Natural and Artificially Initiated Lightning Martin A. Uman ann E. Putte KrtpEr Recent research on lightning has been motivated, in part, by the desire to prevent spectacular accidents, such as occurred in 1969 during the launch of Apollo 12 and in 1987 daring the launch of Atlas-Centaur 67, and by the need to protect advanced ground-based and airborne systems that Utlize low voltage, solid-state electron "The present understanding of both natural and artificially initiated (triggered) lightning is reviewed, and sugges- tions are given for future research that can improve our understanding both of the physics of lightning and the parameters thet are important for protection. rrnovon BrxysMin FRANKLIN PROVED THAT LIGHENING Aire ecient ed do fe clout charge thae produced it (7) more chan 200 years ago, rhode researc on the physics of lightning began ir ee early 20th ccauuny with the werk of C. T. R. Wilson (2) ie same scientist ho received the Nobel Prize for his invention of the doud chamber. Wilson was the fest co infer the charge seruccure of thunnderclouds and the amouat of charge involved in Hightning by making remo measurements of thunderstorm electric fields. In the 1930s, igh ring, research wes mocivated primarily by the need! to reduce the affects of lightning on electric power systems and by the dlesite to understand an important meteorological process. The pace of that research was fairy steady until the 1960s when there was renewed interest because of che generaly unexpected vulnerability of solid- seate electronics to damage fiom lightning-induced vokages and currents with the resultant hazard r0 modern aviation systsms. A good deal of the recen: research has been motivated by three spectacular ligntring accidents involving sircraft or spacecra:() In 1963, a Bosing, 707 flying 2c S000 fect near Elston, Maryland, was seruck and destroyed by lightning, king all eceupants (3). Light- sing apparentiy bumied through ane of the meral wings, or in some ‘other manner entered the fuel rank inside that wing, and caused the fe, vapor there co exploce. (i) In 1959, Apollo 12 artificially inated (or “iriggered”) evo lightning ashes, one v0 ground and ‘one ineeacloud (TC) discharge, when ie was ounched through a wesk, cold front tha: was not producirg, nanural ighening (4). Akhough this zockct-iniiated lightning caused major system upsess and minor ppenmaicot damage, the vhicle and its erw survived and were able ‘© complete their mission successfully. (ii) fn 1987, an unmanned Atks-Centaur vehicle (ACI67) was launched into weather cond Sons that were similar to chow: present a the launch of Apollo 12, GEA. Onan o oe Deprtnom of Bhstical Engineering, Usivasey of Bia Gaineile Fe S261), EYP. Kader feat he Teste of Atmore Phsis, Ereity of Arson, Ticon, AZ 85721 27 OCTONER 989 and triggered a lightning discharge to ground (4). This discharge vpstt the computer memory in the vehicle guidaree system and produced an unplanned yaw rotation, and the associated stresses aused the vebicle to breik apart In this artic, we will servey our presenc knowledge about both natural anc artificially initioted (triggered) lightning, ané then we vill suggest cirections for fire research that can improve our understanding both of lighting phenomena and che parameters that awe needed (0 improve protection Sources of Lightning Mout rescarch on the electrical strnenure of clouds has focused 0 the cumulonimbus, the foniliar thundercloud or ehanderstorm, Decaue this cloud gype produces most lighming, ‘There have been limited studies of the electrical properties of seraus, stratocumulus, ccomulis, nimbostratus, sleecumulus, sleesteacus, and civus clouds @) by means of both ground:bysed and airborne measurements Any of che cloud eypes lied above can potentially cause lightning, ‘or some related form of clerical discharge, as can snowstorms, the dlouds above volcanoes, and other aarbulen: eavironments such 35 dus stomns, ‘The classic model for she charge seructure of a chunderelond wes developed in the 1920s and 1930s fiom ground-based measure- ments of both thundercloud electric fields and the clectee eld changes thar are caused when lightning occurs (2, 7) {n this model, the thundercloud forms a posiave electric dipok as shown in Fig. 1; that i, a positive charge region above a negative charge region. By Fig, 1. Thunerccudl charge dstrbion superposed ona photogaph of Enohted chu in New eco, [Repnnted fom (1) wih pemisen, © 186 Recon! Aeslemy Press) austen 457the and of the 1980s, Simpson and co-workers (8) had verified this cverallstnctue from measurements made with sounding balloors inside clouds and had aio identified a soll localized region of positive charge atthe base of the coud. Subsequent measurements cf dectrie felés both inside and outside the cloud have confirmed the general validity of this double-dipole structure (9, 10). The resultsof reeancanalysis of changesin the clecteic fll the provide the locations an: magnisuces of lightning-eaused changes in the dou charge dstibuion (10) ate shown in Fig. 2, Reviews of the tatious processes chac generate and separate charges in dhunder- seonms bave becn givea by Magono (/7), Latham (12), Lhermiue and Williams (13), lingworsh (4), Wiliams (15), and Krehbiel (16), Natural Lightning Lightning is a tansient, high-current discharge whose path Jkngth is measured in Kilometers, Well over haf ofall fashes occur wholly within the cloud and are called IC discharges. Cloud-to- ground (CG) ighening has been scudied more extensivey than other forms of lighening because ofits practical importance (for instance, 45 the cause of injuries and death, discurbances in power and communication systems, and the ignition of forest fires) and because lightning below a clond is mare easily studied with optical tech- niques. Cloud-to-clowt and cloud-to-air dixcharges occur less fre quency than cither IC or CG lightning. All ciscrarges ether than 6G are often combined ander the general erm cloud discharge: Four diferent types of lightning berween cloud and Earth have bean identied (Fig. 3) (17). Negative CG Fashes probably sceoune or about 9096 of the CG discharges worldwide (Fig. 3, cazegory 1), and Liss than 10% of lighting discharges ave initiated by downward-moving positive leadze (category 3). Ground-to-ovd discharges are intiaced by leaders that move upward fiom hs Each (categories 2 and 4), These upwant-initiated flashes are relatively fare and usually occur ftom mountain peaks and tall man-made structs. Before we consider the physical properties of ligntning ia mace detail, we will first review some recent statistics on. lightning occurrence. Lightning frequencies have been studied extensively at the NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, because of the hazard lighting presents to ground operations and lawiches, and at several cther locations throughout che world. Individual storms at KSC pically produced between 1 and about 4000 lightning shes (18), Roughly 30 to 40% cf these lashes, depending on the storm, ‘were CG and well over half were IC. The masimurn fashing rates, averaged over S-min intervak, ranged benween 0.2 and 31. dis charges per minute, Over a 7-yese period, the mean arca density of CG fashes wis escimared t0 be 4.6 flashes km"? month”! with a minimum of 8.7 flashes km"? month”! and a masimam of 21.9 ashes km"? menth”! Tn the region near Tampa Bay, Flora, Peckham et (19) found that when stcems had a CG fashing rate that increased menotoni- cally with time 10 a single peak and then fll smoothly to z2re, the mean storra curation was 41 min and che mean lightning exea was 103 km’, Each storm produced 78 CG flashes, on average, the mean area “density” was 0.92 flashes km™? min¥; dhe average Aasting, rate was 17 flashes min*'; and dhe average maximum flashing rate was 3.7 min”. More complex storms chat bad maltiple peaks in the flashing rate distribution produced, on average, mean parameters 2 03 times the above values with the exception of the flash densiy, ‘which remained roughly constant and wes generally independent of the size of the s:orm. Statistics oa the diseances between successive CG lighting strikes 458 6 July 1978 ora = z feo ? {eo i = 2g ie HO 1 0 $3 ss Tine cam Fig. 2. Changes inthe dnerlond chage dition tat are assed by EG (open eres) std TC eros) Hghenng asa frction of ime (10) Sharpe lowered coulombs i shove fer fond fsies ant monert Stings incoutmts loner forinacoudfscorgs. Theda st Fon Sipeton an scare thinderwonn st ihe NASA Kemnay Space Cater heopen clas show the aitade and magoivge br solos ofthe IR Se ope yi (ng fe hr oer nriiza 20 nin plod The avo’ show the changes pe monte Sulonbshlomeats tat eve protec by led ccharge hace Supe sepurtcd postive and negytve eharge. A downvantpoitng, Show ident ponte change was above negate cage bre beh mete sey neazad, OMe Grech mee sine, (Repedned Bom (2) ith pemicson, © 1989 Americas Geophsal Union] Fig, 3. Categorization of she four iypes of lighening beeween elbud and igrcund, Category 1 lighting bogins with a negatively charged acer roving downwards catagory 3 dissherges ere ined by 2 dovweward moving positive leader. Category 2ighming has a positively charged leader, ancl ig wpe fectoel ves igae csc roca egy a ‘a negtively changed Ider and cfkectivey Joes postive charge. (Reprint AORN With permision, © 1957 Academic es] SCIENCE, VOL. 246in Japan and Hlovida are found in (20). ‘The OG flashes in an indivielual cell rend to strike within a circular erea roughly 10 km in liamoeer, anc within thar area the Eghtning is almost rindom, More specially, thee & abour a 20% probsbility chat a discharge will ‘occur either 2, 3, oF 4 kom from the previous one, and there it a wall, but fnie, probability tha: a discharge wil be $ km or more from the previous strike. The average value ofthe distance between sucessive strike points is abour 3.5 kin, and the stoom-average nearest neighbor distance s about 0.5 km. Negative CG Lightning A photograph of a negative CG lscharge (Fig, 8, caegory 1) is shown in Fig. 4. A fl like this begin inthe clout ang effectively overs some tens of cowombs of negative charge to Earth, The total discharge istered a flash (as isthe tral discharge for other types of lightaing), and fash dcations are typically aboat half a second. A. fash hes several components, che mast signifiane being three or four high-cucrene pulses called strokes. Each stroke lasts abour a millisecond, and the separation between strokes is typically several teas of milliseconds, Lightning often appears o “eer” because she hhuman eye ean just resolve che individ pubes of huminesigy thae are prosuced by each stroke The sequence of luminous processes thar are favo negative CG flash (22) inittes dhe fise return stoke afr ic propagawes downward in a series of discrete eps, The stepped leader i itself initined by 2 preliminary breaklown within the cloud, although there is no Agreement about the exact ferm ancl location of this process. The prclininary breakdown is shown in che lover part Of the clous, between the negative and lower positive charge regions in Tig, 5. High-speed photosrapls show that kader stes ae eypicall 1 sin uration, ens of meters in length, and that the pause time beoween stepsis 20 to 50s, A fully ceveloped stepped leader can eletively lower 10 C cr more of negative charge toward the ground in tens of nillsecands. ‘The average downward speed of propagation is about 2 10! mis The average leader currents berween 109 and 1600 A ‘The lender steps have peak pulse currents ofa lease TEA. During is progression toward ground, che stepped lauder produces che down. svard branched geometsiealerructure chown in Figs. 4 and 5: ‘The potcitial ference between the lower portion ef the neg. tively chaged leader and the Eacth has a magnitade in exeess of 10" YV. fs the ip of dhe leader nears ground, de eke feel at sharp objects on the grotind oF at integulaiies on the surface increases, runic excecds the breakdown strength of air. At hac time, one oF more upstacd-moving discharges are initiated from those points, and the attachment process begins. When one of the upward roving discharges contacts the downvard-moving leader, seme tens of meters buve the ground, the leader is effectively connected te ground potential, The leader channel is then discharged by an ionizing wave of ground potential that propagates up the previously ionized leader chanel. This process is th: fst return stroke, The cleetrc field across the potential discontimuicy besween the ceturn stoke, which fearground potential, and the channel above, which i nnearclou potential, i what prodoces the aditional ionization. The upward speed of a recur stroke is eypically one-third 0 one-halfthe speed af light near the ground, and the speed decreases with eight. ‘The tora eransit time between grote and cloud is on the order of 100 ps, The fre reuen stroke produces a peak current of typially 30 KA at che ground, with a cime from zzro to pesk of a fev microseconcs, Currents measured atthe groun decreas co half the peak value in about 50 us, and currents Of the order of mundieds of “amperes may flow for times of afew to several hundred milliseconds. in typical shown in Fig. 5. The stepped leader 27 OCTORER 1989 Fig. 4. A mtural CG lighming fash, These sre several ground scrke poines indicating darestepped leaders occurred prior 7 some subsequent seites Cours of George Marco, [Reprinced from: (38) with permission, © 1986 over Fubcx We will discuss these long-duration, Jow-amplituele currents ltr in this section "The rapid release of rcuurrrstuoke energy heats the Kader channe! to a peck temperature near 30,000 K and produces a high-pressure channel thac expands and creates the sock waves that evernually become thunder. The rerum stroke effectively lowers co ground che charge originally deposited on the stepped leader channel including all the branches, as well as other cloud charge that may become availible at the top of the channel ‘When the return-stroke current ceases, the fash, including various discharge processes within the cloud, may end. in that case, the Jighicg is called 2 singlestroke flash. On che other hand, if additional cloned charge is available, a continuous dart leader can propagate down the residual frst-sercke channel and initiate another scruin seroke, During the tine berween the end of the fst retnen coke and che initiation ofa dar leader, socalled Jared K-prezesses, ‘cen in the cloud, The dart leader has a peak current of 1 kA or ‘more and lowers 4 total charge on the order of 1 Cat a speed of about 3% 10 m/s. Some dare leaders become swspped leaders toward the end of their progeesion coward ground and do ao: fellow the previous recuin stoke chanuel, ‘The fast in Fig. + apparently had v0 or possibly more of thes: cart-stepped leaders Dart leaders and retarn swrokes subsequene co the frst are usually not branched. “The time Denveen successive strokes in a Mash is usually several tens of millisceonds, but can be tenths of a second if a conemaing ‘current persists in the channe! aiter a return. stroke. Continuing ‘currents ace of the order cf 100 A and represent a direc: transtec of ‘charge from clout to ground (22). Between 28 and 80% of all CG flashes contain a continuing cureenc component (18, 22). ‘As a way of suramarizing the above processes and illstrating the spe of Fghtning data that can be obtained with photographic techniques, Pig. 6 shows a hypothetical streak phovogeaph apd a corrssponding stil photograph of a rhreestroke lighming flash "A comprshensive list of lighening cureent paramezers have been brived fiom sower measurements in Switedland during strikes initiated by downward kaders (23), In these cower studies the maximum raeoFrise of current (@/it) and the daretion of the carrent front, important parameters for determining, lightning: ARTICLES 459induced voltages in aystems, ace limited by the bandhwidth of the measuring apparatus, Moze edequate veluee for these parameters are given in the final section of his article Positive CG Lightning sitive ashes co ground (category 3 in Fig. 3) ere of consider- able pracical interest hecause ther peak currents and rata postive charge tamsfer to ground can be mach larger than the more or a reakeown ‘common negative Aeshes (17, 23, 2), The largest peak currents chat hhave been recorded, those in the 200- ro 300-KA range, were produced by positive tum strokes (23), Positive flashes t0 ground xe initiated by leaders chat do not exbilbie s¢ distince seps as their negative counterparts. Rather, chey eshibie a more or less continu- ‘as luminosity that is moduhted in iotensiy. Positive Rashes usually contain only a single rctura stroke followed by a period of continu ing current (25), Positive lashes are probably initiated by che upper positive charge in thunderclouds (Figs, 1 and 3) where this charge fas been separated horizontally from the lower negative charge by Stepped Tender ‘Attachmont process 20.10 me 20208 Rs S SS WN S$ 51.00 me 200 ms e KandJ ce ~ SS 49.00 es s0.0ms Fg, §, Various prose ae wp negate CC lighningcndage, Ade tem 2) wan Semisins © 1587 ‘Neale ea 62.05 ma SGHINGE, VOL. 246wind sheer (24, 26), bur this may not akvays be 4 necesary condition (27). sitive fishes are the majority of fashes to ground in winter thunderstorms (and snowstomms) even though these storms produce few flashes overall; and they are relatively rare in summer chundcr- storms, only 1 to 15% of the flashes (28), altnoagh scons with predominandly nepacive lightning often end with positive dis charges. The facion of positive discharges in summer thunder: ‘storms apparently inereases with increasing geozrephic latinude and ‘with increasing hieighe of the focal terrain; that is, the doser the cloud charge is to the ground, the more probable is positive lightning, but, agsin, not enough is known about postive ightning to be able to say dha this i always 0 necessary condition Upward Lightning Lightning is sometimes initiated by upwarc-moving lenders thac rise from tall mountain peaks or man-made structures, a5 indicated by categories 2 and 4 of Fig. 3, A photograph of upwacd lightning from four tlevision towers is fourd in Fig. 7. Upward-moving leaders can be initiated artificially (teggered) when a grounded conductor of the oréer of 100 m in length is rapidly cacied upward by « rocker below a charged cloud (Fig. 8). The leaders in upward-initated lightning are usually positive ig. 3, eategory 2}. Poritive upward leaders show a continuous, luminosity that is modulated in a fashion similar to postive downwarl stepped leaders. Negative upward leaders (category 4) exhibit a stepped behavior chet is similar to negative downward. seppedt leaders. Category 4, a9 noted easier, is the rarest form of lightning beeween coud and ground "Posi upward Ieadcis offen enter the eloud and produce only a ‘note of less continuous flow of curren, ofthe order 100 to 1000, ‘Ayst ground, In zbouthalf of the upward initiated events, however, the continuous currents folowed by a sequence of dar: keadcts and recur strokes that are similar to those following first stokes in natural CG discharges that are initiated by negative dowaward- roving leaders. A detailed review of the measurements that have been made on upward-initated lightning is found in (27). Cloud Discharges We have previously defined a cond discharge to be ny lightning thac doce not connest to ground. As stated earlier, the majority ofall discharges occur within the cloud, Cloud discharges can be subdi- vided into JC, incersloud, and cloued-to-sie flashes, but there are no txperimenal data at present to distinguish berween these cree types. Indeed, on the basis of eleccric field records, there is corsiderable similaicy between these cischarges (25). The tem cloud discharge could also be applied 10 these portions of a flash co {ground thar take place within the cove, In some cases, flashes dae are primarily within the cloud, and are bes: characterized as cloud flashes, produce a channel to ground, seemingly as an unimportane by-product Tntracloud dashes eypically occur between positive and negative charge regions or represent discharges away from concentracsd regions of positive or negative charge and have total durations chat are nearly tie same as ground flashes, about hilf second, A typical dlond diccharge effecvely moves tens of coulombs of charge over @ diceance of § to 10 kim, The discharge process is thouight to consist of a continuously propagsting learler that generates weak rerum strokes called recoil streamers when the leeder contacts pockets of space charge opposite to ite own. The electric field changes that are 27 OCTONER 1089 = 8 Hiroe qT we Can’( I] Gaye \ a ‘stppo | Tender Fig. 6. (A) Luminous famirer of lightning Rash below cloud ae as would berecordd by astreakeamera, Increasing time iso the sight, Forlriy the tine sce hat been distorted. (B) The same lighening fash as would be fecorded by: a camera with stationary ‘lm. [Adspted from (21) with permission, © 1987 Academic Pres] acu \ ton Teena Fig. 7. Fou. spwiard Unhming fishes Sbsevtion, fiom four 400-m fall telesson eransmson rowers during a ‘Rontal drandentom in Kansas Cry. The TV covets are located alonga fine 10 kr Jeng, Coureesy of C. G. Kicerrian. [Reprinted from (27) with permission, © 1987 Academic Press) lated concurrently, by visual associated with recoil streamers are termed K-changes, K-changes ace though to be similar, but usually of opposite polarity, to the K- thanges that occur in the intervals between return strokes in CG discharges. A derailed review of te literature on clot discharges i, found in (27) ‘Top-of-the-Cloud and Clear Air Lightning ‘There are occasional reports of lightning propagsting upward from the tops of clouds axel pethaps to she ionosphere (39). Lightning tas ako been reported when there iss clear blue sky (32, 32}, commonly referred to as a “bale ftom the blue Most of these Tepors, however, refer co 2 situation where there i blue sky overhead and the thunderscom is 10 or more Kilometers away, out of viewing range, from where the fighting originates. However, there are photographs and supporting charge locations that show that a triggered discharge can occur entirely in clear ait near a thanderstorm (2). In the case cited, there was a thunderstorm ARTICLES 461Fig. 8. Rocke intiaod lighting. The straight pat of dhe channel a the ‘tom i cased byte wire botncen the rocket and grouad. Couries of. ‘Hubert, lkeprinel fom (21) wih permission, © 1587 Acadenic Press) about 10 km avay, and the lightning was artical inicated by firing a small rocket upward that triled grounded wire, There were high clectric fields, but the sky overhead where the charge appears to have been located was mostly clear with broken aleocu- infu and aleostrarus clouds ae high altcuces, Artificially Initiated (Triggered) Lightning {We can define wigyered lightning as discharges chat oecur because cof the presence of man-inade stretusss or events. Such Bightning is characterized by an initial upward-moving postive leader if itis ‘triggered below a negative charge region of the cloud, a is wsuelly the ere for small rockets trallng grounded wires, Discharges initiated by upward-moving leaders also occur nacually, for exam ple, fom mountain cops; triggered lightning thie occurs via an Upward leader is expected to be similar to matural upward events. Upware:iniiate lightning has no “fst retum stroke” of the type thit always observed in nomal CG lightning that is intited by a downward leader, Rate, the initial part of the cscharge iscaken by fn upward-moving leader and any continuous curren: that may follow when that leader reaches the élond. This upward process is sometimes followed by combinations of downwardemoving dart leaders and upward-moving roten srckes that appear 10 be very similar to onbsequent strokes in romnel CG flashes. The physical processes that occur in discharges that ate iniiaeed acca wiehin the dovd or celatively far shove ground by aireraft or space vehicles, and are not actched 10 ground axe not 34 well understood 99 ars discharges initined by objects below the cloud dhae attach t0 ground ‘In general, lightning can be initiaced artificially by rapicly imro- ducing a long electrical concuctor into a region of relatively high electric field. In this ease, the conductor will enhance the exiseng ficld roa value suficins to cause electrical breakdown, Brook etal (G3) foun that small balloons flown continuausly on metal wires of sevctal kilometars in length did noc get strack, even during periods of active lightning. Further, they showed that in the laboratory, 4 artifical incision of spark would occur only with the rapid introduction of s conductor into an electric field, and that the steady presence ofthat conductor did not prosuce a spark cischarge. Brook tt al. suggested that corona discharges act t0 shield a stationary conductor 30 that the high felds necessary to intite lightning ane not ooteined, whereas the fell enhancement during a rapil intro- duction ofa conductor is not reduceti significantly by carom since there is no: a sulcient time for its prockicion, Newman «tf, (34) first demonstrated that lightning can be, artificially initiated O triggered by Launching small rockets trailing ‘wires that were grounded co a ship at sea. Lightning ean abo be inidated artificially over lanc in @ similar manner, and extensive measurements have been made on sich discharges (35-37). In a relied, but accidental, example of artificial initiation, @ plume of ‘water from a depth charge explosion in the Chesepeake Bay initiated a threesstrake lightning flash (33, 38) Examples of lighening being initiated by long, conducting objects, not connected to Earth are provided by the stekes to Apollo 12 (4) bby the sre to the Adhas-Centaur 67 (3); by lighting triggered by mall rockets trsiling 100 t0 200 m of ungrounded conducting wire, the lowee portions of which were $0 0 10 m above che ground at initiation Gd); by accounts of lighening strikes co atsraft ying in clouds tha: were otherwise not producing Ighmning (32); and by radar measuremenss ofthe formation of lightaing-produced echoes av a research F-106 airerat and thei propagation away fom the aircraft (4, 41) A photograph of lighming that was triggired by a small rocker tailing ground wire isgiven in Fig. 8. Basically, the rocket is fed ‘upward ata velocity near 200:mis anda grounded wire is urspooted ther from Earth or ftom the rocket, The upward leader is incited. from the tip of the rocket when the rocke: is at an aliude of typically 200 to 300 m. A good probabiliy oftrizeering ightring is assured ifthe launch is made when the steic field atthe ground is berwsen 5 and 10 kW/m, but triggering can ocear when the fel at ground is only about 1 kVim (12) In New Mexico, the following relation was found beeween che socket height Hin meters at initiation and the field F in kilovolts per metsr at ground level juss before rocker launch (26) = 3900 m In genera, che larger the value ofthe fell at gro height of the rocket at the ime the upward fader average rocker heights and state field Values atthe time of initiation fare summarized in Table 1, Appacenely itis the enhanced value of the electric field ac the rocket tip that is the most significant paramere in determining the triggering probability. Tis now chcughe that most lignening strikes to aircraft in fight ae triggered by the aircraft, «s opposed tothe aircraft’ intercepting, a naturally occurring fesh (41), Arguments thar support the initia sion of ignming by aircraft have, untl recently, been made primarily fn the bass of observations of strikes to airplanes in douds that had not previously produced naearal lighting (29), Recent analyses of ‘wrahigh frequency (UHE) radar echoes curing lightning, strkes to a E-106B resenreh aerate have provided the first diect evidence of triggering (40). 1: was detersined thet the majority of lightring echoes were initined by the F-106B, ar lease within the accuraey of the radar resolution, Visual and celevision records of che channel developmen on the F-105B were consistenc with thac view (42). 'A model for lighting initiation called the “bi-directional” o° uncharged leader” theory (41, 43) may well be applicable 10 lightning initiation by aircraft and other airbome vehicles, The bi ircctional leader starts where the electric field is high and. propa gates in both dicections away from thac region. The total charge on, the keaderis approximately zero, The aircraft isan clerical conduc: SCHENGS, VOL. 245Meo eee tor and produces a region of thigh electric Geld by distorting and ceahancing the anbient elctie fed in che envionment. The shape and sizeof te aircraft ae che most important fectors in determining the enkancement factor. Normally, the fsld will be highest ac the rose, wigtps, oc vertical stabilizer, When the fel is enanced to the point of elscrical breakdown, roughly 2.MVim at altitude, the sirecaf can trigger lighming if number of other Factors, such athe spatial extent and energy content of the environmental fisld are favorable, The key point is that triggering is positle under many ‘environmental concitions where natural lightning will not occur. ‘This is supported by many cecords of aircraft strikes in nonstormy douds (44), and the observatica thar aircraft often become involved with lightning when nacueal icing conditions are sought during certification cess (15). Recommendations for Future Research ‘When one is faced with the possibilty of lightning hazard, chore are two methods of protection: (i) identify and avoid dhe hazards and (i) protect and harden the system of interes: to withstand the ‘fects of nearby and direc strikes, Tn the last 10 years, exceptional progress has been made it che technology for identifying and locating natural CG lightning, and nationwide neoworks of lightning sensors with a wideband magnetic direction-finding technology (46) that produce lightning locations in real time are aow operational in the Uniecd States (47), France (4), Sapan (49), and Sweden (30), Similar necworks are presently being assembled dhcoughour the world (For example, Spain, Taivan, Koree, Ausrlia), All nenvorks are or willbe used both for research and for providing wimings of natural lighting in a variery of applications, An exarsple ofa lightning ma produced by the US. National Lightning Deeeaion Network operated by che State University of New York ae Albany (SUNYA) is given in Fig, 9. Tae expansion of these lightning dewedon networks and warning 3ye- cems should be continued. In th: cast of triggered lightning, the primary aumosphesie clectrical hazard to aircraft and space vehicles, mach research needs to be done on the metcorologica! and clecrical environmencs thae present a threat and on che forecasting of these conditions. Again, Since triggered lighnning caw vccut within and nar clos chat are rot producing nazural lightning, rriggered discharges are often unexpected, Most research to dace on the electrical serscure of clouds has, focused on the thunderstorm. A varity of other clouds cart abo be lecrified, but we sill do nox know the best ways co identify these fous or, in fact, what electrical environments present a tiggered Tighening hazard. Now there i 2 new urgency to underscand better the processes that produce electric Belds inaillypesof clands and to understand how these fields iniiare a discharge. We abso need co ‘understand the other factors diat conarbute to a ciggered lightning, hata In order to design beter lightaing protection systems co improve the capability of airraft and space vehicles to withstand the effets of nearby or disct strike, itis essential t understand dhe nature of che lightaing environment near ancl at the point of a divect strike, Among the most inpportant parameters responsible for coupling lightaing signak to dlecranic systems isthe maximum of d/é, che race of change of enrrent with respect to time, Recsnt rerum stroke current measurements on towers With wideband transient recorders, G51), currenss measared during lightning stikes to a F-106B research sirorafe (2), and return stroke current measurements in rocket-initiated discharges (53) show that the peak i/éis considera bby haeger than was believed to be the case just 10 yeats azo. A 27 OCTOBER 1989, ‘Table 1. Mom soskee height (H) and wean state elecsic fill (#) at arcade inition [adapted fom (21. 42)) H Location On anes Hokie are Japan wee 7, Se Print WAlier, France 2101 Langmiie Laboratony,nsae Socorro, New Medico 2168.84 ‘Near Melbourne, Hovida 36 3t Kenedy Spece Center, Hovida 31098018 Traian Giey ineeal hamons aguas gies ony FLT" SSteasremests fom 19839 187 (3. TCalaed fom snarimum di/d)of 38 X 10" Afs has been measured on the F-106 B ircrafe in ight, and values above 2 x 10!" Als occured frequentiy (62). Only a few measurements of divét have been made with afciene bandwideh on nanaral return strokes, but from this mall sample «peak salue of 1.8 10! Als has been observed (5? Finally, she rockeetriggered discharges 9 salcwater at tie NASA KSC have produced a peak sit for rena strokes of 4.1 ¥ 10! As (53). Thus, from the limiced data thae are available, we expect chat a peak diver near 5 % 10! Als is possible even at fight altitudes. “The elecric and wagetic fields thac are produced by natural return surokes abo suggest that the stoke currents have valucs of {vat approaching 10" A/s. Measurements of the electromagnetic {elds produced by strikes to salovater, uncer sondizions where che propagation betvesn the fash and the reconting instrumentation icinot introduce distortions, have yielded a mean 10 t0 90% fild rise time of 90 ns in the “ast transition? during the inital rise to peak (54) Fields measured during very near stikes in New Mexico (55) exhib rise times that are consistent with those of Weidman et il. (8), The eurcent sise times that are inferred from the measured field rise times denend on the rerum stroke carrent mode, but nevertheless the vakies are Fly to he equal oor withiaafactor of 2 of the field rise cime ($4, 56) If, for example, aremien stroke causes a “fase transition” rise time of about O.t 1s, the inferred currenc + positve + # Hlaeeo Negative ‘lashes Fig. 8A Thing aap fom ee OS, Noon Lighing Deeson Ro caroyted tf SSRYR Cr. iphning grou sek loon bog Sener or Metco ae sboen Ga pated lea to real EOS 2 any oS! Sigua inoue nae oven nega eee pane ala tee mama Sipe ied ope apes see one ga cere gaat era cecal cata pse pent ty SGRyA Recehem (a and now tcopacd ssa fit canton geese Ekg! tan Cw yb, © Bo Eaten ph Osea AICICLES 403desivatve for a current of 10'A i on the order of 10"? Ate. Thee is some evidence thar feld rise dimes are roughly the sume for both small and for large reourn stroke current; hence larger currents will tead to have lager values of dilde. This result is supported by the results of wiggeie! lightning expetimens (33) tha show a corel tion benween peak stroke currents and the masimm values of dt ‘The relatively high values of ddr obtained by direct and indirect methods are 20 be compared with the present est standards for the worst-case lightning, 1 10 2 X 10" Als (57). Besides accurate values of dial, some of the more important aspects of ligntoing vis--visighening protection that we also need to understand better are: the total wave shapes of the currents that are asscciated with all of the salient lightning processes in both inacural nd triggered events, the physical processes by whick natural lightning steches to ground-based sructures and to aircraft, and the role ofthe structures and aircraft in initiing, lightning. ‘REFERENCES AND NOTES 1B Balin Erinn nl bet on ory Made Pin (8 Cx Lana, 1774 aan 8. Cohen, Boon Pls Exponent (Hanae WB Canis 1A ToT 2. CE Ria Bae He Se oon AD, 585 (1M) Pie Tee. ‘nde taal, (920) 2. 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Hlesdenon, LF Besar Copy Res Let 3,125 Cia [it Fone, E Halse, M. Le Roles Hann, Putin Bk hacen foe Aopen Het, Uprn, Seden, 3-16 ane 1848 1SN9T [8702546 (tetoneof Fgh Voluge Rese, Uppata Uvest, Uppal, ‘Seen 1988). p. 097, 48. 1 Bo eal, dsp. 65, 50 iterane'T © Rb. 680. 31. A J Edis, Tag, 5. fs Ee Er, 69,238 (1978). 32 EL Phen 0D. tee HCA, Dela EE Rady NASA Teint Pape 257 (SAGA, Washington, DE, Jone 137} 52, Ctecouterstay in (@),p. 297, 6 Letcher, C. Wetton, Karan, J Gopie, esa prs. 54, CB Weidinan and FP. Keites, Cope, Re, Let. 7,95: Wiican aid EF Keider,fas Se. 24,363 (1986) 55. © Dum erat NASA Tee Spoon, NEGA Crue Pb Rootes FAARD-40 (NAS, Washing FC 190), 56, MIR Unar, BK Mela, Rf Esher EP Keds, Cups Re 78, 3830 (973, 57. Unt sixes ae Fore, Cong Pesan of Aspe Vie ad to, Poa? 199, 2 Hay Wes Lied Sa Ae le, irs Coens “Tt Tee eae Ves Hara, MPLS T1157. 20 fly 1583 Saray of hutemorve Engoners Cononase SEAL, Rejor, reorient sory cele “racevon of ara exile Stes SH Ne Slee rs of ring ¢ bry 1987, 58 Jee nub scons 439. Tis paper war supported in par by Marin Mavis Cerperaconconrae 1X: ago30C though ak Kelge Nora Latorsons by Nien sence founds Son, pone ATH DDOTL nd by he NASA REE convac NASIOTA9O. (4980); €. D, SCIENCE, VOL. 246