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Liveable Cities - Cities Alliance PDF
Liveable Cities - Cities Alliance PDF
LIVEABLE
CITIES
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
P.O. Box 30552 THE BENEFITS OF
Nairobi 00100 Kenya
Tel: (+254) 20 7623287 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING
Fax: (+254) 20 7624309
unepinfo@unep.org
www.unep.org
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20433 USA
Tel: (202) 473-9233
Fax: (202) 522-3224
info@citiesalliance.org
www.citiesalliance.org
LIVEABLE
CITIES
THE BENEFITS OF
URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
http://www.citiesalliance.org/index.html
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Cover Photo: Aerial View of the city of Bangkok at dusk—a large metropolis coping with the effects of
population growth and its impact on the local environment.
Photographer: © Mike Kemp/Corbis
CONTENTS
F O R E W O R D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
A C R O N Y M S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
SECTION ONE
CITIES AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Urban Life—The Face of the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Environment: An Essential Asset for Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Internal City-Environment Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Health-Environment-Poverty Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Population Most at Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Environmental Health Risks and Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Local Governments and the Urban Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Integrating Environmental Considerations into Urban Planning:
The Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
SECTION TWO
HOW TO INTEGRATE THE ENVIRONMENT
IN URBAN PLANNING STRATEGIES
Entry Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Barriers to Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Instruments for Environmental Integration: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Policy Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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Information Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Voluntary Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Economic Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Regulatory Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Process Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Visioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Baseline Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Participatory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Planning Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Environmental Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Rapid Ecological Footprint Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Monitoring Systems and Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Other Planning Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Management Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Environmental Budgets and Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Other Environmental Management Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
SECTION THREE
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRATION
1. Integrated Development Planning (IDP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2. City Development Strategies (CDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3. Eco City Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. ecoBUDGET© . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5. Strategic Environmental Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
SECTION FOUR
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Recommendations for International Financing Partners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Recommendations for Mayors and City Planners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Contents
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ANNEX ONE
CASE STUDIES
Alexandria Governorate, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Why this Case Study is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Urban Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Urban Management Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Environment Entry Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Replicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Why this Case Study is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Urban Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Urban Management Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Environment Entry Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Replicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Municipality of Bayamo, Republic of Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Why this Case Study is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Urban Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Urban Management Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Environment Entry Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Replicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Bohol Province, the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Why this Case Study is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Urban Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Urban Management Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Environment Entry Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Replicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Contents
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Contents
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Contents
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ANNEX TWO
INSTRUMENT TOOLKIT EXAMPLES
Voluntary Policy Instrument: Sustainable Procurement
(Eco Procurement, Green Purchasing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Process Instrument: Checklist for a Visioning Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Process Instrument: Guides and Programmes which Focus
on Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Planning Instrument: Structuring an Environmental Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Planning Instrument: SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Planning Instrument: Steps in Rapid Ecological Footprint Assessment . . . . . . . 128
Planning Instrument: Monitoring and Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Planning Instrument: Steps in Strategic Environmental Assessment . . . . . . . . . 133
Management Instrument: The ecoBUDGET© Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
R E F E R E N C E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
U S E F U L W E B S I T E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
TABLES
Contents
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BOXES
Contents
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FOREWORD
F
rom time to time one reads a really refreshing and forward-looking report
on the quest for sustainability. This one, focusing on the urban challenge,
brings together concrete case studies from cities around the world which are
struggling, but also in many cases succeeding in tackling issues from waste and
transportation to river and air pollution.
Capturing and sharing experiences and lessons learnt is essential. The world and
its people do not have time on their side if the threats of climate change, over-
exploitation of natural and nature-based resources and poverty are to be managed
and overcome.
Therefore the experiences of these 12 urban areas—from coastal cities such as
Alexandria, Egypt, Bayamo in the Caribbean island of Cuba and a sub-Saharan set-
ting such as Nakuru, Kenya to the rapidly developing city of Yangzhou, China and
an industrialised one like Calgary, Canada—are more than a good read.
They offer lessons on what has worked, what may work and what may fail
elsewhere—lessons that can, if sensitively and carefully considered, offer mayors and
managers of urban environments across continents the chance to test innovative
ideas that others have proved successful elsewhere.
The report uses the unique approach of highlighting the simple message of,“Why
this Case Study is Important”. It also showcases some intriguing options for sus-
tainable urban development. The city of Bayamo in Cuba, faced with a situation
where motorised transport was available to just 15 percent of local commuters, has
in 2004 reverted to horse-drawn carriages. Horse-drawn services now take care of
around 40 percent of local transport needs, demonstrating that motorised trans-
port is not the only solution to a public transport problem.
There are many ‘take home’ messages—environmental management can boost
the budgets of cities, prove a strong marketing tool for attracting investors and
contribute to public health and poverty eradication.
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Another is that many urban areas are actively pursuing Local Agenda 21 policies,
underlining how agreements forged 15 years ago in Rio at the Earth Summit remain
very much alive and well and relevant to the demands of the early 21st century.
Above all, the report underscores how any successful sustainable urban strategy
must involve the participation and support of local groups, communities and indi-
vidual citizens if it is to blossom and flourish.
Foreword
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T
his report arose out of a decision taken at the Cities Alliance Consultative
Group Meeting at Marrakech in 2005 to more systematically integrate the
environment into urban development programmes. This had become more
imperative as issues of climate change, environmental pressure on coastal zones
where most of the world’s cities are located, and the consequent threat to the health
and sustainability of humanity remain on the increase.
Commissioned by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
Cities Alliance Secretariat, with support from the United Nations Human Settle-
ments Programme (UN-HABITAT), the report discusses good practices and useful
tools undertaken by mayors and city managers who are at the forefront in taking
action to address environmental challenges, working to balance the urban environ-
ment, economic growth and poverty reduction nexus. The actual research was
undertaken by the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives
(ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability), a membership organisation of local
governments committed to global sustainability.
Special thanks go to all the partners involved in the process of development: Julia
Crause, Rob de Jong, Tim Kasten and Xenya Scanlon at UNEP; Joy Bailey, Ewa
Ciuk, Paul Fenton, Megan Jamieson, Emani Kumar, David Meyrick, Laura Valente
Macedo and Konrad Otto-Zimmerman at ICLEI; Pelle Persson, Chii Akporji,
Andrea Haer and Anne Carlin at the Cities Alliance secretariat; peer reviewers,
David Satterthwaite of the International Institute for Environment and Develop-
ment (IIED); Kulsum Ahmed, Fernando Loayza, Paula J. Posas, Poonam Pillai and
Sameer Akbar of the World Bank; Carmen Vogt of German Technical Cooperation
(GTZ). Special thanks also to Eleanor Cody, the Consultant who undertook orig-
inal edits and to Chii Akporji for more substantial revisions and for managing its
publication.
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ACRONYMS
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Acronyms
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A
successful city cannot operate efficiently in isolation from its environment. It
must balance social, economic and environmental needs. A successful city must
offer investors security, infrastructure and efficiency, and should also put the
needs of its citizens at the forefront of all its planning activities. Poor urban planning
and management can have grave results for the urban economy, the environment and
society. Poorly managed urban settlements will be unable to keep pace with urban
expansion, and unserviced slums will proliferate, bringing with them poor health,
poverty, social unrest and economic inefficiency. Environmental hazards are respon-
sible for the most common causes of ill-health and mortality among the urban poor.
Local governments have an enormous influence on how urban-environment rela-
tionships develop, and on how their cities interact with their hinterlands and with
the wider global community. Effective local governance can make cities more com-
petitive, more efficient and more attractive to investors and workers by promoting
the sustainable development of the urban environment.
Sustainable development is multi-dimensional. It requires an understanding of
complex and often conflicting relationships. These issues call for an integrated
approach and an integration culture. A variety of strategic approaches to integrat-
ing the environment into the urban planning process exist. Environmental activities
can be targeted at different levels. Cities can also use different instruments to inte-
grate the environment into urban planning and management approaches: policy
instruments, process instruments, planning instruments and management instru-
ments. This report investigates how these instruments are applied in several well-
established approaches to integrated urban planning. It examines the characteristics,
strengths and weaknesses of Integrated Development Plans, City Development
Strategies, ecoCity Planning, ecoBUDGET© and Strategic Environmental Assessment,
all of which are defined and illustrated.
The report also outlines the information which urban managers should receive
from support programmes to assist them in the development of their urban devel-
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opment strategies. It argues that when making proposals for support, cities should
be encouraged to include environmental considerations right from the start. They
can be supported in this with a range of information materials. Proposals for sup-
port should also include suggestions on how to sustain environmental action within
the context of the urban strategy, on how to raise municipal and public awareness
of the importance of the issue, and how to monitor implementation.
Twelve case studies of cities that have worked to integrate the environment into
their planning processes, contained in the annex to this publication are drawn from
throughout the world, Africa, North and South America, Asia, the Caribbean and
Europe. Population size in these cities range from 142,000 in Bayamo, Cuba, to
10 million in Bangkok, Thailand. The municipal budgets range just as widely, and
each city faces a different set of urban challenges and opportunities. What all these
cities have in common, however, is a clear understanding of the important role of
the environment in sustainable development, and a desire to ensure that the envi-
ronment is properly integrated into urban development decisions. In all cases, a bet-
ter urban environment is seen as integral to sustainable socioeconomic development.
Perhaps the most important sections of each of the 12 case studies are those that
explain why the case study is important, and how it can be replicated. While all cities
and urban settlements are unique, each case study highlights an urban issue faced
by cities the world over. This may be urban poverty, economic or political transi-
tion, hazard management or pollution. It may also be civic participation, budgeting,
resettlement or urban health. The common denominator between all the case study
cities is their inclusion of environmental considerations in their urban planning and
management approaches. Each city has managed to find an entry point in its urban
management system which supports and in its turn is supported by environmental
action. The case studies examine these entry points, and point out how successful
experiences can be replicated in other cities.
It is worth noting that all the city experiences reviewed highlight the importance
of citizen participation, although each city approaches this in a different way. All
case studies also mention the importance of communications and dissemination, of
making environmental information available to the general public, whether through
bulletins, published indicators, workshops and training or other media. Finally,
most cities stress the usefulness of partnerships at a variety of levels. These can be
partnerships with international organisations, with the private sector or simply with
different line ministries.
The report is divided into four main sections. Section One, which sets out the gen-
eral context for the report argues that a well-managed urban environment is key to
economic development and poverty alleviation. Today, there is almost universal
recognition in governments at all levels that it is essential to incorporate environmen-
Executive Summary
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tal considerations into urban planning and management. This provides significant
benefits in every area of urban life, cutting across issues such as health, poverty, secu-
rity and economic development.
Section Two outlines the basic framework to urban environmental planning. It
defines entry levels, barriers to integration and provides an overview of instruments
for environmental integration. It then documents some of the policy, process, plan-
ning and management instruments that can be deployed in the process of integrat-
ing the environment into urban planning.
Section Three examines a number of approaches to the application of some
of these instruments: Integrated Development Planning (IDP); City Development
Strategies (CDS); Eco City Planning; ecoBUDGET©, a copyrighted management tool
developed by ICLEI; and Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Section Four concludes the discussions and proffers some recommendations for
urban environmental planning targeting city leaders, urban decision-makers and
their partners. This is followed by Annexes of twelve case studies illustrating differ-
ent city approaches to urban environmental planning, Instrument Toolkit examples,
a bibliography and a list of useful websites.
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SECTION ONE
CITIES AND
THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
his section examines how cities affect and are affected by their environment.
T It shows how a successful city cannot operate efficiently in isolation from its
environment, and how the environment can be integrated into urban devel-
opment processes. The section also discusses the health-environment-poverty nexus
and underlines the advantages of formally integrating environmental considerations
into urban planning.
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Liveable Cities
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policies. To meet the urban challenges of today, play a leading role in developing new approaches
and the challenges to come, appropriate manage- to treat the natural and built environment, and
ment frameworks must be available, through the people that interact with it, as one intercon-
which cities can apply innovative approaches nected “city ecosystem”. Their innovation and
suitable for their local circumstances. creativity in striving for sustainable urban devel-
Urban settlements can learn from the natural opment will reach into all areas of policy devel-
world—cities can be seen as ecosystems. In the opment and decision-making.
same way that a natural ecosystem like a rainfor-
est or coral reef is a complex system of interlink-
The Environment—An Essential
ages between elements, everything in a city is
Asset for Cities
connected to everything else. If land use is
changed in one area of a city, it will affect the Managing environmental resources as a group of
transportation system, infrastructure and econ- strategic assets that are crucial to a municipality’s
omy in other areas. Local governments today goals, important to ecosystem health, and benefi-
cial to the community is key to successful urban Costa Rica’s Payments for
management. What are the ways in which the Environmental Services Programme
environment can be viewed as an asset for cities? Costa Rica was one of the first countries to
The natural environment provides cities with recognise the value of ‘environmental ser-
countless ecosystem services. Some of these are vices’ when it established the Payments for
so fundamental to urban liveability that they Environmental Services Programme. The pro-
gramme requires those who benefit from the
may seem invisible to urban managers: air,
environmental services of forests to pay for
water, open space. Environmental resources are those services. Those payments go into a
frequently taken for granted, rather than being national forestry fund, which is used to con-
utilised, enhanced, and invested in. tract private landowners of forestland to pay
These are just some of the countless examples for forest conservation and sustainable man-
of the services that the natural environment pro- agement practices.
vides to urban settlements:
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or man-made disasters such as chemical explo- dernourishment, poor health and inadequate
sions. Today, cities are also increasingly feeling public health services such as waste collection.
the effects of global warming. Which groups of
society are most affected by the environmental
hazards of a city? Why? Water Kiosks Fight Cholera in Kenya
In Nakuru, Kenya, the water supply provided
only 35,000 m3/day, although water require-
Population Most at Risk ments were estimated at 75,000 m3/day.
Not all urban residents are affected by environ- Nakuru residents cited water shortages as one
of the town’s major problems. A severe cholera
mental hazards in the same way. Environmental
outbreak in the low-income areas of Kaptem-
hazards are responsible for the most common bwa and Rhoda in 2000 was attributed to the
causes of ill health and mortality among the consumption of contaminated water from
urban poor. Environment-related infections and unknown sources. As a result the Nakuru Munic-
ipal Council supported the creation of water
parasitic diseases thrive where there is a lack of
kiosks to prevent further outbreaks.
clean drinking water, sanitation and drainage, Source: ICLEI/Africa/Resources/Case Studies. Accessed
and where air quality is poor (Nunan and Sat- September 2007.
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NOWAK-UNEP
the absence of comprehensive data,
the environment-related health
risks identified are those that are
Air pollution affects cities in both the developed and easily measured, and which usu-
developing world. ally affect middle and upper income
groups (Nunan and Satterthwaite, 1999).
The use of biomass fuel, coal for cooking and More information is needed about the health-
heating in a confined living space can produce environment-poverty nexus, including poverty-
toxic fumes that damage lungs: indeed, indoor mapping (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 2003).
smoke can be a far greater risk to health than air Five of the cities case studies prepared for this
pollution in city streets. Poor air quality in infor- report highlight the health-environment-poverty
mal settlements is often exacerbated by the prac- nexus (Bangkok, Bohol, Cape Town, Goiânia
tice of burning household waste. and Nakuru).
Outside the home, air pollution affects cities
in both the developed and developing world.
Particulate matter can affect respiratory and car-
Traffic: A Major Health Hazard
diovascular systems (for example, asthma) and
for Urban Residents
accelerate mortality. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), at
relatively high concentrations, causes inflamma- In spite of nightmarish congestion, motor
vehicle use in developing cities is soaring. In
tion of the airways and long-term exposure may
1980, the developing world accounted for
affect lung function. Exposure to carbon monox-
only 18 percent of global vehicle ownership.
ide (CO) reduces the capacity of the blood to By 2020 about half of the world’s projected
carry oxygen and deliver it to tissues. Sulphur 1.3 billion cars, trucks and buses will clog the
dioxide (SO2) causes constriction of the airways streets and alleys of poorer countries.
and may cause acute mortality. Exposure to high The World Health Organization considers
levels of lead (Pb) affects the haemoglobin, the traffic to be one of the worst health hazards
kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, joints and repro- facing the urban poor, and predicts that road
ductive system and damages the nervous system accidents by 2020 will be the third leading
cause of death.
(Greater London Authority, 2002a). It is esti-
mated that 800,000 people die prematurely each http://www.who.int/social_determinants/fea
year due to urban air pollution (WHO, 2002). tures/en/index.html, accessed February 2007
Traffic fumes are a particular cause of ill-health,
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EnviroSystem: How Calgary Works all business units. In addition, it has created a cul-
Towards Its City Vision ture of environmental caring and an understand-
In Calgary, the environmental management system ing of the importance of protecting the watershed,
that is used is referred to as Enviro-System. It de- preserving natural areas and green space, and
scribes the City of Calgary’s strengths, accountability protecting the air. While the results within the mu-
to itself and its citizens, and commitments to protect nicipality have been impressive, the benefits ex-
the natural environment. EnviroSystem enables the tend to the community by improving citizen
city to uphold its vision of “working together to cre- perception of the city as an environmental leader,
ate and sustain a vibrant, healthy, safe and caring attracting industry, people and business. The Envi-
community”. It allows the city to manage the im- roSystem report, which is made public and readily
pact its activities have on the environment. available, highlights major achievements in air,
EnviroSystem has improved internal communi- land, water, and materials management along
cation significantly as it provides a strong link across with summaries of the city’s accomplishments.
for the inclusion of environmental issues in results with a set of monitorable actions and
urban planning. indicators. A growing focus on aid delivery
Donors, in turn, are focusing on providing aid through general budget support puts the priori-
in a more integrated and effective manner. The tisation of issues in the hands of the recipient
Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, agreed in country, freeing up further avenues for the inte-
2005, saw over one hundred ministers, heads of gration of environmental issues in urban plan-
agencies and other senior officials commit their ning and management.
countries and organisations to increase efforts in Several of the case studies in this report show
harmonisation, alignment and managing aid for that some cities do integrate the environment
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micro-cogeneration (combined heat and power that provide some income for the urban poor,
systems) and methane production all benefit the such as water vending, the provision of toilet
local economy (Moffatt, 1999). Circular Econ- facilities, biogas, waste recycling, and compost-
omy methods like local industrial planning have ing (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 2003) also have
the potential to reuse water resources. (Shi Lei, environmental benefits.
2004 and Zhu Dajian, 2004). An integrated environmental policy also
An integrated environmental policy can help works to reduce environmental hazards and
stimulate the local economy by planning for sus- health, especially those which affect the urban
tainable neighbourhoods. This might include poor. Absence due to sickness among the work-
sustainable construction involving energy effi- force adversely affects the economic efficiency of
ciency and the use of compact fluorescent light- local industry, competitiveness and the at-
ing, rainwater tanks/water-conserving irrigation tractiveness of the city to external investors.
systems, renewable energy alternatives (such as Moreover, localised environmental hazards es-
solar water heaters, insulation, geothermal heat- pecially in peri-urban areas are potential sources
ing and cooling systems), and neighbourhood- of pandemics (Cities Alliance, 2006), and run
based sewerage systems (Swilling, 2006). In counter to the principles of equity and social
addition, modest income-generating activities inclusion.
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Improved provision Can bring a very large drop in health For income earners, less time off work
of water and burdens from water-related infectious from illness or from nursing sick family
sanitation services and parasitic diseases and some vector- members.
borne diseases—and also in premature
Better nutrition (for example, less food
deaths (especially for infants and young
lost to diarrhoea and intestinal worms).
children).
Less physical effort needed in collecting
Safe disposal of excreta from home and
water.
neighbourhood is a great health bonus.
Lower overall costs for those who, prior
to improved supplies, had to rely on
expensive water vendors.
Less crowded, better Can bring a large drop in household acci- Lower risk for low income groups to lose
quality housing— dents (often a major cause of serious their homes and other capital assets to
through supporting injury and accidental death in poor qual- accidental fires or disasters.
low income groups ity, overcrowded housing) and remove
Secure, stimulating indoor space an
to build, develop or the necessity for low income groups to
enormous benefits for children’s physical,
buy less crowded, occupy land sites at high risk from floods,
mental and social development.
better quality housing landslides or other hazards.
Can also help reduce indoor air pollution.
Avoidance of haz- Reduces number of people at risk from Sites within cities that may be hazardous
ardous land sites for floods, landslides or risks from other haz- for settlements are often well-suited to
settlements ardous sites. The damage or destruction parks or wildlife reserves.
of housing and other assets from, for
instance, floods or landslides can be the
‘shock’ which pushes low income house-
holds into absolute poverty.
Promotion of cleaner Reductions in respiratory and other prob- Reduced contribution of household
household fuels lems through reduced indoor and out- stoves to city air pollution.
door air pollution.
Improved provision Removes garbage from open sites and Considerable employment opportunities
of solid waste man- ditches in and around settlements. in well managed solid waste collection
agement services Greatly reduced risk of many animal systems where recycling, reuse and
and insect disease vectors and stops reclamation are promoted.
garbage blocking drains.
Support for com- If well managed, lots of low-cost ways to Employment creation; minimum
munity action to reduce environmental hazards and incomes help households avoid poverty.
improve local improve environmental quality in infor- Can reduce sense of social exclusion.
environment mal settlements.
Support for more Low income groups with more possibili- Precedents set in participatory local
participatory plans ties of influencing city authorities’ priorities Agenda 21s and other action plans can
on environmental policy and investment. lead to low income groups getting
greater influence in other sectors.
Improved public Cheap, good quality public transport Can reduce air pollution and its health
transport keeps down time and money costs for impacts. Can reduce the disadvantages
income earners of low income groups of living in peripheral locations and help
getting to and from work. keep down house prices.
Source: Shaping the Urban Environment in the 21st Century—A Resource Book, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/19/
1956241.pdf, accessed February 2007
SECTION TWO
HOW TO INTEGRATE
THE ENVIRONMENT IN
URBAN PLANNING STRATEGIES
velopment.
Entry Levels
A variety of strategic approaches to integrating the environment into the urban plan-
ning process exist. A city can choose to target its environmental activities at different
levels. It may choose to take action for the city as a whole, using supra-sectoral con-
cepts and strategies such as Localising Agenda 21, which has provided many local
authorities with an innovative and effective approach to urban management which
combines social, economic and environmental aspects, or the Eco-City Planning
approach. It may chose to focus on integrated local environmental management, util-
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ising information systems, environmental moni- standing of how systems fit together on the part
toring and eco-budgeting. Urban managers may of all professions dealing with the environment.
decide to implement ecological construction and
living policies, using sustainable construction
Instruments for Environmental
material, technologies and supply systems and
Integration: An Overview
encouraging ecological user behaviour. Cities
may also choose integrated strategies for certain This section presents some of the instruments
sectors and environmental commodities. These that a city can use to integrate the environment
can include reducing energy consumption, con- into urban planning and management. Instru-
ments can fall into several categories: policy
trolling air pollution in urban areas, reducing
instruments, process instruments, planning in-
industrial and traffic emissions, improving water
struments and management instruments. Policy
quality, reducing the amount of solid waste gen-
instruments provide guiding principles for urban
erated, or developing overall strategies for traf-
decision-makers. Process instruments provide
fic and transport which avoid negative impacts
ways of doing something, steps that can be taken
on the environment. Another way that urban
to reach a desired goal. Planning instruments
decision-makers can make environmental inter-
offer a variety of methods by which urban devel-
ventions is through the development of institu-
opment plans can be developed and imple-
tional, legal and market-policy frameworks.
mented. Management instruments provide tools
These can include legal and political regulations,
to direct and administer urban planning deci-
management instruments, technical consultan-
sions. Many environmental instruments are sup-
cies, private sector involvement, citizen partici-
ported by specialised tools or toolkits, and
pation and public relations, the introduction of
samples of these are included in the next chapter.
cooperation arrangements, and partnerships
with the private sector.
Policy Instruments
A variety of policy instruments are available to
Barriers to Integration
cities. These can be broken down into four main
Barriers to integration of the environment into categories: information, voluntary, economic
urban policy and planning remain, however. and regulatory.1
The institutional structure of local governments
sometimes creates a “silo mentality” among the Information Instruments
staff of individual departments that can obstruct Information instruments can include written,
policy integration. Building staff capacity is often internet or face-to-face advice. Some cities have
necessary to create an awareness of the need for
policy integration and of how this can best be 1 The information on environmental policy instruments in this
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set up environmental information offices to pro- ket together and helping them agree to common
vide the general public with information on envi- aims, or providing a scheme for people to join
ronmental issues. Information instruments can may be enough to change environmental behav-
also include training, research and development, iour. For example, companies may work to-
and awareness raising campaigns. Information wards attaining environmental management
campaigns work best to redress a situation where standards because it provides them with a mar-
a lack of information about how best to reduce keting advantage, and helps to reduce potential
environmental impacts is in itself a significant environmental liabilities or environmental lia-
barrier to people changing their behaviour. Other bility insurance costs. Examples of voluntary
information instruments can take the form of instruments include voluntary product labelling
clearing house mechanisms where communities or branding, voluntary codes of practice or stan-
can learn about other city experiences, such as dards, voluntary (but externally accredited) envi-
Germany’s “Agenda Transfer” initiative.2 ronmental management standards or audits, and
voluntary agreements.
Voluntary Instruments
Economic Instruments
Voluntary instruments work best where people
already have an incentive to change their behav- Economic instruments come in many different
iour. Just bringing different players in the mar- forms, but generally work by making people face
the environmental costs they impose on society.
2 http://www.agenda-service.de/ Economic instruments can include charges or
taxes on emissions or products. These provide an Street scene with children in Yangzhou, China.
economic incentive to reduce pro-
duction or use of harmful sub-
Emissions Trading at the City Level: A Chinese Example
stances. There are also tax refund
schemes where environmental taxes Taiyuan is a heavily polluted industrial city in the coal belt of
northern China. With mountains on three sides, Taiyuan traps
are refunded in proportion to the
air pollutants, and particulate matter (PM) and sulphur diox-
taxpayer’s environmental perform- ide (SO2) represent a serious public health threat. In 2000,
ance improvement. Deposit/refund SO2 concentrations averaged more than three times China’s
schemes encourage people not to Class II annual standard.
The Taiyuan city government began experimenting with
discard empty containers or used
emissions permits in the 1980s, including a 1985 local regu-
products. Tradeable permits or quo- lation. The city conducted experiments with emissions offsets
tas can be used to control the over- and administratively-determined trading in the mid 1990s.
all level of a particular type of In 1998, the Taiyuan city government issued “management
pollution or the use of a specific rules” for Total Emissions Control (TEC), including a provision
for “permit exchange,” a form of emissions permit trading.
resource but allow individuals to
The Taiyuan Environmental Protection Bureau has issued
buy or sell permits to meet their own about three dozen updated permits with TEC-based limits to
requirements. large enterprises.
Economic instruments can also Source: OECD Global Forum on Sustainable Development, Emissions
come in the form of direct public Trading: Concerted Action on Tradeable Emissions Permits, OECD 2003
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ing. Lastly, economic regulation which promotes highly participatory. Today, it is generally recog-
competitive markets can also have a significant nised that increasing the level of stakeholder par-
environmental impact. For example, utility com- ticipation in the planning process results in greater
panies should not be given disincentives to make focus, relevance and enhances execution in
environmental investments. urban planning strategies. The urban planning
Often a single instrument does not operate in process can be used to build consensus, to
isolation. Combinations of different types of develop horizontal cooperation and create new
instruments can be used together to achieve a partnerships. It can be used to prioritise issues
desired environmental outcome. Some elements and to create a vision or roadmap for the future,
of the package may have an effect in the long offering a highly effective entry point for the
run, others may work in the short run. The mix- integration of environmental issues.
ture of instruments in the package can continue
over time to adapt to changing circumstances.
Visioning
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Cities Alliance
Slum dweller groups participate at a Cities Alliance Public Policy Forum in Durban, South Africa.
ference and encourage participants to attend all should be submitted to the city council and made
sessions. The results of the visioning conference widely available, including to the media. Vision-
should be published in a report that contains a ing methods are time-consuming both for elected
list of community assets and the agreed long- members and staff, but they provide a firm foun-
term vision for the city. The visioning report dation for policy formulation.
Creating a City Vision: action. The city of Calgary has committed itself to
The Calgary Experience aligning its key plans to the 100-year vision. Many
city plans are being updated within the next few
imagineCALGARY is a city-led, community owned
years.
initiative to create a 100-year vision and plan
The second stage of imagineCALGARY saw the
for a sustainable Calgary, “in order to ensure a
creation of 30-year strategies and targets, guided
prosperous economy, clean environment and
high quality of life for the people who live there in by the 100-year vision, as a reference point for the
the decades to come”. imagineCALGARY is the community to determine individual and collective
first project of its kind in Canada and one of the action. The targets focus on key systems of the city-
few in the world to have such a broad scope built environment, natural environment, social,
and include so many citizens—approximately governance and economic.
18,000—in developing a vision for a sustainable imagineCALGARY is currently entering the third
community. and final, or “legacy”, phase, which will ensure
imagineCALGARY has three stages. The first progress towards the vision through the actions of
stage, the visioning process, asked Calgary citizens public institutions, community organisations and
what they valued about Calgary and what they business, as well as individual citizens. While devel-
hoped for the future of their city. This resulted in a oping the vision and strategies has been city-led
long-term vision of a sustainable Calgary that cap- and resourced, the legacy is to be community-
tures the values of today’s citizens and inspires owned and supported.
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Planning Instruments
Environmental Profiles
Process and planning instruments are intricately
related, with specialised planning instruments An environmental profile is a specialised urban
often providing key support to the planning planning tool which focuses on the environment.
process. These include: It works to: provide a common understanding of
how a city’s economic sectors interact
with the environment in terms of
Identifying Environment-Development Interactions: resources and hazards; it provides
The Bayamo Environmental Profile information about the institutional
In Bayamo, Cuba an environmental profile of the city was framework a city’s management sys-
prepared in consultation with more than 100 actors. This was tems; and, it helps both to identify and
then documented in the Bayamo Urban Environmental mobilise local stakeholders with inter-
Profile (Diagnostico Urbano-Ambiental de la Ciudad de ests in development and the environ-
Bayamo). It was the first step in the process of integrating
ment (United Nations Centre for
environment into development.
Human Settlements [UNCHS now
The profile identified the sectors and institutions involved
in local development and their links with the environment. It UN-HABITAT] and UNEP, 1999).
described urban and environmental risks and resources, and An environmental profile is nor-
identified the existing mechanisms for information ex- mally quickly assembled from existing
change, coordination and decision-making. The profile is information and data, not through
very innovative compared to traditional diagnoses, because
expensive and time-consuming re-
it marks the first time that the interactions between develop-
search. As such, it is a form of rapid
ment and the environment have been analysed. One of the
profile’s key purposes is to serve as a common information urban environmental assessment. The
base for all project partners. By presenting the urban environ- environmental profile is used to help
ment institutional framework, the profile helped stakehold- stakeholders participate in the urban
ers to identify institutional strengths and weaknesses which decision-making process, and is
could be addressed. widely available. It is written in a sim-
ple style, free from jargon.
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Most cities in the developing countries of gated, communicated to decision-makers and the
Africa, Latin America and Asia have an EF public and monitored. In the European Union,
below the global average, although neighbour- SEA has become an important instrument to help
hoods within those cities often show sharp
differences.
cities to work towards the long-term goal of sus- Environmental Budgets and Audits
tainable development in public planning and pol- An environmental budget is based on environ-
icy making (EU Directive 2001/42/EC). SEAs are mental indicators measured in physical quanti-
best conducted as early as possible in the develop- ties. It does not attempt to place a monetary
ment strategy planning process, while the strategy value on natural resources and environmental
is still in early draft stage. goods. The environmental budgeting cycle runs
Key benefits of a SEA include: in parallel with the financial budgeting cycle
with which the public, decision-makers and sen-
It enables the environment to be integrated
ior administrators are already familiar. Envi-
into a development strategy;
ronmental budgeting is rooted in the Aalborg
It provides opportunities for local stakehold-
Charter of 1994 which calls for environmental
ers to be involved;
budgeting instruments to manage natural re-
It contributes to the long-term goal of sustain-
sources as efficiently as money.
able development;
Environmental budgeting goes hand in hand
It strengthens the planning framework within
with environmental auditing. Originally, private
which strategic decisions are made;
companies used this method for their own envi-
It forms part of an iterative process that is car-
ronmental management purposes. In 1999, eco-
ried out very much in parallel with the prepa-
audit specialists concluded that both systems
ration of the CDS.3
should complement each other. Without eco-
audits, the potential for continual improvement
Other Planning Instruments
would be neglected; without environmental
The planning instruments described in this section budgets, local authorities would neglect political
are just some of the range available. Others include: decision-making. ICLEI’s ecoBUDGET system com-
Power-Interests-Analysis, Participatory Organi- plements the European Union’s Eco-Management
sational Appraisal (POA)/Rainbow Model, Par- and Audit Scheme (EMAS) and ISO 14001.
ticipatory Urban Appraisal, EIDOS (formerly ecoBUDGET is described in more detail in Sec-
known as ThinkTools—for systemic analysis, tion 3, and the ecoBUDGET cycle is described in the
strategic planning and monitoring) SINFONIE, Toolkit in Annex 2.
and general institutional development in environ-
ment appraisal. Other Environmental
Management Instruments
Numerous other environmental management
Management Instruments
instruments are also in use. They include: Cost
Management instruments are used to direct and Cutting Procedures (for example, for urban traf-
administer urban planning decisions. This sec- fic and transport), Profitable Environmental
tion provides two examples—one using environ- Management (PREMA), Profitable Urban Man-
ment budgeting techniques, and the other using agement (PRUMA), Cleaner Production Audits
environment quality management techniques. (legal regulations), Environmental Monitoring,
Impact Monitoring Systems and Mediation (con-
3 http://www.sea-info.net/content/overview.asp?pid=94 flict management).
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Policy instruments Information: Written, internet, face-to- Internet, electronic newsletters, outreach
face advice, information offices, training, media
research and development, awareness-
raising campaigns, clearing house
mechanisms
Economic: Emission charges & taxes, City twinning projects through which
tax refund schemes, deposit & refund developed cities will support climate-
schemes, tradable permits, public related initiatives in developing cities
spending subsidies, fine, legal liability for
environmental damage, bonds.
SECTION THREE
SOME EXAMPLES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRATION
n the preceding section, we looked at entry levels and instruments for urban
I environmental integration. How has this been applied in practice? This sec-
tion examines a number of examples.
The first two examples, Integrated Development Planning (IDP) and City Devel-
opment Strategies (CDS), focus on planning. IDPs can be regarded as supra-sectoral,
while the CDS approach is somewhat more selective, concentrating on integrated
strategies for certain sectors and environmental commodities. The third example,
ecoCity Planning, also uses a supra-sectoral planning approach, but has environ-
mental issues at its heart from the beginning. The fourth, ecoBUDGET© uses manage-
ment as its delivery vehicle, and generally works at the supra-sectoral level. The final
example, Strategic Environmental Assessment, uses assessment as the delivery vehi-
cle, and is also generally supra-sectoral.
Aerial view of Cape Town from Table Mountain. © Roger de la Harpe/Corbis
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Implementing a City Development Strategy strategic plan. Transparency, in this context, led to
in Alexandria, Egypt the formulation of teams and working groups tak-
ing care of the various components of the plan.
Under the leadership of the Governor, Alexandria
The full participation of all community stakeholders
embarked on a City Development Strategy in
led to the utilisation of local potential and created
2004. During the 2004–2006 phase, Alexandria
a community spirit that has ensured the success of
prepared a Comprehensive Strategic Develop-
CDS’ implementation.
ment Plan for the city within the framework of the
Alexandria CDS. The CDS was developed using
methodology rested and developed by Cities
Alliance.
The implementation of the Alexandria CDS has
greatly helped decision makers, private sector,
NGOs, and the community at large to come
together for a common strategic vision and unified
their efforts towards setting up a strategic plan for
development. By using a consultative process to
tailor the development plan, the results reflect all
stakeholders’ commitment to work towards its
implementation. By having such equal participa-
tion, all of the players knew their roles, duties,
responsibilities, and benefits. Likewise, the CDS pro- Aerial view of Alexandria, Egypt.
vided the opportunity for all stakeholders to
exchange views, develop positive dialogues, and Source: www.citiesalliance.org/activities-output/topics/cds/
be well informed regarding their city development cds-guidelines.html, accessed June 2007
What needs further testing: To date, IDP has pared within 12 to 15 months but can then be
been strong on strategies and plans but questions adapted and refined to respond to changing
remain on implementation and delivery. In par- demographic, economic and political circum-
ticular, further testing is needed on the use of stances. While a CDS does not need to be stat-
monitoring as a positive planning tool, including utory, its implementation is strengthened by
making ongoing adjustments to programmes. formalisation and integration into the formal
Awareness raising programmes and environ- decision process, for example, by being translated
mental education among schoolchildren are into a local authority’s investment plans and
laudable, and are likely to produce dividends in budgets. In general, CDS areas of thematic focus
the longer term, but more work needs to be done have concentrated on livelihood issues (jobs,
to influence the general public in the short-term business start-ups, and household income); envi-
and to bring about a change of lifestyles of ronmental quality, service delivery, and energy
households in the most affluent neighbourhoods. efficiency; spatial form and infrastructure; finan-
cial resources; and governance (Cities Alliance,
2006).
2: City Development Strategies Some city development strategies include
Key characteristics: City Development Strategies, the theme, ‘Living Environment and Social Life’.
promoted by Cities Alliance is also a planning This incorporates strategies to deal with water
system. A CDS can be prepared rapidly and and air pollution; integrated solid waste man-
amended quickly. The initial CDS is often pre- agement; green facilities and recovery of the
green area; adequate sources of clean water; ing cities (Cities Alliance, 2005a, pp. 42 and 54).
preparation for natural disasters; alleviation Moreover, where an monitoring and evaluation
of poverty and unemployment; measures to system has been established, it is often unclear
strengthen social equity and protect citizens whether or not it will be maintained once Cities
from crime; measures to prevent the occurrence Alliance funding for the CDS project comes to an
of diseases; and public awareness raising (World end.
Bank, 2001). In addition, while the Cities Alliance Guide-
Methods and tools: The CDS process consists lines for the Submission of Proposals includes
of the following steps (Cities Alliance, 2006): the expectation that activities supported by the
Cities Alliance will achieve significant environ-
Rapid data assessment;
mental improvements, the selection criterion
Development of a shared vision;
relating to the environment has not been well
SWOT analysis;
understood by cities and is often ignored.
Preparation of strategic thrust (identification
What needs further testing: Although a CDS is
of key issues and actions designed to achieve a
capable of achieving sustainable development by
measurable target);
balancing the complex relationships between envi-
Awareness building;
ronmental conditions and economic vitality, social
Implementation;
cohesion, cultural identity and citizens’ well being,
Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E).
mayors and city managers involved in the pro-
CDS methods and instruments are designed to gramme have not so far taken advantage of this
enable rapid initial preparation and place moni- capacity, as they have not viewed the environment
toring and evaluation at the centre of the proc- as a matter of primary importance. The Cities
ess. Stakeholder groups participate in every stage Alliance and UNEP have embarked on a joint
of the process. urban environment initiative to redress this gap,
Monitoring and evaluation play a central role part of which is the publication of this report.
in every CDS project (Cities Alliance, 2005). The
indicators chosen for monitoring purposes de-
3: Eco City planning
pend on the strategic thrust of a particular CDS
and the key priority issues. Cities Alliance Key characteristics: Eco City planning (ECP) uses
provides prospective applicants with M&E strategic planning to establish a long-term direc-
guidelines, which provide several principles for tion towards sustainable development. ECP is
an effective M&E system and emphasises the holistic—it provides an over-arching umbrella for
importance of including M&E at each step of the other more narrowly focused and shorter-term
initial CDS rather than regarding it as an plans. According to Moffatt (1999), ECP planning
optional extra. addresses a broader range of issues over a longer
Limitations: Although monitoring is central to time frame and with greater public accountability
strategic planning, experience shows that an effec- than most other planning approaches.
tive monitoring and evaluation system has not ECP consists of an ongoing process of data
been included in the CDS process in all participat- collection, monitoring, policy analysis and fine-
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4
New developments are designed so that resources perpetually
circulate in closed loops, maximising material value without
Donguan Gate, Yangzhou, China. damaging ecosystems (UN-HABITAT, 2006)
operations, and green building design guidelines scenarios on a citywide level. Accounting for
including everything from the site and energy non-monetary indirect costs is also weak,
control systems in buildings (Moffatt, 1999). because of an emphasis on short-term capital
ECP may also include subsidiary actions such as costs as opposed to life cycle costs (Moffatt,
spatial planning, municipal investment planning 1999).
and budgeting What needs further testing: These questions:
Limitations: The demands of data collection
and analyses and in some cases, the high level of How can linkages between the eco-city plan
public involvement encouraged by the city and investment planning and budgeting sys-
administration may mean that a lengthy period tems be strengthened? ECP is a new discipline,
of time is required to prepare an initial ECP. The whereas accountancy is an old-established
Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) took four profession determined to defend its turf.
years to prepare the initial eco-city plan for How can an ECP approach be practically
Yangzhou, although it should be acknowledged applied in developing cities which face a
that it was a learning process both for the munic- scarcity of human and financial resources?
ipality and the CAS. In cities experiencing rapid How can the output of a four-year ECP exer-
urbanisation, the ECP can be overtaken by cise be made operational?
events. The ECP also lacks analytical and fore- How does this approach influence the private
casting tools for modelling urban development sector and the public?
Using ecoBUDGET to Fight Poverty ronmentally sound waste water disposal and envi-
in the Philippines ronmentally sound garbage disposal. ecoBUDGET, as
a modular and flexible system, allows for manag-
The coastal town of Tubigon in Bohol Province,
ing natural resources and environmental quality in
Philippines, has a high degree of biodiversity and
combination with social quality.
is rich in natural resources which support the live-
lihoods of the community. The municipality uses
the ecoBUDGET approach. As Tubigon considers
poverty and environmental degradation “twin
problems”, the ecoBUDGET approach is linked to
poverty alleviation and to addressing the Millen-
nium Development Goals in the areas of water,
sanitation and human settlements.
Mark Edwards/Still Pictures
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The Role of Strategic Environmental carbon dioxide emissions from transport move-
Assessment in Greater London, ments amounted to about 27 percent of all green-
United Kingdom house gases contributing to climate change.
One of the key lessons learnt by the city of London In the case of Greater London, the city govern-
from its SEA exercise in 2000 was that an inde- ment has a statutory responsibility for preparing
pendent assessor must undertake the Strategic other strategies, for example, biodiversity, waste
Environmental Assessment if the public is to have management, air quality, noise, and culture. Con-
confidence in the process of incorporating environ- sistency must be achieved among all of the vari-
mental aspects into the city development strategy. ous strategies. The administration holds an annual
Additionally, the assessor must undertake this task “state of the city debate” open to members of the
in a transparent way. public to discuss these issues.
By subjecting policies in a city development
strategy to an SEA the city government influences
the mindset of policy makers and decision takers.
By giving greater consideration to international
debates and agreements on sustainable devel-
opment and climate change, local politicians ad-
dress longer-term resource issues and external
Duffour/Andia/Still Pictures
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SECTION FOUR
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
ities today have to be competitive. They operate in a global marketplace,
C competing with other cities and urban settlements around the world for
investment. A city cannot compete, however, if it cannot offer investors secu-
rity, infrastructure and efficiency. Hardly any city can offer these elements without
incorporating environmental issues into its planning and management strategies.
The environment and the urban economy are inextricably linked.
Cities which integrate the environment in urban planning and management bene-
fit in many ways. Such cities prove more liveable, more equitable, and more invit-
ing to investors. Their citizens are healthier, and fewer working days are lost to
environment-related illnesses. Urban space and infrastructure respond better to pub-
lic needs. In addition, cities which integrate the environment into their planning and
management support international action to combat global environmental threats
such as climate change, which may endanger the future of many urban settlements.
By incorporating the environment in urban planning and management, urban
managers help to create cities which are prepared for, and more resilient to, envi-
ronmental disasters.
Children in Bangkok slum. © Mark Edwards/Still Pictures
Today, cities and urban settlements around the world employ a range of urban
planning and development approaches, all of which provide opportunities for the
integration of environmental considerations. A city can chose to integrate environ-
mental issues right across the city, using supra-sectoral concepts and strategies such
as Localising Agenda 21, or may focus on integrated local environmental manage-
ment. Integrated strategies for certain sectors and environmental commodities are
also an option, and institutional, legal and market-policy frameworks can be very
useful in supporting environmental interventions. Ecological construction and liv-
ing policies also offer a vehicle for introducing the environment to urban planning.
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Recommendations for
International Financing Partners
1. International programmes which support
cities in the preparation of their urban plan-
ning and management strategies could inform
Courtesy of UCLG
cities of the benefits of including environmen-
tal issues in their strategies, and should
encourage their inclusion.
Congress of mayors in Washington, D.C., USA. 2. Support programmes could inform applicant
cities of the range of approaches, instruments
Local authorities are encouraged to use plan- and tools available that can be used to inte-
ning, management or assessment to include envi- grate the environment into urban develop-
ronmental considerations at any level of urban ment strategies. This information could be
planning, in any sector. Planning offers a long- provided in a short user-friendly brochure.
3. Support programmes could build capacities
term overarching development framework into
in applicant cities by drawing their attention
which more narrowly focused short-term plans
to relevant publications, programmes and
can be integrated. Environmental management
international agreements such as the Millen-
systems may be institutionalised in the city man-
nium Development Goals and the Melbourne
agement structure, or may run in parallel to the
Principles for Sustainable Cities. Cities could
city’s financial management structure. Assess-
also be guided towards useful publications
ments evaluate the environmental effects of a
such as OECD’s Shaping the Urban Environ-
policy, plan or programme.
ment in the 21st Century, or HabitatJam’s
Various instruments are available to strengthen
Actionable Ideas.
environmental inclusion at each stage of the urban
planning and management process. Policy instru-
ments, be these informative, voluntary, economic Recommendations for Mayors
or regulatory, provide guiding principles for urban and City Planners
decision-makers. Process instruments offer ap- 1. Cities and urban settlements seeking funding
proaches, steps or a roadmap to a desired goal. support for their planning and management
Planning instruments structure and strengthen the strategies should incorporate environmental
development and implementation of urban man- issues in their proposals. They should be able
agement plans. Lastly, management instruments to demonstrate why this integration is impor-
provide tools to direct and administer urban plan- tant in the context of their city, and to suggest
ning decisions. A vast range of practical tools are how it can be achieved.
already in use around the world to support each of 2. Proposals for funding could also include a sec-
these instruments. The case studies which follow tion on awareness—raising and capacity build-
in the next section exemplify some of these tools. ing for municipal staff and the general public.
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3. Urban managers should seriously consider mental quality and the use of natural re-
ways to to institutionalise and therefore sus- sources in the city development strategy.
tain integration of the environment into plan- 5. Once a proposal for funding has been ap-
ning strategies, and about how to manage proved, the urban planning and management
implementation once funding ends. Interna- strategies should undergo a Strategic Environ-
tional programmes could make cities aware of mental Assessment. This assessment, which
the various environmental management ap- would include expected impacts and mitiga-
proaches available, such as the ecoBUDGET tion strategies could form part of the report-
system. ing requirements. It ensures that external
4. Urban managers could also incorporate a funding will not lead to environmental dam-
system for the ongoing monitoring of environ- age and significant mitigation costs.
ANNEX 1
CASE STUDIES
he case studies in this Annex share a common structure. Each starts with an
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Bangkok, Local Agenda 21—long-term Integrated into the LA21 process from the start.
Thailand strategic planning
Bayamo, Local Agenda 21 Integrated into the LA21 process from the start.
Cuba Public participation prioritised key issues, and
working groups supported a cross-sectoral
approach.
Cape Town, Integrated Metropolitan Environ- Environmental sustainability forms the back-
South Africa mental Policy (IMEP) bone of its urban planning and management
process.
Goiânia, Fora de Risco (integrated partici- Social, economic and environmental develop-
Brazil patory urban development) ment have been integrated into the Fora de
Risco project since its inception.
Manizales, Local Agenda 21, Local Environ- City has a ‘culture of disaster prevention’.
Colombia mental Action Plan (BioPlan) Employment generation is also an environmen-
tal entry point.
Yangzhou, Eco City Plan The environment has been the focal point of
China the city’s planning and management since the
adoption of the Eco City approach.
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Courtesy, ICLEI
Aerial view of Alexandria, Egypt.
ALEXANDRIA GOVERNORATE
EGYPT
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business environment. Specific strategies and “A Comprehensive Strategic Development Plan for Lake Mar-
initiatives were to be designed to create eco- riout Zone”, “A Strategic Development Plan for Land Sur-
rounding Lake and Wadi Marriout”, “A Squatter Settlements
nomic development opportunities, especially in and Urban Upgrading Strategy”, “Alexandria Tourism Devel-
low-income areas and squatter settlements. opment Strategy”.
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Upgrading of three slum areas—the objective Interest from other donors in contributing to
is to improve the standard of living for the the strategic development plan increased;
inhabitants of El-Amrawy, El-Hadra and Naga The central government was supportive.
El-Arab. The following operations began in
April 2006, and some have already been
accomplished.
Environment Entry Point
The CDS process proved to be an effective vehi-
A number of unexpected opportunities arose cle for integrating environmental considerations
from the CDS process. into Alexandria’s development plan. Early on in
the process, the CDS team benefitted from the
A large number of enthusiastic stakeholders Governor’s strong support to improving local
wanted to take part in the strategic planning environmental quality. In addition, the multi-
process; stakeholder approach to the Alexandria CDS
A democratic and cooperative atmosphere meant that citizens became aware of the impor-
dominated the workshop dialogues and dis- tance of sustainable development and the need to
cussions; manage natural resources wisely.
There were beneficial outputs from the Cost-benefit analysis relating to the environ-
exchange of ideas and knowledge between ment for any development project was used dur-
local and international consultants; ing the CDS process. Environmental protection
Health Centre Tree planting Land for health centre (made available)
Police Station Health centre (done) Land for youth & sports (made available)
Primary school Youth centre Land for two schools (made available)
Bus stops
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Urban Context
Key economic Administration, services,
areas industries and tourism The city of Bangkok is struggling to deal with the
effects of population growth, and the impact on
Urban manage- Localising Agenda 21
ment approach
the local environment. Heavy traffic has resulted
in congestion and serious air pollution. In addi-
Environment entry Environmental profiling, tion, odour and smoke from incomplete com-
point urban management,
policy actions bustion at crematoria—a problem unique to
Bangkok—has a damaging effect on air quality,
and respiratory disease is rising among the urban
population. River and water supply quality is
Why this Case Study is Important also deteriorating. Canal water pollution is very
The Bangkok case study shows how a long-term severe because untreated wastewater is often dis-
strategic plan supports the decision-making proc- charged into the public sewers. Most households
ess for policy-makers, local government officials rely on septic tanks, so groundwater contamina-
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Environment Entry Point In addition, the skills of the BMA staff in GIS tools
and methodologies has been enhanced. The BMA
As Local Agenda 21 initiatives are focused on eco-
remains steadfast to its commitment to improve
nomic, social and environmental issues, Bangkok
the quality of life in Bangkok.
Agenda 21 included environmental considerations
from the start.
Replicability
Results The Bangkok experience demonstrates that
localising Agenda 21 can work even in very large
Bangkok Agenda 21 has set the city’s course for
cities. Environmental considerations were built
environmentally, socially and economically sus-
into the urban management structure from the
tainable development. The development agenda
start, and communications was used to involve
has provided basic principles for the numerous
the public and stimulate community involve-
activities implemented by the BMA. A detailed
ment. The case study proves again that public
assessment of the status of the environment and
involvement is an important component in high-
the creation on the Metropolitan Master Cata-
lighting environmental concerns and ensuring
logue ensured that physical development takes
sustainable development.
environmental and social concerns into account.
Policies and regulation on water quality,
waste management, air quality and energy secu- Key Contacts
rity were put in place to better manage resources.
Infrastructure was also improved, for example, Mr. Kriengpol Padhanarath
Director, International Affairs Division
storm drains and dikes along roads have been
City of Bangkok, City Hall, 173 Dinso Road
constructed or upgraded to prevent flooding. Bangkok, 10200, Thailand
The Metropolitan Master Catalogue has Tel.: +66-20/224-8175, Fax: +66-2-/224-4686
proved its use as an analytical and planning tool. Email: iad@bma.go.th
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© ullstein–Giribas/Still Pictures
Aerial view of Havana, Cuba.
MUNICIPALITY OF BAYAMO
REPUBLIC OF CUBA
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is situated in eastern Cuba on the banks of the identification of the existing mechanisms for
Bayamo River. Granma still remains under- information exchange, coordination and decision-
developed in relation to the Cuban average. making.
However, regional development is taking place, The Bayamo Urban Environmental Profile is
with the provision of specialised infrastructure an innovative document as it analyses the inter-
for administration, health, education, and trans- actions between development and the environ-
port. Bayamo attracts these services partly because ment. By presenting the urban environment
Cuba’s central road, the Carretera Central, passes institutional framework, it made possible the
directly through the city. identification of institutional strengths and weak-
nesses that the project could address. The profile
Urban Management Approach also served as a common information base for all
project partners. Through dialogues with local
The Bayamo Local Agenda 21 project aims to authorities, sector representatives, four priority
support the decentralisation process by stimulat- areas for redress were identified.
ing local capacity building.
The degradation of the Bayamo River;
Case Study Poor solid waste management (collection and
treatment);
In the 1980s, the Cuban government began to
Insufficient public spaces and services at the
move from a centralised towards a more decen-
neighbourhood level; and
tralised administration. Although certain func-
Insufficient urban transport.
tions such as the development of international
tourism and the management of hard currency
became more centralised, a range of activities These four priority areas formed the objectives
and responsibilities were transferred to the local of the Bayamo City Consultation. A four-day
level. This provided an opportunity for the devel- workshop was organised in 2003, and brought
opment of local participatory processes, and together over 200 representatives from all sec-
urban initiatives to build and strengthen local tors of the society. These included representa-
capacities. tives from the community, local government
The Bayamo LA21 project, was launched in administrators, elected officials, representatives
2001 aimed to mobilise local, provincial and of the private sector and so on. Participants dis-
national partners to address key urban environ- cussed the problems of the urban environment
mental problems together. An environmental and development, and identified the institu-
profile was prepared in 2002, in consultation tional mechanisms to address them.
with more than 100 actors. The profile identified It should be noted that the selection of the
the sectors and institutions involved in local four objectives was based on their cross-sectoral
development and their links with the environ- nature, the potential impact of action on the
ment. It also offered a description of urban and most vulnerable populations, political priorities
environmental risks and resources, as well as an at the time, and whether they could be achieved
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Waste collection trucks and the creation of the social, economic and environmental dimen-
small-scale manual sanitary landfill sites has sion, while making the best possible use of local
resulted in a more efficient solid waste man- limited resources.
agement system. Replication of these projects The LA21 process creates conditions that allow
has been requested by the other cities; participants to better understand the concepts and
Urban transportation has been improved by principles of a LA21 framework. It creates a better
using horse-drawn carriages as a main source public perception of the decision-making process
of public transport. It has also opened access and the importance of transparency.
routes to integrate isolated neighborhoods Throughout the process, environmental con-
that are inhabited by the most vulnerable cerns and issues became and remain a key concern
populations; for participants, with the advantage that they are
The urban initiatives identified by the four work- analysed while reviewing a wide range of other
ing groups of Bayamo LA21 are included in the considerations. Thus, the process has allowed the
Master Plan. The Master Plan is to be reviewed identification of opportunities that in the past may
and submitted by the IPF to the Municipal have been overlooked.
Council for its approval and implementation.
Replicability
In 2006 the local LA21 team based in the munic-
Bayamo was chosen as an example for replica-
ipal planning office organised a consultation to
tion at the regional and level by the central gov-
present a revised City Master Plan to local actors
ernment, which recognised the positive outcome
and stakeholders. The main objective was to inte-
of the project. It selected Bayamo as a pilot proj-
grate the key issues identified by the LA21 proj-
ect for escalating sustainable planning capacity
ect into the city’s master plan. The master plan
in Cuba. In the second half of 2003, the project
itself was established with good participation
issued an open call for candidate secondary
from citizens and institutions. This was an inno-
cities, leading to the selection of three towns—
vative event within the Cuban spatial planning
Santa Clara, Cienfuegos, and Holguin—for the
context, as it was the first time that a public con-
replication of the LA21 Bayamo project. These
sultation was organised for a Plan. Previous con-
cities are currently in the process of implement-
sultations were always related to a certain theme
ing LA21 frameworks within their respective
or topic area. This success shows that the LA21 constituencies, based on the experiences and
findings are being institutionalised. processes implemented in Bayamo. While each
city has its own unique circumstances, they have
already shown interest in implementing projects
Lessons Learned
that tackle similar issues—waste management,
It was important for Bayamo to move away and sustainable mobility systems.
from short-term, one-dimensional projects that For successful replication, municipal com-
only dealt with immediate needs with limited mitment (both political and administrative) must
and uncertain resources, to projects that consider be present from the start. Staff involved in the
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first project should be part of the replication city’s planning and management strategy, and
team. Lastly, being part of a regional and/or included in the formulation of the municipal
national programme provides a useful technical budget.
cooperation framework (coordination of na-
tional and international actors that facilitate the
Key Contacts
formulation and implementation of localised
projects), and provides the opportunity for a Mr. Pedro Rosell Ochoa, Arq.
LA21 framework to develop approaches that Coordinator of Bayamo Local Agenda 21
Tel./Fax: +53-23/427-440
address urban environmental issues at its core.
Email: Agenda21.Bayamo@enet.cu
Bayamo LA21 is a good example of how par-
ticipatory processes and partnerships mechanisms, Ms. Madelin Gonzalez Figueroa
Provincial Coordinator
institutionalised at the local level, are a viable
Human Development Programme at
means to identify and address urban environmen- the Local Level (PDHL)
tal priorities. The Bayamo programme also shows Tel.: + 53-23/427-289
how the environment can be incorporated into a Email: madelin.gonzalez@pdhl.co.cu
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© Dirscherl/WaterFrame/Still Pictures
The Famous Chocolate Hills of Bohol Province.
BOHOL PROVINCE
THE PHILIPPINES
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ity and inequity. Development is anchored on pro- Governance Poverty Database Monitoring Sys-
poor and environmentally sustainable growth. It tem (LGPDMS), which records and ranks levels
also supports the Philippine President’s 10-Point of deprivation. Developed in partnership with
Agenda, which called for the stabilisation of eco- the Bohol Local Development Foundation, the
nomic growth, global competitiveness and good software has 18 indicators; child mortality,
governance.9 The plan, developed through exten- child malnutrition, crime, disability, electricity,
sive consultations with the provincial stake- food shortage, food threshold, garbage disposal,
holders, summarises the kind of development that literacy, income threshold, meals, health insur-
the Boholanos want. ance, sanitation, school drop-outs, tenure status,
To attain the objective of establishing proj- unemployment, water, and waste water disposal.
ects that can expand the outreach of basic ser- The database can identify and rank levels of
vices to disadvantaged groups and to ensure deprivation at the municipal, village and house-
sustainable economic growth that benefits the hold level. It is currently being expanded to
poor, the MTDP has set specific targets. In the include more environment-related indicators. As
social development sector, for example, the tar- a tool, it accurately identifies households and
gets include: villages for projects in need of poverty reduction
support. It can also track the impact of specific
Reducing the number of households living
interventions including their correlation over time.
below the poverty line from 47.3 percent to This database is invaluable in that it provides data
38 percent; on which policy decisions can be made.
Reducing the population growth rate from
2.9 percent to 2.6 percent; and,
Environment Entry Point
Reducing households without access to sanita-
tion by 75 percent. As part of its fight against poverty, the provincial
government carried out initiatives and offered
On the other hand, the environment and natural management tools to preserve the natural heritage
resources management sector aimed for qualita- and provide employment opportunities. These
tive, rather than quantitative targets such as: included the creation of the Bohol Biodiversity
Conservation Framework, the founding of the Bio-
Institutional monitoring and evaluation systems
diversity Research Centre, the implementation of
for biodiversity conservation;
the Biodiversity Monitoring System and the imple-
Establishment of a water quality monitoring
mentation of the Coastal Resource Management
body; and
(CRM) Certification System. Successful projects
Rehabilitation of small watersheds.
include the organisation of eco-tours to Pamilacan
The sectoral targets determine the public invest- Island and the Candijay Mangrove Sites.
ments for the five-year period of the MTDP. In addition, the province, with a grant from
They define the priority areas where government the European Union’s Asia Urbs Programme, is
funds should be directed to. currently implementing ecoBUDGET, an environ-
Bohol’s Programme Framework on Poverty mental management system developed by ICLEI
Reduction led to the establishment of the Local for local governments.
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MUNICIPALITY OF BOURGAS
BULGARIA
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strongly influenced the actions of the officials of and Bourgas is considered an environmental
the Municipality of Bourgas as they seek to ‘hotspot’ in Bulgaria. The rapid and ill-planned
improve quality of life and encourage prosperity industrial expansion of the socialist era resulted
in their community. in high levels of air, water and soil contamina-
tion. The municipality has had to work hard to
counter this pollution and has also faced prob-
Urban Context lems with waste management and energy provi-
sion in the area. Preventing recurrences of such
Bourgas is the fourth largest city in Bulgaria situ-
problems and securing a sustainable future is cen-
ated the Black Sea coast. The municipality encom-
tral to the strategic planning of the municipality.
passes the city of Bourgas and fourteen smaller
villages in the surrounding area. It is an impor-
tant seaport and industrial centre and is eco- Urban Management Approach
nomically vital to the Bulgarian economy. Bourgas has sought means to alleviate the envi-
Bourgas’ population has been declining slowly in ronmental impacts of the municipality’s intensive
recent years, due to a range of factors which in- industrialisation since the early 1990s, and as a
clude the emigration of young people, increased result its approach to urban management inte-
mortality in an ageing population, and a fall- grates environmental considerations at all levels.
ing birth rate. The city is also affected by ille- This was facilitated by the transition from a
gal settlements. Both problems are intricately socialist to a liberal regime and economy, which
linked to the process of transition in eastern presented an opportunity to integrate environ-
and central European states and are by no mental management into wider strategic plan-
means unique to Bourgas. Bourgas maintains a ning for the municipality and to raise the profile
well-developed healthcare system, offering gen- of the city on an international level. The strategic
eral and specialised centres and hospitals to all planning process complements the national goal
inhabitants as a basic right. of EU integration, and meets the EU demands for
Bourgas has a multi-sector economy. A duty- compliance with pre-existing EU regulations.
free zone was established in 1989 which has suc-
cessfully attracted foreign investment due to
Case Study
the municipality’s well-developed transport and
knowledge infrastructure, and well-educated Bulgaria’s goal of EU integration means that
society. The municipality is a popular destina- issues such as environmental impact assessment,
tion for national and foreign tourists, resulting in waste management, nature protection, industrial
the growth of the service sector. pollution, risk management and nuclear safety
Manufacturing remains the largest sector in are considered to be priorities across the country.
the economy. Bourgas is home to the biggest oil Local issues—including industrial contamination
refinery on the Balkan Peninsula and hosts a of water sources, air pollution, land contamina-
range of other industries. However, the cost of tion, waste management and energy efficiency—
intensive industrial development has been high, were additional considerations for Bourgas.
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New local and national policies have gas. The strategy underlined the environmental
increased the importance of environmental man- priorities identified in the Environmental Moni-
agement and its level of integration within the toring Report, and linked these to the eco-
strategic planning cycles of the municipality. nomic and social needs and objectives of the
Bourgas undertook its first Environmental Mon- municipality. In addition to the environment,
itoring Report in 1998, assessing the extent of the following areas were identified as integral to
inherited environmental problems and identify- the future of the municipality: industry, trans-
ing the measures required to solve these prob- port, agriculture, communications, demograph-
lems. The report’s findings allowed Bourgas to ics, and education. An Advisory Committee on
embark on a campaign of upgrading the status of Sustainable Development was formed, with rep-
their local environment and creating a forward resentation from the city administration and key
thinking policy in sustainability issues. stakeholder groups. This Advisory Committee is
In May 2000, municipal government responsible for the elaboration and implemen-
announced the 2000–2006 Municipal Strategy tation of the municipal strategy.
for Sustainable Development of the City of Bour- Linked to this are several management pro-
grammes on air quality, waste,
protected areas, and the environ-
ment, and plans for biodiversity.
The Municipal Environment Man-
agement Programme for 2002–
2007 aims to lower risks to human
health and raise public awareness
on environmental issues with the
strategic objective of engaging all
citizens in creating a more sustain-
able Bourgas. Concrete measures
and actions in these priority areas
form the Action Plan 2005–2007.
For example, the Air Quality Mon-
itoring Programme aims at mon-
itoring and decreasing the impacts
© Desislava Kulelieva/World Bank
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ity of existing public utilities would have to be Participation in various other international
improved. Despite severe budget constraints, projects has contributed to the sustainable devel-
Bourgas made the following investments and opment goals of Bourgas. For example, Bourgas is
municipal structure upgrades: currently involved in the “Liveable Cities” project
of the European Commission, which aims to com-
Air Quality—Investments in new public trans- bine environmental management and planning in
port infrastructure in a bid to improve air order to improve the quality of life for citizens.
quality in the municipality; This project will result in the publication of a
Water Management—Installation of new water model plan for sustainable cities, which will assist
pipes and the introduction of water meters local governments worldwide in solving environ-
across the city, leading to reduced loss and use mental problems and raising living standards.
of water. In addition, the 2002 Water Act means Other notable activities include the signing of the
water is now managed within the context of the Aalborg Charter on sustainable urban devel-
Black Sea basin, leading to more comprehensive opment, participation in ICLEI’s “Buy-It-Green
regional planning and management; Network” on sustainable procurement, and in-
volvement in the EU project, “Urban Planning and
Wastewater Treatment—Construction of the
Environmental Monitoring via GIS in Eastern
‘Meden Rudnik’ plant. With the existing
Europe.”
sewage system only partially constructed, it
was imperative that a fully functioning
wastewater treatment plant was put in place Environment Entry Point
to serve new dwellings, ensuring that quality
Environmental considerations are fully integrated
of life would be raised. This plant was con-
into Bourgas’ urban planning and management
structed with a European grant worth some
strategy. Early activities to put environmental
EUR7.6 million; and,
issues on the urban management agenda included
Waste Management—The Municipal Waste
the “Greener Bourgas” Project (1997 to 1999)
Management Programme for the 1998–2008 which aimed to mainstream government and
period was established. The programme industry cooperation on environmental matters
focuses on the landfill site at Bratovo, which through a government-industry environmental
serves 270,000 people and was developed to action programme targeting four sub-groups:
manage the region’s waste for a twenty year environmental monitoring, environmental man-
period and eradicate the numerous illegal agement, waste management, and environmen-
landfill sites that had appeared in Bourgas and tal education/public participation. The project
neighbouring municipalities. Moreover, the resulted in actions in each sub-group, as well as
Bratovo landfill site was a component of the the development of new initiatives such as an
“Greener Bourgas” Project, one of several annual Environmental Week for citizens.
international projects that have supported the The municipality has been issuing a fort-
development and maintenance of the munici- nightly Eco Bulletin since 1994, in an attempt to
pal waste management programme. raise awareness about environmental issues. The
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bulletin provides the public with information aimed to improving waste management in the
about sustainable development issues such as air port of Bourgas.
quality and water management.
Bourgas has also participated in a number of Results
international projects since the mid-1990s, which
have helped to establish and mainstream sustain- An important outcome of Bourgas’s sustainable
able development within strategic planning for the development activities has been the formation of
municipality. Such projects have been supported the Greener Bourgas Foundation, a non-profit
by international donors and partnerships with organisation which team of experts works
other cities and states, as well as through utilisa- closely with the municipality to improve the
tion of EU structural funds that assisted transition standard of ecological services in Bourgas.
countries in the years immediately after the end of Experts have also contributed towards studies
socialist rule and in the subsequent accession such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
process. Bourgas has also developed contacts with (NATO) Advanced Study Institute on “Risk
international organisations, such as the European Assessment Activities,” which sought to quantify
Commission, USAID, ICLEI, Eurocities and the the environmental legacy of Cold War facilities.
Regional Environmental Centre (REC) for Central Funding for this independent, non-profit founda-
and Eastern Europe, proving the municipality’s tion comes from a wide spectrum of international
eagerness to engage in the development of efficient organisations, including the EU, NATO, Ecol-
planning and management structures, and to inks and REC. The foundation helps the munic-
achieve sustainability in environmental, social, ipality to showcase successful projects and
financial and health concerns. provide guidance to others who wish to follow.
Three international projects, which ran from
1995 to 1996 and from 1999 to 2000, have
influenced the waste management agenda in
Bourgas. These were:
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Bourgas has also joined forces with the Union 2002 and 2004. The majority of these were
of Black Sea Local Authorities and the Black Sea linked to industrial investments and the growth
NGO Network to affect change regionally. The in the construction and tourist sectors. As a pop-
municipality’s experience in balancing the pro- ular tourist destination, investing in the natural
tection of coastal resources with economic devel- environment supports tourism. In short, Bourgas
opment has led to its involvement in various EU has been able to improve its environment, public
and national initiatives centered on the concept health and economic situation all at the same
of integrated coastal zone management. A com- time through the development of a coherent and
mon goal for coastal zone management in Bour- comprehensive strategy that aims for sustainable
gas is to ensure that legislation, investments, development in all sectors.
resource use and spatial planning do not com- The municipality has also undertaken a gasifi-
promise life and health. cation programme, which from 2006–2010 will
Within the municipality, the Air Quality build the necessary infrastructure to supply 20,000
Management Programme has produced evidence end-users and 100 percent of the industrial sector
showing the impact of air pollution upon public in the west and south industrial zones. The gasifi-
health in the municipality, thereby strengthening cation programme will result in 190 kilometres of
the argument for reducing harmful emissions. pipelines, enabling drastic emissions reductions,
Respiratory diseases and heart conditions are with near-eradication of sulphur dioxide emis-
two afflictions strongly linked to ambient air sions. The programme will also have the effect of
quality, with young and old affected in the form lowering natural gas prices for consumers, increas-
of illnesses including asthma, cardiovascular ing energy efficiency and securing energy supplies.
diseases and strokes. Between 2001 and 2004, Having demonstrated its commitment, gained
by monitoring air quality and reducing emis- experience and been able to showcase successful
sions, Bourgas was able to maintain a relatively results, the municipality of Bourgas has taken on
stable number of hospital discharges for respira- the position of acting in a consultant capacity
tory diseases, and actually reduced the number of to the national government during the drafting of
patients suffering from diseases of the circula- the “Bulgarian National Capacity Self-Assessment
tory system. In the same period, the levels of for Global Environmental Management”. This,
both respiratory and circulatory diseases rose together with the aforementioned participation
dramatically across Bulgaria. In this context, the in numerous international projects, campaigns
policy decisions taken by Bourgas appear to have and fora, has raised the profile of the municipal-
had a positive impact on the daily lives of citizens. ity and enhanced its credibility in the field of sus-
Furthermore, the stabilisation and improve- tainable development.
ment of health conditions has occurred in paral- In the new Municipal Development Strategy
lel with a period of economic growth. Between for the 2007–2013 period, Bourgas recognises
2001 and 2004, the total number of registered the need for an integrated long-term approach
unemployed in Bourgas fell by more than 50 per- to balance current development with resource
cent. Linked to this is rising direct foreign invest- protection and sustainability. This is an issue of
ments in Bourgas, which rose six-fold between particular relevance to coastal communities and
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explains the municipality’s choice of an inte- Bourgas’ achievements have been attained
grated coastal management model. Moreover, despite considerable pressures, particularly fiscal
the new strategy places greater emphasis on inter- and legal, as Bulgaria has had to rapidly adjust to
connections between environmental policies and a new type of economy and adopt new legal
other aspects of municipal life. frameworks in its preparations for EU accession.
Finally, Bourgas is exploring tools to assist Moreover, the municipality has had to work hard
in decision-making, such as the ecoBUDGET sus- to engage its citizens and openly admits that pub-
tainability management system. While Bourgas lic participation levels could be better—it may be
has used indicator systems to monitor progress that the historical experiences and the political cul-
and has extensive experience in reporting, it now ture of Bulgarians makes some citizens reluctant to
seeks to plan and manage its future sustainable engage, especially on the complex issue of strate-
development as the economy grows and invest- gic urban planning. In this type of political climate,
ment levels rise. The ecoBUDGET sustainability it is therefore vital that the municipality attempts
management system will assist Bourgas in plan- to engage with its citizens and promote trans-
ning and managing environmental resources, parency in policy-making through mechanisms
and will clarify municipal priorities in sustain- such as the Eco Bulletin or Environment Week.
able policy in the form of as report that can Finally, Bourgas has benefited enormously
be presented to the public. This system for ac- from its engaged and committed municipal staff.
counting environmental priorities and monitor- Additionally, being a member of organisations
ing progress will support the municipality’s committed to sustainable development has been
overall strategy. an enormous advantage.
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CITY OF CALGARY
CANADA
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Technology, manufacturing, financial and busi- and to comply with environmental legislation and
ness services, transportation and logistics and other environmental requirements. It also helps to
film and creative industries are examples of conserve resources and prevent pollution, and to
the many industries contributing to Calgary’s improve environmental performance on an on-
growth and prosperous outlook. going basis. As part of EnviroSystem, the city
established long-term forecasts that fit into the
city’s new three-year business plans, reviews
Urban Management Approach
environmental impacts on an ongoing basis and
Environmental considerations are integral to establishes new goals, policies and procedures,
Calgary’s urban management approach. The and develops staff competencies. In addition, the
city regards itself as a leader in environmental city checks the effectiveness of systems and iden-
management. tifies additional actions necessary, and reviews
performance at all levels of management and
council to make informed decisions that will
Case Study
enhance performance.
Calgary uses three specific tools to help incorpo- Each year the city produces an EnviroSystem
rate environmental aspects into its city develop- annual report to track its environmental per-
ment strategies. The first of these tools is an formance, highlight significant advances in envi-
Environmental Management System (EnviroSys- ronmental policy and document new goals and
tem), used to control the environmental impact of targets moving forward. The third annual Enviro-
Calgary’s operations and decisions. This was the System report highlights major achievements in
first widely recognised tool Calgary applied and air, land, water and materials management along
it has played a large part in the successful use of with summaries of the city’s accomplishments.10
other sustainability tools. The second tool is the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Policy and Frame-
Triple Bottom Line framework, which city coun- work was endorsed by the Council in 2004 to
cil has identified as an important tool for achiev- ensure a more comprehensive, systematic and inte-
ing sustainable development. The third, most grated approach to decision-making by council
recently initiated tool goes beyond the local gov- and administration. The purpose is to advance
ernment’s corporate activities to a community- council’s vision to create and sustain a vibrant,
led 100-year visioning process and plan for a healthy, safe and caring community. In addition,
sustainable Calgary. the adoption of TBL has meant that it has
EnviroSystem describes the city of Calgary’s become embedded into the city’s corporate poli-
strengths, accountability to itself and its citizens, cies, performance measures, actions and imple-
and commitments to protect the natural environ- mentation procedures, and enhances the city’s
ment in which citizens work and live. It allows the decision-making processes. It is envisioned that
city to manage the impact its activities have on the
environment. It empowers the city to meet the 10Detailed information on Calgary’s EnviroSystem is available
commitments outlined in its environmental policy at www.calgary.ca
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Housing; Communities and Families; and Cal- cil’s dedication and demonstrates how seriously
gary the Corporation. The themes aim to help council takes its responsibility to sustainability.
departments be more aware of and better under- The success of many of the city’s projects and
stand the issues that will affect, or will be affected, policies can be linked back to this initial TBL
by their respective projects and programmes. By policy endorsement.
viewing issues in this interlocking manner, city Once the TBL Policy was in place, council
staff can more easily describe how their business and staff realised that a TBL Policy Framework
plans and budgets anticipate and address those needed to be developed to help staff and council
issues and enable the city to achieve its social, understand the implications of the decisions they
environmental and economic objectives. made on the triple bottom line. However, develop-
ing and distributing the Framework still were not
enough. Staff and council needed specific training
Lessons Learned on the policy, its implications, and how they could
apply it in their day-to-day work in order to fully
Since EnviroSystem was the first standardised
understand and implement the TBL Policy.
and widely recognised tool the city of Calgary
used to control its environmental impact, it has
helped to inform not only the refinement of the Replicability
EnviroSystem itself, but also future tools and
EnviroSystem was the first municipally registered
policies that will further Calgary’s sustainability
ISO 14001 system. Since ISO 14001 is an inter-
goals. Some of the significant lessons learned
national standard, it lends itself well to being eas-
from the EnviroSystem are:
ily replicated. An EMS is as much about reducing
environmental impacts as it is about having a
EnviroSystem is successful because it is more proper framework management system in place
than a traditional “corporate focused” EMS; to implement it. Since the environmental impacts
EnviroSystem has improved internal commu- of a given city will differ based on various factors
nication significantly, as it provides a strong such as local conditions, jurisdiction and areas of
link across all business units; activity, the framework management system can
A commitment to educating staff on imple- facilitate replication without dictating specific
menting the EMS must be made to ensure its solutions to environmental issues. That said, Cal-
success; gary’s annual EnviroSystem report highlights the
The accountability framework provides direct- activities the city has used to reduce its environ-
line reporting to the city manager and helps all mental impact in areas such as air, land, water
levels of the corporation be involved and and materials management. Many of these ac-
accountable. tivities could be refined and replicated in other
jurisdictions.
The city council’s endorsement of the TBL Policy ISO 14001 is not limited only to local gov-
is a very significant and high-level declaration of ernments. A city government that has obtained
the city’s commitment. It firmly establishes coun- ISO certification can, from a position of strength,
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promote replication of acquiring ISO Certifica- The sharing of experiences amongst the net-
tion from other stakeholders in the city, particu- work is resulting in better models of long-term
larly the private sector where a properly and planning; the development and application of
strategically implemented EMS can have far- different tools and techniques; the establish-
reaching and long-term impacts. ment of strategies and short-term goals that
Triple Bottom Line as a term and concept enable those long-term plans to be imple-
was coined by John Elkington in his book, Can- mented; and the creation of benchmarks, meas-
nibals with Forks: the Triple Bottom Line of urable indicators and action plans to start on
21st Century Business. While it stems from a the pathway to sustainability. All the cities in
business, or bottom line perspective it is begin- the PLUS Network presented their findings and
ning to resonate amongst local governments as a their 100-year strategies at the 2006 World
tool for implementing sustainability. Calgary has Urban Forum held in Vancouver.
used it in the form of a policy framework, while
other local governments have used it in various
Key Contacts
ways as a tool to support decision-making at the
council or staff level. Linda Harvey
Calgary is one of 27 members of the PLUS Team Lead
Community Sustainability Initiatives
Network, a network of cities and communities
City of Calgary, Box 2100, Station “M”
sharing learning on integrated long-term plan- Calgary, AB T2P 2M5, Canada
ning for sustainability managed by the Inter- Tel.: 1-403/268-1856, Fax: 1-403/268-5622
national Centre for Sustainable Cities. Email: linda.harvey@calgary.ca
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Approaching Table Mountain in Cape Town.
CAPE TOWN
SOUTH AFRICA
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strategies have been established to give effect to flowing from this strategy, which promotes a
these higher order commitments and principles. more sustainable use of energy, and identifies the
These strategies establish the targets, programmes communities and ecosystems most vulnerable
and actions needed to ensure sustainable resource to the impacts of climate change. The strategy
use and management of Cape Town’s unique sets targets for energy efficiency and the im-
environment, for the benefit of all communities. provement of energy management and supply,
and takes into account not only the needs of
Cape Town, but also national and international
Case Study
energy and climate change commitments.
Since the early 1990s, Cape Town has been The strategy grew out of a five-year process
increasing its capacity to deal with environmen- which began with a partnership programme be-
tal and sustainability issues, within the city, tween Sustainable Energy Africa and the city of
nationally and internationally. Initially, the city Cape Town: the Sustainable Energy, Environment
was involved in many environmental projects and Development Programme (SEED). The pro-
without an overall focus. However, in 1996, gramme initially focused on two projects: making
Cape Town adopted its first Environmental Pol- low income houses more energy and environmen-
icy, which aimed to establish an environmental tally efficient; and helping the municipality to
framework for the city. This policy was prepared increase energy efficiency within its own munici-
quickly, with little input from stakeholders and pal buildings. In the first project, Cape Town was
the public. In the late 1990s, the city embarked asked by South-South North, a local NGO, to
on a process to establish a comprehensive envi- participate in a pilot project that linked climate
ronmental policy for the city, well researched and change with energy efficiency at the household
widely consulted with the public. The first step in level. The Kuyasa Low Cost Housing retrofit proj-
this process, which was cyclical, was to commis- ect was born, and turned out to be the first cleaner
sion a State of the Environment Report based on development project approved on the African con-
key environmental indicators in the city. tinent, and the first international Gold Standard-
In October 2001, the city adopted its first rated project. Lessons learned from this project
IMEP. It established strategies for sectors such as have guided national government housing policy,
coastal zone management, energy and climate making ceilings a standard element in new houses.
change, air quality management, environmental Lessons from the clean development mechanism
education and training, heritage and biodiversity (CDM)12 side have contributed to the establish-
management. Many of these strategies, while ment of a new category of small scale projects for
dealing with local issues, also protect global
common goods such as air and water. 12
The clean development mechanism (CDM) defined in the
Africa’s first local authority Energy and Cli- Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change provides for developed countries to imple-
mate Change Strategy was adopted by the City ment project activities that reduce emissions in developing coun-
of Cape Town in early 2007. A number of pro- tries to help meet their emissions targets under the Kyoto
Protocol. The CDM focuses on activities that reduce emissions.
grammes and projects aimed at reducing the (see http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_devel
city’s contribution to climate change are already opment_mechanism/items/2718.php for more information).
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allowed Cape Town to make vari-
ous commitments on renewable
energy targets, and to look at best
case examples in Germany. Enjoying the view of Cape Town from Table
Mountain.
Cape Town’s Biodiversity Strategy has seven
strategic objectives at its core:
opportunities exist to put management inter-
Primary biodiversity (Conservation areas and
ventions in place that will enhance, protect and
biodiversity nodes);
optimise this resource. An integrated, citywide
Secondary biodiversity (Conservation through
Coastal Zone Management Strategy has been
corridors, links and mixed use areas);
adopted, and individual sustainable coastal
Conservation of biodiversity in freshwater zone management plans have been established
aquatic systems; for various coastal areas. The integrated coastal
Invasive alien species management; zone management strategy guides departments
Biodiversity legislation and enforcement; in day-to-day coastal operations, such as resort
Biodiversity information and monitoring sys- management, waste removal, coastal access
tem; and, and maintenance. The strategy recognises the
Biodiversity education and awareness coastal zone as a unique and significant natural
asset in the city, and commits the city to the
A number of programmes and projects have been
management of this resource in an innovative
established to mainstream the biodiversity strat-
and integrated manner that will ensure the envi-
egy. These include identification of key areas of
ronmentally sustainable functioning of the nat-
biodiversity and the establishment of structures
ural systems, while optimising the economic
to manage these initiatives. In addition, Cape
and social benefits. Its goals are as follows:
Town has been instrumental in the establishment
of Local Action for Biodiversity, an international Effective, efficient and transparent manage-
cities and biodiversity project, currently being ment of the coastal zone;
coordinated under the auspices of ICLEI. Sustainable development of the coastal zone;
Cape Town’s 307 km of coastline includes To ensure that Cape Town is recognised as
two of the largest bays in South Africa, Table having some of the best beaches in the world;
Bay and False Bay, and is one of the city’s great- The maintenance of an appropriate balance be-
est economic assets. Although the coast is under tween the built, rural and wilderness coastal
pressure and faces many challenges, significant areas;
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To optimise social and economic benefits from South Africa and even for Africa as a whole. It
the coastal zone. has influenced several cities to develop similar
approaches. It also impacted the development
Cape Town is aware of the importance of envi-
approaches of various line functions within the
ronmental outreach, and has also established an
city, notably waste management, health (air pol-
Environmental Education, Training and Aware-
lution) and water services. However, some of the
ness Strategy. This aims to guide decisions regard-
line functions within the city have not bought into
ing environmental education and training in the
the overall concept of the IMEP. This was
city of Cape Town, to address issues and con-
a result of the frequent change of political and
cerns to do with environmental education and
management in the city, which means that ca-
training, and to ensure that good practices are
pacities have to be rebuilt in new management
maintained. Several flagship environmental pro-
members.
grammes have been established. The Youth
One important lesson has been that wide
Environment Schools (YES) Programme for
consultation with various departments and stake-
example brings together over 35,000 school
holder groups is essential to obtain support for
children from various parts of the city to partici-
the policy. Marketing, communications and
pate in one of South Africa’s largest environ-
awareness-raising is critical in circulating the pol-
mental education programmes, and has recently
icy and obtaining buy-in from various groups.
been expanded to include all of the city’s envi-
Cape Town’s IMEP and various strategies
ronmental initiatives throughout the year.
are funded by core funds from the city. Funding
from the Environmental Resource Management
Environment Entry Point Department has been complemented with funds
from other city line functions such as waste,
Environmental sustainability forms the backbone water, electricity, and the mayor’s office. In ad-
of Cape Town’s urban planning and manage- dition, funds have been sought from external
ment process. partners to assist these functions. Some of the ini-
tiatives, however, would not have started if the
Results various partner agencies had not supported
capacity-building within the local authority
Cape Town’s IMEP has been successful in coor- during the initial period.
dinating the city’s environmental management Moving from small-scale pilot projects to
resources. The city administration increasingly the larger-scale roll-out throughout the city has
takes a cross-sectoral team approach to environ- been a significant challenge. The lack of capac-
mental issues. ity and resources have often hindered this process.
Cape Town is exploring ways to overcome these
barriers, for example by working with national
Lessons Learned
and international development banks and agen-
Cape Town’s overarching environmental policy is cies and with civil society organisations, yield-
an important model for the environment within ing increased support from funding agencies.
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Cities Alliance
Typical architectural style in Brazil.
GOIÂNIA
BRAZIL
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region. Goiânia is connected to 17 regional mu- The proposal for Fora de Risco was devel-
nicipalities and the rest of the nation by a system oped by the city of Goiânia with assistance from
of highways, and via two airports. the Municipal Company for Works and Housing
Goiânia is considered a planned city, as it (COMOB), the body that would become the pri-
was built from the ground up to accommodate a mary executing agency for the Project. COMOB
future population. The city is based on a concen- would eventually manage not only the architec-
tric radius design, with a civic plaza at the cen- tural and engineering aspects of the project, but
tre. It was originally designed for a population of also social, economic, and environmental in-
50,000 inhabitants. Today, Goiânia’s popula- terventions as well. COMOB also coordinates
tion is approximately 1.2 million, and it suffers environmental initiatives with the Municipal
from a deficit of around 58,000 housing units. Secretariat for the Environment. This integrated
Illegal or informal settlements have sprung up, interdisciplinary approach, that is, planning the
with 7,000 housing units located in environ- social, environmental, physical, and economic
mentally hazardous areas. These include the aspects of urban development as an inter-related
banks of rivers and streams and places subject whole, was the first of its kind in Goiânia. The
to periodic flooding. Slum settlements have been project, rooted in Goiânia’s Master Plan and
overwhelmingly built in sensitive watershed areas, Municipal Housing Policy, started officially in
primarily on urban river banks and springs. The 1997. Its goal is to improve the quality of life of
7,000 housing units in risk areas are the target of 7,000 families living in environmentally haz-
the Fora de Risco Project. ardous risk areas, using social (education, coun-
seling, and training programmes), physical
(housing and infrastructure provision, and envi-
Urban Management Approach
ronmental recuperation) and legal (land tenure
Goiânia uses a city master plan and a municipal legalisation) interventions.
housing policy. The project fits into citywide Municipal
Housing and Environmental (watershed man-
agement) strategies. It is implemented through
Case Study
two sub-projects, Pró-Moradia, a 1997 munici-
The Fora de Risco programme was born after pal initiative and Dom Fernando, a 2001 Inter-
years of struggle on the part of Goiânia’s American Development Bank initiative. The
community-based social movements in the 1970s primary driver for Fora de Risco was the
and 80s. Following years of inaction on the part poverty-environment-health nexus, in partic-
of the municipal government in response to calls ular the unsanitary conditions caused by peri-
for low income housing, the struggle for land odic flooding and open-air sewage. Local and
tenure and adequate housing finally began to national land use regulations to protect water-
influence local politics by the mid 1980s. The sheds were used as the legal basis for the project.
first concrete result was the establishment in Integration of social, economic and environ-
1986 of a Commission for Urban Possession, mental considerations are key to the success of
which aimed to meet local housing demands. Fora de Risco. Citizen participation has been iden-
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take place within 6 kilometres of the original
housing site. New housing is provided in the form
of either houses or apartments, maintaining
Planning to meet the needs of the slum dwellers. where possible the same proximity to family
and neighbours as the original settlement. New
tified as one of the most significant success factors. neighbourhoods have a full range of urban ser-
Participation in pre-project planning is usually vices, including drainage, pavements, light, gas,
through meetings with technical specialists from green spaces, recreation areas, educational cen-
the municipal government, including social spe- tres and access to public transport.
cialists. The Inter-American Development Bank Provision of land and housing titles to resettled
(IDB), through the Habitar Brasil BID programme, residents is a project priority, although relatively
requires structured participation in the Fora de few titles have been issued so far. This is due in part
Risco projects it funds. This includes 80 percent to the intent to convey titles within the year after
approval of beneficiary populations for some ini- construction has been completed: in many cases
tiatives; meanwhile Caixa Econômica Federal (the construction is still continuing. Difficulties have
Federal Economic Bank [CEF]) provides technical also arisen from complex municipal legal frame-
support to the municipality (specifically the works, and from the compensation of private
COMOB) for involving local populations through landowners. Titles cannot generally be sold, units
research and decision-making. Levels of participa- rented or transferred while the houses are being
tion vary widely within the project, and final deci- paid off (they remain the property of the munici-
sions are always made by COMOB. pality in the interim), in order to prevent real estate
Fora de Risco targets low-income popula- speculation from gentrifying the residences.
tions earning between approximately US$159 Education and preparation is very important
and US$477 per month. The resettlement process to the success of Fora de Risco. Social assistance
involves the following steps: 1) COMOB pro- teams from COMOB prepare residents to tackle
vides an estimate of the value of the resident’s the day-to-day aspects of managing a house or
old (informal) dwelling; 2) the value of the new apartment, including the costs (such as utilities,
home provided by the municipality is reduced by mortgage and common fees) associated with the
the assessed value of the old home, and a subsidy move. Workshops on the importance of caring
of up to 50 percent is provided depending on for public and community-owned equipment and
the number of children in the family; 3) payments common areas are held, and on interpersonal and
on the new home cannot exceed 20 percent (for intra-familial conflict resolution. Specialists from
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the Caixa Econômica Federal and COMOB housing unit. While exact retention rates are
point to this as one of the most critical aspects unclear, it seems certain from those interviewed
determining a project’s success. that at least 80 percent of residents are managing
The two boxes on the following pages de- to remain in their homes, and possibly more. In
scribe the story of two communities which bene- the view of CEF, the sharing of financial respon-
fited from Fora de Risco. For both communities, sibility between state and citizen has gone a long
environmental factors—including clear environ- way towards eliminating the paternal and uni-
mental legislation—were the primary reason lateral way in which these two sides have tradi-
resettlement was chosen over upgrading. The tionally interacted. COMOB specialists think
city of Goiânia would rather upgrade settlements the project has made significant progress toward
than uproot citizens. Upgrading preserves intra- improving the self-esteem and self-worth of local
community links as well as other economic and residents as well.
social connections amongst residents. In the case Residents have not been relocated from any
of Jardim Botânico, however, the entire popula- new slum settlements in Goiânia in the last five
tion had to be moved due to the environmental years. This can be attributed to a recent city of
degradation of the area. Upgrading was simply Goiânia slum prevention programme whose pri-
not a possibility. ority is to “catch [slum building] in the beginning
of the process,” in other words, preventing new
Environment Entry Point slum settlements from taking root in environ-
mentally sensitive areas in the first place. This
Social, economic and environmental development
policy is carried out by two departments
have been integrated into the Fora de Risco proj-
SEPLAM and FEMA. SEPLAM, the Municipal
ect since its inception, as these are key goals for
Planning Secretary, approaches slum prevention
the success of the resettlement projects.
policy from the perspective of the legality of sub-
divisions in areas not designated as environmen-
Results tal conservation units. SEPLAM identifies and
Although the Fora de Risco project is not yet clears settlements from illegal subdivisions on
complete, results are encouraging. Since its incep- public or private land. FEMA, the municipal
tion, no natural disasters resulting from flooding Secretary of the Environment, identifies and
in risk areas have occurred, protected environ- removes illegal subdivisions and settlements in
mentally sensitive areas from which informal environmental conservation units. These depart-
housing was removed have not been resettled, over ments focus on the prevention of slum settle-
4,400 families have been helped, 1,325 housing ments, and not on their removal. Established
units have been built in seven different project settlements are the target of integrated pro-
areas, and quality of life has improved for those grammes such as Fora de Risco.
affected by the project. Riverbank areas once settled by irregular
Financial arrangements for residents in new housing have been rehabilitated, and green parks
homes place a great deal of responsibility on and plazas established in resettled communities.
heads of households to financially manage the The Municipal Secretariat for the Environment
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The Story of Jardim Goiás and the proven decisive in the smooth functioning and suc-
America Latina Condominium cessful transition of local residents to a new way of
life. Adão oversees a residents’ council of ten repre-
Before Fora de Risco, the Jardim Goiás community sentatives (one per housing block) who meet once
lived in an overcrowded slum on the banks of a a month and in special sessions to address conflicts
small stream, with many surrounding springs. As the (including intra-family strife) or to make pressing
community was encircled by impermeable parking decisions regarding community vigilance and secu-
lots and roadways, Jardim Goias was frequently rity, for example. Under his leadership, the America
flooded. Injuries, disease, low community-self Latina condominium boasts a 100 percent success
esteem and a death had resulted from the lack of rate in terms of residents paying back common
adequate infrastructure and continuous flooding. charges and mortgages.
Housing was so densely packed that access to the This may be because the commission has devel-
interior of the community was only possible on foot, oped innovative ways of dealing with financial hard-
ship. For example, in the event a particular family is
and then only at particular points. The community
unable to pay common fees on a given month,
had no access to formal city services. The lack of sew-
families are able to pay by agreeing to provide a
ers made living conditions particularly miserable and
needed service for the condominium, such as gar-
disease-prone.
dening or cleaning. In addition to this, representa-
Fora de Risco began in Jardim Goiás in 1998,
tives from the Secretariat for the Environment point
with the removal of 370 families (a total of 1,800 to the commission’s success in mobilizing over 100
residents) from flood-prone areas, and accompany- volunteers for plantings in common areas such as
ing urbanization projects for resettlement. During parks and plazas.
the construction of the America Latina condominium Specialists from COMOB and CEF highlight the
apartment buildings, to which many resettled resi- involvement of the surrounding community in
dents would later move, COMOB actively worked Jardim Goiás. This is noteworthy because Jardim
with the local community to prepare them for the Goiás is located in a particularly wealthy part of
new responsibilities and tasks that would be required Goiânia, and wealthy local residents have been fol-
of them as future condominium residents. lowing what one COMOB specialist calls “a good
Once settled in the condominium, local resi- neighbour policy.” The results include the establish-
dents elected “Adão” the famous soccer player as ment of several civil society organisations targeted
superintendent. In the view of representatives from to address social and economic needs in the Jardim
CEF and COMOB, Adão’s dedication to consensus- Goiás. One such group, the Instituto Flamboyant
based decision-making and conflict resolution has Social, provides vocational training to local residents.
prioritises maintenance of the natural character- Daycare and educational centres provide
istics of urban waterways involved in the Project employment opportunities for local women, edu-
and does not pave over them. The project is also cation, and common spaces in which to train in
part of a municipal initiative to comply with Fed- trades such as handicraft making. The provision
eral regulations regarding Permanent Preserva- of daycare allows parents to return to work.
tion Areas (APP) for set widths along the banks COMOB and the Municipal Secretariat for
of waterways (Federal Forest Code (Law N° the Environment make efforts to involve the
4.771, of 1965). local community in planting vegetation in public
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green spaces such as parks and plazas, and in the environmental risk areas. Thirdly, according to
maintenance and upkeep of these areas. Work- specialists from CEF and COMOB, the involve-
shops are held regarding solid and liquid waste ment of the local population in the planning of the
handling and collection. project, to the limited degree that this occurred,
The Dom Fernando-Itamaracá sub-project created a sense of empowerment and self-esteem
features photovoltaic panels on the roofs of a among beneficiaries. Fourth, according to the
daycare and nursery school: the panels are used CEF, the resettlement of families served as a wake-
to heat water for the showers. up call to the municipality regarding the difficul-
ties involved with this process, whether these were
Lessons Learned caused by the lack of available land, legal com-
Several important lessons have emerged from plexities or real estate speculation. Fifth, strong
the Fora de Risco experience. Firstly, it is criti- local leadership can mean the difference between
cal to involve affected populations in the decision- success and failure in assuring the success and sus-
making process of public authorities. Secondly, tainability of a project. It is therefore important to
the establishment of suitable housing, infrastruc- support and encourage local leaders.
ture and the accompanying social programming An array of obstacles was encountered.
improved the quality of life of those living in Administrative difficulties arose from a per-
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Replicability
Building social, economic and environmental The Fora de Risco project demonstrates that a
interventions into city planning.
range of social, economic and environmental
interventions can be built into a traditionally
ceived paternalistic culture, where associates one-dimensional project such as housing provi-
benefit from personal relationships. Beneficiaries sion. While other cities operate in different con-
were resistant to the idea of making payments on texts and with different institutional structures,
their homes, and due to lack of municipal the Fora de Risco experience shows that an inte-
administrative capacity it is still not clear exactly grated interdisciplinary approach has enormous
how many families are not making payments. It potential. Goiânia’s investment in education
is difficult to earn the trust of the locals, since and social preparation is particularly note-
empty promises are often made, especially dur- worthy as much of the project’s success de-
ing elections. Representatives from COMOB pended on ensuring that the resettled population
identified opportunism as a particular challenge. had the skills to maintain and benefit from
They describe situations in which locals disputed
their new housing. This approach demonstrates
the assessed values of their old homes, the meas-
that while participation in decision-making is
urements of their home, or even the size of their
important in ensuring sustainable develop-
family, often resulting in the last minute renego-
ment, investment in social development is also
tiation of terms. Regarding vocational training,
important.
difficulties in finding work after graduation and
supply shortages have caused feelings of frustra-
tion among beneficiaries. Finally, COMOB Key Contacts
points out that bureaucratic inefficiencies lead-
COMOB (City of Goiânia Department
ing to delays in the work programme have
responsible for project)
caused suspicion and doubt among beneficiaries.
Address and telephone for COMOB contacts:
Many of these lessons have informed the Av. Atilio Correa Lima 764—Cidade Jardim
programming for Dom Fernando and Itamaracá, Goiânia, GO, CEP 74015, Brazil
which is why COMOB feels that this sub-project Tel.: +55-62/3524-2175, Fax: +55-62/3524-2150
has been successful. They also feel that some of Municipal Secretariat for the Environment
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MANIZALES
COLOMBIA
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aging the economy of the city.
In addition, Manizales faced a rapidly grow-
Participatory planning benefits all, more so children. ing population, brought about partly by the influx
of internal migrants who had come to the city
to escape the armed conflict that was ravaging
faces economic and social problems associated other parts of Colombia, and partly as a conse-
with the growth of urban and rural poverty. Much quence of internal migration in the coffee grow-
of this is linked to armed conflict, as internal ing region as a result of the economic crisis.
migrants, displaced from their homes by violence,
Informal settlements sprang up, most located on
come to the city. This has resulted in unplanned
the steep, landslide prone hillsides.
urban growth, deforestation and the invasion of
The Manizales BioPlan developed out of a
public space. Many settlements have developed
series of environmental interventions dating
illegally on unstable hillsides, creating a high risk
from the early 1990s onwards, a period which
of localised landslides.
marked the start of effective environmental poli-
cies in the city’s planning. At the beginning of the
Urban Management Approach decade, the municipality focused on social and
Manizales is implementing an Agenda 21 environmental improvements. People living on
known as Manizales BioPlan. BioPlan is made high-risk hillsides were relocated, and the areas
up of 11 communal environmental agendas were reforested. Landslides lessened, and urban
(urban groupings) and seven village environmen- ecosystems started to recover. Eco-parks were
tal agendas. The municipal development plan of established and educational programmes initi-
Manizales has incorporated the Manizales Bio- ated. By the middle of the decade, Manizales
Plan since 2000. was already regarded as a leader in urban envi-
ronmental planning. Administrative and fiscal
decentralisation in Colombia changed how
Case Study municipalities did business. The city saw a period
Manizales’ main economic activity for more than of economic growth, and was able to allocate a
a century has been coffee production. During the portion of the municipal budget to environmen-
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tal policy. Economic, social, environmental and municipality still faces problems in organic waste
disaster-prevention/land-use dimensions were in- management, and the recycling plant is not prof-
tegrated into a sustainable development concept. itable. However, it is still one of Manizales’ most
There were some fluctuations in the fortunes important social and environmental investments,
of the Manizales BioPlan towards the end of the advising other mayors and municipalities, helping
decade, but in 2000, the BioPlan became the prin- to establish a recycler’s association, coordinating
cipal tool of the municipality’s environmental pol- a programme to promote waste separation at
icy. The private sector started to participate in source and working in public education.
management, and an integrated management
structure was created. A key achievement was the
Results
establishment of sustainable development obser-
vatories. Today, action plans to decrease poverty Communities and civil society groups in Mani-
in the city and to reduce the social and territorial zales have created local environmental action
segregation of people displaced by violence are plans and have set up environmental projects
being implemented. BioPlan Manizales is focusing which aim to integrate displaced persons both
on helping the vulnerable and the poor. It aims to socially and economically.
build a safe and healthy environment, and to sup- The Manizales Recycler Association pro-
port environmental regeneration in the margin- vides advice to many community organisations
alised central area of the city. It also advances in managing and treating waste and offers good
equality through social and spatial integration, working conditions for recyclers, improving
encourages information for all and promotes par- their social and economic status and ending the
ticipatory planning. social exclusion they would suffer as informal
sector waste-pickers on landfill dumps.
Urban eco-parks and protective/productive
Environment Entry Point forests are part of BioPlan and are included in
Manizales was affected by the eruption of the the city’s development plan.
Ruiz volcano in 1985, which destroyed the village Observatories for sustainable development
of Amero and other small communities where allow citizens to participate in the monitoring sys-
35,000 people lived. This has generated a culture tem which supports local urban management.
of disaster prevention which has become an inte- These observatories provide citizens with regularly
gral part of planning approaches in the region as updated economic, social and environmental indi-
a whole. Employment generation is another cators. The most visible features of the observato-
important entry point for environmental issues, ries, the Quality of Life Traffic Lights, are placed
through activities ranging from ecotourism to in strategic locations around the city. The elec-
waste management and recycling. Manizales is a tronic billboards display the quality of social, eco-
pioneer in recycling and its plant mainly recycles nomic, and environmental indicators for the city’s
plastics, paper, glass, card and scrap iron. The eleven districts or neighbourhoods, using a famil-
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iar, distinctly urban symbol (traffic lights) and crucial in gaining credibility and legitimacy and
colour scheme (green, yellow and red).13 the partnerships have provided the city with
technical and financial support.
Lessons Learned
Replicability
Management of the urban eco-parks is somewhat
difficult due to usage conflicts, ecosystem fragility, The Manizales experience is fixed in local cir-
housing and cultivation pressure and lack of cumstances, both environmental and economic.
continuity in environmental education pro- However, the municipality’s experience in devel-
grammes. It is important to show that sustain- oping and institutionalising integrated urban
able development offers new income-generating environmental planning provides a useful refer-
opportunities. ence for other urban centres. In addition, Man-
Despite political changes, environmental izales’ experience in integrating marginalised
issues have been a consistent focus for local gov- communities holds many useful lessons for other
ernment in Manizales since the beginning of the cities trying to build more equitable cities.
1990s. Environmental interventions have offered Partnerships with the university, the private
opportunities for poverty reduction and employ- sector and other levels of government, together
ment generation. Recycling cooperatives and with national-level legislative changes that
worker solidarity have contributed to improve empower local governments, have worked to
quality of life for the very poor. strengthen the local government of Manizales.
Partnerships at all levels are an essential Taxation powers and access to international
component in the success of BioPlan. Strong support for specific projects have increased the
partnerships have been formed between the available resources. With these legislative and
financial powers, and by working in a participa-
municipal government and other agencies, a lo-
tory and consensus-oriented manner, the city has
cal university, the private sector, international
been able to develop and implement a concrete
agencies and citizens. Multi-stakeholder involve-
strategy for a sustainable community.
ment in the development of the BioPlan has been
Key Contacts
13Luz Estella Velasquez, Sustainable Development Observato-
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NAKURU
KENYA
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The municipal council of Nakuru
is work-ing together with UN-
HABITAT’s Localising Agenda 21
programme, a collaborative initia-
tive to enhance local capacities for
sustainable urban planning and
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measure was being implemented in order to struct a water reservoir tank; and to build more
improve the low forest coverage: Kenya’s tree water kiosks.
coverage is minimal at 1.6 percent. An important side benefit is the fact that water
Using the LA21 approach, the project was vendors can make a living out of this initiative by
operated through a community-based organi- delivering water by bicycles, thus further con-
zation, the Naroka Greeners Self Help Group, tributing to the use of non-motorised transport in
along with other stakeholders. This group identi- the area. A community-based water vendor group
fied the community needs, and worked to sensi- has also been registered, ensuring that its members
tise its members on environmental issues such as get water from the water kiosks for sale to com-
safe liquid waste disposal, safe water use and mercial entrepreneurs and residential houses.
proper water management. The group also pro-
vided labour to dig trenches where the water
Results
pumping network would be laid, and was in
charge of managing the water kiosks. The Nakuru The project benefited the community in many
municipal council provided technical expertise, ways. Firstly, it provided access to clean water
and sold water in bulk to the Naroka Greeners and thus reduced the risk of diseases associated
who in turn would sell the water at a retail price. with poor sanitation. Secondly, the time spent
The council also monitored the progress and eval-
uated the project management and execution. The
Local Agenda 21 Coordinating Office ensured
that there were adequate linkages and coordi-
nation with international Agenda 21 standards
and processes.
The first water kiosk is a master kiosk man-
aged by Naroka Greeners Self-Group. In addition
to providing a reliable source of potable water, it
acts as an office for the group. Four other water
kiosks offer reliable sources of water to residents
of the Rhoda/Kaptembwa low-income residen-
tial areas and other areas. The group, according
to its 2005 Annual Report, has averaged nine to
ten employees. The 2005 annual turnover was
US$16,940.70, with a surplus of US$6,139.60.
© Curt Carnemark/World Bank
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by women walking in search of water was sig- orders, and annual reports on the state of envi-
nificantly reduced, freeing up time for other pro- ronment in Kenya.
ductive activities. Thirdly, the water kiosks
created employment opportunities for a variety
Lessons Learned
of community members. Lastly, the water
kiosks generate revenue for the city council The Nakuru case demonstrates the importance
through the sale of safe and reliable drinking of community involvement in identifying local
water to industries. priorities and deciding on solutions. In address-
The Nakuru municipal council strategic ing the issue of water supply, the community
plan has set targets up until 2020, aiming to was also able to deal with social and economic
make water accessible to low income groups in concerns. The water kiosks served to create
peri-urban areas by constructing water kiosks employment, mitigate disease outbreaks, and
close to these communities. The corporate plan reduce poverty within the community.
of the Nakuru Water and Sanitation Services
Company (NAWASSCO), a fully owned munic-
Replicability
ipal council public company, states that it will
“open up water kiosks to low-income earners by Nakuru’s experience shows the importance of
involving communities in conservation and a strong integrated approach and the use of
management as a short term practice based on stakeholder consultations in decision-making—
needs.” key replication factors for other communities.
The municipal council of Nakuru and UN- Nakuru’s water kiosks are an innovative model
HABITAT are planning a follow-up activity to for increasing local water access that can be
link areas with water kiosks and improve acces- replicated globally. Of particular interest for
sibility by non-motorized transport through the replication are the following:
construction of bicycle and pedestrian lanes.
Participatory community planning when under-
taking projects or developmental projects is
Environment Entry Point very important;
Capacity building within community-based
The Localising Agenda 21 approach includes organisations is needed to ensure proper man-
social, economic and environmental issues in agement of the water kiosks;
urban planning and management from the Inclusive governance ensures that the man-
beginning. Nakuru council uses a variety of agement of sustainability initiatives is more
environmental methodologies and tools. These diversified;
include Environment Impact Assessments (EIA), Linking and leveraging resources both inter-
environment audits and monitoring, environ- nally and externally can bring about develop-
mental restoration, conservation and easement mental changes.
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A typical coastal city skyline in Brazil.
PORTO ALEGRE
BRAZIL
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Case Study
Citizen involvement in administration has been
on the increase in Brazil since the 1970s. Even
under the former military regime, a small number
of municipalities governed by a segment of the
then MDB (Brazilian Democratic Movement)
© Kessler Images.de/Still Pictures
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information about the city budget. Neighbour- to discuss specific issues relevant to the city and
hood meetings are then held, in which residents discussion forums were set up around five sec-
draw up their list of priorities for infrastructure toral themes:
investment. In the second round of assemblies,
each district elects two representatives and two Urban planning and development, sub-divided
alternates to the city-wide municipal budget into environment and sanitation, and city plan-
council. Negotiations then take place between ning and housing;
the delegates of the various district budget fora Traffic management and public transport;
to create district-wide ‘priority lists’ of infra- Health and social welfare;
structure projects in several investment cate- Education, culture and recreation; and,
gories. The municipal budget council decides Economic development and taxation.
how funds will be distributed for each priority
among districts, and each district quota is applied Significant changes were made to the city’s culture
following the priority list of the district. Spend- of urban management, giving extra attention to
ing is monitored year-round by the municipal issues that affected the city as a whole. A series of
budget council and the district budget fora, and city conferences, bringing together representatives
regular discussions are held with local govern- from civil society, was launched in 1993. The first,
ment personnel on general service provisions. ‘Porto Alegre: City of Democracy’ asked, ‘What
The budget council is responsible for overseeing kind of city do we want for the future?’ The pol-
the plans of each city agency. icy recommendations which came out of this
In Porto Alegre, citizens have chosen to conference advised that the future Porto Alegre
allocate resources mainly for street paving, sewer- should practise democratic and decentralised
age, housing and community equipment. Inter- urban management, and combat inequality and
estingly, PB has shown that what administration social exclusion. The city should also promote
thinks will be a priority for citizens is not always high standards of living and environmental qual-
what citizens themselves prioritise. In the first ity, be culturally rich and diverse, attractive and
year of PB in Porto Alegre, the administration competitive, and should seek to establish partner-
expected that the priority issue for the poor ships between the public and private sectors. It
would be public transport. In fact, what the peo- should adopt effective financial strategies, and
ple voted for in the PB process was water supply assume its responsibility as the focal point of the
and sewerage. metropolitan area.
Following the success of citizen involvement In 1995, the second city conference, ‘Porto
in budgetary decision-making, it became clear Alegre: City for All’ debated the reformulation
that a purely physical planning model, operating of the urban development master plan, which
in isolation from key actors, was not compatible now included environmental issues. The confer-
with participatory democracy. The PB process was ence produced a set of resolutions that formed
restructured in 1994; sectoral public assemblies the basis of the new urban and environmental
were introduced to give citizens the opportunity development master plan, which was approved
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by the city councillors in 1999 following lengthy Programme for the management of green areas;
discussions. The third city conference in 2000, Urban tree planting;
‘Building the City of the Future’ sought to syn- Oil pollution control in the service sector
thesise the city’s social and strategic policies, and programme;
coincided with the four-yearly planning exercise Industrial water pollution control programme;
which, until then, had been undertaken only by Atmospheric pollution control programme;
municipal planners and technical staff. For the Integrated solid waste management;
first time, the 2000 plan involved the general Waste collection and recycling programmes;
public in setting targets for the next long term. Waste disposal programmes.
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YANGZHOU
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
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SEPA Indicators for Eco City Development
China’s Eco City initiative was launched by the
Economic Development
State Environmental Protection Administration
Productivity (per capita GDP)
(SEPA) in 1996, the same year SEPA first issued Per capita financial revenue
application guidelines for classification as an Per capita net income, etc.
“Eco City.” Eco City development calls for the Efficiency of resource use
integration of strategies for social progress, Development potentials (tertiary industry
development level, ISO14000 authentica-
resource management, economic development,
tion ratio)
transportation, land use and industrial manage- Environmental Protection
ment through cooperation and education. The Forest coverage ratio
Eco City initiative generated considerable atten- Per capita public green space
tion from Chinese local government as interest in Proportion of conserved area
Ratio of degraded land restoration
Agenda 21 principles and environmental solu-
Waste emission and regeneration
tions grew throughout the country. Nearly 500
Environmental quality
local governments registered to be pilot areas. Of Investment in environmental protection
these, 10 municipalities have submitted Eco City Social Progress
Plans to SEPA, with Yangzhou among them. Infrastructure level
Yangzhou is running the Eco City Programme Urbanisation rate
Quality of life
as a pilot project, along with the municipality of
Social equity
Changzhou. It is structured along the lines of People’s capability (ratio of enrollment in
the Eco City Planning and Management Prog- higher education, input in science and
ramme, a Sino-German cooperative programme. education)
Yangzhou’s Eco City Plan was also developed in Ecological awareness promotion
partnership with the China Academy of Sciences. People’s satisfaction with their environment.
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© sinopictures/viewchina/Still Pictures
state and the Constitution provides
for one department to direct the
work of the same department at a
lower level. This creates strong
vertical linkages in the same de-
partment at central, provincial,
municipal and county/township
government levels. However, hori- Child playing by housing complex in Shanghai, China.
zontal linkages between different
departments at the same municipal level are fre- Results
quently weak. Recognising the need for a holistic
approach to implement the ECP, the Mayor of Urban Water Management
Yangzhou, with support from executive vice may- Through the Eco City Plan, Yangzhou has imple-
ors and department heads, established a special ad mented measures to improve the water quality in
hoc office within the administration (known as numerous rivers and canals. Due to intensified
the “3Cs Office”) to coordinate decisions and urbanisation and industrialisation, water quality
actions horizontally across departments. The 3Cs standards in China range between ISO grade III
office comprises at least one staff person from and grade V. In Yangzhou, the water quality
each key department of the administration—land standard was grade V and lower. In response to
use planning, environmental protection, five-year this, Yangzhou municipality, with the support of
investment planning, budget and construction. the Eco City programme, organised an interdis-
ECP emphasizes the importance of integrat- ciplinary seminar on river rehabilitation in Octo-
ing implementation mechanisms. This would ber 2005. The dialogue called for integrated
ensure that statutory plans, such as the urban water management, and shared accountability
master plan, and plans that reflect long-estab- over adjacent watersheds. It also identified the
lished administrative practice, such as the five- reduction of direct and indirect pollution sources
year investment plans and supporting sector as issues to be addressed immediately.
plans, are all covered under the ‘umbrella’ of the
municipal Eco City Plan. Because the ECP is
Sustainable Urban Conservation
supported by both the local executive and admin-
istrative bodies, departments make their deci- The ECP underlines the importance of preserv-
sions on investments, programmes and activities ing historical sites, particularly by protecting and
in a way that is consistent with its aims, priorities upgrading the ancient settlements which bear the
and the principles. city’s rich culture and history. Yangzhou has a
Case Studies
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large expanse of traditional urban settlements discuss ideas they have to address environmental
in the city centre, an area of around 5.1 square issues. An actual example is the pilot project on
kilometres. ECP discourages the development of decentralised water management, where residents
large-scale projects in these areas, and the munic- have been involved in the analysis of the situation
ipality has partnered with the Tongji University and in the identification of solutions.
of Shanghai and the University of Technology,
Berlin to link social development with urban
Environment Entry Point
conservation. This is also aimed at increasing the
municipality’s tourism potential, which is seen as The environment has been the focal point of
an additional source of revenue. Yangzhou’s urban planning and management
approach since the adoption of the Eco City
approach.
Eco Industrial Park
To foster sustainable economic growth—a key
goal of the Eco City Programme—Yangzhou Lessons Learned
established the Eco Industrial Park. The Park Yangzhou’s Eco City Plan uses a holistic ap-
consists of vast areas of land along the Yangtze proach that sets long-term direction and pro-
River set aside for industrial purposes where vides an over-arching umbrella for other more
industries are required to use clean production narrowly-focused and shorter plans (for exam-
techniques. This decision was supported by Chi- ple, spatial plans and investment plans). It also
nese legislation tabled in 2003 which required addresses a broad range of issues, and does not
business to reduce the environmental impacts limit itself to environmental concerns.
of production, use clean energy and renewable The ECP allows Yangzhou to pursue its
materials and maximise the utilisation of re- goals of economic advancement such as indus-
sources. The Yangzhou Eco Industrial Park trial development and tourism while at the same
development is still in its early stages. To date, time ensuring social stability, improvement in
Yangzhou has conducted a feasibility study and the quality of life of residents through the provi-
has carried out initial dialogues with industries, sion of basic services such as water and environ-
technical exchanges, and field visits to the Park. mental conservation like the adoption of the
cleaner production principle.
ECP is based on participatory principles. The
Eco Centre
role of the general public is important in ensuring
The first of its kind in China, Yangzhou’s Eco the attainment of sustainable development goals.
Centre serves as an environmental information ECP also emphasises the importance of partner-
and communications clearinghouse. Apart from ship building, as in the case of the conservation
raising general environmental consciousness, it of the traditional settlements and the develop-
aims to inform the public about the government’s ment of the Eco Industrial Park, where the
efforts and activities related to the urban environ- municipality established partnerships with the
ment. It is also a venue for citizens to present and academe and the private sector.
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ANNEX 2
EXAMPLES
INSTRUMENT TOOLKIT
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SUSTAINABLE PROCUREMENT
(ECO PROCUREMENT, GREEN PURCHASING)
A local authority which implements a sustainable procurement (green purchasing) policy bases its pur-
chasing decisions for goods and services and the allocation of contracts both on environmental and
social criteria, as well as cost and quality considerations. Sustainable procurement contributes to envi-
ronmental protection at the local level, creates a market demand for green production methods, strength-
ens local jobs, and serves as a model for private companies, institutions and individuals (ICLEI, 2000a).
ICLEI (2003) proposes the following step-by-step method for concerted action on eco-procurement:
1. Prepare a procurement inventory detailing the quantity of certain products purchased, the expen-
diture, and the sustainability considerations;
2. Set product specific targets based on the capacity and determination of the local authority, for exam-
ple, to achieve 20 percent green electricity use by 2012;
3. Develop an action plan taking due account of existing contracts;
4. Implement the action plan;
5. Monitor progress and report results to the council and to the public.
Local authorities can base their green purchasing decisions on Life Cycle Analyses or eco-labels. In
the absence of these green identifiers, a local authority may also identify a ‘green’ product by consid-
ering a simplified study of the product’s life cycle (see Table on p. 123).
A Life Cycle Analysis examines the environmental impact of a product from its design to its
disposal—from raw material extraction, manufacturing, packaging and transport to storage, use and
after use. An environmentally preferable product or service has an overall minimal impact on the envi-
ronment throughout its lifespan. This scientifically reliable method is widely regarded as “sophisti-
cated” and, in practice, has limited applicability because of a lack of Life Cycle Analyses for products
and services (see Table on p. 123).
Eco-labels are an alternative to Life Cycle Analyses. Some of the better-known and reliable eco-labels
are ‘Blue Angel’, ‘Nordic Swan’, ‘Austrian Tree’, and ‘EU flower’. The Global Eco-labelling Network’s
website (www.gen.gr.jp/members.html) is a useful resource for finding out if an eco-label is available
for a certain product category.
An increasing number of local authorities are now implementing environmental management
systems to motivate all parts of the administration to improve the environmental performance of their
operation. EMS could have a big impact on a local authority especially as regards purchasing. More-
over, a local government may oblige its contractors to achieve EMS certification, for example, EMAS
and ISO 14001.
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Compatibility with
equipment/user
habits
Recyclability
Disposal
PROCESS INSTRUMENT
CHECKLIST FOR A
VISIONING CONFERENCE
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PROCESS INSTRUMENT
Numerous programmes base their work on public participation and their tools have been extensively
documented. A couple are provided here as examples.
The Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP)—a global technical co-operation activity between UN-
HABITAT and UNEP—works with local partners at the city level to strengthen their capacities for envi-
ronmental planning and management (EPM). All SCP cities share a common approach, which includes
an environmental profile, a long-term integrated vision, “broad-based participation by public, private
and community sector groups” (UN-HABITAT and UNEP, 2001) and institutionalisation. Guidelines
and lessons of experience from the programme are documented in the SCP Source Book Series.
German Technical Co-operation (GTZ) has prepared a Guide for local governments to encourage
participation in five settings: a task force; a round table and an expert panel; a workshop; a Citizens’
Advisory Group; and a Public Forum (GTZ, 2000a).
For each of the five practices above, the Guide clearly sets out:
For further information on the Sustainable Cities Programme and the SCP Source Book Series, please see
www.unhabitat.org/scp
For further information on the GTZ Participation Guide, please see Strengthening Local Urban Planning and
Management: Handbook (GTZ, 2002)
www.naga.gov.ph
www.iap2.org/
PLANNING INSTRUMENT
STRUCTURING AN
ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE
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PLANNING INSTRUMENT
SWOT ANALYSIS
Weakness: A shortcoming of the city or Illegal dumping or waste burning in parts of the city
neighbourhood
Opportunity: A chance that arises externally that A growing trend among foreign tourists to visit
might enhance the city and the wellbeing of its historic buildings could result in a growth in tourist
citizens numbers in the city
Threat: An external factor that might cause Industrial discharge to a river, upstream of the city,
problems may pollute the water supply, cause health prob-
lems and create foul smells
It is convenient to prepare a SWOT analysis on a single sheet of A4 paper, as set out below.
Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities Threats
PLANNING INSTRUMENT
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A city administration should compare its EF with the global average EF as a benchmark and those of
other cities. In subsequent years, a comparison between the City EF for Year 1 with the City EF for say
Year 3 would establish whether a city is becoming more (or less) sustainable.
It should be noted that the use of an EF as an indicator of sustainable resource use is still relatively
new. The Global Footprint Network (GFN) highlights the importance of a consistent approach to
methodology and analyses, in order to ensure that results are credible and that comparisons can be
made between cities. Cities can refer to the GFN website to monitor progress in attempts to agree on
standards.
PLANNING INSTRUMENT
Actions Check
Are hidden costs as well as overt costs involved?
Should the output be available to the general public and, if so, how?
Should monitoring be achieved in partnership with local stakeholders, individuals, and
organisations, and, if so, how?
Does the city council already have monitoring systems in place that could be used?
Are existing monitoring systems available elsewhere in the city that could support attempts to
establish an M&E system for the urban development strategy?
How frequently should evaluation be undertaken and feedback reports prepared?
Actions Check
Establish a base line measurement for each indicator at the beginning of the monitoring period.
Continue to measure each indicator at regular intervals, for example, on the first day of every
month.
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Actions Check
Keeping track of events
Use A4 graph paper and the monitoring data taken for an indicator at regular intervals.
Write “time” along the horizontal axis and “units of measurement” against the vertical axis.
Divide the horizontal axis into equal time periods based on the monitoring interval.
Calculate a scale for the vertical axis. This will differ for each indicator and will depend on the
range of measurements involved.
Plot monitoring data for each indicator on a separate sheet of graph paper (one at a time).
Plot each measurement of an indicator taken at regular intervals and produce a trend line by
joining successive points.
Analyse the trend line and consider and document whether corrective action needs to be
taken in the light of trends to date and the target ahead.
When considering which indicators of environmental sustainability to include, cities could consider
the following table drawn from MDG7 and current work by UNEP on city environmental assess-
ment methodology.
It may be prudent to start small and to build the system up gradually so that it eventually covers the entire range
of indicators, economic, social and environmental. By monitoring indicators at regular intervals, the stakehold-
ers will have information available about interim and end term changes which have occurred as a result of
actions taken. The information will show the stakeholders and the public whether targets have been reached,
and will provide a basis for an evaluation and for feedback reports.
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PLANNING INSTRUMENT
A Strategic Environmental Assessment undertaken in parallel with the development of an urban devel-
opment strategy can be summarised in five steps.
Step 1: Context and Baseline
When starting to prepare a CDS, the city administration should consider the availability of background
information, possible objectives and indicators, and who will undertake the SEA. These matters must
be resolved before issues and options are developed for the CDS.
Step 2: Scope
The city administration, in conjunction with a local stakeholder group, must determine the likely scope
of an environment report and the level of detail to be examined during the SEA. Any statutory envi-
ronmental bodies should be formally consulted during this process in addition to being represented in
the stakeholder group. It is at this stage, in a parallel activity, that alternative policies and programmes
for the CDS are formulated.
Step 3: Assessment and Mitigation
An assessment is made of the likely impact on the environment of the alternative policies and pro-
grammes being developed as part of the evolving CDS. Where it appears that aspects of the CDS would
have significant adverse effects on the environment, recommendations need to be made as to how the
impacts could be reduced, prevented or offset. The assessment and mitigation measures are set out in
the environment report.
Step 4: Consultation and Report
The environment report is a key component of the SEA process and must be made available for pub-
lic consultation at the same time as the draft CDS. After responses to the two consultation documents
have been received, a public statement must be made explaining how the environment report and the
public response have been taken into account during revisions to the CDS.
Step 5: Monitoring the Implementation of the CDS
This activity ensures that action conforms to the expressed intention of minimising the impact of devel-
opment on the environment. Monitoring highlights any unforeseen adverse effects of CDS policies. This
step must include reporting and feedback activities to reassure elected members and the public that
agreed mitigation measures have been honoured.
MANAGEMENT INSTRUMENT
Climate stability:
CO2 emissions t/pa 1,400,000 1,200,000 1,180,000 1,050,000
(1990) (2008)
Air quality:
# days/pa with O3> =120ug/m3 45 36 30 20
(8-h av.) (2001) (2010)
Land:
Loss of agricultural land to 100 95 90 75
urbanisation (2000) (2012)
Water:
Consumption of potable water 116.6 112 111 108
(l/capita/day) (2002) (2008)
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Useful Websites
ecoBUDGET www.ecoBudget.org/
HabitatJam T www.habitatjam.com/
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LIVEABLE
CITIES
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
P.O. Box 30552 THE BENEFITS OF
Nairobi 00100 Kenya
Tel: (+254) 20 7623287 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING
Fax: (+254) 20 7624309
unepinfo@unep.org
www.unep.org
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20433 USA
Tel: (202) 473-9233
Fax: (202) 522-3224
info@citiesalliance.org
www.citiesalliance.org