Maria Ericka R.

Ragasa

Crusades

"Crusade" is a modern term, from the French croisade and Spanish cruzada, that was applied to
the medieval military expeditions only in retrospect. The French form of the word first appears in
the L'Histoire des Croisades written by A. de Clermont and published in 1638. By 1750, the
various forms of the word "crusade" had established themselves in English, French, and German.

Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus) to be fulfilled on successfully reaching
Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking
of the cross", the crux, eventually became associated with the entire journey.They saw
themselves as undertaking an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, an armed pilgrimage. The
inspiration for this “messianism of the poor" was the expected mass apotheosis at Jerusalem.

Children's Crusade

Less historically certain was a Children's Crusade movement in France and Germany in 1212 that
attracted large numbers of peasant teenagers and young people, with some under the age of 15.
They were convinced that they could succeed where older and more sinful crusaders had failed:
the miraculous power of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many parish
priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged them on. The pope and bishops
opposed the attempt but failed to stop it entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young
men, led by a German named Nicholas, set out for Italy. About a third survived the march over
the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group went to Marseilles. The luckier ones eventually
managed to return home, but many others were sold as lifetime slaves on the auction blocks of
Marseilles slave dealers.

First Crusade (1095–1099) and immediate aftermath

The official crusader armies set off from France and Italy at different times in August and
September 1096, with Hugh of Vermandois departing first, and the bulk of the army dividing into
four parts travelling separately to Constantinople.[82][83] In all, the western forces may have
totaled as many as 100,000 persons, counting both combatants and non-combatants. The armies
journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they received a wary welcome from
the Byzantine Emperor.[85] Pledging to restore lost territories to the empire,[86] the main army,
mostly French and Norman knights under baronial leadership, marched south through
Anatolia.The leaders of the First Crusade included Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert Curthose, Hugh of
Vermandois, Baldwin of Bouillon, Tancred de Hauteville, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond of
Taranto, and Robert II, Count of Flanders, and Stephen, Count of Blois. The King of France and
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, were both in conflict with the Papacy and did not take
part.When the French crusaders crossed into Germany in spring 1096, units of Crusaders
massacred hundreds or thousands of Jews in the cities of Speyer, Worms, Mainz and Cologne,
despite the efforts by Catholic bishops to protect the Jews. Major leaders included Emicho and
Peter the Hermit.Chazan says "the range of anti-Jewish activity was broad, extending from
limited, spontaneous violence to full-scale military attacks on the Jewish communities of Mainz
and Cologne." This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe and
was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.

The Crusader armies initially fought the Turks at the lengthy Siege of Antioch that began in
October 1097 and lasted until June 1098. Once inside the city the Crusaders massacred the
Muslim inhabitants and pillaged the city. However, a large Muslim relief army under Kerbogha
immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders within Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto led a
successful rally of the crusader army and defeated Kerbogha's army on 28 June. Bohemond and
his men retained control of Antioch,in spite of his pledge to the Byzantine emperor. Most of the
surviving crusader army marched south, moving from town to town along the coast, finally
reaching the walls of Jerusalem on 7 June 1099 with only a fraction of their original forces.

Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks. On 15 July
1099 the crusaders entered the city. They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and
Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself. As a result of the First
Crusade, four main Crusader states were created: the County of Edessa, the Principality of
Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

... Wonderful sights were to be seen. Some of our men (and this was more merciful) cut off the
heads of their enemies; others shot them with arrows, so that they fell from the towers; others
tortured them longer by casting them into the flames. Piles of heads, hands and feet were to be
seen in the streets of the city. It was necessary to pick one's way over the bodies of men and
horses. But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a
place where religious services are normally chanted ... in the temple and the porch of Solomon,
men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. Indeed it was a just and splendid
judgement of God that this place should be filled with the blood of unbelievers since it had
suffered so long from their blasphemies

Raymond D'Aguilers in Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem

On a popular level, the preaching of the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned,
personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that
accompanied and preceded the movement of the crusaders through Europe,as well as the
violent treatment of the "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east.

Second Crusade (1147–1149)

The new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by Bernard of
Clairvaux.French and South German armies, under the Kings Louis VII and Conrad III respectively,
marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to win any major victories, launching a failed pre-
emptive siege of Damascus.On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second
Crusade met with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders stopped in Portugal,
allied with the Portuguese King, Afonso I of Portugal, and retook Lisbon from the Muslims in
1147.A detachment from this group of crusaders helped Count Raymond Berenguer IV of
Barcelona conquer the city of Tortosa the following year.In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings
of France and Germany had returned to their countries without any result. Bernard of Clairvaux,
who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of
misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland.A followup to this
crusade was the pilgrimage of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, in 1172 that is sometimes labeled
a crusade

Third Crusade (1187–1192)

The Muslims had long fought among themselves, but they were finally united by Saladin, who
created a single powerful state. Following his victory at the Battle of Hattin he easily
overwhelmed the disunited crusaders in 1187 and retook Jerusalem on 29 September 1187.
Terms were arranged and the city surrendered, with Saladin entering the city on 2 October 1187.

Saladin's victories shocked Europe. On hearing news of the Siege of Jerusalem (1187), Pope
Urban III died of a heart attack on 19 October 1187. On 29 October Pope Gregory VIII issued a
papal bull Audita tremendi, proposing the Third Crusade. To reverse this disaster Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152–1190) of Germany, King Philip II of France, (r. 1180–1223), and
King Richard I (r. 1189–1199) of England all organized forces for the crusade. Frederick died en
route and few of his men reached the Holy Land. The other two armies arrived but were beset
by political quarrels. Philip returned to France, but left most of his forces behind. Richard
captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191. After a long siege, Richard recaptured
the city of Acre. The Crusader army headed south along the Mediterranean coast. They defeated
the Muslims near Arsuf, recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem, but
supply problems prevented them from taking the city and the crusade ended without the taking
of Jerusalem.[110] Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The
treaty allowed trade for merchants and unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to
Jerusalem, while it remained under Muslim control.

Fourth Crusade (1202–1204)

The Fourth Crusade never reached the Holy Land. Instead, it became a vehicle for the political
ambitions of Doge Enrico Dandolo and the German King Philip of Swabia who was married to
Irene of Byzantium. Dandelo saw an opportunity to expand Venice's possessions in the near east
while Philip saw the crusade as a chance to restore his exiled nephew, Alexios IV Angelos to the
throne on Byzantium.[126] Pope Innocent III initiated recruitment for the crusade in 1200 with
preaching taking place in France, England, and Germany, although the bulk of the efforts were in
France.[127] The Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions from the
Venetians so agreed in payment to share what could be looted and restore Alexius. As collateral
for this the crusade seized the Christian city of Zara on 24 November 1202. Innocent was
appalled and excommunicated the crusaders.[128] The crusaders met with limited resistance in
their initial siege of Constantinople, sailing down the Dardanelles and breaching the sea walls.
However, Alexius was strangled after a palace coup robbing them of their success and they had
to repeat the siege in April 1204. This time the city was ransacked, churches pillaged and large
numbers of the citizens butchered. The crusaders took their rewards; dividing the Empire into
Latin fiefs and Venetian colonies. In April 1205, the crusaders were largely annihilated by Bulgars
and remaining Greeks at Adrianople, where Kaloyan of Bulgaria captured and imprisoned the
new Latin emperor Baldwin of Flanders.[129][130][131] While deploring the means, the papacy
initially supported this apparent forced reunion between the Eastern and Western churches.
[132] The Fourth Crusade effectively left two Roman Empires in the East, one Latin "Empire of
the Straits" until 1261 and a Byzantine rump ruled from Nicea which later regained control in the
absence of the Venetian fleet. Venice was the sole beneficiary in the long run.[133]

In the Enlightenment, historians criticized the misdirection of the crusading movement. In

particular they pointed to the Fourth Crusade which instead of attacking Islam attacked another
Christian power – the (Eastern) Roman Empire. David Nicolle says the Fourth Crusade has always
been controversial in terms of the "betrayal" of Byzantium.

Fifth Crusade (1217–1221)

Pope Innocent III declared a new crusade to commence in 1217, along with his summoning of
the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215. The majority of the crusaders came from Germany,
Flanders, and Frisia, along with a large army from Hungary led by King Andrew II and other forces
led by Duke Leopold VI. The forces of Andrew and Leopold arrived in Acre in October 1217 but
little was accomplished and Andrew returned to Hungary in January 1218. After the arrival of
more crusaders, Leopold and the king of Jerusalem, John of Brienne, laid siege to Damietta in
Egypt,[141] which they captured finally in November 1219. Further efforts by the papal legate,
Pelagius, to invade further into Egypt led to no gains.[142] Blocked by forces of the Ayyubid
Sultan Al-Kamil, the crusaders were forced to surrender. Al-Kamil forced the return of Damietta
and agreed to an eight-year truce and the crusaders left Egypt.

Sixth Crusade (1228–1229)

Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words,[144] for
which he was excommunicated by Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from Brindisi in
June 1228 and landed at Saint-Jean d'Acre in September 1228, after a stopover in Cyprus.[145]
There were no battles as Frederick made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil, the ruler of Egypt. This
treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to
Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of their sacred areas in Jerusalem. In return,
Frederick pledged to protect Al-Kamil against all his enemies, even if they were Christian.[146]

A followup to this crusade was the effort by King Theobald I of Navarre in 1239 and 1240 that
had originally been called in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX to assemble in July 1239 at the end of a
truce. Besides Theobald, Peter of Dreux and Hugh, Duke of Burgundy and other French nobles
took part. They arrived in Acre in September 1239 and after a defeat in November, Theobald
arranged a treaty with the Muslims that returned territory to the crusading states, but caused
much disaffection within the crusaders. Theobald returned to Europe in September 1240. Also in
1240, Richard of Cornwall, younger brother of King Henry III of England, took the cross and
arrived in Acre in October. He then secured the ratification of Theobald's treaty and left the Holy
Land in May 1241 for Europe.[16]

Seventh Crusade (1248–1254)

In the summer of 1244 a Khwarezmian force summoned by the son of al-Kamil, al-Salih Ayyub,
stormed Jerusalem and took it. The Franks allied with Ayyub's uncle Ismail and the emir of Homs
and the combined forces were drawn into battle at La Forbie in Gaza. The crusader army and its
allies were completely defeated within forty-eight hours by the Khwarezmian tribesmen.[147]

King Louis IX of France organized a crusade after taking the cross in December 1244, with
preaching and recruitment taking up the time between 1245 and 1248.[148] Louis' forces set sail
from France in May 1249 and landed near Damietta in Egypt on 5 June 1249. Waiting until the
end of the Nile flood, the army marched into the interior in November and by February were
near El Manusra. But they were defeated near there and King Louis was captured on the retreat
towards Damietta that resulted.[149] Louis was ransomed for 800,000 bezants and a ten-year
truce was agreed. Louis then went to Syria where he remained until 1254, working to solidify the
kingdom of Jerusalem and constructing fortifications.

Eighth and Ninth Crusade (1270–1272)

Ignoring his advisers, in 1270 Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in Tunis in North Africa. He picked
the hottest season of the year for campaigning and his army was devastated by disease. The king
himself died, ending the last major attempt to take the Holy Land.[151] The Mamluks, led by
Baibars, eventually drove the Franks from the Holy Land. During 1265 through 1271, he had
driven the Franks to a few small coastal outposts.[152] His armies slaughtered or enslaved every
Christian in the city of Antioch.[153] The future Edward I of England undertook to crusade with
Louis IX, but was delayed and did not arrive in North Africa until November 1270. After the death
of Louis, Edward went to Sicily, but then went on to Acre in May 1271. His forces were too small
to make much difference, and he was upset at the conclusion of a truce between the king of
Jerusalem, Hugh, and Baibars. Although Edward learned of his father's death and his succession
to the throne in December 1272, he did not return to England until 1274, although he
accomplished little in the Holy Land.

Jerusalem is a holy land for Muslims, Christians, and Jews. All live and ruled there at different
times. Some filled it with justice; others with oppression.

Muslim leadership passed to Caliph Abu Bakr following a series of campaigns for the Islamic
conquest of Jerusalem known as the Ridda Wars.

Ridda Wars - also known as the Wars of Apostasy, were a series of military campaigns launched
by the Caliph Abu Bakr against rebel Arabian tribes during 632 and 633 AD, just after
Muhammad died.

Abu Bakr’s initiated a war of Islamic conquest of Jerusalem in the east by invading Iraq, then a
province of the Sassanid Persian Empire and then Byzantine Empire.

In 634, Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar, who continued his own war of Islamic
conquest of Jerusalem. Abu Ubaidah, the Muslim commander-in-chief of the Rashidun army in
Syria, began the war of Islamic conquest with Khalid ibn Walid and his mobile guard with the
instructions of Caliph Umar.

In July 634 CE the Muslims won their first major battle over Byzantium and later, in August 636,
another major battle, fought near the Yarmuk River, won the Muslims their final control over
both Palestine and Syria.

An agreement of surrender drawn up between `Umar and the inhabitants of Jerusalem.

According to the agreement, the Christian populace of Jerusalem agreed to open the city gates
for the Muslims, receiving in return security of life and property, protection of the churches and
freedom of worship, prohibition of Jewish residence in Jerusalem; payment of a tax was
obligatory and freedom was granted to choose between remaining in the city or departing from
it.

Islamic conquest of Jerusalem ranges between 636 and 638 CE.

Reaction Paper

Submitted by: Maria Ericka R. Ragasa

"Poetry in Motion"

The first thing I will say about her performance is that she is pure poetry in motion.
Every glide, jump and turn is like she is swimming gracefully to the music. Julia Lipnitskaia is like
an angel dancing on the last breath of the earth. Her bright red dress is simple yet hypnotizing
combined with her movements. I think with that dress, you'll be mesmerized and your eyes will
fully locked on her. I have not much knowledge with figure skating but I really love the way she
moves in the rink - graceful yet stern at the same time. The way she flips on the rink makes me
hold my breath because i always expect she'll fall. But, every single time she proves me wrong. I
like the triple flip on the ring because it seemed very hard for me because a person can easily get
dizzy even at the first flip, so mainting balance and poise after the three flips is quite
outstanding. I can see her as someone with big potential on this field of art. It also made me
gasp when she was able to do a lot of those body contortions. For me, a simple bending on solid
ground is very hard but for her it didnt matter. She moved and bended like she doesnt know
bones. Its really amazing to watch such talent. She is very flexible and for me, it has helped alot
with her performance.

Julia Lipnitskaia's performace is Fluid, graceful, flowing - not like a series of strung-
together elements. Some figure skaters come across as robotic: "Do this - tick tick tick - do that -
tick tick tick - jump here - tick tick--" This skater moves to the music, seamlessly incorporating
jumps and spins all while including requirements.

At first glance, I could say she looks very confident, passionate about skating and
cheerful. Unlike snobby competitors, she seems like a gentle person who works hard in forming
her art. Because surely a standing ovation performance required years to make. She must've
gone through alot but every effort seemed to be worth it.

Inquisition

The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the judicial system of the Roman Catholic
Church whose aim was to combat heresy. It started in 12th-century France to combat the spread
of religious sectarianism, in particular the Cathars and the Waldensians. This Medieval
Inquisition persisted into the 14th century, and from the 1250s was associated with the
Dominican Order. In the early 14th century, two other movements attracted the attention of the
Inquisition, the Knights Templar and the Beguines.

At the end of the Middle Ages, the concept and scope of the Inquisition was significantly
expanded in response to the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation.