following:
(a) Plates: The block shear strength Tdb of the connection is taken as the smaller of
Tdb1 = 0.525 Avg Fy  0.72 Atn Fu

Tdb 2 = 0.416 Avn Fu  0.909 Atg Fy
where Avg and Avn are the minimum gross and net area in shear along a line of transmitted
force, respectively; Atg, and Atn, are the minimum gross and net area in tension from the hole
to the toe of the angle or next last row of bolt in plates, perpendicular to the line of force
respectively; and Fu and Fy are the ultimate and yield stress of the material, respectively
(b) Angles: Strength as governed by block shear failure in angle end connection is
calculated using Eqn (3.4) and appropriate areas in shear and tension as shown in Fig. 3.5(b).
The lower values of the design tension capacities, as given by Eqns (3.2) to (3.4), govern
the design strength of plates or members with hole and should be greater than the factored
design tension. Note that no net areas are involved in the failures of welded connections [see
Fig. 3.6(c)]. Therefore, in applying Eqn (3.4) to this case in the second term of Eqn (3.4a),
use Atg (instead of Atn) and in the first term of Eqn (3.4b), use Avg (instead of Avn).
The 2009 version of the Canadian code has adopted the following equation
Tdb = 0.75 U t Atn Fu  0.6 Avg  Fy  Fu  / 2 
Where Ut is the efficiency factor and equals 1.0 for flange connected tees and for symmetric
failure patterns and concentric loading; 0.6 for angles connected by one leg and stem
connected tees; 0.9 for coped beams with one bolt line; and 0.3 for coped beams with two
bolt lines
An =  B  nd h     p 2 / 4 g   t
2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF TENSION MEMBERS
As discussed already, the yielding of the gross section of tension member causes
excessive elongation and hence the load corresponding to the yielding of gross
section is taken as one limit state.
However, the net section through the bolt holes at the ends of the member may
be subjected to tensile stresses well in excess of the yield stress to as high as
ultimate stress without the member suffering excessive elongation. Hence, the
rupture strength of the net section through the bolt holes at the ends is
considered another limit state.
Several factors affect the rupture strength of the net section of tension members.
They are briefly described below
2.4.1 Effect of Bolt Holes.
2.4.2 Effect of Shear Lag
2.4.3 Geometry Factor
2.4.4 Ductility Factor
2.4.5 Spacing of Fasteners
2.4.1 Effect of Bolt Holes
In order to make connections, tension members are often bolted to adjacent members
directly or by using gusset plates. These bolt holes reduce the area of cross section
available to carry tension and hence affect the strength as discussed in the following section
+) Methods of fabrication
There are generally two methods of making holes to receive bolts, namely punching and
drilling. Due to punching, the material around the holes is deformed in shear beyond
ultimate strength to punch out the hole
Under cyclic loading the material around the punched holes present the greatest scope for
crack initiation due to stress concentration, and hence punched hole is not allowed under
fatigue environment.
Presently in many specifications, the punching effect upon the net section strength is
accounted for by taking the hole diameter as 2 mm larger than the actual hole size when
computing the net area (see clause 3.6.1 of IS 800)
+) Net area of cross section
The presence of a hole tends to reduce the strength of a tension member. When more than
one bolt hole is present, the failure paths may occur along sections normal to the axis of the
member, or they may include zigzag sections, if the fasteners are staggered (Fig).
Staggering holes improves the load carrying capacity of the member for a given row of
bolts. When the bolts are arranged in a zigzag fashion with a pitch p and gauge g, the net
effective area of the plate with a width B and thickness t is given by
An =  B  nd h     p 2 / 4 g   t
Where n is the number of bolt holes in the

critical section considered, the summation
is over all the paths of the critical sections
normal to the direction of the tensile force,
and dh is the diameter of the bolt hole
The effective net area concept applied to both types of connections
- For bolted connection, the effective net area is Ae= U*An
- For welded connection, the effective net area is Ae= U*Ag
Where, the reduction factor U is given by:
Where, x is the distance from the centroid of the connected area to the plane of the
connection, and L is the length of the connection
Example 1: Determine the effective net area and the corresponding design strength for the
single angle tension member. The tension member is an L4 x 4 x 3/8 in. made from A36
steel. It is connected to a gusset plate with 5/8 in. diameter bolts, as shown in Figure
below. The spacing between the bolts is 3 in. center-to-center
+) Effect of bearing stress (Elongation of bolt hole)
When slip takes place between plates being joined by bolts, one or more fasteners come
into bearing against the side of the hole. Consequently bearing stress is developed in the
material adjacent to the hole and in the fastener. Initially this stress is concentrated at the
point of contact. An increase in load causes local yielding and a larger area of contact
resulting in a more uniform bearing stress distribution.
The actual failure mode in bearing depends on the end distance, the bolt diameter, and the
thickness of the connected material. Either the fastener splits out through the end of the plate
because of the insufficient end distance or excessive deformations are developed in the
material adjacent to the hole and the elongation of the hole takes place as shown in Fig.
Often a combination of these failure modes will occur
Fig. Elongation of bolt hole due to local yielding under bearing stress
2.4.2 Effect of Shear Lag
The force is transferred to a tension member (angles, channels, or T-sections) by a gusset or
the adjacent member connected to one of the legs either by bolting or welding. The force
thus transferred to one leg by the end connection locally gets transferred as tensile stress
over the entire cross section by shear. Hence, the tensile stress on the section from the
first bolt hole up to the last bolt hole will not be uniform. The connected leg will have
higher stresses at failure even of the order of ultimate stress while the outstanding leg
stresses may be even below yield stress. However, at sections away from the end
connection, the stress distribution becomes more uniform. (See Fig)
2.4.3 Geometry Factor
Tests on bolted joints show that the net section is more efficient if the ratio of the gauge
length g to the diameter d is small (Kulak et al. 1987). The increase in the efficiency due to a
smaller g/d ratio is due to the suppression of contraction at the net section.
To account for the effect of gauge or g/d ratio, Munse and Chesson (1963) proposed a
geometry factor, K3, given by Eqn, which is multiplied with the net section to account for
this effect
K 3 = 1.60  0.70  Ane / Ag 
The value of K3 generally varies in the range of 0.9 to 1.14

2.4.4 Ductility Factor
Tension members with bolt holes made from ductile steels have proved to be as much as
one-fifth to one-sixth times stronger than similar members made from less ductile steels
having the same strengths (Kulak et al. 1987). To account for this effect, Munse and
Chesson (1963) proposed a reduction factor
K1 = 0.82  0.0032 Ra  1.0
2.4.5 Spacing of Fasteners
The closer spacing of fasteners relative to their diameter may sometimes lead to block shear
failure at the ends as discussed in Section 3.5.3, which has to be accounted for as a limit
state
2.5 DESIGN OF A TENSION MEMBER
In the design of a tension member, based on the tensile force acting on the member, the
designer has to arrive at the type and size of the member. The type of member is chosen
based on the type of the structure and location of the member (e.g., double angles at the
bottom chord or a rafter of roof trusses, angles or pipes for web members of roof trusses,
etc.).
The design is iterative, involving a choice of a trial section and an analysis of its capacity.
The various steps are as follows:
1. The net area required An to carry the design load T is obtained by the equation:
An = Tu /  Fu /  m1 
2. From the required net area, the gross area may be computed by increasing the net area by
about 25% to 40%. The required gross area may also be checked against that required from
the yield strength of the gross section as follows
Ag = Tu /  Fy /  m 0 
A suitable trail section may be chosen from the steel section tables (IS 808: 1989) to meet
the required gross area
3. The number of bolts or welding required for the connections is calculated. They
are arranged in a suitable pattern and the net area of the chosen section is calculated.
4. If the design strength is either small or too large compared to the design force, a
new trial section is chosen and Step 3 is repeated until a satisfactory design is
obtained.
5. The slenderness ratio of the member is checked
2.6. TENSION MEMBERS (SPECIFICATION FOR BRIDGE DESIGN 22TCN272-05)
2.6.1. General
Members and splices subjected to axial tension shall be investigated for:
 Yield on the gross section, e.g., Equation 6.8.2.1-1, and
 Fracture on the net section, e.g. Equation 6.8.2.1-2.
The determination of the net section shall require consideration of:
 The gross area from which deductions will be made or reduction factors applied, as
appropriate;
 Deductions for all holes in the design cross-section;
 Correction of the bolt bole deductions for the stagger rule specified in Article 6.8.3;
 Application of the reduction factor U specified in Article 6.8.2.2 for members and Article
6.13.5.2 for splice plates and other splicing elements to account for shear lag; and
 Application of the 85-percent maximum area efficiency factor for splice plates and other
splicing elements specified in Article 6.13.5.2
• Tension members shall satisfy the slenderness requirements specified in Article 6.8.4 and
the fatigue requirements of Article 6.6.1. Block shear strength shall be investigated at end
connections as specified in Article 6.13.4
2.6.2. Tensile Resistance
2.6.2.1. General
The factored tensile resistance, Pr , shall be taken as the lesser of the values given by
Equations 1 and 2.
Pr = y Pny = y Fy Ag (6.8.2.1-1)
Pr = u Pnu = u Fu An U (6.8.2.1-2)
Pny = nominal tensile resistance for yielding in gross section (N)
Fy = yield strength (MPa)
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of the member (mm2)
Pnu = nominal tensile resistance for fracture in net section (N)
Fu = tensile strength (MPa)
An = net area of the member as specified in Article 6.8.3 (mm2)
U = reduction factor,
y= resistance factor for yielding of tension members as specified in Article 6.5.4.2
u = resistance factor for fracture of tension members as specified in Article 6.6.4.2
2.6.2.2. Reduction factor, U
In the absence of more refined analysis or tests, the reduction factors specified herein may
be used to account for shear lag in connections.
The reduction factor, U, for rolled I-shaped and tees cut from I-shapes, subjected to
load transmitted directly to some, but not all, elements may be taken as:
For connections with only transverse end welds
A ne
U=
A gn
The reduction factor, U for all other members subject to load transmitted to some, but not
all, elements through bolted connections with three or more bolts per line in the direction of
load, or welded connections, except as noted below may be taken as:
U = 0,85
The reduction factor, U, for connections with longitudinal welds along both edges of the
connected part may be taken as:
if L > 2W, then U = 1.0
if 2W > L > 1.5W, then U = 0.87
if 1.5W > L > W, then U = 0.75
Where:
Ane =net area receiving the load within the connected length of the elements (mm2)
Agn =least net area of the member outside the connected length (mm2)
W = width of connected element (mm)
L=weld length (mm)
2.6.2.3. Combined tension and flexure

A component subjected to tension and flexure shall satisfy Equations 1 and 2
Pu Pu  M ux M uy 
 0.2, then     1.0
Pr 2.0Pr  M rx M ry 
Pu Pu 8.0  M ux M uy 
 0.2, then      1 .0
Pr Pr 9.0  M rx M ry 
where
Pr = factored tensile resistance as specified in Article 6.8.2.1 (N)
Mrx , Mry= factored flexural resistances about the x and y axes, respectively, as
specified in Article 6.10.4 and 6.12 (N-mm)
Mux , Muy= moments about the x and y axes respectively, resulting from factored
loads (N-mm)
Pu= axial force effect resulting from factored loads (N)
The stability of a flange subjected to a net compressive stress due to the tension and flexure
shall be investigated for local buckling
Tdb1 = 0.525 Avg Fy  0.72 Atn Fu
An =  B  nd h     p 2 / 4 g   t Tdb 2 = 0.416 Avn Fu  0.909 Atg Fy
Tdg = 0.909 Fy Ag
Tdn = 0.72 Fu An
Review Questions?
Review Questions?
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
3.0 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
Compression Members: Structural elements that are subjected to axial compressive
forces only are called columns. Columns are subjected to axial loads thru the centroid.
Stress: The stress in the column cross-section can be calculated as
P
f =
A
Where, f is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section
This ideal state is never reached. The stress-state will be non-uniform due to:
• Accidental eccentricity of loading with respect to the centroid
• Member out-of –straightness (crookedness), or
• Residual stresses in the member cross-section due to fabrication processes
Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness can cause bending moments in
the member. However, these are secondary and are usually ignored.
Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting on the member. Members with
axial compression and bending moment are called beam-columns
3.1 SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS (COMPRESSION MEMBERS)
Theoretically, an endless number of shapes can be selected to safely resist a compressive
load in a given structure.
These sections are shown in Fig. 3.1, and the letters in parentheses in the paragraphs to
follow refer to the parts of this figure
Figure 3.1 types of

compression members
3.2 COLUMN BUCKLING
Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and increased
slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pcr that will cause buckling of the column. Pcr is called
the critical buckling load of the column
What is buckling?
Buckling occurs when a straight column subjected to axial compression suddenly undergoes
bending as shown in the Figure 3.2(b). Buckling is identified as a failure limit-state for
columns
Figure 3.2. Buckling of axially loaded

compression members
The critical buckling load Pcr for columns is theoretically given by Equation
2 EI
Pcr = 2
 K .L 
Where, I = moment of inertia about axis of buckling
K = effective length factor based on end boundary conditions
Effective length factors are given as following
3.3 INELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING
What happens in the inelastic range?
Several other problems appear in the inelastic range:
 The member out-of-straightness has a significant influence on the buckling
strength in the inelastic region. It must be accounted for
 The residual stresses in the member due to the fabrication process causes
yielding in the cross-section much before the uniform stress f reaches the yield
stress Fy
 The shape of the cross-section (W, C, etc.) also influences the buckling strength
 In the inelastic range, the steel material can undergo strain hardening
3.4 AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH
• The AISC specifications for column design are based on several years of research.
• These specifications account for the elastic and inelastic buckling of columns
including all issues (member crookedness, residual stresses, accidental eccentricity etc.)
mentioned above.
• The specification presented here will work for all doubly symmetric cross sections and
channel sections.
The design strength of columns for the flexural buckling limit state is equal to
Pr = c Pn c = 0.85
K .L Fy

 c  1.5  Fcr = 0.658 c2
F
y
c = Pn = Ag Fcr
r. E  0.877 
 c  1.5  Fcr =  2  Fy
 c 
Ag= gross member area; K = effective length factor
L = unbraced length of the member; r = governing radius of gyration
If λc is greater than 1.5, elastic buckling occurs

If λc is less than or equal to 1.5, inelastic buckling occurs
Note that the column can develop its yield strength Fy as λc approaches zero
3.5 LOCAL BUCKLING LIMIT STATE
The AISC specifications for column strength assume that column buckling is the governing
limit state. However, if the column section is made of thin (slender) plate elements, then
failure can occur due to local buckling of the flanges or the webs
If local buckling of the individual plate elements occurs, then the column may not be
able to develop its buckling strength.
Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be prevented from controlling the column
strength
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is greater than λr then it is slender. It will
locally buckle in the elastic range before reaching Fy
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than λr but greater than λp, then it is
non-compact. It will locally buckle immediately after reaching Fy
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than λp, then the element is compact. It
will locally buckle much after reaching Fy.
- If all the plate elements of a cross-section are compact, then the section is compact.
- If any one plate element is non-compact, then the cross-section is non-compact
- If any one plate element is slender, then the cross-section is slender
K .L Fy
c =
r. E

 c  1.5  Fcr = 0.658 c2
F
y
 0.877 
 c  1.5  Fcr =  2  Fy
 c 
- For the webs of I-shapes section in pure compression
Effective length factors of frame
For column m in a braced frame, the effective length factor Km,

for a principal axis of bending is
For column m in an unbraced frame
The relative stiffness at a typical joint is
Where
Ec is the modulus of the column
Ic is the moment of inertia of the column
Eg, Ig are modulus and moment of inertia of the girder
For a column with a pinned base, the stiffness ratio is theoretically infinity and
AISC 360 Commentary Sec. A-7.2 recommends a practical value of G = 10. For
a column with a fixed base, the stiffness ratio is theoretically zero and AISC
360 Commentary Sec. A-7.2 recommends a practical value of G = 1.0.
Stiffness Reduction Factors
The alignment charts given in above Figure are applicable to columns in the
elastic range of stress. When the axial load on a column is increased and
portions of the section yield, the effective modulus of elasticity of the yielded
areas reduces to zero. Hence, in the inelastic range, this reduction in the
modulus of elasticity has the effect of reducing the overall stiffness of the
column. This may be compensated for by multiplying the stiffness ratio G, by
the stiffness reduction factor given by
Values of the stiffness reduction factor are tabulated in American Institute of Steel
Construction, Steel Construction Manual (AISC) Table 4-21 for steel members with a yield
stress of 35, 36, 42, 46, or 50 ksi for varying values
3.6 BUILT-UP COMPRESSION MEMBERS
For large loads and for efficient use of material, built-up columns (also called as combined
columns or open-web columns) are often used.
They are generally made up of two or more individual sections such as angles, channels, or
I-sections and properly connected along their length by lacing or battening so that they act
together as a single unit. Such laced combined compression members are often used in
bridge trusses.
According to the type of connection between the chords, built-up members may be
classified as follows:
• Laced members (a)
• Struts with batten plates (b)
• Battened struts (c)
• Members with perforated cover plates (d)
The critical load for a built-up column is less than that of a comparable solid
column because the effect of shear on deflections is much greater for the former
The shear in column may be due to the following:
1. Lateral loads from wind, earthquake, gravity, or other causes
2. The slope of column with respect to the line of thrust due both to un-intentional initial
curvature and the increased curvature during buckling.
3. The end eccentricity of the load due to either end connections or fabrication
imperfections
For columns with batten plates, the strut may be designed as a single integral member with
a slenderness given by (Bleich 1952)
 e =  m2   c2 (2 /12)
where  m = L / rmin = strut slenderness,

 c = L0 / r0 = local chord slenderness between one batten plate and the next, and Lo is
the centre-to-centre distance of batten plate
The effective slenderness of laced struts of the types shown in (c), (d), and (e) (with two
chords connected by lacings) may be obtained by using the following equation (Ballio &
Mazzolani 1983).
 eq =  2  2 ( A / Ad ) L3d / ( L0 d 2 )
where A is the strut slenderness = L / rmin A is the overall cross-sectional area = 2A1,
A, is the area of the individual chord, A, is the cross-sectional area of the diagonal lacing {=
24, (a) and (d)}, L, is the length of the diagonal lacing, d is the distance between the centroid
of the chords, and Lo is the chord length between the two successive joints
3.8. COMPRESSION MEMBERS (SPECIFICATION FOR BRIDGE DESIGN 22TCN272-05)
6.9. COMPRESSION MEMBERS
6.9.1. General
The provisions of this article shall apply to prismatic non-composite and
composite steel members with at least one plane of symmetry and subjected to
either axial compression or combined axial compression and flexure about an
axis of symmetry.
Arches shall also satisfy the requirements of Article 6.14.4.
Compression chords of half-through trusses shall also satisfy the requirements of
Article 6.14.2.9
6.9.2. Compressive Resistance
6.9.2.1. Axial compression
The factored resistance compression, Pr , shall be taken as:

Pr =  c Pn (6.9.2.1-1)
where:
Pn = nominal compressive resistance as specified in Articles 6.9.4 and 6.9.5 (N)
c = resistance factor for compression as specified in Article 6.5.4.
Pr = c Pn
6.9.4. Noncomposite Members
6.9.4.1. Nominal compressive resistance
For members that satisfy the width/thickness requirements specified in Article 6.9.4.2, the nominal
compressive resistance, Pn, shall be taken as:
If   2.25, then Pn = 0.66 Fy As (6.9.4.1-1)
0.88Fy A s
If  >2.25, then Pn = (6.9.4.1-2)
λ
for which:
2
 K  Fy
λ =  (6.9.4.1-3)
 rsπ  E

 c  1.5  Fcr = 0.658 c2
F
y
K .L Fy
c =  0.877 
r. E  c  1.5  Fcr =  2  Fy
 c 
where:
As = gross cross-sectional area (mm2)
Fy = yield strength (MPa)
E = modulus of elasticity (MPa)
K = effective length factor specified in Article 4.6.2.5
 = unbraced length (mm)
rs = radius of gyration about the plane of buckling (mm)
4.6.2.5. Effective length factor, K
Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effective length factor, K, to

compensate for rotational and translational boundary conditions other than
pinned ends.
In the absence of a more refined analysis, where lateral stability is provided by

diagonal bracing or other suitable means, the effective length factor in the
braced plane, K, for the compression members in triangulated trusses, trusses,
and frames may be taken as:
 For bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750
 For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875
6.9.5. Composite Members
6.9.5.1. Nominal compressive resistance
The provisions of this article shall apply to composite columns without flexure. The provisions of
Article 6.12.2.3 shall apply to composite columns in flexure.
The nominal compressive resistance of a composite column satisfying the provisions of Article
6.9.5.2 shall be taken as:
If λ  2.25 , then Pn = 0.66 Fe A e (6.9.5.1-1)
0.88 Fe A s
If   2.25 , then Pn = (6.9.5.1-2)
λ
for which:
2
 K  F
λ=  e (6.9.5.1-3)
 rs π  E e
A  A 
Fe = Fy  C1Fyr  r   C 2 f'c  c  (6.9.5.1-4)
 As   As 
  C  A 
E e = E 1   3   c   (6.9.5.1-5)
  n   A s  
where:
As = cross-sectional area of the steel section (mm2)
Ac = cross-sectional area of the concrete (mm2)
Ar = total cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement (mm2)
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the steel section (MPa)
Fyr = specified minimum yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcement (MPa)
f/ c = specified minimum 28-day compressive strength of the concrete (MPa)
E = modulus of elasticity of the steel (MPa)
 = unbraced length of the column (mm)
K = effective length factor as specified in Article 4.6.2.5
n = modular ratio of the concrete as specified in Article 6.10.3.1.1b
rs = radius of gyration of the steel section in the plane of bending but not less than 0.3
times the width of the composite member in the plane of bending for composite
concrete-encased shapes(mm)
C1, C2, C3 = composite column constant specified in Table 1
Table 6.9.5.1-1 - Composite Column Constants

Filled tubes Encased shapes
C1 1.0 0.70
C2 0.85 0.60
C3 0.40 0.20
CHAPTER 4. DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Beams are structural members that support loads which are applied transverse to their
longitudinal axes. They are assumed to be placed horizontally and subjected to vertical
loads. Beams have a far more complex load-carrying action than other structural
elements such as trusses and cables.
The load transfer by a beam is primarily by bending and shear. Any structural member
could be considered as a beam if the loads cause bending of the member
Figure 1.Internal shear force and

bending moment diagrams for
transversely loaded beams

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Trường Đại học Giao thông Vận tải

BÀI GIẢNG TÍN CHỈ

• Tên học phần: THIẾT KẾ KẾT CẤU THÉP

• Viết bằng tiếng Anh: Structural Design of Steel

• Số tín chỉ học phần: 03

• Thời gian của học phần:

• TÓM TẮT NỘI DUNG HỌC PHẦN

• NỘI DUNG ĐỀ CƯƠNG CHI TIẾT

Chương 1 Tổng quan về Kết cấu thép 3 1 7

2.4 Tính toán kết cấu chịu kéo đúng tâm

Chương 4 Kết cấu chịu uốn và cắt 6 2 1 4 19

4.1 Khái niệm

4.2 Đặc điểm cấu tạo

4.3 Ứng xử cấu kiện uốn và cắt

4.4 Ổn định tổng thể dầm chịu uốn

4.5 Ổn định cục bộ dầm chịu uốn

4.6 Sức kháng cắt của mặt cắt

4.7 Kiểm soát độ võng

Chương 5 Liên kết 5 2 1 4 17

5.1 Giới thiệu chung về liên kết

Liên kết bu lông

Thiết kế Kết cấu thép theo Tiêu chuẩn 22

6.1 Các quan điểm thiết kế

6.2 Sự phát triển của quá trình thiết kế

6.4 Các yêu cầu cấu tạo

6.5 Các trạng thái giới hạn

6.6 Mô men chày và mô men dẻo

Structural design means artistic invention and dimensioning.

• Invention is the creation of a structural form, dimensioning is to assign to

• Dimensioning is usually obtained through a ‘trial and error’ procedure,

The starting point in this process is usually the adoption of dimensions

Therefore, structural design intended as dimensioning, is strictly related to

From these databases, knowledge base systems, such as neural network

Simplified example of application of neural networks to structural design

In the case of two-dimensional, three-dimensional and non-linear analysis, the

2.1.1 High Strength

2.1.7 Additions to Existing Structures

2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

2.2.2 Fireproofing Costs

2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

2.2.2 Fireproofing Costs

2.2.3 Susceptibility to Buckling

• Strength is the ability of a material to resist stresses.

It is measured in terms of the material’s yield strength, Fy, and ultimate or

For steel, the ranges of Fy and Fu ordinarily used in constructions are 36

• Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation.

It is measured as the slope of the material’s stress-strain curve. It is seen

• Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy before failure.

It is measured as the area under the material’s stress-strain curve.

• Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large inelastic, or plastic,

It is measured in terms of percent elongation or percent reduction in area of the

The ability of structural steel to deform considerably before failure by

Uniaxial stress-strain behavior of steel

2.3.2 Types of Steel

2.3.6 Structural Fasteners

Most ASTM specification construction steels are weldable. In general, the

[1] Jack C. Mccormac, Stephen F. Csernak. Structural Steel Design. Pearson

Fig. 1 Tension Members in Structures

Fig. 2 Cross Sections of Tension Members

Fig. Block shear failure in plates and angles

Fig. Examples of block shear failure

Tdb1 = 0.525 Avg Fy  0.72 Atn Fu

Tdb = 0.75 U t Atn Fu  0.6 Avg  Fy  Fu  / 2 

Where n is the number of bolt holes in the