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6 Sequences and Series: Objectives
6 Sequences and Series: Objectives
6 SEQUENCES
AND SERIES
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• be able to work with both finite and infinite series;
• understand, and be able to apply, the method of proof by
mathematical induction;
• be able to use the method of differences to sum finite series,
and extend its use to infinite series;
• know how to obtain Maclaurin series for well known
functions, including the general binomial expansion;
• appreciate that some of the standard series are valid for all
real values of x, while others are only valid for specified
ranges of values of x;
• be able to determine general terms in these standard cases.
Definition
A sequence is simply an ordered list u1 , u2 , u3 , K , un , of
numbers (or terms). This is often abbreviated to {un } . For our
purposes each term un is usually given in one of two ways:
(i) as a function of the preceding term(s), or
(ii) as a function of its position in the sequence.
131
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Example
The sequence {un } defined by
where each term (after the first) is one greater than the product
of all the previous terms of the sequence.
Example
One of the most famous sequences of all is the Fibonacci
sequence {Fn } which is defined by
F1 = 1, F2 = 1 and Fn = Fn −1 + Fn −2 for n ≥ 3 .
1 1 + 5 n 1 − 5 n
Fn = −
5 2 2
Activity 1
Check that the formula above for the Fibonacci sequence does,
in fact, give the first three terms.
132
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
u1 = a and un = un −1 + d for n ≥ 2
begins
a, a + d, a + 2d, K
a + ( a + d ) + ( a + 2d ) + K + [ a + ( n − 1)d ] ,
has sum
Sn =
n
2
[2a + (n − 1)d ]
or
n
Sn = ( first + last )
2
Example
An arithmetic series has the property that the sum of the first ten
terms is half the sum of the next ten terms. Also its 100th term
is 95. Find the first term and common difference.
Solution
Let the first term be a and the common difference be d. Then
the sums of the first ten terms and the next ten terms are
10
2
( a + ( a + 9d )) and 102 (( a + 10d ) + ( a + 19d ))
1
2a + 9d = (2a + 29d )
2
or 2a = 11d (1)
133
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
a + 99d = 95 (2)
a + 18a = 19a = 95
10
Hence a = 5 and d = .
11
begins
a, ar, ar 2 , K
a + ar + ar 2 + K + ar n −1
has sum
Sn =
(
a 1 − rn ) or
(
a rn − 1 ) for r ≠ 1
1− r r −1
∑ f (r ) .
r =1
134
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
The function f is the common form that each term of the series
takes; r is called the summation index, being the variable
quantity from term to term. The ' r = 1 ' below the sigma
indicates the first value taken by r, and the 'n' above the sigma
denotes the final term taken by r.
n −1
∑ f (r + 1)
r=0
n n n
∑ f (r ) , ∑ f (k ) and ∑ f (i)
r =1 k =1 i =1
= { f (1) + f ( 2 ) + K + f ( n )} + {g(1) + g( 2 ) + K + g( n )}
n n
= ∑ f ( r ) + ∑ g( r )
r =1 r =1
n
(2) ∑ af (r ) = af (1) + af (2) +
r =1
K + af ( n ) where a is some
constant
= a{ f (1) + f ( 2 ) + K + f ( n )}
n
=a ∑ f (r )
r =1
n n
Note that ∑
r =1
n f (r ) = n ∑ f (r ) also, since n is a fixed quantity,
r =1
not a variable, in the summation.
135
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
n( n + 1)
n
(3) (a) ∑r =
r =1
2
∑r
n
(b) 2
= ( n + 1)(2n + 1)
r =1
6
n( n + 1)
n 2
n2
(c) ∑r =1
r =
3
4
( n + 1)2 or 2
n
(d) ∑1 = (1 + 1+...+1) = n
r=1
← n times →
∑1 = 1
r =1
Example
n
Show that ∑ (6r
r =1
2
)
+ 4r − 1 = n( n + 2 )(2n + 1) .
Solution
n n n n
∑ (6r2 + 4r − 1) = ∑ 6r2 + ∑ 4r − ∑1
r =1 r =1 r =1 r =1
by result (1)
n n n
=6 ∑
r =1
r2 + 4 ∑ ∑1
r =1
r−
r =1
by result (2)
n n
= 6. ( n + 1)(2n + 1) + 4. ( n + 1) − n by result (3)
6 2
= n( n + 1)( 2n + 1) + 2n( n + 1) − n
(
= n 2n 2 + 3n + 1 + 2n + 2 − 1 )
(
= n 2n 2 + 5n + 2 )
= n( n + 2 )( 2n + 1)
136
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Exercise 6A
1. A geometric series has first term 4 and second By considering the result above, show that the
term 7. Giving your answer to three significant sequence is arithmetic and state the first term and
figures, find the sum of the first twenty terms of the common difference.
the series. (AEB) Determine the least number of terms required for
2. The first term of an arithmetic series is –13 and the sum of this arithmetic series to exceed
the last term is 99. The sum of the series is 10 000 . (AEB)
1419. Find the number of terms and the common n
∑ r ( r + 1) = 3 ( n + 1)( n + 2 ) .
difference. Find also the sum of all the positive n
8. Show that
terms of the series. (AEB) r=1
3. An arithmetic series has first term 7 and second n n n
term 11. 9. Use the formulae for ∑ ∑
r=1
r,
r=1
r 2 and ∑r
r=1
3
to
(a) Find the 17th term.
n
(b) Show that the sum of the first 35 terms is
equal to the sum of the next 15 terms. (AEB)
show that ∑ ( 4r
r=1
3
)
− 3r 2 + r = An 3 ( n + 1) , for some
137
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
(b) if the robot is on any given rung (say rung k – as rungs are
equally spaced, it does not matter where rung k is on the
ladder), then it has to be able to get on to the next rung after
this (rung k + 1 ).
If the robot's programming and construction enable it to satisfy
both these conditions, then it can climb as far up the ladder (ad
infinitum if necessary) as its inventor could wish for; since by
condition (a) the robot can get on the ladder (at rung 1). Then, by
condition (b) it can get on to rung 2. By (b) again, it can get to
rung 3, hence to rung 4, hence to rung 5, etc., etc. Thus the robot
can reach rung n for any positive integer n.
No, the authors have not gone senile! The above is actually an
illustration of a very powerful technique called proof by
induction. The method is a cunning means of proving the truth of
some statement, or formula, that is found by experimental means
(for instance) but which, without a general proof, is only known to
be true for certain values of the variable concerned.
n( n + 1)
n
∑r = 1+ 2 +
r =1
K +n=
2
∑r
n
What about the result 2
= ( n + 1)(2n + 1) ?
r =1
6
n
One way, is to first note that the formula for ∑ r is a quadraticin
r =1
n
n, and so assume that the formula for ∑r
r =1
2
is a cubic in n, say
an 3 + bn 2 + cn + d
Then use the values found in the cases when n = 1, 2, 3 and 4 to set
up and solve a system of four simultaneous equations in the four
unknowns a, b, c, d (which turn out to be 13 , 12 , 16 and 0
respectively).
However, this only proves that such an expression fits the bill in
these four cases: namely n = 1, 2, 3 and 4 . You could try it out for
n = 5, 6, 7, K, as far as you liked. You could convince yourself that
this expression for the sum of the squares of the first n positive
integers just has to be true for every positive integer n; but you
would have proved it in only a few (or even many) particular cases.
138
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
∑r
k
2
= ( k + 1)(2k + 1)
r =1
6
∑
r =1
r2 = ∑r
r =1
2
+ ( k + 1)
2
k
= ( k + 1)(2k + 1) + ( k + 1)2 (the first term was assumed above)
6
k 6
= ( k + 1)(2k + 1) + ( k + 1)2 (common denominator)
6 6
( k + 1)
=
6
{k (2k + 1) + 6( k + 1)} (factorising)
( k + 1)
=
6
(2k 2
+ 7k + 6 )
( k + 1)
= ( k + 2 )(2k + 3)
6
( k + 1)([ k + 1] + 1)(2[ k + 1] + 1) ,
1
6
which is precisely the formula expected, but with n = k + 1 .
139
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
In itself, this step of the process is a big IF. But the formula is
true when n = 1 , so this 'stepping up' bit proves it must be true
when n = 2 also. Since it is true for n = 2 (which it now is
known to be) then it must be true for n = 3 as well; and then for
n = 4 , n = 5 ,... and for all positive integers n.
Example
Use mathematical induction to prove that, for all positive
integers n,
Solution
When n = 1 , LHS = 2.2 = 4
Then, when n = k + 1 ,
= 2 k +1 ( k + k + 2 )
= 2 k +1 ( 2k + 2 )
= 2 k +1 .2( k + 1)
= ( k + 1).2 k + 2
140
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Example
Prove by induction that
n
Solution
1
∑ r(r + 1)(r + 2) = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6 ,
1 1 1
For n = 1 , LHS =
r =1
1 1 1 1 1
while RHS = − = − = also.
4 2 × 2 × 3 4 12 6
Then
k +1 k
1 1 1
= − +
4 2( k + 1)( k + 2 ) ( k + 1)( k + 2 )( k + 3)
=
1
−
1 1 − 1
4 ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) 2 k + 3
141
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
1 1 k + 3 − 2
= −
4 ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) 2( k + 3)
1 ( k + 1)
= −
4 2( k + 1)( k + 2 )( k + 3)
1 1
= − , as required.
4 2([ k + 1] + 1)([ k + 1] + 2 )
Exercise 6B
n
Use mathematical induction to prove the following
results for all positive integers n:
5. ∑ r × r! = ( n + 1)!− 1
r=1
n n
∑r ∑r × 2
1 2
= n ( n + 1) = ( n − 1) × 2 n + 1
3 2 r−1
1. 6.
r=1
4
r=1
∑ r ( r + 1) = 16 − ( n2 + 5n + 8)
r=1 1 1
8.
n
2 2
∑
r=1
1 1
3. ( 2r −1)( 2r + 1) = + ( 2n −1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3)
2 6
n( n + 1)
n
∑ ( −1)
r=1
r = ( −1) ×
r+1 2 n+1
9.
n 2
∑ ( r + 1)( r + 2 )( r + 3) = 6 − ( n + 2)( n + 3)
r=1
2 1 1
4.
r=1
∑r
1
2
= n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
r =1
6
n
∑ r = 2 n(n + 1) , which
1
During the proof it will be assumed that
r =1
142
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
(
n 3 − ( n − 1) ≡ n 3 − n 3 − 3n 2 + 3n − 1
3
)
n 3 − ( n − 1) ≡ 3n 2 − 3n + 1 .
3
i.e. (1)
( n − 1)3 − ( n − 2 )3 ≡ 3( n − 1)2 − 3( n − 1) + 1
can be deduced by replacing n by n − 1 .
( n − 2 )3 − ( n − 3)3 ≡ 3( n − 2 )2 − 3( n − 2 ) + 1 , etc.
Writing this sequence of results in a column form:
n 3 − ( n − 1) = 3n 2 − 3n + 1
3
( n − 1)3 − ( n − 2 )3 = 3( n − 1)2 − 3( n − 1) + 1
( n − 2 )3 − ( n − 3)3 = 3( n − 2 )2 − 3( n − 2 ) + 1
( n − 3)3 − ( n − 4 )3 = 3( n − 3)2 − 3( n − 3) + 1
M M M M
33 − 23 = 3 (3) − 3 (3) + 1
2
23 − 13 = 3 ( 2 ) − 3 (2 ) + 1
2
13 − 03 = 3 (1) − 3 (1) + 1
2
[[]]]
Now add up all the terms on the LHS: you get n3 − 03 , since all
other terms appear once positively and once negatively, cancelling
out. Adding up the RHS in three columns gives
n n
3 ∑
r=1
r2 − 3 ∑r + n
r=1
n n n
Thus n3 = 3 ∑ r2 − 3 ∑ r+n [using ∑ r = 2 n(n + 1) ]
1
r=1 r=1 r =1
n
⇒ 3 ∑r 2
(
= n3 − n + 3 × ) 1
2
n ( n + 1)
r=1
143
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
= n n2 − 1 +( ) 3
2
n ( n + 1)
2n 3
= ( n − 1) ( n + 1) + n ( n + 1)
2 2
n ( n + 1)
=
2
{2 (n − 1) + 3}
1
= n ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
2
∑r
1
2
= n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
r =1
6
Example
By considering n 5 − ( n − 1) and similar expressions, find the
5
n
formula for ∑r
r =1
4
in terms of n, assuming the results for
n n n
∑ r, ∑ r
r =1 r =1
2
and ∑r
r =1
3
.
Solution
n 5 − ( n − 1) = 5n 4 − 10n 3 + 10n 2 − 5n + 1
5
M M M M M M M M
n n n n
Adding: n 5 − 0 5 = 5 ∑
r =1
r 4 − 10 ∑
r =1
r 3 + 10 ∑
r =1
r2 − 5 ∑r + n
r =1
144
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
∑ r = (n − n) + 10 n4 (n + 1) − 10 6n (n + 1)(2n + 1) + 5 2n (n + 1)
2
4 5 2
5
r =1
=
6
6
( 15
) n 15
n( n − 1)( n + 1) n 2 + 1 + n 2 ( n + 1) − 10 ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) + n( n + 1)
6
2
6 6
=
1
6
{ ( ) }
n( n + 1) 6( n − 1) n 2 + 1 + 15n( n + 1) − 10( 2n + 1) + 15
=
1
6
{
n( n + 1) 6n 3 − 6n 2 + 6n − 6 + 15n 2 + 15n − 20n − 10 + 15 }
=
1
6
(
n( n + 1) 6n 3 + 9n 2 + n − 1 )
=
1
6
(
n( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 3n 2 + 3n − 1 )
so that
n
∑r 4
=
1
30
(
n( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 3n 2 + 3n − 1 , )
r =1
Example
Prove that
n
∑ (r + 1)! = 1 − (n + 1)!
r 1
r =1
Solution
Some ingenuity is needed here to turn the one term in the
summation on the LHS into two terms. Note that
r r +1−1 r +1 1 1 1
= = − = −
(r + 1)! ( r + 1)! ( r + 1)! ( r + 1)! r! ( r + 1)!
so that
n n
1
∑ ∑ r! − (r + 1)!
r 1
=
r =1
( r + 1)! r =1
145
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
= − + − + − +K
1 1 1 1 1 1
1! 2! 2! 3! 3! 4!
1 1
+ − +
1 1
−
n − 1! n! n! ( n + 1)!
1 1
= − [since all other terms cancel]
1! ( n + 1)!
1
= 1−
( n + 1)!
sin ar + − sin a[ r − 1] +
a a
2 2
= sin ar + − sin ar −
a a
2 2
ar + a + ar − a ar + a − ar − a
= 2 cos 2 2 sin 2 2
2 2
a
= 2 cos( ar ) sin
2
and
n
sin an +
a
1 2 − 1
n
∑
r =1
cos( ar ) =
2 sin
a
2
or, since
a( n + 1) an
sin an + − sin = 2 cos
a a
sin ,
2 2 2 2
146
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
a ( n + 1)
sin
an
cos
n
2
∑
2
cos ( ar ) =
a
r=1 sin
2
Example
1
Express in terms of partial fractions.
x ( x + 1)
Solution
1 A B
Assume ≡ + .
x ( x + 1) x x + 1
n n
∑ ∑ r − r + 1
1 1 1
Then =
r =1
r ( r + 1) r =1
= − + − + − +K
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 2 3 3 4
+ − + −
1 1 1 1
n − 1 n n n + 1
1 1 n +1 1
= − = −
1 n +1 n +1 n +1
n
= , as required.
n +1
n
Alternatively, note that this is ∑ { f (r ) − f (r − 1)} with
r =1
1
f (r ) = − . The sum is then
r +1
− −
1 1 1
f (n) − f (0) = − = 1− , etc. as before.
n + 1 0 + 1 n +1
147
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Exercise 6C
1. Show that 3r ( r + 1) = r ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) − r ( r −1)( r + 1) 7. Use the method of differences to find
n
∑ ( n + r −1)( n + r )
n
∑
1 1
and deduce that r ( r + 1) = n( n + 1)( n + 2 ) . in terms of n.
r=1
3 r=1
∑ r r+ +r +r 1 = n + 1 − n 1+ 1 .
1 2
2. Express in partial fractions, and hence 8. Prove that
r(r + 2) 2
r=1
n
2n + 3
∑ r ( r + 2) = 4 − 2( n + 1)( n + 2 )
1 3 9. Prove the identity
show that
r=1 cos( A − B ) − cos( A + B ) = 2sin Asin B .
Hence prove that
3. Simplify the expression ( r + 1)!− r! and hence
sin θ {sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ + K + sin ( 2n − 1)θ } = sin 2 nθ
n
prove that ∑ r × r! = ( n + 1)!−1 . *10. Express 1
in partial fractions. Hence
r ( r + 1)( r + 2 )
r=1
∑ r ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) = 4 − 2( n + 1)( n + 2 )
n 1 1 1
∑
1
Hence prove that = n for all
r=1
r + r −1 r=1
positive integers n. * 1 1
11. By considering − , show that
1 1 + a n−1 1 + a n
5. Given that r is a positive integer and f ( r ) = ,
r2 N
a N −1
∑ (1 + a )(1 + a ) = 2( a −1)( a
a n−1
)
,
find a single expression for f ( r ) − f ( r + 1) . Hence n−1 n N
+1
r=1
2r + 1 ( 3n + 1)( 5n + 1)
4n
where a is positive and a ≠ 1 . Deduce that
prove that ∑ r 2
( r + 1)2
=
n 2 ( 4n + 1)
2
N
∑ (1 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) < 1 .
r=1 2n
n−1 n
(Cambridge)
6. Prove the identity r=1
2r + 3 2r + 5 2 ( r + 3) *
12. Use the difference method to show that
− ≡ .
r ( r + 1) ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) r ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) n
Sn =
(
a 1 − rn ) ( r ≠ 1)
1− r
148
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
a ar n
− .
1− r 1− r
lim ar = 0
n
n→∞ 1− r
ar n
and said 'the limit as n tends to infinity of is zero'. The
1− r
infinite geometric series converges in this case to the number
lim {Sn} = a ,
n→∞ 1− r
a
or S∞ = for short.
1− r
ar n
When r > 1 , → 0 , and the geometric series 'diverges', having
1− r
no limit.
S∞ = lim ( Sn )
n→∞
Example
n
∑ (r + 1)! = 1 − (n + 1)! = S .
r 1
From an earlier example, n
r =1
Then
1
S∞ = lim 1 − =1
n→∞ ( n + 1)!
1
since → 0 as n → ∞ ;
( n + 1)!
1 2 3
+ + + K is 1.
2! 3! 4!
149
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Example
2n 2 + 3n + 1
Given that Sn = , find lim ( Sn ) .
3n 2 + 5n − 7 n→∞
Solution
By dividing the numerator and denominator of Sn by n 2 , Sn can
be written in the form
2 + 3 + 1
n n2
Sn =
3 + 5 − 7
n n2
1 1 2
Now, as n → ∞ , → 0 and 2 → 0 so that Sn → .
n n 3
2
Thus S∞ = .
3
Exercise 6D
1. The first term of a geometric series is 8 and the (3n + 1)( 5n + 1)
(c) Sn =
sum to infinity is 400. Find the common ratio. ( 4n + 1)2
2. The first, second and third terms of a geometric
series are p, p 2 and q respectively, where p < 0 . ( 2n + 3)( n + 1)
(d) Sn =
The first, second and third terms of an arithmetic n ( n + 2 )( n + 4 )
series are p, q, p 2 respectively.
(a) Show that p = − 12 and find the value of q. n( 2n + 5)
(e) Sn =
( n + 1)( n + 2 )
(b) Find the sum-to-infinity of the geometric
series. 5n + 11
(f) Sn =
3. Given Sn , deduce the value of S∞ in each of the 2 ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
following cases:
3 2n + 3
(g) Sn = −
(a) Sn =
n 4 2 ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
2n + 1
S (n + 1)
(b) Sn =
1
−
1 4. Given S ( n ) = n × 2 n+1 , find lim .
n→ ∞ S ( n )
4 2 ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
150
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
∑ r = 2 n( n + 1)
1
5. Assuming the results 6. A geometric series is given by
r=1
e 3x + 3e x + 9e −x + K
n
∑r
1
and 2
= n( n + 1)( 2n + 1) , find an expression (a) Find the value of the sum-to-infinity in the
6
r=1 case when x = ln 2 .
n
for ∑ r ( r + 1) in terms of n.
r=1
Hence determine
(b) Determine the ranges of values of x for which
a sum-to-infinity exists.
n
∑ r ( r + 1)
lim r=1
n→∞ 3
n 2
∑ r
r=1
n n n n
Remember, ( a + b ) = a n + a n −1b + a n −2 b 2 + K + b n
n
0 1 2 n
n
n
= ∑ r a
r=0
n−r r
b ,
n n! n( n − 1)( n − 2 )K( n − r + 1)
where = = (for 0 ≤ r ≤ n )
r ( n − r )!r! r!
n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2 ) 3
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x +K (2)
2! 3!
151
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
n
integers n and r, (note that is defined to be zero when r > n ),
r
the coefficients still take the form given in equation (2). The
proof of this result forms part of an activity later in the chapter.
Example
Expand (1 + x )
−3
in ascending powers of x, up to and including the
term in x 3.
Solution
Using the given expansion in the form
n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2 ) 3
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x +K
2! 3!
gives
= 1 − 3x + 6x 2 − 10x 3 + K
Example
Expand (1 − 6x ) 2 up to the term in x 3 .
1
Solution
(1 − 6x ) = (1 + [ −6x ])
1 1
2 2
= 1+ 1
( −6x ) +
( 12 )( − 12 ) ( −6x )2 + ( 12 )( − 12 )( − 23 ) ( −6x )3 + K
2
2! 3!
9 2 27 3
= 1 − 3x − x − x K
2 2
152
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Example
1
Expand ( 4 + 3x )
−
2 up to the term in x3.
Solution
Now the form of the general binomial expansion given is for
Solution
(1+ 'something')power, while this example is (4 + 'something') power.
Although it is quite possible to adapt back to the form ( a + b ) ,
n
4 + 3x = 4 1 + x
3
4
1
−
3
= 4 1 + x
1
( 4 + 3x ) − 2
so that 2
4
1 1
−
1 − −
=4 2 1 + 3
x
2
[Not 4 1 + x
3 2
]
4 4
1
−
= 1 + x
1 3 2
2 4
To continue,
1
−
= 1 + x
1 1 3
( 4 + 3x ) − 2
2
2 4
− 1 − 3 − 1 − 3 − 5
1 1 3 2 2 x + 2 2 2 x + K
2 3
3 3
= 1 + − x +
2 2 4 2! 4 3! 4
1 3
x + K
27 2 135 3
= 1 − x + x −
2 8 128 1024
1 3 27 2 135 3
= − x+ x − x +K
2 16 256 2048
153
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
1 + x + x2 + x3 + K + xn + K
1
= (1 − x ) .
−1
has S∞ =
1− x
*Activity 2
∞
By writing (1 + x ) as
n
∑ u , with
r=0
r
n( n − 1)( n − 2 ) K ( n − r + 1) r
ur = x ,
1× 2 × 3K r
( n − r + 1)
u1 = 1 and ur = x × ur −1 for r ≥ 2 .
r
154
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
The above results are not widely acknowledged and you are not
required to know them in this detail. However, you will be
expected to be able to quote the following, simplified rule:
Example
State the values of x for which the following series expansions
converge:
3 1
(a) (2 − x )−7 (b) (1 + 4x ) 4 (c) 3
3 + 2x
Solution
−7
= 2 −7 1 − , which converges for −1 < − < 1 ,
x x
(a) ( 2 − x )
−7
2 2
i.e. for −2 < x < 2 .
3 1 1
(b) (1 + 4x ) 4 converges for −1 < 4x < 1 , i.e. for − < x <
4 4
1 1
(In fact − ≤x≤ )
4 4
155
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
− 13
= (3 + 2x ) 3 = 3 3 1 +
1 −1 −1 2x
(c) , converging for
3
3 + 2x 3
2x 3 3 3 3
−1 < < 1 ⇒ − < x < . (In fact, − < x ≤ )
3 2 2 2 2
Example
Write down the expansion of (1 − 2x ) 2 up to and including the
1
1
term in x 3 . By setting x = , use this expansion to find an
100
approximation to 2 to eight places of decimals.
Solution
2 2! 3!
1 1
= 1 − x − x2 − x3 K
2 2
2 3
−
1 1
−
1 1 1 1
⇒ (1 − 0.02 ) 2 = 1 −
1
Setting x= K
100 100 2 100 2 100
98 49
Now 0.98 = = × 2 so that
100 100
7
0.98 = 2
10
7
Then 2 ≈ 0.989 949 5
10
10 × 0.9899495
and 2≈ = 1.414 213 57 (to 8 d.p.)
7
Example
3 − 2x
Given that −1 < x < 1 , find the expansion of
( )
in
(1 + x ) 4 + x 2
ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 3 .
156
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Solution
3 − 2x
( )
−1
= (3 − 2x )(1 + x ) 4 + x 2
−1
(
(1 + x ) 4 + x 2
)
−1
1 x2
= (3 − 2x )(1 + x )
−1
1 +
4 4
=
1
4
(
x2
(3 − 2x ) 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + K 1 − + K
4
)
(3 − 2x ) 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 K
1 3 3
=
4 4 4
3 5 17 15
= − x + x2 − x3 K
4 4 16 16
3 − 2x
( )
Alternatively, you could write in partial fractions:
(1 + x ) 4 + x 2
−1
1 x +1 1 x2
− = (1 + x ) −1
− (1 + x ) 1 + etc., as
1 + x 4 + x2 4 4
before.
Exercise 6E
1. Write down the first four terms in the binomial State the range of values of x for which this
expansions of expansion is valid.
x
(a) (1 + 3x ) 3 (b) ( 2 + x )
1
−1 1
(c) 1+ 4. Obtain the expansion of (16 + y ) 2 in ascending
2
1+ x 1− x powers of y up to and including the term in y 2 .
(d) ( 5 − 3x )
−2
(e) (f)
1− x 1+ x2 Hence show that if k 3 and higher powers of k are
For each part above, state the (simplified) range of k 3k 2
neglected, 16 + 4k + k 2 ≈ 4 + + .
values of x for which the expansion is valid. 2 32
2. Find, in simplified form, the first three non-zero 5. Obtain the expansion in ascending powers of x,
terms in ascending powers of x of the series up to and including the term in x 3 , of
expansions of
1 + 5x 1
for x < .
1 + 3x 1 1
(a) for x < (1 + 2 x ) 2
(1 − 2x )4
2
2
By putting x = 0.04 deduce an approximate value
(b) (2 + x ) 1 − x for x <1 1
of , giving your answer to three decimal
3
3+ x
( )
3. Expand in ascending powers of x, places.
1 + x 2 (1 + 2 x )
157
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
x
6. Expand up to the term in x 3 . 9. Use the binomial theorem to show that
(1 − 2 x )2 (1 − 3x )
For what range of values of x is the expansion x2
=
1 2 1 4
(
x + x + kx 6 + K x < 2 )
valid? 4 − x2 2 16
158
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
1 = n( n − 1)( n − 2 ) K 3 × 2an ,
1
so that an =
n!
x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + K+ +K
2! 3! n!
∞
xr
= ∑ r!
r=0
∞
x2 x3 ( −1) x r r
e− x = 1 − x + −
2! 3!
+ K=
r=0
r! ∑
even.)
x2 x3
f ( x ) = f ( 0 ) + f ′( 0 ) x + f ′′( 0 ) + f ′′′( 0 ) + K
2! 3!
∞
xr
i.e. f (x) = ∑
r=0
f ( r ) (0)
r!
Activity 3
d d
Using the results (sin x ) = cos x and ( cos x ) = − sin x , find the
dx dx
Maclaurin series for sin x . Without repeating the whole process,
159
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Activity 4
Use Maclaurin's theorem to prove that
n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2 ) 3
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x +K
2! 3!
Example
Determine the Maclaurin series for tanh x up to and including
the term in x 3 .
Solution
f ( x ) = tanh x
f ′( x ) = sech 2 x
= −2sech 2 x tanh x
(
f ′′′( x ) = −2sech 2 x × sech 2 x − 2 tanh x −2sech 2 x tanh x )
= −2sech 4 x + 4sech 2 x tanh 2 x
This gives
f ′( 0 ) = 1 (since sech 0 = 1 )
f ′′( 0 ) = −2 × 12 × 0 = 0
f ′′′( 0 ) = −2 × 14 + 4 × 12 × 0 2 = −2
x2 x3
So tanh x = 0 + 1 × x + 0 × + ( −2 ) + K
2 6
x3
=x− + ...
3
160
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
dy
Write y = tanh x . Then = sech 2 x = 1 − tanh 2 x = 1 − y 2 . Next,
dx
d2y dy
2 = −2y
dx dx
d3y d2y dy dy
and = −2y 2 −2 (using the Product Rule)
dx 3 dx dx dx
2
d2y
− 2
dy
= −2y etc.
dx 2 dx
dy d2y
Then, when x = 0, y = 0 , = 1 − 02 = 1 , = −2 × 0 × 1 = 0 ,
dx dx 2
d3y
= −2 × 0 × 0 − 2 × 12 = −2, K .
dx 3
Activity 5
1. Determine the Maclaurin expansions of the following
functions, up to and including the term in x 3 :
1
(a)
1− x
(b) ln (1 + x ) . (Why is it not possible to find a power
series for ln x ?)
(c) ln (1 − x ) .
Describe how the series for (c) can be found
(i) using the answer to (b);
(ii) using the answer to (a).
d d
2. Use the results (sinh x ) = cosh x and (cosh x ) = sinh x
dx dx
to find the Maclaurin series for sinh x and cosh x .
3. Prove Euler's relationship e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ .
4. Use the Maclaurin series for sin x, cos x, sinh x and cosh x to
show that sin ix = i sinh x and cos ix = cosh x , where i 2 = −1 .
161
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Example
Given that the first non-zero term in the series expansion of
e − px − (1 + 2x ) in ascending powers of x is −4x 2 , find the value
−q
Solution
e − px = 1 − ( px ) +
( px )2 −K
2!
1 2 2
= 1 − px + p x +K
2
( −q )( −q − 1)
and (1 + 2x )− q = 1 + ( −q )(2x ) + (2x )2 + K
2!
= 1 − 2qx + 2q( q + 1) x2 + K
Subtracting
= ( 2q − p) x + p 2 − 2q 2 − 2q x 2 +K
1
e − px − (1 + 2x )
−q
2
Validity
The series expansions for e x , e − x , sin x , cos x , sinh x and cosh x
(also for tan x and tanh x , although these are not very
straightforward and so cannot easily be remembered) are valid
for all real x.
162
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Exercise 6F
1. Write down the first four terms in the series 7. The function y = f ( x ) satisfies the differential
expansions of
d2y dy
equation +6 + 9y = 36sin 3x, and is such
(b) ln 1 + dx 2
x
(a) e −2x (c) sin 3x dx
2 that f ( 0 ) = 2 and f ′ ( 0 ) = −4. Write down the value
1+ x of f ′′ ( 0 ) and obtain the value of f ′′′ ( 0 ). Hence
(e) ln
1
(d) cos x (f) sin 2 x − cos 4 x
2 1− x obtain the Maclaurin expansion of f ( x ) in
ascending powers of x up to and including the
e −x
(g)
2+x
(h) (1 + e )(1 − 2e )
−x −x
term in x 3 .
3 1 2
2. Use Maclaurin's theorem to determine the series 8. Given f ( x ) = + + , show that
expansions of the following functions, up to and 1 + x 1 − 2 x (1 − 2 x ) 2
including the term in x 3 : ln { f ( x )} = ln 6 + Ax + Bx 2 , provided that terms in
(a) f ( x ) = sin −1 x (b) f ( x ) = cos x x 3 and higher terms of x can be neglected. Find
the value of A and the value of B.
(c) f ( x ) = tan −1 {sinh ( x + ln 2 )} 9. Write down the expansion of e 2x in ascending
powers of x up to and including the term in x 3 .
(d) f ( x ) = 2 x
e 2x
Show that the series expansion of is
(For (d):
d x
( )
a =
d x ln a
e ( )
= ln a.e x ln a = a x ln a ) 1+ x
dx dx
1 + x + x 2 +... ( x < 1) and find the coefficient of
3. The series expansion, in ascending powers of θ , 3
x in this expansion. Use these four terms of the
of 4 cos2 θ − cos 4 θ begins A + Bθ 4 , where A and B 1
e 2x
are integers. Find the values of A and B. expansion to find an approximation to ∫0
4
1+ x
dx,
4. Use the Maclaurin series for cos x and ln (1 + y ) giving your answer to 3 decimal places.
to show that ln ( cos x ) = Ax 2 + Bx 4 when terms in 10. Show that when θ is small enough for θ 2 and
5
x and higher powers of x can be neglected. higher powers of θ to be neglected,
State the values of the constants A and B. ( 2 − tan θ )(1 + sin 2 θ ) = 2 + 3θ . Hence find an
0.02
5. Given that y = tan x , show that
dy
dx
= 1 + y 2 and approximation for ∫ (2 − tan θ )(1 + sin 2θ )dθ ,
0
giving your answer to 4 decimal places.
( )
2 3
d y d y
2 = 2y 1+ y
2
. Obtain an expression for π π
and that y = (sec x + tan x ) 2 ,
1
dx dx 3 11. Given that − <x<
2 2
in terms of y. Evaluate these derivatives at x = 0
prove that
and hence write down the Maclaurin series of
tan x , including the term in x 3 . dy
(a) 2 = ysec x , and
dx
6. Given that 0 < x < 1 , write down the sum of the
x2 x3 xr d2y
infinite series x + + +K+ + K By (b) 4 = ysec x (sec x + 2 tan x ) .
2 3 r dx 2
integrating this series term by term, show that dy
Use these results to find the values of y, and
x 2
x x 3
x 4 r+1 dx
+ + +K + +K d2y d3y
1× 2 2 × 3 3 × 4 r ( r + 1) when x = 0 . Find the value of when
dx 2 dx 3
= x + (1 − x ) ln (1 − x ) x = 0 . Find a cubic polynomial approximation
for (sec x + tan x ) 2 when x is small and hence
1
∫
1
(sec x + tan x ) dx.
2
+ + +K + +K integral
1× 2 2 × 3 2 3 × 4 2 r ( r + 1) 2 0
163
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
dy
12. Given that y = ln (1 + sin x ) , find and show that Hence show that if x 5 and higher powers of x are
dx neglected,
d2y
(1 + sin x ) + 1 = 0 . Find the fourth-degree 1 + sin x
dx 2 ln
1+ x ( )
= k x4 − x3
polynomial approximation to y = ln (1 + sin θ ) . where k is a constant. State the value of k.
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − +K
3! 5! 7!
only some powers of x are non-zero; here, the odd ones – the
coefficient of x n is zero when x is even. This is easily dealt with
∞
x 2n −1
sin x = ∑ (−1)n +1
n =1
(2n − 1)!
(Check that this gives the correct terms with the correct signs.)
164
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Activity 6
Write down the general terms in the series expansions of
1
e − x , cos x, ln (1 + x ), ln (1 − x ), , sinh x, cosh x
1− x
Example
Prove that the coefficient of x k in the binomial expansion of
1
is k + 1 .
(1 − x )2
Method 1
1
Using the expansion = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + K + x k + x k +1 + K ,
1− x
for which all the coefficients are 1 (remember this is the infinite
geometric series), and differentiating:
1
2 = 0 + 1 + 2x + 3x + K + kx
2 k −1
+ ( k + 1) x k + K
(1 − x )
and the coefficient of x k is seen to be ( k + 1) , as required.
Method 2
n( n − 1)( n − 2 ) K( n − k + 1) k
x ,
k!
( −2 )( −3)( −4) K( −2 − k + 1)
( − x )k
k!
( k + 1)!
= ( −1)
2k
xk
k!
= 1( k + 1) x k (since 2k is even)
= ( k + 1) x k
165
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
Exercise 6G
1. Find the coefficient of x n in the series expansions 5. Determine an expression for the coefficient of
of
x2 + 3
x n ( n ≥ 2 ) in the series expansion of ,
(a) e 3x
(b) ln (1 + 4 x ) (c) cos2 x x +1
where x < 1 .
x
(d) sin 2 x (e) e1−x (f) sinh 6. Find the general term in the series expansion of
2
1 + 3x
for x < 12 .
2. Express f ( x ) =
1
in partial fractions. (1 − 2 x ) 4
( 2 − x )(1 + x )
7. For n ≥ 1 , prove that the coefficient of x n in the
Hence show that the coefficient of x n ( n ≥ 0 ) in
1+ x + x2
power series expansion of is 3n.
the series expansion of f ( x ) is n+1 + ( −1) .
1 1 n
(1 − x )2
3 2
(1 − 3x )
3. Find the values of the constants A, B and C for 2
8. Given that , f ( x ) = ln
1 + 2 x
x A B C
which ≡ + + .
(1 − 2 x )2 (1 − 3x ) 1 − 3x 1 − 2 x (1 − 2 x )2
(a) determine the Maclaurin series of f ( x ) up to
Hence write down the series expansion of
and including the term in x 3 ;
x
in ascending powers of x, up to
(1 − 2 x )2 (1 − 3x ) (b) state the range of values of x for which the
series in (a) is valid;
and including the term in x 3 . For what range of
values of x is this expansion valid? Determine, (c) find the coefficient of x n in this expansion.
n
in terms of n, the coefficient of x in this
expansion.
4. Show that the coefficient of x n in the binomial
n + 3
expansion of (1 − x )
−4
is .
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = + − + −K+ − .
2 ( 2n + 1) 3 4 5 2n −1 2n
166
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
4. Prove by mathematical induction that, for all 9. All the terms of a certain geometric progression
positive integers n, are positive. The first term is a and the second
n
3r + 2 n( 2n + 3) term is a 2 − a . Find the set of values of a for
∑
r=1
=
r ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
which the series converges.
5
Given that a = :
Hence, or otherwise, find the sum of the infinite 3
series (a) find the sum of the first 10 terms of the
8 11 14 3k + 2 series, giving your answer to 2 decimal
+ + +K+ +K
2 ×3× 4 3× 4×5 4×5×6 k ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) places;
(b) show that the sum-to-infinity of the series
5. (a) Show that ( 2k + 1) − ( 2k − 1) ≡ 64k 3 + 16k .
4 4
is 5;
Using this identity, prove that
n
(c) find the least number of terms of the series
∑ (64k 3
)
+ 16k = ( 2n + 1) −1
4 required to make their sum exceed 4.999.
k=1 10. Use induction to prove that
n n
∑ k = 2 n( n + 1) , use the ∑r
1 1
(b) Assuming the result 2
= n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
k=1 r=1
6
n n
∑r×2
π 1
when θ = , giving your answer to 3 decimal r , giving your answer in the form
4 r=1
places. ln p , for some number p.
4 ∞
(b) Given that the sum-to-infinity is , find the
∑ ( r + 1)!2
3 1
(b) Find r .
general solution for θ in radians. r=1
n n
7. (a) Use the formulae for ∑r and ∑r 2
to show 12. Given that x < 3 , determine the expansion of
16 − x
r=1 r=1
f (x) =
( )
in ascending powers of x up
(2 − x ) 3 + x 2
n
∑
1
that ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) = ( n + 1)( n + 2 )( n + 3) .
3
r=0
to and including the x 3 term. Hence find, correct
(b) Using partial fractions, or otherwise, find the to four decimal places, an approximation to
n
∑ ( r + 1)( r + 2 ) . 16 − x
1 1
sum of the series Sn =
r=0
∫ (2 − x )(3 + x )dx
0 2
d2y 1
when x = 0 . Hence determine the provided that sin x ≠ 0 . Deduce that
dx 2 2
Maclaurin series for y in ascending powers of x N −1
nπ π
up to and including the term in x 4 . ∑ sin N
n=1
< cosec
2N
for all N ≥ 2 . (Cambridge)
167
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series
14. (a) Write down and simplify binomial series in 19. Assuming the series expansions for cosx,
ln (1 + x ) and (1 + x ) , show that the series
ascending powers of x up to and including −1
∑ f ( r ) as a cubic in n
decimal places.
(a) express
17. Write down the expansions of r=1
∑ f ( r ) = 2n + 1
1 n
in ascending powers of x up to and including the (b) show that
term in x 3. Given that x is small enough for x 4 r=1
and higher powers of x to be ignored, show that n
(1 + 2 x )3
(c) evaluate lim
n→∞ ∑ f 1(r )
2 = 3x − 10 x
2 3 r=1
(a) ln
(1 + 3x ) 1
(d) find the coefficient of x n when is
f (x)
(1 + 2 x )3 expanded in ascending powers of x,
(b) (1 − 2 x )
−3
− e 6x − 2 ln 2 = kx
3
for some distinguishing between the cases n odd and n
(1 + 3x ) even. State the set of values of x for which
constant k, stating the value of k. this expansion is valid.
∑r×2
1
find the sum of the infinite series r−1
.
r=1
∑2
r
r−1
.
r=1
168