Giving in

India September 2009

Simon Blake
Tara Chand
Nilanjana Dutta
A guide for funders and charities Adrian Fradd
Gaurav Gupta
Giving in
India
A guide for funders and charities

Cover photograph supplied by Justin Canning/Comic Relief Ltd.

Contents
Contents 1

Introduction 2

Background 2
Purpose 2
Process 3
Main findings 3
Next steps 4
A note on terminology 5
1. The problem and solution 6

The problem 6
The solution 14
2. Developing a framework 19

Factors in giving 19
Internal variables 19
External variables 21
Where does this leave us? 30
3. Water and sanitation 31

Stage 1: Needs 31
Stage 2: What works? 37
Stage 3: Government and other funders 42
Stage 4: Voluntary sector 48
Lessons for donors 53
Conclusions 57

Acknowledgements 58

References 60

1
 Introduction
Background
This report looks at the nature and role of
philanthropy in India, and explores ways to
increase its impact. It grew out of the premise
that private giving in India has considerable
potential to tackle the country’s entrenched
problems, and money is not being allocated as
effectively as possible.
With its roots in religious giving, philanthropy in
India has long tended to mean donors funding
temples and schools in their villages of origin.
This kind of activity is laudable but it can only
be a modest step towards tackling India’s
challenges. It is the contention of this report that
donors need to think more strategically about
the best use of their philanthropy.
This report argues that giving in India needs to
improve and can be made more effective. The
Indian voluntary sector is large, including over
1.2 million non-governmental organisations
(NGOs). Within this, certain issues should be
prioritised and charities chosen on the basis
of their outcomes. This will ensure that private
funding has a greater impact on people’s lives
in India.
Underpinning this work is research from a year-
long joint venture between New Philanthropy
Capital (NPC), a London-based NGO
specialising in improving the effectiveness of
the voluntary sector, and Copal Partners, a
leading provider of financial analytics, business
intelligence and research services.
NPC was set up in 2002 to improve the
effectiveness of the voluntary sector in the UK.
It was founded by philanthropists from the
financial services industry who felt that too little
information was available on charity impact and
on effective funding. They decided to found an
independent charity to provide an objective and
analytical perspective on the role and priorities
for private giving.
NPC has developed a tailored methodology for
analysing social issues, identifying priorities for
philanthropy and judging the effectiveness of
individual NGOs. In the past seven years it has
applied this approach to over 20 social issues
in the UK, including homelessness, autism and
ex-offenders. It also carries out cutting-edge
analysis of general voluntary sector issues,
such as governance, effective grant-giving
and results measurement tools. NPC makes
2
all of its reports freely available on its website
(www.philanthropycapital.org) and uses this
research to provide strategic consultancy and
advice to funders and charities.
In March 2008, NPC produced the report
Philanthropists without borders, which
highlighted the challenges facing philanthropists
working internationally, and explored NPC’s
potential international strategy.1 Based on
extensive interviews and focus groups with
international donors, it showed significant
demand for independent advice on how to give
effectively. This was mirrored by growing ad hoc
demand from funders, other intermediaries and
NGOs, asking NPC to apply its methodology to
the international voluntary sector.
Copal Partners (Copal) is a financial research
and consultancy firm that has its main office
in Delhi. It started its own charity analysis
team in 2006, in response to demand from its
clients for advice on their philanthropy. These
clients included banks, other corporations and
high net worth individuals. This development
also reflected Copal’s senior management’s
own philanthropic interest in improving the
effectiveness of the Indian voluntary sector. The
team has produced an overview of the Indian
charity sector, as well as analysis of several
of the larger NGOs in India, such as HelpAge
India and the Children in Need Institute. All of
these reports are available on Copal’s website,
www.copalpartners.com.
In March 2008, NPC and Copal decided to pool
their efforts and set up a joint venture to explore
the effectiveness of philanthropy in India. The
aim was to draw on the skills of both partners,
and contribute to a growing debate on the
effectiveness of the Indian voluntary sector.
Purpose
The purpose of this report is to explore the
current status of philanthropy in India and to
test ways of using and synthesising available
information to improve its effectiveness. This
builds on NPC and Copal’s previous experience
of voluntary sector analysis, and looks to
transfer NPC’s methodology and approach to
the Indian context. This ‘core’ methodology is
set out in Funding success, which is available
at www.philanthropycapital.org.2 An update to
this report will be launched in the second half
of 2009.

This report explores four main hypotheses:
• Funding for NGOs in India is not working
properly—there is a ‘funding market’ linking
funders and charities, but it is in important
senses ‘broken’.
• Analysing social issues and individual NGOs
can help fix this broken market.
• Using NPC and Copal’s analytical
framework, donors can prioritise issues
and NGOs for funding based on analysis of
potential impact.
• It is possible to do in-depth analysis of
NGOs in India.
The information and framework set out in
this report are presented as useful tools for
foundations and donors who are new to giving
in India. Using these tools can help structure
and inform their giving. NGOs can also draw
upon the information in the report to think about
their role in the sector, and how to improve their
activities and impact measurement.
Beyond this, NPC and Copal aim to stimulate
further action and debate. We hope that
by demonstrating the potential benefits of
using an analytical framework on voluntary
sector effectiveness, more organisations and
individuals will grapple with these issues. This
could either involve applying our approach to a
broader set of topics, or proposing a modified
or different analytical approach. We believe that
India needs a broad-based effort to analyse
social problems and the role and success of the
voluntary sector’s response.
Process
Between March 2008 and May 2009, the
NPC and Copal joint venture based a team
of analysts in Delhi. The analysts looked at
the voluntary sector as a whole, as well as
researching two issues in depth: early childhood
development, and water and sanitation. These
topics were chosen based on an analysis
of different factors, including level of need,
donor interest, and the potential impact of the
research.
In order to explore different approaches, the
research process used varied slightly for each
issue. It roughly shadowed the approach
pioneered by NPC in the UK, which follows five
main stages:
1. Literature review and interviews with experts,
such as government, academics and NGOs;
2. Development of a database of over 100
NGOs working in the sector, including core
information and data;
Giving in India I Introduction
3. Telephone calls with a shortlist of NGOs,
selected on the basis of their potential;
4. Field visits to a sample of NGOs (20–30),
including in-depth interviews with
management; and
5. In-depth analysis of four to six high-
performing NGOs.
The whole year’s research has fed into this
report and its understanding of the voluntary We hope that by
and philanthropy sector in India. However,
the findings specific to the research on early
demonstrating
Introduction
childhood development are being published as the potential
a separate report, Starting strong. The analysis
of the water and sanitation sector is included
benefits of using
in this report. It is presented as an example an analytical
of how to use an analytical framework to
understand a particular social issue, prioritise framework on
issues for donors, and provide a context for voluntary sector
the analysis of individual NGOs.
effectiveness,
Main findings more
This report is divided into three parts, each of organisations
which explores and develops different aspects and individuals
of the four main hypotheses.
will grapple with
1. The problem and solution
these issues.
The first section explores the importance of
philanthropy in India, in terms of both its scale
and its distinctive role in addressing social
issues in India. It examines the evidence to see
whether philanthropy is working effectively. NPC
and Copal’s judgement is that it is not. Funding
does not appear to be prioritised optimally and
good information on the impact of individual
NGOs is rarely available. This is not unique to
India, but is consistent with NPC’s experience
in the UK and with reports from other national
voluntary sectors.
Dealing with this problem is not straightforward,
and there is no ‘magic bullet’. NPC and Copal
propose that a comprehensive solution will need
to focus on at least three areas: encouraging
donors to demand information; supporting
charities to capture their impact; and improving
the flow of information. Seen in this light, it is
possible to start creating an argument in favour
of the report’s second hypothesis—that analysing
social issues and individual NGOs in India can
help improve the effectiveness of philanthropy.
NPC and Copal suggest that deeper analysis
will improve the flow of information and
encourage donors and NGOs to concentrate
more on evidence-based decision-making.
Specifically, it will provide a more rational set of
criteria for donors to choose which issues to
fund, which organisations to support and how
to improve the quality of funding.
3
 Giving in India I Introduction
2. Developing a framework
In the second section we look in greater detail
at what an analytical framework could look like,
setting out a structured methodology based
on the approach that NPC has developed in its
work on the UK voluntary sector. This focuses
analysis on four main factors:
Pooling efforts • level of need;
• evidence of what works;
and publicising
• activity by other actors; and
success and
• the nature of the voluntary sector.
failure means
We explore these criteria within the context of
that costs can the Indian situation. We go into particular detail
be shared and when looking at the fourth area—the nature
of the Indian voluntary sector—as there are
the chances a number of features and challenges that are
of success relevant to all donors interested in giving to
NGOs in India.
increased.
Donors interested primarily in sharing NPC and
Copal’s insights into the voluntary sector could
turn straight to this section (page 6).
The overall framework is not proposed as a
definitive single approach to analysis, but rather
as one possible model. Any funder has to make
choices between different causes and different
organisations, but this sometimes happens on
the basis of implicit choices and judgements.
NPC and Copal’s approach is distinctive in that
it makes the basis of our decisions explicit and
public. Accordingly, feedback is welcomed from
readers on this report.
NPC and Copal hope that developing this
evidence base will encourage donors to
become more effective. So, in addition to using
personal interests to determine their funding,
donors will have access to objective criteria and
advice on how to prioritise where they give, and
how to choose individual charities to support.
A further benefit in making our approach and
learning transparent is that it stimulates and
accelerates further debate about the role and
format of analysis in the voluntary sector. The
hope is that it will provoke other organisations
to propose different models or suggest
further refinements, in turn accelerating the
development of knowledge in this area.
Finally, we hope that it will help funders become
more transparent and share their knowledge
more. Pooling efforts and publicising success
and failure means that costs can be shared and
the chances of success increased. This has not
happened enough in the past. A commitment to
public knowledge is a central part of NPC and
Copal’s approach.
4
3. Water and sanitation
The third and last section is designed to test
the final two hypotheses of this report: whether
it is actually possible in India to prioritise areas
for philanthropy and identify effective charities
based on available evidence. While we have
made a case for the theoretical need for
analysis in Section 1 and also sketched out
what a possible analytical framework would
look like in Section 2, it is only by demonstrating
how this framework works in practice that its
value can really be brought to life.
NPC and Copal have chosen the water and
sanitation sector as a test case, applying to
it each of the four stages of the analytical
framework (the need; what works; activity by
other actors; and the nature of the voluntary
sector). With this, we hope to show how we
can use available information to identify critical
lessons and guidance that are evidence-based
and focused on maximising the impact of
private giving.
We have highlighted four priority areas for
philanthropy in relation to water and sanitation:
• mobilising communities around hygiene
promotion;
• piloting technical and financial models for
improving water quality and sanitation;
• strengthening the voluntary sector; and
• influencing government.
People may disagree with the exact priorities of
the research, and new evidence may change
these findings, but NPC and Copal nevertheless
believe that this section demonstrates the
underlying point—namely that it is possible
to use the existing evidence base to channel
funding to areas where it is likely to have the
greatest impact.
This section can also be read alongside NPC
and Copal’s sister report, Starting strong, which
applies the same analytical framework to the
early childhood development sector.
Next steps
This document is intended as a modest step
towards better information and analysis of
NGOs and social problems in India, and as a
diagnosis of a large-scale problem: a broken
funding market.

Fixing the way NGOs are funded in India is not
in the hands of any one organisation. What is
needed is a coalition of efforts. So this report
should also be seen as a call to arms for
individuals and organisations to support the
cause of improving the effectiveness of the
voluntary sector.
One part of better funding in India might be a
research and analysis organisation dedicated
to improving NGO effectiveness. Over the past
year, NPC and Copal have begun to sketch out
how this might work and what it could achieve,
but for it to really work we believe that this
initiative should be taken on by a coalition of
India-based organisations.
Giving in India I Introduction
We hope that this document can be an
inspiration to Indian philanthropists and NGOs
to take up the baton. NPC and Copal will
continue to lend their knowledge and support to
help increase the effectiveness of Indian funders
and NGOs.
A note on terminology
NPC and Copal have used the terms NGO and
charity interchangeably in this report.
Introduction
Conversions have been done on the basis of
£1 = Rs.79 = US$1.65.
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand
5
 The problem
and solution
455 million Despite its scale and its potential role in
tackling Indian social problems, philanthropy
people in India in India does not appear to be working to
full effect.
live on less than
US$1.25 a day. The situation is partly obscured because of a
lack of data. What evidence there is suggests
that money is neither being allocated to the
most important areas of social need, nor
given to the most effective organisations.
Instead, funding is dysfunctional.
One way of conceptualising this is as a
‘broken’ funding market, where money is
not allocated on the basis of its potential
social impact. The market’s characteristics
include: donors who do not ask for the right
information; charities that do not supply useful
information; and poor flows of information
around the sector. In NPC’s experience, these
are also common features in the UK yet they
arguably have more serious consequences in
India due to the high level of need.
Better information can help construct a
more effective philanthropy market. We
suggest that research and analysis can
help to allocate assets properly, direct
funding to the most effective organisations,
and improve the quality of that funding.
Undertaken collectively, this would
maximise the chances of philanthropy
having a significant impact on the lives of
disadvantaged people in India.
Private giving—
philanthropy— The problem
has a vital To some external observers, India is rapidly losing
role to play in its tag of being a developing country, bolstered
by high levels of economic growth and its record
tackling social as the world’s largest democracy. However,
problems. scratch the surface and beneath the country’s
vast market and impressive entrepreneurial
potential, it is clear that it still faces serious social
challenges. Most visibly it is scarred by poverty,
with hundreds of millions of people living without
adequate healthcare, education or shelter. Look
at almost any area of human welfare and the
statistics remain startling. For instance:
• India is more than 30 years behind China
in terms of the proportion of the population
with completed secondary and post-
secondary schooling.3
6
• Despite decades of effort to improve nutrition,
45% of under-threes in India are stunted (in
effect, malnourished), a rate worse than that
found in sub-Saharan Africa.4
• 455 million people in India live on less than
US$1.25 (£0.76) a day.5
Why is progress not quicker, and who should
be fixing these problems?
A key cause is simply scale: the breadth, depth
and complexity of poverty in the country. Clearly
it is India itself, working through market forces
and through its government, that has primary
responsibility for economic and social development.
Ask Indians, though, and many are sceptical about
the capacity of government or markets alone to
deliver the type of change that is needed.
Government is good at doing things at scale but
it is often bad at innovation, weak at reaching
excluded groups and scrutinising itself, and
subject to short-term electorally-driven priorities.
Market solutions also offer scale, and they are
responsive to consumer demands in a way that
government struggles to be, but market-based
approaches for the chronically poor at ‘the
bottom of the pyramid’ are difficult to develop.
Some needy people get priced out of goods
and services, and markets themselves are
prone to failure.
To make progress on development, something
more than government and markets is needed.
Private giving—philanthropy—has a vital role to
play in tackling social problems. It is important,
not primarily because of its scale, but because
of the things it can do.
Collectively, philanthropic spending is tiny
compared with the power of government but
relative to other spending, philanthropy can
bear risk. It can kick-start innovation. It can
fund unpopular causes. It can support voices
that hold government and business to account,
building the civil society structures that make
democracy work. It is free from the pressure of
the electoral cycle that can prevent long-term
solutions to social problems. It is free from the
pressure to generate a financial return that can
limit the reach of markets.
So how much private giving is there in India,
and how much difference is it making?
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

Giving levels in India • Trusts and foundations—Again, these are

Information on giving levels in India is scarce,
partly because the giving ‘landscape’ is
complex and partly because information on
different sorts of donors is held in different
places. Mainly, however, this information is
scarce because many donations are never
formally captured. The information that is
available does not give a single figure. It
does though suggest an order of magnitude:
hundreds of millions of pounds of private
capital, possibly billions, are being spent with
split between India-based and overseas
organisations (although the bigger
international foundations, such as the
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and
the Michael and Susan Dell Foundation,
have offices in India). International Non-
Governmental Organisations (INGOs), such In 2006/2007,
as CARE and Oxfam, can also be seen in
part as specialist foundations, as they fund overseas trusts
Indian partners to deliver programmes.*
and individuals
• Corporates—The growing global trend for
corporate social responsibility initiatives has
gave Rs.123bn

Chapter 1: The problem and solution

the express aim of tackling social problems
in India. A significant amount of this goes to
NGOs.
The main types of private donor are:
• Individuals—These include Indian nationals,
non-resident Indians (NRIs), or citizens of
other countries with ethnic or emotional
links to India. They range from small one-off
donors to major philanthropists.
coincided with the expansion of the indigenous (£1.6bn) to
private sector and an increased presence
of multinational corporations in India. A charities in
number of corporates have also set up their India.
own foundations, such as the Goodearth
Foundation, which was established by the Ministry of Home
Eicher group of companies. Affairs6
Some different estimates that NPC and Copal
have heard cited are in Table 1.

Table 1: Philanthropy in India

Segment Scale of giving

Domestic funding

Domestic corporate
and individual
donations
Domestic individual
donations
Domestic corporate
donations
Foreign funding
Foreign remittances,
from non-resident
Indians (NRIs) direct
to individuals in India
Registered foreign
funding
Total foreign funding
to voluntary sector
Cross-cutting segments
High net worth (HNW)
giving
Total funding to Indian NGOs
Total funding to
Indian NGOs: foreign,
domestic and public,
and self-generated
In 2004, the domestic Indian fundraising market was measured at
US$500m (£303m), excluding religious and untracked donations. 80%
of donations were from individuals.7
A 2008 phone survey of 1,012 people in urban India found that 41.2%
of respondents gave in the previous year, with an average contribution of
US$11 (£6.70) (excluding religious and family donations).8
In 2000, it was found that domestic corporations gave Rs.2bn
(£25m).9
Unknown. There are over 400,000 Indian-born remittance senders in the
UK. A survey of 150 Indians in Washington State in the US found that
the average Indian living in the US gives US$300 (£182) a year to social
causes in India. If this were true of even half of the 1.7 million Indians in
the US, social causes would be getting £157m from Indian migrants in
the US alone.10
In 2006/2007, overseas trusts and individuals gave Rs.123bn (£1.6bn).6
Combined foreign funding flows is unknown, but in 1997/1998 it was
estimated at Rs.25.7bn (£326m).9
Unknown. Conditions, until recently, were good. India led the world in
HNW population growth at 22.7% in 2008. Sunil Mittal, Anil Agarwal, Shiv
Nadar and Rohini Nilekani are Forbes’ 2009 ‘heroes of philanthropy’.11
Unknown. In 1999/2000, it was estimated at Rs.179bn (£2.3bn).12

Note: these categories are overlapping and therefore not cumulative.

* INGOs are increasingly establishing stand-alone country organisations (eg, Oxfam India). But these remain, in part, funders of other local NGOs.

7
 Giving in India I The problem and solution
Trends in giving
The numbers in Table 1 suggest a significant
order of magnitude: at least hundreds of millions
of pounds. While it is difficult to make projections
based on the current data, it is the received
wisdom among donors and commentators that
the numbers have only grown bigger, at least
until the recent global economic downturn. This
is derived in part from expectations heightened
by India’s spectacular GDP growth over the
past decade and the growing prominence of
philanthropy from the Indian diaspora.
Increases in philanthropy are also reflected in
the rise in foreign donations coming into India,
all of which have to be reported to the Ministry
of Home Affairs under the Foreign Contributions
(Regulation) Act (FCRA). This legislation requires
all organisations wanting to receive foreign
funds to register with the government and
submit audited accounts on a yearly basis; they
also have to provide details of each individual
contribution. Records show that registered
donations have increased by almost 150%
between 2002/2003 and 2006/2007, from
Rs.50bn (£0.6bn) to Rs.123bn (£1.6bn).6
Growth here also seems consistent with wider
activities in the field of philanthropy. For instance,
there has been an increase in the number of
high-profile initiatives supporting philanthropy. In
India, activities include the work of Charities Aid
Foundation India and the emergence of payroll
giving initiatives, such as that of GiveIndia, which
has channelled Rs.550m (£7.0m) to 150 Indian
NGOs over the past eight years.13
Overseas philanthropy appears to be growing,
particularly from NRIs. This is being stimulated by a
growing number of organisations. In the UK, these
include the Asian Foundation for Philanthropy
and the British Asian Trust, both of whom seek to
foster giving to South Asia. In the US, Give2Asia
has channelled US$100m (£61m) from US
corporates and individuals since 2001, 29% of
which has gone to India.14 Similarly, the American
India Foundation has almost trebled its income
over the past five years, from US$3.4m (£2.1m) in
2003 to US$9.8m (£6.0m) in 2008.15
NPC and Copal’s own work on the Indian
voluntary sector, of which this report forms a
part, is another result of growing interest in Indian
philanthropy, from both NPC and Copal’s clients.
Trust activity has also been on the up. The
recent IT, retail and finance booms have led
to a new wave of family and corporate trusts
and foundations, such as the ICICI Foundation,
which was established in 2007. Traditional
foundations are also increasing the amounts
they give. Funding from the Sir Ratan Tata Trust,
one of India’s oldest foundations, grew from
Rs.48m (£608,000) in 1995/1996 to Rs.601.6m
(£7.6m) in 2007/2008.16
8
India has benefited from ‘global
philanthrocapitalists’, including the Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation and the Michael and
Susan Dell Foundation. These organisations
bring large sums to the country. For example,
since 2003, the Gates Foundation has
committed more than US$330m (£200m) to
tackling HIV/AIDS in India.17
The growth of social investment in India,
although outside this report’s focus on
philanthropy, is also indicative of increasing
flows of capital that are influenced by social
concerns. Box 7, in the following section,
provides a brief overview of current activity in
this area.
However, there are worries that giving levels
may decrease.
Most obviously, the global recession is likely to
have an impact on giving, even as it increases
the social need that philanthropy is meant
to address. NPC and Copal have seen no
data on this related to India but there are
reports of NGOs and UN agencies developing
contingency plans to deal with a possible
15–20% drop in income in 2009.18
In addition, even during the boom, the amounts
of money going to NGOs tackling social issues
may have been lower than the hype warranted.
Individual giving in India is still predominantly
focused on religious causes, and some
evidence exists that this comes at the expense
of other voluntary organisations. A survey
of 6,400 Indians in 2000 found that a high
proportion gave to religious organisations—the
highest of four Asian countries covered.19 It
also identified low rates of support to other
voluntary organisations. Almost half of the high
to middle-income Indians who support religious
organisations do not support other voluntary
organisations.19 This is consistent with a more
recent 2008 survey that found that India had
a lower proportion of urban retail givers than
Brazil, Russia and China, with 41% giving in the
previous year.8
All this tells us that India has a lot of money trying
to make a difference and there is scope for it to
grow, both from within India and from abroad.
However, this trend has come up against the
global economic downturn and potential funding
instability as corporates and individuals scale
back their giving and foundations’ investment
income falls. If this is right, then giving is at a
crossroads. With existing and new funding under
pressure, there is renewed urgency in using
the money that is available to make as much
difference as possible. So how does current
giving measure up against this test?

The problem: giving is not achieving
maximum impact
How much difference is giving making?
The short answer is: not as much as it should.
It is challenging to assess the effectiveness of
giving because donors give their money away
in different ways and because there are not
agreed benchmarks against which to measure
it. Even in the UK, where there is a relatively well-
developed philanthropic sector, funders struggle
to demonstrate the effectiveness of their work.
But two possible indicators of philanthropy
making a difference are: first, that private
funding is targeted on need, and second, that
it goes to effective organisations. On either of
these measures, the evidence that NPC and
Copal have seen is that philanthropy is often not
delivering on its promise.
Money may be going to the wrong needs
Logically, one would expect funding to flow to areas
and issues of greatest need. Yet this does not
appear to be happening. Consider formal flows of
foreign funding—one of the few areas where we
have relatively good levels of data (largely due to the
FCRA legislation mentioned above). Analysis of this
funding suggests that money is going to relatively
wealthy, high-performing states in India, and not to
weaker, poorer places.
For example, when looking at levels of infant
mortality, NPC and Copal’s analysis of data shows
that in 2006/2007, the five worst performing
states in terms of high infant mortality rates (Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Assam,
and Orissa) received 11.7% of foreign funding.
Conversely, the five best performing states
(Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram, Nagaland, and
Maharashtra) received 35.4%.6, 20 The pattern
holds for other indicators and, as a whole,
India’s poorest states—Bihar, Orissa and Uttar
Pradesh—languish near the bottom in terms of
total receipts of foreign donations.6 These states
are often called the ‘BIMARU’ states—a pun
on the Hindi word for ‘sick’, coined from BIhar,
MAdhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Of course, this evidence is not conclusive. The
data has significant weaknesses. For example,
many foreign donations that look as though
they are going to urban areas, such as Mumbai
and Delhi, are in reality channelled via the
Giving in India I The problem and solution
headquarters of organisations on to poor areas
across India. Funding through FCRA is also only
one flow among the many that make up the
total philanthropy in India.
But this case is supported by anecdotal
evidence about the giving behaviour of It is unclear how
individuals, suggesting that the flow of
philanthropy is biased towards certain areas.
most donors are
Many NRIs, who tend to come from Gujarat able to make
and West Bengal, give back to villages or areas
where they were born. an objective
Also, funding tends to focus on certain types
decision on
Chapter 1: The problem and solution
of tangible activity, such as building physical which NGOs
structures and providing direct services (particularly
from private individuals). Within the early childhood
they should
development sector, NPC and Copal found that fund based
there is high donor interest in constructing schools,
while for water and sanitation, donors tend to on their
focus on wells and toilets. Yet often this giving can effectiveness.
risk substituting for government responsibilities.
Moreover, it leads to the neglect of other areas,
such as lobbying and campaigning, which
arguably can have a higher impact and which, by
definition, government rarely funds.
Money may be going to the wrong
organisations
The relationship between funding and
organisational effectiveness is often weak. Here,
the evidence is more indirect—specifically, the
absence of the features one would expect to
see if donors were using objective criteria to
choose the best organisations to support.
Donors generally support NGOs to achieve
specific goals or outcomes, be it improving
education for children, managing water resources
better or providing treatment for HIV/AIDS. Yet it
is unclear how most donors are able to make an
objective decision on which NGOs they should
fund based on their effectiveness. The evidence
simply does not appear to be there.
During 2008 and 2009, NPC and Copal spoke to
more than 150 grassroots NGOs, mostly in the
early childhood development sector or working
in water and sanitation. We wanted to know two
things: first, what they were trying to achieve with
the funding they had received, and second, how
they knew that they were being successful.
The striking thing we found was that NGOs are
successfully attracting funding and undertaking
activities to achieve social change with
inadequate evidence of the impact they are
9
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

having. Most report back on some information
to donors, but often this information is partial,
misleading or not meaningfully related to
significant changes in the lives of the people
they work with. Box 1 describes the situation in
more detail.
Only a Only a handful of organisations—less than 3% of
our sample—measure their impact in ways we
handful of would consider as robust. This means that they:
organisations— • have a clear ‘theory of change’, setting out
less than 3% of a logical model of how their activities lead to
concrete outcomes;
our sample—
measure their
impact in ways Box 1: NGO impact—what difference are organisations making, and how do they know it?
• are able to record project data and capture
their main outcomes using embedded
internal monitoring systems;
• commission external evaluations for specific
projects or at regular intervals; and
• capture the long-term impact of their work.
Very few organisations met more than one or
two of these criteria, with particular challenges
in relation to embedding internal monitoring
and capturing long-term impact. Box 2 looks
in more detail at why NGOs do not measure
more consistently; while Box 3 sets out some
examples of what good measurement looks like.

we would NPC and Copal looked at over 150 NGOs to find out what difference they were making, and how they
knew it. This was not a formal survey but part of an effort to identify high potential organisations in two
consider as sectors—early childhood development, and water and sanitation. Charities were identified on three
main criteria:
robust.
• their size—an income of over Rs.500,000 (£6,300);

• their presence in directories available from organisations like GiveIndia and Indianngos.com
(see p. 13); and

• recommendations from experts in the field.

All three of these factors make it likely that the NGOs seen are better-established and adhere to higher
standards than the average charity in India.

Our main finding was that only a minority of organisations have information easily available that
clearly describes their activities, let alone the difference they are making. Where information was
available or (in its presence or absence) where NPC and Copal analysts were able to speak to
management, information quality was mixed. Charities primarily describe what they are achieving
by talking about what they do and/or providing case studies and anecdotes about people they
have worked with.

But this information is inadequate for a number of reasons.

Focus on outputs—When charities describe what they do, they talk about outputs (the quantification
of their activities), not outcomes (what those activities achieve). A strong example of this is NGOs
running primary schools, many of which track enrolment and, in some cases, attendance. Relatively
few track the difference that school makes to pupil attainment. This matters. NPC and Copal saw
a number of educational establishments where each could boast high enrolment rates, but where
learning was clearly inadequate (teaching by rote; disengaged students; absent teachers). Survey
evidence establishes this as a problem for India as a whole. Outputs are useful to know, but only rarely
is knowing what a charity does enough, and this information can in fact be misleading.

Focus on case studies and anecdotes—Case studies and anecdotes are useful to give a sense of
an organisation, but they may be unrepresentative. Charities rarely draw attention to their failures.
Anecdotes risk generalising, misleadingly, from success. They also present a more subtle problem.
Out of 100 people in a programme, the odds are that some of them will see their lives improve, just
by chance, regardless of what programmes they are or are not enrolled in.

Lack of long-term data—Even when charities collect outcomes data, this is usually extremely
short term, measuring impact immediately after the end of an intervention and with very
little follow-up to judge the sustained impact of their work. For example, measuring exam
attainment, but not what this means for future employment, livelihood and health. Of course, new
interventions will be unable to do this, yet for more established projects, measuring long-term
impact is vital in judging the full scope of their work.

Some organisations measure progress against particular indicators of interest to donors, but they
tend to see this as a compliance exercise rather than an integral part of the way that they help
their beneficiaries.

10
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

Box 2: Why do NGOs not measure more consistently?

During our research, NPC and Copal came up against six main reasons why NGOs do not
measure their results more.

1.  Because they do not think they need to—A lot of grassroots organisations are values-driven
and rely on proxies for understanding their impact. For instance, the belief that staff have
high quality personal relationships with beneficiaries. They rely too on intuition, assuming
that scholarships for girls or a place in an orphanage or a rainwater harvesting system are In the absence
good in and of themselves. This may be right, but without measurement it is impossible to be of adequate
sure. Moreover, it is easy to overlook weaknesses in an approach if you just rely on whether
something sounds or looks like it should work. For example, scholarships may only be going data, the main
to better-off groups; an orphanage may not be improving children’s life chances; and the
drivers of funding

Chapter 1: The problem and solution

problem with water may not be volume, but contamination.
to particular
2.  Because funders do not ask for it, or do ask, but for different things, or the wrong thing—Different
sorts of donors have wildly different expectations of NGOs. Many fund on the basis of historical organisations are
relationships where they feel an affinity with the cause or the mission, and do not seek results largely a mixture
information. Demands for specific data, where NGOs are implementing particular programmes for
funders, are increasingly common. But these are often imposed from ‘above’ and sometimes prompt of subjective
resentment where NGOs cannot see their relevance, or where they conflict with other funders’
requirements.
factors.
3. Because it seems difficult—Many development organisations see their work as a process
that is non-linear. They feel that the results of this are hard to quantify and cannot be easily
reflected in numbers. One example offered to NPC and Copal was how one would capture
the impact of a teacher, who previously stood over the class, now sitting at their level. NPC
and Copal would argue that it is possible to capture this sort of impact and, in any case,
qualitative changes should ultimately be reflected in improved ‘hard’ outcomes. There are real
challenges in measurement: around proportionality; around attribution; in relation to avoiding
‘selection biases’. But, with care, these can be overcome.

4. Because they lack the skills—This is discussed below in more depth. Grassroots NGOs suffer from
shortages of key skills and infrastructure (such as IT). These are substantial barriers and even if NGOs
look for external evaluators, they struggle to find individuals or institutions of the necessary quality.

5. Because it seems expensive—Donors and charities are often reluctant to divert resources
away from core activity but, without measurement, it is likely that resources will not be
used properly.

6.  Because of organisational complexity—NGOs often manage large numbers of projects

and it can be hard to design a framework that will adequately capture the results in several
different domains.

It is important to note that this is by no means a
problem confined to India. NPC’s work in the UK
has come across exactly the same situation, as
have other intermediaries in different parts of the
world. Moreover, a lack of results measurement
would not really matter if each NGO was doing
equally valuable work in an equally effective
manner. However, this is logically unlikely to
be the case and, based on NPC and Copal’s
visits to programmes on the ground, NGO
performance varies widely. Without objective
measurement criteria to understand these
variations, it is highly unlikely that funders will
choose the most effective NGOs to fund.
NPC and Copal’s concerns are underlined by the
way that funders choose NGOs in practice. Our
experience is that in the absence of adequate
data, the main drivers of funding to particular
organisations are largely a mixture of subjective
factors. These include: personal relationships
between funders and organisations; the fact that
an organisation happens to have come across a
funder’s radar; and the influence of marketing and
promotional material. This is particularly relevant for
individual donors who, in examples NPC and Copal
have encountered, rarely think about impact at all.
The picture on corporates, INGOs and trusts
and foundations is more mixed. Some ask for
evidence of effectiveness and base decisions
on it. INGOs, for instance, increasingly have
structured ‘partner assessment tools’ that touch
on impact within a wider framework of analysis
considering an organisation’s capacity.
There is an irony here. All kinds of donors in
India are very conscious of some sort of risk to
their funding: corruption and waste. To address
such concerns, there has been a marked
response from within the NGO community
to improve transparency, accountability and
standards of governance (see Box 4). Yet there
is much less awareness of a different risk: that
funding may be going to organisations that are
not making good use of it.
11
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

Box 3: Examples of measurement

A need for a focus on measurement is one reason why donors interested in supporting grassroots
organisations are often well advised to work through intermediaries. Though their performance
is mixed, some INGOs do excellent work in monitoring and evaluation. CARE India and USAID
recently released a working paper series on Women and Child Health, highlighting the results and
One of the lessons of five years of a massive programme, known as RACHNA.21 Measurement of its results
helped both to establish the value of the programme, and to highlight areas for improvement. For
biggest instance, early on in the programme, it seemed that replication of demonstration centres being
challenges run by CARE India’s partners was going well. But introduction of a household survey of the target
areas found low levels of coverage and little change in key behaviours the programme was trying
facing Indian to bring about. Ultimately the programme was corrected, and later evaluation proved it to be
NGOs is not a extremely promising. Overall, it is thought RACHNA averted 13,356 deaths and was responsible
for a gain of 380,719 DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years) over its lifetime at a cost of US$1,098
lack of capital, (£665) per death averted and US$39 (£24) per DALY gained.

but funders Recently, some NGOs have been involved in the gold standard of measurement—randomised
who give control trials (RCTs) conducted through partnership with MIT’s Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). RCTs
create two groups that are identical in all respects except one is exposed to a particular intervention.
money without Any difference in the group outcomes can therefore be attributed to the intervention. RCTs are useful
asking for to correct or change beliefs as they provide clear evidence of what works. However, they need to be
based on a clear theory as to the basis of interventions and why they work.
measurement of
J-PAL has worked with a variety of large Indian NGOs including Pratham, an education NGO,
impact on the and Seva Mandir in Rajasthan, which focuses on integrated rural development. A recent study
final recipient. evaluating an experimental programme to promote uptake of vaccinations has established robustly
the effectiveness of using incentives for immunisation. People spend very little on preventative
Barun Mohanty care—often because of small practical obstacles or just not getting around to it. J-PAL’s study with
Seva Mandir has found that they increased take-up rates by a factor of ten, by buying a kilo of lentils
to reward mothers who ensure that their children complete vaccination programmes.

This kind of work is expensive, but by doing it, NGOs can validate existing or new approaches,
contribute to the evidence base on how to tackle serious social problems, and attract new funding.

NPC and Copal talked to a range of different
grant-makers during our research. The views
of some of the most strategic and professional
among them are captured in a comment made
by Barun Mohanty of the Michael and Susan
Dell Foundation: ‘One of the biggest challenges
facing Indian NGOs is not a lack of capital, but
funders who give money without asking for
measurement of impact on the final recipient.’22  versatile, risk-bearing and a promoter of
NPC and Copal believe that when funding is
not linked to results evidence, this matters.
Most obviously, it matters because where
people are giving capital away without an
objective basis it is likely to go to the wrong
organisations. There is an opportunity cost for
the funding itself. It could have improved more
lives being spent somewhere else. But ‘lazy
funding’ is also a problem at a structural level.
Where funders and NGOs are not focused on
effectiveness and measuring their impact, there
is little ‘market’ reward or discipline affecting
NGOs: organisations that do measure may
be disadvantaged relative to ones that do not
(for example, because they bear higher costs).
Good projects cannot grow; bad projects are
not challenged.
NPC and Copal’s thesis: the funding
market is broken
Although patchy, the evidence outlined above
supports the first of NPC and Copal’s main
hypotheses: that the philanthropy market in
India is not working effectively. While in an
ideal scenario, philanthropy should be flexible,
innovation, in practice it is not being spent
in ways likely to maximise its social impact.
Rather, NPC and Copal were told that it is often
spent conservatively and thoughtlessly—without
consideration of the urgency of particular
needs, or the likelihood that the organisation
funded will really make a difference.
NPC has found it helpful in the UK to
conceptualise this problem as a ‘broken’ funding
market. By the term ‘market’ we mean simply that
there is an implicit economic system governing
philanthropy. There is both demand for funding
from NGOs and a supply of funding from a wide
range of donors. The market is broken because it
is unlikely that money is flowing to where returns
are highest. Funds are being spent, but without
knowledge of where they can be allocated for
best effect. Indicators of success—which in this

12
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

Box 4: Transparency and regulation in the Indian voluntary sector

NPC and Copal’s joint venture in India was partly prompted by NPC’s March 2008 research report, Philanthropists without borders,
which surveyed 122 philanthropists and carried out in-depth interviews with 19 based in the UK.2 It found that the main barriers to
giving in developing countries were lack of trust, lack of transparency and concern about corruption.

These are not trivial concerns. Waste and corruption are real risks in a country where some NGOs are not real charities but vehicles
for political ambition. Even where outright fraud is not practiced, there are more subtle shapes it can take. NPC and Copal have
heard of hospitals being built with donors’ funds where part of the expenditure has been dedicated to constructing permanent on-
site housing for the chief executive and other key staff.

The good news is that a number of in-country initiatives in India are being established to promote good governance, transparency
and honesty. Encouragingly, these are from the sector itself.

Chapter 1: The problem and solution

The Credibility Alliance (CA)—www.credall.org.in—is a national consortium of Indian voluntary organisations concerned to establish
better self-regulation. It has established a set of norms to which NGOs can subscribe, designed to operate as ‘industry standards’.
Minimum norms include: that an NGO is registered; that it has some defined indicators; that it has a board that meets at least twice
a year; that it practices full disclosure on board membership and remuneration; and that signed audited accounts and annual reports
are available. Desirable norms include that at least two thirds of the board are unrelated by blood or marriage; that salary is broken
down by gross monthly level for all staff; and that all international travel is disclosed. Currently, 462 organisations are enrolled as
members. The possible flaw in the approach is that certification is based primarily on self-certification, and CA staff just check over
documentation. This is clearly not a cast-iron regulatory approach. Recently however, CA has introduced a full assessment process
involving a visit from an external assessment team. This allows members to become officially accredited.

GiveIndia—www.giveindia.org—is an online giving portal and philanthropy exchange that allows donors to give online to NGOs
that have been validated against CA minimum and desirable norms, with an additional requirement that they commit to report back
annually on any donation they receive. It has more than 200 NGOs online, covering 14 states and 27 causes. Validation here includes
a visit and in some cases references from partners.

CAF India—www.cafindia.org—provides services to donors and charities and includes on its website a directory of organisations on
which it states it has carried out ‘due diligence’.

In addition to these bodies serving a quasi-regulatory function, there are a number of databases being established, simply to list
different NGOs and improve access to data about the sector as a whole. Guidestar India, a large online database of NGOs (based on
self-reporting), is currently being established, with the initial aim of covering at least 1,000 organisations. Indianngos.com comprises
a database of 36,000 NGOs, but with much more uneven quality of information available. Another player is Propoor.org, which says
it lists over 14,000 NGOs from across South Asia.

All of these initiatives are positive steps towards improving the flow of information about NGOs in India, and they are helping
to channel resources. Funds channelled directly to NGOs by GiveIndia comprised Rs.267m (£3.4m) in 2008/2009. CAF India
distributed Rs.23m (£291,000) in 2007/2008.

What none of them do is put much visible emphasis on impact or results. CAF goes furthest in this direction, quoting some evidence
on impact for organisations it has worked with. GiveIndia highlights impact as a concern but does not have the resources to do its
own research. For the other organisations, impact is a level above their area of focus, which is establishing basic information.

NPC and Copal’s view is that donors should not focus alone on the risk of corruption. It is one of a range of risks to the effective
use of philanthropic capital, but one that already attracts a good deal of NGO energy and attention. It would be ironic if the need for
assurance about the tangible problem of money being ‘safe’ blinded philanthropists to the wider possibility that money is not being
used effectively. Equally, it is not enough for NGOs to improve transparency without improving effectiveness.

case are the social impact a charity is having—are
not available or are not being used to determine
funding allocation.
As NPC and Copal conceive it, the problem
is circular. Funders are either not asking for
information about impact or are asking for the
wrong information. NGOs in turn are unable to
provide comprehensive information on what
they are achieving. Even when monitoring is
carried out, little is made public, particularly
when it is negative. Organisations can repeat
their mistakes, not learning from the past or
from each other, and all of that is likely to mean
waste on a large scale—of money and of lives.
This problem is clearly not unique to India.
NPC was established as a charity in 2002
precisely because its founders noticed that
charitable funding was being decided on the
basis of brand and personal connection, with
little consideration of impact. Subsequent
research has confirmed this impression: many
UK charities do not produce strong evidence of
their results.
That said, having a broken funding market in
India arguably matters more than in the UK, due
to the much higher level of need. Charities in
the UK are often about well-being and quality
of life. In India, they are fundamental to the

13
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

social safety net that allows people to survive.
The issue has been brought into stark relief by
the economic downturn, which puts a renewed
premium on generating the biggest possible
‘social returns’.
Altogether, constructing this market is a large
undertaking, and NPC and Copal’s work in India
has concentrated on testing the potential of one
facet of this solution—analysing particular social
issues and NGOs. We explore these below.

Yet, it is important to suggest what a more

The solution
We argue that The importance of analysis in fixing the broken
information can funding market in India is this report’s second
hypothesis. We argue that information can
improve the improve the allocation of resources. Knowing
allocation of more about the impact of an NGO, its capacity,
the risks it faces, and the context in which it
resources. operates is helpful for any individual donor. It can
improve the quality and impact of substantial
private funding streams, highlighting what works
and ruling out options that do not work.
Beyond this however, analysis and research
are public goods that can have leverage. By
sharing insights, donors not only improve their
own funding but also enhance the impact of the
much larger sums being brought to the table by
everyone else.
Following on from the model of a broken
funding market outlined above, NPC and Copal
suggest that a comprehensive solution would
focus on each of the main points of failure:
• encouraging donors to demand and pay for
information on impact and results;
• ensuring that NGOs measure their
outcomes; and
• improving the flow of information within the
sector and beyond.
Figure 1 gives a representation of a properly
functioning philanthropy market.
comprehensive solution to the broken funding
market would look like. This can help readers
understand the theoretical context for NPC
and Copal’s activities, including why we
have chosen to focus on analysis and how it
contributes to the larger goal of building a better
philanthropy market. Also, by setting out this full
menu of things that need to be done, we hope
that readers will be encouraged to develop their
own responses.
Donor demand for information
Donor demand for information cannot be
mandated or forced. Rather, there needs to be
an effort to win hearts and minds by building
the ‘social business case’. A significant part of
NPC’s initial work in the UK was making the
case to donors of the need for evidence-based
funding decisions.
In India, evaluating the quality of existing funding
through research could be a first step. There is
a negative component to the information that
needs to be gathered—that money is going to
the wrong places and being squandered. There
is also a positive component—showing that
using evidence to allocate resources leads to
higher ‘social returns’.
Underpinning these components are two
aims: one, to show that information matters
whether it is used to help prioritise funding,
or to choose the most effective organisation

Figure 1: Functioning philanthropy market

Demand for
Information: Funders
need to ask about
results; intuition is not
good enough

We need a
philanthropic
Supply of funding market Flow of Information:
Information: NGOs Independent
need to measure their
information on what,
outcomes in ways that
where, and to whom to
can be subject to
give needs to be
external validation
publicly available

14

to fund; and two, to show that the quality of
information is important. After all, some donors
already receive information, but it is often either
incomplete or relating to the wrong metrics of
success. For example, donors in both the UK
and India often focus on administration costs or
fundraising ratios (money spent on fundraising
vs total raised). Yet as we will go on to explain
below, these are often unhelpful proxies of
impact, and are only useful within a much wider
set of data.
Instead, more useful information would include:
• an organisation’s activities, including
its areas of focus, stage of intervention,
number of people it reaches, and basic
outputs and costs;
• evidence for its results, such as
evaluations and internal monitoring systems;
• organisational capacity to deliver results,
such as the strength of its management,
strategic vision and governance; and
• risks threatening results, such as financial
instability and potential external factors.
In addition to information, more could be done
to provide practical support and networking
opportunities to donors so that they can
leverage existing knowledge better. In the UK,
NPC offers a wide range of advisory services to
provide this support to funders thinking about
their strategic objectives and mechanisms for
giving. NPC and Copal are increasingly playing
a similar role in India.
NGO supply of information
Increasing donor demand for information should
in theory influence NGOs’ willingness to supply
it. Strategic donors prompt organisations they
fund to capture better data. This in turn helps to
promote a culture where charities that measure
their impact and are more transparent in their
work receive more funding. This is a key part of
establishing a social business case for NGOs
to supply more information, demonstrating its
financial benefits.
Yet the most important part of promoting
measurement is proving to NGOs how it can
help them function more effectively. With better
data, charities are able to identify projects that
are working well and those that should be
improved or dropped. They are able to make
better use of their resources, improving more
lives in more profound ways.
Some NGOs recognise this already and think
carefully about measurement but others do
not, regarding it as a compliance burden.
One barrier to improving the situation is the
existing dysfunctional reporting requirements.
Giving in India I The problem and solution
As mentioned above, donors often ask for
the wrong thing or make requests that are
disproportionately bureaucratic or time-
consuming to comply with. Some NGOs feel
an acute power inequality. They say that they
cannot think about measuring what matters
because they are busy reporting on what does
not. Grassroots NGOs in India, a long way By sharing
both literally and figuratively from some of their insights,
funders, find this a particular challenge.
donors not
NPC carried out research in Scotland on
the reporting burden for NGOs, highlighting only improve
numerous incidences of unnecessary and their own
Chapter 1: The problem and solution
time-consuming reporting requirements.23 A lot
of this data never even ended up being used funding, but
by donors. The situation in India may well be also enhance
worse. For some NGOs that NPC and Copal
have spoken to, the extra burden of funding the impact of
requirements has tainted the very process of
monitoring and evaluation.
the much larger
sums brought
The other crucial component for NGOs
measuring their impact and providing a supply to the table by
of information is support—practical help,
everyone else.
money, tools and people. As outlined above,
NGOs often have a weak grasp of what should
be measured beyond basic output data, and
do not know how to go about it. It can be
challenging to construct measurement systems
to capture complex outcomes in a statistically
robust way.
NGOs may also lack proper administrative and
central office support that can help them to
collect, collate and present information in an
accessible manner. Surprisingly, for a country
with such a strong IT sector, NGOs’ websites
are almost uniformly poor.
Achieving all this might mean working with
well-resourced partners (like INGOs, engaging
consultants or academic researchers),
leveraging ‘mother’ NGOs, or encouraging
the secondments of skilled volunteers. In the
UK, NPC has set up a measurement team to
help NGOs to capture their outcomes. One of The most
its projects is developing a tool for charities to
use when measuring their impact on children’s
important part
well-being—an intangible outcome that charities of promoting
often struggle to capture. Indian NGOs also
need this kind of support. measurement
Crucial to all of this, of course, is money.
is proving to
Donors hold the purse strings and need to be NGOs how it
prepared to pay for organisations to gather
and distribute information. The benefits of can help them
measurement are considerable: NPC and Copal function more
believe they significantly outweigh its cost. This
is because measurement helps to improve effectively.
the effectiveness of NGOs that donors fund; it
can provide a way for donors to allocate their
funding in the future, and it adds to the lessons
and good practice of the sector as a whole.
15
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

In certain cases, intermediaries will be

Box 5: NPC’s work in the UK necessary to broker and mediate relationships
NPC and Copal’s work in India builds on a wealth of activity developed in the between donors and NGOs, and also to provide
UK, where NPC has developed approaches to promote effective funding in independent analysis of both NGOs’ and
each of the three priority areas identified in this report. Some of the specific donors’ impacts. Charities and philanthropists
activities are cross-cutting and international in approach. can suffer from a failure to properly understand
and articulate their own activities and results.
Services for funders They may lack the time, specialist skills or the
ability to take an independent perspective on
• Helping donors get started: clarifying their objectives, developing effective
their work.
processes and learning about areas of giving.

• Building strategy and expertise: drawing on the research of NPC and Beyond increasing the flow of information
others to develop funders’ knowledge of social issues, identify gaps and between donors and NGOs, there is also
opportunities, and develop funding strategies. a need to use wider sets of data to inform
decision-making. This includes clearer
• Improving grant-making processes: helping funders to improve how they
information on the specific role of the voluntary
find, select, fund and monitor the charities they support.
sector and philanthropy in general. Funders and
• Reviewing giving: working with funders to conduct a strategic review NGOs are not isolated actors—they operate
(looking at their focus, approach and impact) to inform future funding. within a wider context of social needs and
government policy, and are part of broader
• Bespoke consulting: carrying out a tailored piece of consulting to meet a
voluntary and philanthropy sectors. Without
foundation’s particular needs.
understanding this broader environment,
Services for charities philanthropists are in danger of misinterpreting
data on charities’ impact.
• Charity health checks: providing chief executives or trustees with an
overview of the charity and its strengths and weaknesses to inform future
development. What NPC and Copal have been
doing: analysis and research
• Bespoke sector research and consulting: providing bespoke research and
advice on key strategic questions. Where does NPC and Copal’s activity fit in to
• Measuring impact: helping charities to develop and implement clear all this?
frameworks to evaluate their impact, inform strategy and better
As noted above, fixing a broken funding market
communicate to funders the impact of their work. Also helping charities
is a vast agenda and not one that is in the
with cost benefit analysis to determine the economic value of their work.
hands of any one organisation to deliver. In the
Improving flow of information UK, NPC has developed a range of different
• Building and sharing public knowledge: building sector knowledge by initiatives across each of these three areas,
analysing particular social issues and identifying priorities for funding and such as developing measurement tools and
ways to increase the efficacy of funding. providing strategic advice to donors and NGOs
(see Box 5). It has also started developing its
• Knowledge sharing: helping to establish the Association of Nonprofit international offering (see Box 6). For the pilot in
Analysts, a global organisation to help build links and share information. India, the joint venture between Copal and NPC
decided to concentrate on one vital part of
the puzzle.
Flow of information
The approach that NPC and Copal has sought
Finally, there is the flow of information. to test is sector and organisational analysis
Increasing supply and demand should lead to in India. This has traditionally been the main
improvements in the flow of information in any focus of NPC’s work in the UK. It involves
Analysis and case. But to have full impact, it ideally needs to analysing information on social issues and on
individual NGOs, using a public methodological
research can be publicly available so that other donors and
framework, which is set out in NPC’s report
NGOs can use it; so that lessons are learned;
often look like and so that mistakes are not repeated. This is Funding success.2
why everything that NPC and Copal produces
transaction is freely available. We also seek to encourage We think sector and organisational research has
costs, but disclosure and build an environment where potential to help overcome some of the funding
market flaws. Primarily, it will help augment
organisations and funders will share bad news
in fact, they as well as good. the third aspect of fixing the funding market
outlined above—the flow of information—
are crucial to bringing together key data and presenting it
Ultimately, the goal is the development of
achieving social ‘public utility’ information sources on NGOs and in an accessible and useful way for a donor.
social problems where donors and NGOs can Beyond this, it also aims to stimulate donor
change. identify who is doing what, how well and with demand for data and the supply of information
what certainty of success. by demonstrating the utility and applicability of
evidence-based analysis.

16

Analysis and research can often look like
transaction costs. But in fact, they are crucial
to achieving social change. While the success
of this approach and its role in improving
the effectiveness of philanthropy in India is a
long-term goal, it has the potential to make an
impact in three ways:
• Money will be allocated to priority areas and
not to areas that are low priority.
• NGOs will be chosen on the basis of
their results and wider organisational
effectiveness.
• Philanthropists will improve the quality of
their funding.
The case for analysis and research:
how it can help promote the funding
market
The ‘what’: Analysis and research supports
asset allocation
NPC and Copal make the case for analysis and
research first and foremost in relation to what
can be termed asset allocation—namely, for a
donor, how to choose which causes to support,
and for a charity, how to choose which social
issues to tackle. Analysis cannot tell someone
with a blank piece of paper what to fund or
address but it can help with choosing between
the competing passions a donor or NGO might
have. Better information will in turn influence
and shape a donor’s interests.
One example of this is provided by The
Children’s Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF), an
extremely strategic funder and one that achieves
added impact by making many of its resources
publicly available. Many donors fund water and
sanitation projects. Donors often like to build
pumps as a tangible thing they can point to
having created but analysis carried out for CIFF
reveals that, relatively speaking, these are not
always a good use of marginal resources.
Disease from lack of sanitation is a bigger
killer than lack of water in India. According to
analysis on CIFF’s website, hygiene and washing
education costs US$3.35 (£2) per Disability
Adjusted Life Year (DALY) averted* compared to
US$94 (£57) per DALY for pumps.24 Clearly there
are always uncertainties in this kind of calculation,
but the underlying message is a compelling one
and useful both for philanthropists thinking about
their spending, and for NGOs thinking about their
programmes. Using analysis can increase the
probability of impact.
As the second chapter of this report shows,
analysis can be more useful still where a wide
range of relevant factors are brought in. As
noted, the approach that NPC has developed
* DALY is a standard World Health Organization metric that combines mortality and morbidity costs.
Giving in India I The problem and solution
Box 6: NPC’s international work
While NPC is located in the UK and the majority of our sector research has
been focused on UK issues, there has been global interest in, and demand for,
our frameworks and approaches. Because we are committed to helping NGOs
and funders become more effective, we are extremely interested in pursuing
and developing more opportunities and partnerships in Europe, Asia and the
Americas. As a result we have created several strategic international partnerships,
made our methodologies freely available to anyone with internet access, spoken
at conferences around the globe and hosted interns from other countries.
In Germany, NPC has developed a strategic partnership with the Bertelsmann
Foundation to help it adapt our charity analysis framework and implement it in
Chapter 1: The problem and solution
their research into charities’ effectiveness. Staff from organisations in Estonia
and Canada have worked with NPC as interns to absorb and reflect on our
approach and share lessons. In Korea, Singapore, Japan, Sweden, the USA
and the Netherlands, other organisations with similar objectives have adapted
or built on aspects of the NPC approach.
As the global network of organisations analysing NGOs and their effectiveness
grows, so does the need for coordination and knowledge-sharing. To meet this
need, NPC is helping to establish a professional development body/initiative, the
Association of Nonprofit Analysts. This idea was presented to 200 voluntary sector
professionals at a conference in London in May 2009, organised and planned by
NPC with support from the Bertelsmann Foundation. The conference was attended
by delegates from over 20 countries and there was widespread agreement that the
initiation of the Association was a good idea that should be taken further.
in the UK, and which has been followed by
the joint venture in India, is based on ‘sector
research’. Sector research reports bring
together in one place current information on
a specific social problem, what government
is doing to tackle it, what other funders are
doing, which NGOs are in the space, and what
is known about what works. Collectively, this
information helps to identify gaps for funders
and NGOs where additional or different activity
can make a difference. It also provides insight
into structural challenges to social problems
being solved, including policy failure, a lack of
cash, a lack of proven solutions, or a lack of
credible implementers.
The ‘who’: Analysis and research supports
organisational development
A second area where analysis helps is
organisational development. For a donor, the
analogy here is with investment. In the absence
of price signals that a ‘for profit’ investor might
use, due diligence is even more valuable to the For an NGO,
‘social investor’. For an NGO, analysis of its analysis of its
strengths and weaknesses is vital to improving
its performance. strengths and
There are many different ways of doing this
weaknesses
and no single correct approach. NPC and is vital to
Copal have a ‘narrow and deep’ evaluation
process that uses a structured framework to improving its
evaluate organisations. This can be carried performance.
out for a donor or for an NGO but in our
work in India, we have focused our analysis
on organisations working within two main
17
 Giving in India I The problem and solution

sectors: early childhood development and Our framework looks at five factors to meet this
water and sanitation. This segmentation allows challenge, which collectively give a deep insight
understanding of context and makes it easier to into NGO effectiveness:
draw comparisons between organisations.
• focus on need—that it targets excluded
Analysts make initial contact with a large groups or neglected issues;
sample of organisations recommended by
• results—that it measures results in a
experts, and screen them by an analysis of
sensible way; that it uses its results to
Efficiency their documentation and through phone calls.
improve its services; that its results compare
They then visit 20–25 NGOs and carry out a
certainly matters series of interviews with management, trustees,
favourably to peer organisations;

but the key finance directors and beneficiaries. There is then • management quality—that it is led well,
extensive follow-up to dig deep in a number of has a strategic focus, and has strong senior
challenge for key areas. management;
Indian NGOs The aim is twofold. On the one hand, it is to • ambition—that it is committed to increasing
identified by identify and analyse NGOs that are making the number of lives it touches or having a
a real impact in order to increase information more profound impact upon them; and
NPC and flow to donors. On the other hand, it is to help • use of resources—that it is efficient and
Copal’s analysis NGOs improve directly. Being analysed is in stable.
itself a consulting-type service that can highlight
was not waste, areas for improvement. The ‘how’: Analysis and research improves
the quality of funding
it was talent— A distinctive feature of NPC and Copal’s
particularly for approach is that it seeks to look at whole A third and final area where analysis makes a
organisations. Our primary interest is in difference is on how to fund. Donors and NGOs
professional effectiveness and high social impact but helping often have a lot of preconceptions about each
other and can form relationships under terms
roles. donors or NGOs deliver high ‘social returns’
that harm both their interests. Analysis of social
needs more than just evidence of impact.
Executing an approach that is highly effective problems and NGO sectors helps bring these
also requires other capacities, including stable problems to light.
management and finances, good governance
One example commonly mentioned in India is
and the ability to sustain a programme.
funding for central organisation costs, such as
management and central overheads. Project-
based funders are often unwilling to meet this
part of the expense of NGOs with distorting
effects—NGOs end up having to chase projects
that are outside their mission and competence
in order to pay their central costs.

Associated with this, and discussed more in the

next section, is donor concern about ‘admin
costs’ and waste in the organisations that they
support. Efficiency certainly matters but the key
challenge for Indian NGOs identified by NPC
and Copal’s analysis was not waste, it was
talent—particularly for professional roles. At
least until the downturn, many grassroots Indian
NGOs were crippled by retention problems and
long-term succession risk—partly because of
competition for staff during the boom and partly
because of low funding. Analysis can help to
expose this kind of problem, establishing when
Photograph supplied by Justin Canning/Comic Relief Ltd.

low cost is not the same as efficiency.

A final area is the administration of funding:

payment release and funding cycles. Short-
term funding can impede long-term solutions.
Payment in arrears can cause instability and
make it hard to manage and plan projects.

18
Developing a framework
The previous section made the case that
better information would help to improve
the effectiveness of the philanthropy
market and highlighted the importance
of analysing social issues and individual
organisations. Yet this still leaves several
questions—in particular, what exactly an
analytical framework should look like. It
also leaves open how it might relate to
other factors that affect donors and their
giving, such as personal interests and
available resources.
From NPC and Copal’s perspective,
philanthropy is sometimes overly
influenced by a donor’s subjective
concerns. Important issues, such as
where available resources can be used
for greatest impact, are neglected or
inadequately thought through. This is
not to say that personal interests are
unimportant—they are central both to
motivating a philanthropist and to setting
a general strategic direction for giving.
They should, however, be informed and
influenced by actual evidence of impact.
In this section, we outline a possible
analytical framework that can provide
donors with objective criteria on how
their funding can be most effective. This
is based on the methodological approach
NPC has developed in the UK, and on
Copal’s experience of the Indian voluntary
sector.
We set out the framework within the
specific context of the Indian environment.
This has a twofold aim: first, to start
demonstrating how this analytical
framework is of value for donors looking
to fund effectively in India; second, to
provide practical advice for donors. This
guidance includes a checklist of things to
work through as well as initial high-level
information that donors can draw upon
when thinking about their giving. It is
aimed particularly at those who are new to
giving in India.
Factors in giving
When thinking about giving, NPC and Copal
traditionally identify three key variables affecting
a donor. These variables overlap, influence each
other, and produce a final funding decision:
• the donor’s interests;
• the available resources that the donor can
Chapter 2: Developing a framework
bring to his or her philanthropy; and
• where funds can have an impact.
The first two issues (interests and resources) are
primarily internal factors—that is, answerable
in the main by reflection on a donor’s values,
beliefs, aims and assets. The third (where funds
can have an impact) is primarily external—that
is, answerable by reference to information about
the world. This third issue is the focus of NPC
and Copal’s analytical approach. NPC and
Copal believe that the focus of giving should be
where these three factors overlap (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Factors in giving
Interests and
passions
Giving
Focus
Where funds Available
can have an impact resources
Internal variables
So far, this report has not considered the
internal drivers of philanthropy, like individual
interests and passions. In one sense, it could
be argued that they are part of the problem—
where funding is not targeted ‘rationally’ on
addressing need and maximising impact.
19
 Giving in India I Developing a framework

Yet, it is largely individual interest and passion
that underpin a donor’s involvement in
philanthropy and that provide the impetus and
motivation for continued giving. Neglecting or
overlooking these factors can make philanthropy
less involving, less engaging and less satisfying.
Over the long term, this may cause people to
withdraw or scale back their giving.
NPC and
Also, looking at it from a macro-perspective,
Copal would there are many competing good causes. As
distinguish noted above, analysis cannot on its own fill
in a blank piece of paper. Internal drivers are
between those important in helping donors choose between
funders who let competing choices of effective funding. Yet
NPC and Copal would distinguish between
their personal those funders who let their personal interests
interests override evidence of effectiveness, and those
who use evidence to shape and inform their
override interests. Data can tell us something about the
relative merits of different options.
evidence of
effectiveness, It is useful to look briefly at what some of these
internal factors are. Many donors are not used
and those who to articulating them in any structured way.
use evidence Interests
to shape and
Donors’ interests can derive from multiple
inform their sources—for instance, a personal connection
to a cause, an issue or place, or religious or
interests. ethical inspiration. There are often also group
or corporate motivations in play; for a family,
bringing them together around philanthropy; for
a business, finding a cause that is aligned with
the organisation’s goals and brand.
These interests can be understood on three
main levels:
Nature of need: A donor may have strong views
on focusing on a particular issue, geography or
group. This can be at a general level, such as
education or women, to more specific and often
intersecting interests, such as the healthcare
of slum children in Chennai. Because different
issues are heavily interlinked, some donors
prefer to focus on groups and take a holistic
approach in meeting their different needs. Others
like the clarity of one issue, such as healthcare
or education.
Nature of impact: Often a donor may be
interested in having impact at a particular
level of scale. He or she may want to change
the entire policy environment, or conversely
want to focus on improving the lives of a
small number of people. There tends to be a
trade-off between the breadth and depth of
an intervention, and the certainty of outcome.
NPC’s triangle (see Figure 3) makes this clear.
A fixed sum of money can do a lot for a small
number of people, or less for a large number.
Funders can pay for services to be delivered
with high certainty of impact but limited
numbers, or pay for campaigning and lobbying,
where certainty of impact is lower but the
potential exists to change whole systems.
For example, a donor interested in livelihood work
could have sponsored a job creation programme
in a village. Or he or she could have contributed
to the campaign that eventually led to the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, a vast
national employment welfare programme.
Nature of project: Finally, donors may have
specific views on the nature and type of the
project they will fund. Some are prepared to pay
for risky projects that might lead to innovations,
while others want a safer, proven and trusted
approach. A key issue at the moment with
many international donors is the wish to fund
scalable and replicable projects. An important
related consideration is exit strategy. Some

Figure 3: The NPC triangle

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20

projects are time-limited. Others will need
ongoing funding, so provision needs to be
made for long-term sustainability.
Available resources
The second important factor is donor
resources. Each donor will have a particular
set of assets that he or she can bring to bear
on social problems. Most attention is given to
finance, but often donors can use a range of
other resources as well.
Financial: Donors will have a certain amount of
money that they want to give. They may also have
a clear sense of their level of financial commitment
through time—whether one year or multi-year.
Increasingly, donors are thinking of different ways
that they can structure financial resources to
improve impact, away from the traditional grant
allocation. Instead, they are exploring ways of
using loans, revolving funds and microfinance. See
Box 7 for examples of social investment in India.
Non-financial: Donors often have significant non-
financial resources they can bring to bear. These
include: time; skills; gifts in kind (space, venues for
events, transport); contacts; influence; and access
to networks. Despite their potential impact, these
contributions are rarely considered, and both
donors and NGOs tend to be less experienced at
leveraging these resources consistently.
External variables
Where funds can have an impact
Understanding where funding can have an
impact is the focus of NPC and Copal’s work.
As mentioned above, we feel that funding
Giving in India I Developing a framework
decisions are too often determined by personal
issues rather than evidence on where funding
would have most impact. By expanding the
evidence base, NPC and Copal aim to redress
this imbalance and increase the role of data in
making funding decisions.
In a world of scarce resources and limitless social
need, NPC and Copal consider that money In a world
should be spent on the most urgent causes
that it is possible to address with a reasonable
of scarce
probability of success. To identify these, donors resources and
need information about four factors:
limitless social
• levels of need;
need, NPC
• what works;
and Copal
• activity by other actors; and
consider that
• the nature of the voluntary sector.
money should
Chapter 2: Developing a framework
NPC and Copal’s typical approach is to apply
these criteria to a particular social issue. We be spent on the
do this in the next chapter of this report for the most urgent
water and sanitation sector as an example of
how our methodology works in practice. causes that it
Before then, it is worth looking at these different
is possible to
analytical stages in more detail and exploring address with
how we might begin to apply them in the Indian
context. This helps to flesh out the framework, a reasonable
demonstrate its potential, and also begin probability of
to highlight lessons for donors interested in
maximising their impact in India. In particular, success.
it is worth analysing the nature of the Indian
voluntary sector in some detail, as it provides
general lessons that are pertinent to all donors
looking to give in India.
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand
21
 Giving in India I Developing a framework

Box 7: Social investment in India

This report is focused on philanthropy in India—its main unit of analysis is the NGO. Yet a donor
should be aware there are other ways of achieving their social aims that go beyond the traditional
method of giving grants to charities, most notably social investment. Social investment is a broad
term unified by one common criterion: it combines both financial and social objectives.

There are three main forms of social investment:

• Socially responsible investment: this involves directing funding to companies that

have ethical practices. It is focused primarily on avoiding ‘harmful’ companies as well as
encouraging improved corporate practices related to the environment, social performance, or
governance.

• Social impact investment: this is where investors place capital with businesses or funds,
in order to achieve specific social aims. This capital may be in a range of forms including
equity, debt, working capital, lines of credit, and loan guarantees. Examples in India include
microfinance, construction of cheap housing, private hospitals and schools and clean energy.

• Funding social enterprises: this is the third main area for social investors. Social enterprises
are organisations that are run along business lines, but where any profits are reinvested into
the community or into service developments.

Social investment, in all of its forms, has been gaining increased traction in India. It is seen as a
way to harness the power of global capital for social good, and to tap the potential innovation,
efficiency and scale of the private sector. It also makes the money ‘work harder’ as any financial
return can then be recycled and reinvested in other forms of social investment. It is also often
argued that having some form of financial expectation is a good discipline on social organisations
themselves because it helps to focus attention on the sustainability of the business model.

Despite these potential opportunities and its ability to complement philanthropic activity, social
investment in India also faces broad challenges. The first is the difficulty of measuring social impact, a
constraint that makes the trade-off between financial and social benefits hard to assess. The second
is a relative dearth of organisations with the capacity to absorb large amounts of capital—a lot of
the same names get mentioned by different social investors. The third is that the market place is
underdeveloped, without a fully developed infrastructure of networks, advisors and intermediaries.

Significant work has happened in the past decade to address these issues. Dedicated social
investment funds have grown up to build knowledge and expertise in the area. One of the most
well-known social investment funds is the Acumen Fund, which was set up in 2001 with
seed capital from the Rockefeller Foundation, Cisco Systems Foundation and three individual
philanthropists. It funds in South and East Africa, Pakistan and India, and concentrates on critical
services: water, health, housing, and energy. It is currently funding 12 initiatives in India, which
include a network of maternity and child healthcare hospitals to cater for slum populations, and
a firm that tests people for short-sightedness and sells glasses. As with most social investment
funds, it has three main criteria in its investments: potential for significant social impact; financial
sustainability; and potential to achieve scale.

In 2008, the Soros Economic Development Fund, along with Google.org and the Omidyar Network,
set up a targeted $17m investment fund for small or medium-sized industries (SMEs) in India—a
section of the economy that falls between microloans and larger commercial investments. This is
being run out of the Centre for Emerging Market Solutions at the Indian School of Business at
Hyderabad and, so far, it has invested in areas such as waste management and eye hospitals.

As well as specific investment vehicles, there are also organisations that help improve the
knowledge and research available on social investment, to provide capacity support and help
attract capital to successful schemes. In 2006, the Monitor Institute, a think tank/consultancy
that focuses on social issues, set up a new Indian initiative called Monitor Inclusive Markets (MIM).
This researches the role of for-profit business models in solving Indian social problems and helps
them overcome barriers to scale. It is currently piloting efforts to develop affordable housing for
slum dwellers in India. The World Resources Institute, a US-based think tank, has developed
its own New Ventures scheme, in partnership with the US government, to direct capital to
businesses in emerging markets (including India) that deliver social and environmental benefits.

A further level of support exists for individual social entrepreneurs. Organisations, such as Ashoka,
Unltd India, the Skoll Foundation and Social Impact, provide support to people who have
innovative approaches to tackling social issues. As well as usually providing cash awards, they
also offer capacity support, coaching and links into wider networks. The Skoll Foundation holds an
annual World Forum, bringing together social entrepreneurs, policy-makers and financiers.

22
 Giving in India I Developing a framework

Levels of need in particular depression, while, on the same

When thinking about different needs, it is
possible for a donor to approach the issue from
several directions. These include:
• issue or sub-issue (eg, education);
• geography (eg, Bihar);
• a particular group (eg, Muslims); or
• a combination of these factors (eg, the
education of Muslims in Bihar).
Ideally, as noted above, a donor would have
data on both the numbers affected and the
severity of impact. While numbers affected can
be relatively straightforward to determine, finding
an objective measure for impact is harder—
particularly the wider the scope of the analysis.
scale, measles has more of an impact than
HIV/AIDS.25
Often it is much clearer to judge relative need
when looking in detail at a particular social issue
(which is NPC and Copal’s usual approach), or in
making high-level comparisons between different
groups and geographies. In India, groups such
as women, Muslims and scheduled castes and
tribes experience much worse outcomes than the
national average. Generally speaking, the states
in central and eastern India (in particular the
BIMARU states mentioned above) have worse
indicators than their counterparts in the south.
What works
The second factor for a donor to think about is

Chapter 2: Developing a framework

Attempts have been made to establish common
frameworks to understand the importance
of relative needs. Economic cost analysis of
particular issues can highlight the financial cost
to individuals or to the country as a whole. Yet
these often rely on tangential assumptions and,
in the absence of reliable data, can be based
on heroic degrees of estimation. Sometimes the
understanding of causal links between issues is
poor. When executed badly, this approach also
risks undervaluing less tangible issues such as
well-being, the environment and quality of life.
Attempts to produce standard comparisons
across issues can lead to quite surprising results.
For example, the World Health Organization
uses DALYs, a metric calculated on the basis of
years of life lost due to premature mortality and
years of life lost due to disability. In India, the
largest category is neuropsychiatric disorders,
existing evidence of what works. Compelling
evidence in favour of a particular approach can
help to ensure that philanthropy is directed
where it is most likely to have an impact.
Yet when thinking about effectiveness in
international development, a donor is unlikely
to find many straightforward, risk-free answers.
Instead, evidence on the impact of a particular
approach exists on a scale of certainty—from
the hope of a logical model, to the depth of a
large-scale randomised control study.
NPC’s report, Funding success, looks in more
detail at ways of categorising different levels of
evidence.2 These are summarised in Table 2.
The general lesson is that that the standard of
evidence increases the further you go down
the table. The stronger the evidence behind an
intervention, the greater is the potential that it
will have an impact in the future.

Table 2: Different levels of evidence

Category Value
Logical model A basic model of how an activity might work logically, even if unproven, is a good
starting point for an NGO.
Similar experience If an NGO has had similar experience elsewhere, then replication may be a good
elsewhere idea, but this needs careful testing.
Research If research elsewhere indicates that a course of action is good, then applying it in a
new context may be a good idea but should be tested as soon as resources allow.
User feedback Feedback is valuable to ascertain (perceived) quality of services. However, a user
saying ‘I enjoyed the meeting’ does not prove that the meeting achieved any
improvement in circumstances. Well-constructed user feedback can nevertheless
form part of systematic measurement.
Demand Demand gives a clue as to how users value a service. However, high demand for
a service may denote desperation for any help, rather than an endorsement of this
particular help.
Evaluations Evaluations are detailed pieces of research determining whether a specific
activity works, whether it could be improved or expanded, and what should be
measured going forward. It is wise to do a detailed evaluation more than once: later
evaluations can show the detail of whether an activity has abated or is still relevant.
Systematic Some NGOs find a way of systematically determining the improved outcomes for
measurement their beneficiaries. This could be reported by users, observed by family members,
or collected by professionals, for example, using clinical scales. Ideally this is
collated in some way.

23
 Giving in India I Developing a framework
Different levels of evidence are expected at
different stages of organisational development.
For example, a young charity is unlikely to have
evidence of its results until it has been running
for a period of time.
In development, health interventions tend
to have the strongest level of evidence. Eye
surgery, anti-worming tablets and immunisations
produce direct and tangible returns, in terms of
quality of life, education and livelihood. Social
and educational approaches face greater
challenges in establishing what works, especially
where they are aiming for behaviour change.
A major issue for a donor to be aware of is
transferability. Just because an approach is
effective in one context, it does not mean it will
work in another context. Different communities,
different delivery mechanisms and different cultural
factors will influence impact. Projects that lead to
a set of outcomes in one state may not work in
another. Plan International developed a project
to promote better hygiene behaviour in southern
India through pamphlets demonstrating hand-
washing techniques—yet when it transferred this
to the north west, it was initially unsuccessful. This
was due to the fact that in the north west, people
traditionally used ash to clean their hands. The
material had to be tailored accordingly.
Donors also have to think about the structural
impact of interventions. It can be extremely
tempting for a donor to fund parallel delivery
systems where government is not working
effectively. Yet this can compound the problems,
enabling government to underinvest in an area
and using up qualified staff. All this has a wider
impact. Donors also need to think about the
economic effects. For example, there is a long-
running debate over non-emergency food aid,
questioning whether its short-term benefits come
at the expense of damaging farming capacity.26
Over the last decade in India, the focus on
development has moved from providing
services to a more ‘rights-based’ approach—in
simple terms, building up the skills of individuals
and communities to claim their legal rights,
and developing the capacity of government to
fulfil its obligations. Measuring the impact of
these empowerment activities poses greater
challenges than simple service delivery projects
due to difficulties over attribution and capturing
less tangible outcomes, such as self-esteem
and gender equality. Results may also take
more time to emerge.
The problem of capturing evidence is even
more acute for NGOs that operate at a higher
level of activity, lobbying government and
advocating for policy change. Although the
potential impact of this work is significant—
influencing government funding, establishing
legal frameworks, providing a voice for the
excluded—the challenges in measurement
24
are high. Often it takes years for campaigning
activities to pay off and, again, attributing
success to any one organisation can be difficult.
In the UK, NPC has produced the report Critical
masses, which stresses the importance of
social campaigning. It suggests that a more
constructive way to think about the question is to
look closely at an NGO’s contribution, rather than
ruthlessly searching for proof of its precise effect.
Activity by government, private sector
and other donors
The third factor for donors to look at is how
philanthropy fits within the public and private
sectors—particularly given the size and impact
of existing funding flows from other players.
As noted, a philanthropist should be sure not
to substitute for government responsibilities,
and may have more of an impact by focusing
on areas overlooked by existing funders. A
clearer understanding of the context highlights
possibilities for complementing and leveraging
existing work, and can suggest ways of
achieving scale and exit (for example, where
central or state government takes on an
approach that has been piloted by an NGO
using philanthropic support).
A key issue for donors to understand is that
implementation of government policy in India
is patchy, opaque and inconsistent. Despite
efforts towards decentralisation, central and state
governments still set the agenda and as policies
travel down to the grassroots, funds get diverted.
Corruption, lack of accountability and
low capacity are problems at all levels of
government. These tend to be particularly
chronic in areas of higher need, where poor
governance is both a product and a cause
of underdevelopment. Lant Pritchett of the
Kennedy School of Government at Harvard
argues that dysfunction in India’s public sector
is one of the world’s top ten biggest problems—
of the order of HIV/AIDS and climate change.27
Similarly, donors need to consider their
relationship with the private sector. This is most
obvious in relation to businesses as funders
where they are a much larger player in Indian
philanthropy than, say, in the UK. But it is also
a question of relating to the private sector
as a deliverer of services, with India home to
an explosion of private schools and private
hospitals over the past decade. Many Indian
NGOs are cautious about the private sector
being used to deliver social ends, fearing
that poor people will be priced out, exploited
or given poor service. A few donors have
increasingly been looking to businesses to
deliver approaches at scale—for example, the
Omidyar Network, the philanthropic investment
firm established by eBay founder Pierre
Omidyar and his wife.

A last major set of ‘actors’ that will influence
a donor’s decision on where to fund are
professional funders—particularly external
support agencies such as the UN, INGOs,
trusts and foundations and individuals. Their
funding can both highlight areas that are over-
or under-funded, and present opportunities
for co-funding. Co-funding can be good for
promoting donor learning, as well as sharing
costs and reducing reporting burdens on
NGOs. Box 8 profiles the main types of funders
in India.
The nature and needs of the voluntary
sector
The final factor, the nature and needs of the
voluntary sector, is worth looking at in more
detail, and forms the rest of this chapter. For all
donors interested in India, knowing more about
the sector’s common features, challenges and
opportunities can improve their funding. Yet
getting to grips with it can be challenging—after
all, India has one of the largest and most fertile
NGO sectors in the world, with an estimated
1.2 million nonprofit organisations.12 Even if a
donor is familiar with the voluntary sectors in
other areas, such the US, UK or Europe, there
are several features unique to India.
The lessons drawn out below are based on
NPC and Copal’s own experiences working in
the sector over 2008/2009, and on research
and conversations during that period with a
range of experts. Beyond informal sources,
little research on the Indian voluntary sector is
available that would allow in-depth analysis of
its make-up. The most comprehensive analysis
comes from The Society for Participatory
Research in Asia (PRIA), yet this was
produced back in 2002.12
As noted in the previous chapter, NPC and
Copal use a particular analytic framework when
examining individual NGOs that drills down in
to a number of critical areas. We draw on this
to comment on the following features of India’s
NGO sector as a whole: its finances; its focus
on need; its management; and its results.
Financial factors
It is hard to generalise about the voluntary
sector in India, but the huge bulk of India’s
1.2 million NGOs are tiny—often religious
institutions, tiny community organisations or, in
a few cases, fronts for political corruption.
The PRIA research found that three quarters
of all NGOs rely only on volunteers or have
just one paid member of staff.12 Just 200,000
NGOs are estimated to have an income above
Rs.50,000 (£633). In the sector literature, ‘very
large’ NGOs tend to be defined as having an
income of more than Rs.500,000 (£6,300).28
Giving in India I Developing a framework
Box 8: Professional funders that donors need to consider
External support agencies—This group comprises all multilateral and bilateral
agencies, such as the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the
World Health Organization (WHO), the United States Aid and International
Development (USAID) and the World Bank. While each organisation has different
remits and strategic goals, they are all supposed to be based on delivering the
UN’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the broad set of development
targets that the international community has agreed to reach by 2015.
Funding from these actors is largely channelled through government, from
direct budgetary support, low-cost loans and funding for specific pilot
projects. While NGOs are often a component of these programmes, they
are rarely the direct recipient of donations. The major exception is in disaster
response, where for reasons of speed and capacity, money is often channelled
directly to NGOs.
The government of India recently decided to break off bilateral aid relations with all
Chapter 2: Developing a framework
countries except major donors, such as the UK, US, EU, Russia and Japan and
countries that would commit more than US$25m (£15m) a year.29 This was part of a
general attempt to reorientate India’s image away from being seen as a ‘developing
country’. Countries such as Holland, Sweden and Canada have had to end their
government-to-government funding, and instead now fund direct to NGOs.
International Non-Government Organisations—In India, when people talk
about INGOs, they usually mean one of the many international charities that have
historically had an office in India, including CARE, Oxfam, Save the Children, Plan
International and ActionAid. Many INGOs have now established independent
organisations in India (eg, Oxfam India), which the international parent funds or
part-funds. A lot of the organisations are functionally equivalent to specialist grant-
makers in that they fund local NGOs to deliver against a particular set of priorities,
either through individual projects or as part of wider programmes of activity.
The focus for individual INGOs varies from specific issues, such as water and
sanitation, to more general development activities, carried out by organisations
such as CARE and Oxfam. Traditionally, a lot of the emphasis was on children,
as organisations such as Plan International and ActionAid raise funds through
child sponsorship. However, these INGOs have broadened their focus,
recognising that the well-being of each child depends on the situation of the
family and the wider community.
Trusts and foundations—Trusts and foundations are an increasingly dynamic
force in India. In addition to long-standing international foundations like Ford
and Rockefeller, there is a strong tradition of indigenous corporate and family
foundations—for instance, the Tata Family Trusts. These have recently been
joined by new institutions arising from international and domestic IT and finance
industries. Internationally, players such as CIFF, the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation and the Michael and Susan Dell Foundation, have brought in new
skills and approaches, and a particular emphasis on impact measurement.
Again, the range of different foundations, strategies and focuses defy any
attempt at general lessons that hold across the broad Indian development
sector. However, it is apparent that a lot of the energy is being put towards the
‘big three’ topics: education, health and livelihoods. The ‘Holy Grail’ for many of
these foundations is to find something that is rapidly scalable and replicable.
This has lots of implications. Not least, that
absorbing large sums of money quickly can be
hard for individual organisations. Donors with
significant capital often end up chasing the
same organisations.
25
 Giving in India I Developing a framework
The other major constraint on non-Indian
donors is that only 34,000 NGOs are eligible
to receive foreign donations.6 As noted in the
previous chapter, organisations looking for
foreign funding are required to register under
the Indian government’s FCRA legislation. This
regulates who can receive foreign donations,
and was designed partly as an anti-terrorism
In total, it is measure. However, some NGOs complain
estimated that that the government has used the FCRA to
withdraw recognition from campaigning and
foreign funding policy NGOs that disagree with its policies.
provides only In total, it is estimated that foreign funding
7.4% of funding provides only 7.4% of funding to the sector.12
This masks huge diversity in reliance on
to the sector. international philanthropy. The Child in Need
Institute receives almost half its funding
The Society of from abroad, while Sulabh International, a
Participatory Research sanitation charity with an income of Rs.1bn
in Asia (PRIA)12 (£13m) receives no foreign funding.
Within the sector there is a growing appetite
to draw on local funding opportunities, both
from indigenous trusts and corporates and
from individual philanthropists. However, efforts
are often limited by low fundraising capacity.
Normally, responsibility rests on overworked
chief executives. Very few organisations have
dedicated fundraisers.
Low fundraising capacity also reflects a more
general weakness in financial management.
While some NGOs benefit from highly-qualified
financial teams, others are lacking—the Aga
Khan Rural Support Programme India has
started an initiative to let other NGOs draw on
the expertise of its financial staff. There may
be a general lesson here for donors: on the
one hand to be patient with organisations that
may not have good financial reporting skills; on
the other, to provide capacity-building support
rather than grants alone.
NGO financial management is particularly
important at the moment due to increasing
uncertainty in funding. The economic downturn
has affected the endowments of foundations,
while there are some reports that INGOs that
rely on direct debits or popular subscriptions
have seen donations dry up.
Funding practices from grant-makers are not
always helpful to the sector. Grants are often
renewed on a yearly basis, making it hard
for NGOs to plan in advance. Charities often
struggle to cover their core costs from project-
based grants. There are some exceptions
to this—INGOs and agencies can fund fairly
generously—but here a different problem
sometimes emerges, with payment in arrears
causing NGOs cash flow problems.
Also, long-term funding relationships (often over
decades) have left some NGOs dangerously
reliant on one funding source, and without the
26
impetus to develop. When this ends, either due
to changing funding practices or an economic
downturn, NGOs are left scrabbling for a
replacement. Exit funding (ie, what an NGO is
going to do when the donation runs out) should
be a key issue for philanthropists.
In order to cope with financial instability and the
termination of particular funding streams, many
NGOs are trying to build up their corpus funds.
These are similar to reserves yet, except in rare
circumstances, NGOs are unable to touch the
capital. Rather, they use its income as a source
of unrestricted funding.
Activities
Financial instability has dramatic implications
for what NGOs in India do and how they do
it. It is one of the factors driving a sector that
is largely characterised by generalist NGOs—
ones that will turn their hands to a number
of different activities. To the extent that this
reflects organisations chasing whatever funding
happens to be available in order to stay afloat, it
is an unhealthy trend. However, in many cases it
is also a question of mission.
The ‘typical’ organisation seen by NPC
and Copal during our research worked on
‘integrated rural development’. Often these
organisations began with a focus on one issue
in one geography—health or education—before
rapidly realising that the barriers to improving
people’s lives go beyond that intervention alone.
Other project strands get added, including work
to improve livelihoods, gender empowerment
and microfinance.
The challenges to these sorts of organisation
are threefold.
The first is about how truly integrated their
services are. Good examples think carefully
about the links between their different activities
and how to overcome all the barriers to (for
instance) helping children read or empowering
women. A more frequent situation is that the
projects are not genuinely integrated, but run in
separate places.
The second challenge is about quality. NGOs
that are ‘jacks of all trades’ are sometimes
‘masters of none’. Donors need to look closely
at how well organisations are able to operate
where they are engaged in many activities.
The third challenge is how NGOs pay for
‘holistic’ approaches. NPC and Copal saw
any number of organisations that had built in a
livelihood and income-generating activity into
their wider project, believing that in the long
term this would provide a way for communities
to pay for their services, hence making them
sustainable. In general, these plans were
unproven and sometimes based on unrealistic
assumptions. Donors should treat with healthy

scepticism anyone who claims they have
achieved scale, sustainability and impact. Most
organisations are working towards this, but still
need subsidy.
Lack of specialisation in NGOs can make it
challenging for a donor to identify NGOs that
have a distinctive expertise in a particular
area. NGO activities tend to focus on a similar
set of topics: children’s education, livelihood
development, HIV/AIDS work and microfinance
have all been identified as areas with thriving
NGO sectors.
Many of the big names of the Indian NGO
sector work in children’s education—such as
Pratham, Children in Need Institute (CINI),
Akansha and AID India. In contrast, donors
may find it harder to identify a deep pool of
NGOs working in sectors such as domestic
violence, human trafficking and mental illness.
For donors interested in tackling problems
in India’s cities, the voluntary sector poses a
further challenge—namely that it appears to
have a strong rural bias. This reflects the large
population and high needs of rural areas, but it
is also informed by cultural factors.
In particular, many Indian NGOs are inspired by
the example of Gandhi, his voluntary work and
his attachment to the Indian village as the heart
of the nation. Although rapid urbanisation over
the past decades has led to increasing needs
and populations in Indian cities, it does not
appear that NGO numbers, infrastructure and
capacity have kept pace.
In the late 1990s, UNICEF drew attention to
the lack of education provision in urban slums,
and highlighted the work of Bodh Shiksha
Samiti, a Jaipur-based NGO, as one of the
few organisations working in the area. In 1998,
Bodh helped set up a National Core Group on
urban education to help stimulate further work
in the area.
The structure of the voluntary sector also
reflects other geographical factors, with
NGOs heavily concentrated within certain
states and districts. As a general rule, states
in southern India, such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and Karnataka, have a much more vibrant civil
society and NGO sector. Conversely, it is in
the central and eastern states, such as Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa,
where fewer NGOs are operating.
This distribution presents a conundrum to
donors. Many major professional funders, such
as the World Bank and Oxfam, have begun to
redirect their funding towards the north.
It is one of the paradoxes of poverty that
the higher the need, the harder it proves to
find effective organisations to work with. In
many cases, it first requires long-term funding
and support to develop the capabilities of
Giving in India I Developing a framework
NGOs. Even within states, NGOs are often
grouped in certain districts. A USAID study
of Jharkhand health NGOs found that 80%
of them were found in just under half of the
districts of the state.30
The UK Department for International It is one of the
Department (DFID) has just finished funding
a five-year programme—Poorest Areas Civil
paradoxes of
Society—to promote civil society organisations poverty that
across 100 of the poorest districts in India. It is
currently tendering for the next five-year phase the higher
of the project. the need, the
As well as building up NGO capacity in these harder it proves
areas, successful NGOs from other areas of
India are opening new regional offices. The Aga
to find effective
Khan Rural Support Programme India, which organisations to
is based in Gujarat, has just opened a new
work with.
Chapter 2: Developing a framework
office in Bihar and is about to start work in Uttar
Pradesh. Meanwhile, the Children in Need
Institute from West Bengal set up an office in
Jharkhand in 2002 and in Chhattisgarh in 2006.
What about the level of work that NGOs focus
on? NPC and Copal’s experience is that NGO
activities tend to focus on direct services—
whether direct implementation (such as running
schools or hospitals), or community mobilisation
(such as supporting self-help groups). Work
at a more abstract level—such as improving
the infrastructure of the sector or sharing good
practice—is less developed. No comprehensive
voluntary sector network exists. Voluntary
Action Network India, which is the largest
umbrella organisation, has a base of 2,500
NGOs—a tiny percentage of the total number.
Yet an interesting recent development is the
success of high-level ‘rights based’ campaigns,
often complementing community mobilisation
on the ground. These focus on establishing
legal rights through the court system, which
will influence and monitor government action. One of the
In Rajasthan, the MKSS movement started a
campaign in 1989 to increase transparency in
most surprising
government records and expose corruption. things observed
This culminated in a ruling from the Supreme
Court in 2004 that forced the Central
by NPC and
Government to pass a Right to Information Copal during
Bill. Similarly, The Right to Food Campaign run
by a coalition of NGOs led to an order from our research
the Supreme Court for all primary schools to has been the
provide midday meals.
highs and
Management and governance
lows of NGO
One of the most surprising things observed by
NPC and Copal during our research has been management
the highs and lows of NGO management and and governance.
governance.
Taking governance first, little official regulation
exists for NGOs in India. Registration requires
basic financial information and information
on activities. Only two states, Gujarat and
Maharashtra, have charity commissioners to
27
 Giving in India I Developing a framework

oversee the sector—and these are overworked
and largely administrative. As outlined above,
the Credibility Alliance has developed a set of
voluntary governance norms, but take-up is still
at an early stage.
When looking at the governance of NGOs, the
main detail for donors to be aware of is the
A common split between trusts, societies and Section 25
companies (ie, nonprofit companies). These are
feature in the set out in Box 9. Trusts are traditionally set up
sector is the when property is involved, such as land or a
building, and governed by a small set of people
role of the chosen by the founder—often families—who
inspirational then tend to sit for life. Societies have a
governing board made up of members elected
founder or chief by a general body, which is renewed at certain
executive. intervals. Section 25 companies are run in a
similar vein to societies.
Trusts tend to be more secular in approach
than societies. Both are characterised by heavy
overlap in staff and what might be seen in the
UK as inadequate separation of oversight and
management functions. The advantages of
having the same people sitting on the board
and running an organisation is alignment: it can
be easy for NGOs to make decisions quickly.
The downside is lack of independent scrutiny
and the risk of ‘group-think’.
In addition to problems with the structure of
governance, the other interesting feature of
Indian NGOs is the quality of governance.
Boards meet infrequently—roughly two or three
times a year—and often have a narrow skill
set, with little financial, legal or management
experience.
A common feature in the sector is the role of the
inspirational founder or chief executive. These
are charismatic individuals who have built up
an organisation and continue to fill most of its
main functions. Often this masks a weak senior
management team, and an over-reliance on

Box 9: Trusts, societies and Section 25 companies

To be considered as a nonprofit organisation in India, organisations have to fulfil four criteria. They have to:

• exist independently of the state;

• be self-governing by a board of trustees or ‘managing committee’/governing council;

• produce benefits for others, generally outside the membership of the organisation; and

• be ‘nonprofit-making’.

Yet, to complicate the issue, nonprofit organisations can be registered under three different sets of legislation:

• The Indian Trust Act (1882)

• The Societies Registration Act (1860)

• Section 25 of the Companies Act (1956)

Each of these groups have slightly different organisational requirements that need to be satisfied.

Trust Society Section 25 Company

Jurisdiction
Registration
Registration Document
Members required
Board of management
Mode of succession on
board of management
Deputy registrar/charity Registrar of societies (charity
commissioner commissioner in Maharashtra)
As trust As society
In Maharashtra, both as a society
and as a trust
Trust deed Memorandum of association and
rules and regulations
Minimum of two Minimum of seven managing
trustees, with no upper committee members, with no
limit upper limit
Trustees or board of Governing body or council/
trustees managing or executive committee
Appointment or election Appointment or election by
members of the general body
Registrar of companies
As a company under Section 25 of
the Indian Companies Act
Memorandum and articles of
association and regulations
Minimum of three trustees, with no
upper limit
Board of directors or managing
committee
Election by members of the general
body

Source: CAF India

28
 Giving in India I Developing a framework

the chief executive. It can lead to over-work,
bottlenecks, and instability when he or she steps
down. Despite this, only a small proportion of
NGOs appear to have thought about succession
plans. Following the Indian tradition of family-run
businesses, some NGOs have near-dynastic
succession. Others make no preparation at
all. This is something that donors should pay
close attention to—especially where making
large grants.
Lack of depth of management and little
planning for succession reflects a wider
structural challenge in Indian NGOs—a general
weakness of central functions. They rarely have
adequate HR, administration or fundraising
teams. This is partly due to a concentration of
project funding and a lack of prioritisation by
management. But it also reflects the priorities of
which charities to support. Often weaknesses
in senior management or staff recruitment are
not immediately apparent, even while they pose
significant challenges to the sustainability of the
organisation and its results.
Secondly, donors should be aware that one
of the main reasons for poor organisational
capacity is low spending on central
administration. Some donors pick NGOs on
the basis of their administration expenses,
but NPC and Copal believe that this kind
of approach is simplistic and can actually
undermine effectiveness. Sometimes, counter-
intuitively, the best way of improving the
lives of the people NGOs work with can be
to make the organisation increase spending
on itself. Donors can directly fund an NGO’s
central costs, or at the very least ensure that

Chapter 2: Developing a framework

donors and expectations of NGOs. an adequate percentage of their project grant
goes towards them.
Many donors express suspicion or concern
about administration costs. In practice in
India, NPC and Copal saw the opposite
problem—organisations unable and (in many
cases) unwilling to resource their own structures
properly.

This again reflects the roots of the Indian NGO

sector. Both Gandhi and other inspirations
like the guru Swami Vivekananda emphasised
austerity and frugality. It is admirable of
organisations to try to live a simple life, but
it makes it hard to operate sustainably and
effectively.

This has an impact on organisations most

directly in relation to recruiting and retaining
staff, especially professionals. A strong strain
of voluntarism runs through the sector, and
salaries are generally small and in some cases
non-existent. An analysis by Dasra* of the
salaries of 130 chief executives of children and
youth charities listed on the website GiveIndia
showed that over half of chief executives do not
have a salary, and of those that do, the monthly
average pay is US$449 (£272).31 Qualified
people, especially professionals, are being
attracted into multilateral agencies and INGOs
where there is much higher pay.
Photograph supplied by Justin Canning/Comic Relief Ltd.

Working conditions are also a factor in

recruitment problems, with front-line staff
often required to live among the communities
they work with. Particularly in deprived areas,
turnover of staff can be high. NGOs have
responded by hiring locals, both because they
are used to living in the area, and also because
of their knowledge of the people and the
realities of the problems facing them. Yet these
recruits often lack formal qualifications and
skills, putting a strain on training processes.

What can donors learn from all this? Firstly, and

most obviously, that they should look closely
at organisational capacity when considering

* Dasra is a Mumbai-based organisation that works with Indian NGOs to maximise their efficiency, scale and impact. 29
 Giving in India I Developing a framework

Results Yet even when donors do insist on monitoring

and evaluation activity, in NPC and Copal’s
As this report has already outlined in the
experience, it is too often focused solely
previous chapter, Indian NGOs do not
on external one-off evaluations, rather than
consistently capture much meaningful data on
embedding internal monitoring mechanisms.
their results. NPC and Copal believe that donors
While this may be useful for that particular
should insist that monitoring and evaluation is
project, it does little to improve the ongoing
built into the projects that they fund and, where
ability of individual organisations to see what
relevant, set aside a proportion of their funding
progress they are making day to day. And too
for the purpose. It is also in NGOs’ interests to
often, external evaluations are poor quality
measure what they achieve.
and of limited value, neither asking the right
questions, nor doing it in a methodologically
Box 10: Some of the questions donors could ask when visiting an NGO robust way.

Activities
Where does this leave us?
• What is the problem that you are trying to tackle?
• How will the different activities you are carrying out address it? This section has sketched out a possible
analytical framework that can help
• What about elements of the problem that you are not addressing? To what
philanthropists start to think about how to
extent are you working with other organisations to fill those gaps?
allocate funding. It began by touching on:
• How coherent are your activities? Are they greater than the sum of their
parts? What are the links between them? • donors’ interests and passions;

• Which social groups are you reaching? Which are you not reaching? • donors’ resources; and

• How does what you are doing fit in with government services? • where funds can have an impact.

• How is the community involved? It argued that the intersection of these

concerns is the optimal place for a donor to
Results
concentrate funding.
• What are you achieving—not just in terms of outputs (eg, number of
schools built or meals provided), but also in terms of outcomes (eg, It went on to argue that to understand the last
improvement in learning or nutrition)? of the considerations, where funds can have
• How do you know? What evidence do you have? an impact, it was necessary to analyse four key
areas, comprising:
• What external evaluations have you done?
• level of need;
• How do you use your results? To improve your services, for fundraising,
to share lessons learnt? • what works;
• How do you compare to peer organisations? • activity by other actors; and
• What have you stopped doing because it was ineffective? • the nature of the voluntary sector.
Management It looked in particular detail at the last of
• What are the key challenges facing your organisation? these, in order to highlight the strengths and
challenges facing Indian NGOs as a whole.
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of your trustees and how involved
are they in your work? NPC and Copal hope that this information has
• Do you have a succession plan for your chief executive? helped to identify some general lessons that a
donor can use to inform and improve
• Do you have problems with recruitment, and at what levels?
their giving.
• What training do you provide for staff?
More broadly, this analytical framework also
• Do you comply with Credibility Alliance norms? provides a structure and a format for donors
Ambition to consider individual NGOs. When NPC and
Copal analysts visit NGOs we tend to group
• Where do you want the organisation to be in three years’ time?
questions around each of these four areas.
• Are you seeking to grow, and if so, how? Some generic examples of these questions are
included in Box 10; these might prove useful for
• What influence have you had on government and on other NGOs?
a donor when visiting charities.
• What do you need funding for? What difference will extra funding make?
The next part of this report puts this analytical
Finances
framework under a more rigorous test. It aims
• How stable and diverse is your funding? to demonstrate how it can be applied to a
• How many months of reserves do you have? particular social issue, and to show how it is
possible to set out useful guidance for donors
• What do your services cost per user? based on the available evidence. This seeks
• How financially sustainable are your projects? to demonstrate the validity of the analytical
framework and its potential to be applied to
• Who is in charge of your finances? other social issues in India.
30
Water and sanitation
This chapter uses NPC and Copal’s
framework to analyse a specific sector in
Using this framework, NPC and Copal seek
to show that it is possible to build on this
The
India: water and sanitation. It demonstrates analysis to identify priority areas where combination of
how the framework might be applied in philanthropy is likely to have the greatest
practice and explores its validity and impact. These comprise:
safe drinking
usefulness in India. The underlying purpose water and
is to test the final two hypotheses proposed • mobilising communities around hygiene
at the beginning of the report—that by using promotion; hygienic
analysis it is possible both to prioritise areas • developing new financial and technical sanitation
for philanthropy, and to identify effective models around water quality and
NGOs. sanitation;
facilities is a
The starting point of this analysis is needs • strengthening the voluntary sector; and
precondition
relating to water and sanitation. Analysis
• influencing government provision. for health and
of needs helps identify priorities for action.
for success in

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

We establish that access to safe water and Although people may disagree with the
sanitation is not just important in itself—it exact nature of these priorities, we believe the fight against
underpins a much wider set of outcomes that the information and analysis in this
such as better health, education and income section provides a strong rationale for poverty, hunger,
generation. prioritising and channeling funding based
on evidence of impact. We hope that this
child deaths
It is estimated that each year, 400,000 chapter is useful for donors looking to invest and gender
children in India die of diarrhoea, 37.7 in this sector, and also helps to underline
million Indians are affected by waterborne NPC and Copal’s more general hypotheses:
inequality.
diseases, and 73 million working days are that analysis and research counts.
lost due to illness.32, 33 A disproportionate World Health
share of this burden falls on the rural Organization34
Stage 1: Needs
poor, women, scheduled castes and slum
dwellers.
The first stage of analysis is to unpick the level
of need within a sector. This includes trying to
The analysis then looks at ‘what works’.
get a grip on the importance and impact of the
Some of the elements required for
problem and the wider effect it has on other
improvements in accessing safe water and
interlinking areas. It is then necessary to look
sanitation are clear: education; stronger
in more detail at the exact nature of the needs
local institutions; proper financing;
in the sector—how they vary between different
appropriate technologies; and water
sub-issues, geographies and groups. This helps
conservation systems. Yet the evidence
to dig underneath the headline figures and
base in favour of specific models is often
pull out variations in needs and areas that are
weak and heavily contextual. The report
sometimes overlooked.
therefore seeks to identify common
principles of success for a donor or an NGO
All of this provides a donor with an initial
to take on board, such as sustainability,
framework to start thinking about his or
local suitability and equity.
her giving. This includes getting a proper
understanding of the nature and context of the
The final stages of the analysis comprise
issue, becoming familiar with commonly used
an overview of existing activity, funding
terms and targeting resources where needs are
and the NGO sector. The story in India is
highest.
in two parts. On the one hand, there has
been massive government investment in
water and sanitation infrastructure over the
past three decades. But on the other hand,
grave problems persist and while the private
sector has an increasing role to play, major
gaps and opportunities still exist.

31
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
The importance of water, sanitation
and hygiene
Most people recognise the need for clean
water and sanitation, yet donors do not always
appreciate how vital it is for a broad spectrum
We shall of other outcomes. Analysis suggests that
not finally improving water, sanitation and hygiene leads
to better health, reduced poverty, increased
defeat AIDS, education and—more surprisingly—greater
tuberculosis, security and equality.
malaria, or any The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates
that every US$1 spent on improving water and
of the other hygiene leads to a return of between US$5 (£3)
infectious and US$11 (£7).36 The WHO also found that
water, sanitation and hygiene problems cause
diseases that almost 10% of India’s disease burdens.37 This is
plague the due to the effects of contamination from heavy
metals, such as arsenic and fluoride, as well
developing as the more pedestrian but potentially deadly
world until we matter of the impact of bacterial and faecal
material. Diarrhoea is the second biggest killer
have also won of children under five in India and contributes
to the country’s widescale malnutrition rates,
the battle for with almost half of Indian under-threes being
safe drinking underweight.38, 4
water, sanitation Poor sanitation and stagnant water helps
spread diseases like cholera and malaria
and basic health and, particularly in overcrowded city slums,
care. contaminates drinking water. Without water
to bathe with, people develop skin and eye
Kofi Annan35 infections and women can face gyneacological
problems.
How, though, does inadequate water and
sanitation link to poverty? One route is through
its effects on health, with money diverted to
medical expenses, even as illness stops people
from working or children from attending school.
But it has even more direct effects. When
water is not available, people have to rely on
expensive alternatives, such as bottled water,
which take up a disproportionate proportion
of their income. Where water is available,
the simple matter of the time it takes for
people (typically women) to collect it has an
opportunity cost in relation to work, family care
What this or education. Water collection can take up to
analysis seeks four hours a day.
to do is disprove The effects on education go beyond
absenteeism from school and low enrolment.
the charge Lack of toilets, facilities to dispose sanitary
that water and pads and privacy constitute a significant
barrier to girls continuing in education beyond
sanitation is a adolescence.
peripheral issue.
32
A final area to think about, again sometimes
overlooked by donors, is the broader cost of
inadequate water and sanitation to dignity,
security and equity. Often it is these issues that
are most relevant to people without access
to water and sanitation themselves. Without
toilets, women have to wait until early morning
or evening to defaecate in the fields, which is
inconvenient and leaves them vulnerable to
attack.
What this analysis seeks to do is disprove
the charge that water and sanitation is a
peripheral issue. Instead, it demonstrates that
it is both important in its own right, and also
strongly related to other more mainstream
concerns, such as education and poverty. The
potential impact of successfully addressing
water, sanitation and hygiene disadvantage is
considerable.
Water, sanitation and hygiene needs
in India
At first glance, a donor would be forgiven
for thinking that the situation on water and
sanitation in India is reasonably promising.
In 2004, according to government statistics,
95% of all rural habitations and 91% of urban
households had access to safe water.39, 40 And
although the numbers for sanitation had not
reached those heights, figures have doubled
over the past eight years.41
However, dig beneath the headline figures and
a more disturbing reality emerges. The main
government numbers only capture ‘coverage’—
that is whether a village has a well, a slum
has a standpipe, or a house has a toilet. Key
questions are not captured in this data, such as:
• whether an individual gets reliable,
sustainable and good quality water;
• whether toilets are actually used; or
• if hygiene practices improve.
Adequate data giving a clear picture in each of
these areas across India does not exist. Pulling
together different pieces of research, it appears
that there are still major gaps. The following
analysis picks apart the sector according to
issue, group and geography. Only by looking
at these areas in more detail can a donor get
a clearer idea of relative levels of need and
possible priorities for funding.

Needs by issue
Water
Quantity and accessibility
Measured in terms of handpumps and wells,
access to water in rural areas has improved
significantly over the past three decades. In
total, four million handpumps, 1.6 million public
standposts and 160,000 mini-piped water
supply schemes have been built—largely due
to government investment and improvements in
technology, such as the design of the borewell
and the handpump.40
However, these numbers fail to take into
account whether the water sources actually
continue to provide enough water. In practice,
handpumps break down, wells dry up, and
growing populations put extra stresses on
depleted water resources. Government
programmes during the 1980s and 1990s had
a supply-side focus, with little emphasis on
maintaining and sustaining water sources (a
crucial mistake that donors should learn from).
Yet despite this, villages are still counted as
being ‘fully-covered’* in government statistics.
In 2003, the government commissioned a
major habitation survey to get a clearer picture.
This found that in reality, the number of rural
habitations considered to qualify as ‘fully-
covered’ had actually dropped by 314,000
between 2000 and 2003. On this revised
basis, the total proportion of fully-covered rural
habitations in India was only 58%, and in some
states, such as Bihar, numbers were as low
as 31%.42 Even in 2007, after major additional
investment, the government found that there
were still a quarter of a million ‘slipped back’
habitations.43
Indian cities do not escape access problems,
despite having more sophisticated piped water
infrastructure and higher levels of coverage. In
urban areas, the main problem is twofold: firstly,
that not enough actual water gets delivered
through this infrastructure, and secondly, that
the poorest and most disadvantaged groups
get overlooked.
Donors may be surprised to learn that Indian
water utilities are the worst performing in Asia,
and no city provides anywhere near 24-hour
water for all its citizens. The best cities claim
to provide around 12 hours, and most only
provide water for a couple of hours a day,
often at uncertain times. In 2007, the city of
Rajkot supplied water for 20 minutes daily,
while customers in Hyderabad and Bangalore
received water on alternate days.44 Around
a fifth of households connected to municipal
water systems have to supplement their water
supply from other sources.45
* Fully-covered means that each person has access to 40 litres per day; and that the water source should exist within 1.6km in the plains and 100m elevation in hilly areas.53
Giving in India I Water and sanitation
In cities, access to water is largely dependent
on land tenure. While people living in planned
communities have access to 24-hour water,
thanks to water tanks and private boreholes,
people in slums depend on communal stand-
pipes and water tankers. These can be both
unhygienic and unreliable, causing people to
wait for hours and providing insufficient water
per head. The situation is worse for people in In 2006/2007,
unofficial or ‘non-notified’ settlements, which nearly 200,000
make up half the slums in India, and therefore
largely exist outside of government services and habitations
statistics.46 These have to rely on buying water
from private water vendors at inflated costs.
across India
were affected
Based on this analysis, we are unable to
prioritise between rural and urban areas— by heavy metals
reliable data is not there, and on all accounts and salinity.
levels of need are significant across both
categories. The key point for donors to
Department of Drinking
understand is that often it is worth looking at
Water Supply48
government statistics in some detail in order to
get a clearer picture of what is happening.
Quality
Chapter 3: Water and sanitation
The other major issue with water supply in India
is its quality. Large swathes of India are affected
by contaminated groundwater with high levels
of arsenic in Bihar, iron in Orissa and fluoride in
Uttar Pradesh. The WHO and UNICEF estimate
that about 66 million people in 17 states are at
risk due to excessive fluoride, while around 13.8
million are at risk due to arsenic.47
Quality problems are reportedly increasing due
both to population pressures and a growing
reliance on groundwater. New wells are
being dug in areas that are affected by heavy
metals, while over-extraction of groundwater
is degrading previously safe water sources.
Salinity is a growing problem in coastal areas as
seawater encroaches into empty water tables. Donors may
According to the government, in 2006/2007, be surprised to
nearly 200,000 habitations across India were
affected by heavy metals and salinity.48 learn that Indian
Other pollutants and contaminants are also on water utilities
the rise. Increased use of pesticides by farmers are the worst
is adding to nitrate poisoning, as chemicals run
into local wells. On a larger scale, run-off from performing in
factories, tanneries and other industries pollutes
Asia, and no
surface water.
city provides
Even in cities where water is supposed to
be treated before use, quality problems can anywhere
slip through. In Hyderabad, in May 2009, five near 24-hour
people died after drinking bad water from their
taps, and dozens were hospitalised.49 water for all its
citizens.
33
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

The key message here is that access to water Why do people with access to toilets fail to use
is not the end of the story. It is tempting for a them? There is no single answer. One reason
donor to consider that funding water provision is poor quality design and a lack of water for
is enough, without thinking about its quality. cleansing. Another is inadequate understanding
Or to assume that people who already have of the benefits. There is also an important
access to water have no problems in this area. dimension of cultural opposition. Many people
Yet without dealing with quality issues, people are simply not used to it—they feel that having
will continue to suffer major health problems. a toilet in or near the house is unhygienic or that
The state of they should continue their ancestral practices.
Sanitation
Andhra Pradesh In some cases, social rituals have grown up
around female group defaecation.
has built nearly The second issue of need after water is
sanitation. In 2002, almost a sixth of all people These cultural factors are often overlooked
three million in the world without access to sanitation lived by donors—particularly those that dismiss
household in India.34 A major government push has helped
improve this situation. In 2008, the government
traditional practices as irrational or anti-modern.
However, tradition and social mores can have
toilets since estimated that 57% of rural households in India a significant impact on actual behaviour and
had access to a toilet—compared to 22% in
2001, yet it is 2001.41
the success of different interventions. Any
sector analysis has to integrate this ‘softer’
estimated that background into a proper understanding of
Yet this still leaves a vast number of people
the issue.
half remain without access to a toilet—43% of Indian
unused or are households corresponds to hundreds of millions
of people. Moreover, the total number of people
Poor hygiene behaviour

being used for with poor sanitation is likely to be much higher The third key issue highlighted by this analysis of
than the numbers without access to toilets, water and sanitation needs is hygiene behaviour.
purposes other since toilets often go unused. For donors this is probably the most overlooked
than sanitation. and least understood aspect of water and
In Himachal Pradesh, over 300,000 toilets sanitation. Yet it also has major potential for
were built in the 1990s, but an evaluation of impact. Numerous studies show that hand-
Water and Sanitation
a random sample in 2003 showed usage of washing is a simple and cheap method of
Program51
less than 30%. In Maharashtra, of the 1.6 million dramatically cutting down the spread of disease.
toilets constructed during 1997 to 2000, only
47% were being used.51 The state of Andhra Part of the challenge is establishing the
Pradesh has built nearly three million household current situation, in that hygienic behaviour is
toilets since 2001, yet it is estimated that half not straightforward to measure. Some of the
remain unused or are being used for purposes available studies appear to record unrealistically
other than sanitation.51 high levels of compliance. For instance, a study
by the Global Hygiene Council found that 13%
of people in India do not wash their hands after
using the toilet, and that 18% do not wash their
hands before eating food.52, 53 Experts believe
that the real proportions are higher than this.

The way that people wash their hands is also

important. Many people in India do not use
soap. In some areas the traditional way to
wash hands involves dipping them into a bowl
of water—forgoing the benefits of physical
scrubbing—and as members of the same family
often use the same bowl, this can actually
spread diseases. Using ash to scrub hands is a
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand

better alternative, and soap better still.

Poor hygiene can be traced back to habit, poor

education and a general lack of water and other
hygiene ‘hardware’, like soap and bathroom
facilities. Few households have private
bathrooms; instead, people are forced to wash
in dirty water and ponds.

34
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

All the evidence that NPC and Copal have seen
suggests that the need for improved hygiene is
vital. Due to the high impact of diseases, such
as diarrhoea, any efforts to prevent them have
significant repercussions and can be highly cost-
effective. As quoted in Chapter 1, analysis carried
out for CIFF showed that successful interventions
tackling poor hygiene cost US$3.35 (£2) per
DALY, compared to US$94 (£57) for a pump.24
Needs by group
Of course problems can be broken down
in different ways, and many donors thinking
about water and sanitation will want to target
resources on the groups that are worst affected.
At a very basic level, the main indicator of poor
access to water and sanitation services is
poverty. Those on lower incomes are less likely
to live in areas with good infrastructure, less
able to influence public spending, and have
less money to improve their situation by buying
storage tanks, bathrooms or purifiers.
Scheduled castes and tribes
The 2001 census found that members of
scheduled castes are twice as likely to lack a
household water connection, compared to the
general population. Only 17% of scheduled
tribes have a toilet in their house, which is well
below the general figure of 43%.54
For donors
This is partly due to higher levels of poverty
and poor education among these groups but interested in
entrenched social, political and economic focusing on
discrimination is also a factor. A study of
11 states found that in nearly half of villages, a group, it is
people from scheduled castes were denied
water by other ‘higher’ castes.54 Children were
hard to think
unable to use water vessels in schools because of a more
of ‘purity’ issues; while households were made
to wait until last before drawing water from
disadvantaged
the well. and troubling
Particular sub-castes are often trapped by segment than
tradition and social pressure into a practice known
as manual scavenging—in effect, collecting
communities
human excreta for a living. Manual scavengers are engaged in

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

Moreover, while it may seem like pointing out
the focus of government and a number of NGOs,
the obvious, it is important to appreciate that
as they suffer from three main obstacles. Firstly,
scavenging
access varies with different levels of poverty.
This is partly why NGOs often specifically refer
economic exploitation is common, with wages as work.
low as Rs.50 (£0.63) a month. Secondly, health
to ‘the poorest of the poor’. Otherwise, there is
problems are high; the majority of scavengers
a danger that interventions focus on the easiest
have anaemia while 62% suffer respiratory
to reach and simplest to move out of poverty,
diseases, 32% have skin diseases, and 42% have
neglecting the people at the very bottom.
jaundice.55 Thirdly, they experience considerable
Yet looking beyond poverty, certain groups bear social discrimination and prejudice.
the brunt of poor water and sanitation. Women
Even though manual scavenging was made
and scheduled castes and tribes all tend to
illegal in 1993, estimates suggest that there
have greater needs. This is the case across
are still as many as 1.3 million manual
most of the main social issues in India—from
poor education to poor health. The implication
is that whatever a donor’s interest is, it is always
worth looking at the situation of these groups,
as they are likely to be particularly excluded.

Women

Women are disproportionately affected by

water and sanitation because they traditionally
bear the main responsibility for the household.
They are the ones who wash the house, clean
cutlery, collect water and bathe children. It is
also women who often have to deal with the
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand

consequences of poor sanitation, such as

looking after sick children.

As noted above, the time it takes to collect

water is a primary burden. One study estimated
that half of a woman’s daily calorific intake went
on collecting water. Spine problems and arthritis
develop from carrying heavy amounts on their
heads. There is also a significant opportunity
cost involved, as women are unable to develop
household production, look after children, or
even just have time to rest. Collectively, this
is one of the structural mechanisms by which
gender inequality is caused and reinforced.

35
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

scavengers—almost all of them female.56 In Needs by geography

some cases, the role has evolved, with manual
scavengers employed to clean city drains—
often handling sewage without protective
clothing. It is estimated that more than 20,000
people die cleaning Indian drains each year.57
For donors interested in focusing on a group,
it is hard to think of a more disadvantaged and
troubling segment than communities engaged
in scavenging work.
A third and final aspect of need for a donor to
consider is geography. Local topographical,
cultural and political factors all influence and
shape the access that people have to good
water and sanitation. Donors may wish to focus
on a particular state, or define a strategy by
rural or urban considerations.

Table 3: Water and sanitation characteristics by state 2005/2006

States & % of households with access to % of households with access to

union territories safe drinking water20 sanitation (toilet facility)20
India 87.9 44.6
North
Delhi 92.1 92.4
Haryana 95.6 52.4
Himachal Pradesh 88.4 46.4
Jammu and Kashmir 80.8 61.7
Punjab 99.5 70.8
Rajasthan 81.8 30.8
Uttarakhand 87.4 56.8
Central
Chhattisgarh 77.9 18.7
Madhya Pradesh 74.2 27.0
Uttar Pradesh 93.7 33.1
East
Bihar 96.1 25.2
Jharkhand 57.0 22.6
Orissa 78.4 19.3
West Bengal 93.7 59.6
Northeast
Arunachal Pradesh 85.0 80.6
Assam 72.4 76.4
Manipur 52.1 95.6
Meghalaya 63.1 71.3
Mizoram 85.0 98.0
Nagaland 62.8 85.6
Sikkim 77.6 89.0
Tripura 76.1 96.6
West
Goa 80.1 76.0
Gujarat 89.8 54.6
Maharashtra 92.7 52.9
South
Andhra Pradesh 94.0 42.4
Karnataka 86.2 46.5
Kerala 69.1 96.1
Tamil Nadu 93.5 42.9

36

Particular states are worst affected
Individual states face their own distinct
environmental issues. For example, Rajasthan
has 10% of the surface area of India, but only
1% of its surface water, and Andhra Pradesh
has almost no groundwater left.58, 59 Yet donors
should bear in mind that these are not just
‘facts of nature’, but are part of wider political,
economic and social decisions.
Contrary to India’s stereotype as a ‘hot’ country,
the problem it faces at the moment is not
primarily one of inadequate water full stop.
Rainfall is high, groundwater has historically
been strong, and India contains a number of
perennial rivers. Rather, not enough has been
done to protect and augment water resources.
Instead, groundwater is diverted to agricultural
production; rainwater is allowed to run out
to the sea; and surface water has become
contaminated by pollutants.
Table 3 sets out data from the National Family
Health Survey (2005/2006), which breaks
down information on household access to
water and sanitation by states. Unsurprisingly,
the states with the weakest indicators tend
to be the eastern and central states—Orissa,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Madhya
Pradesh.*
These eastern and central states also tend to
do badly in other areas, such as education and
health. In a 2003 review of the least developed
districts in India, 65 of the worst 69 were found
in the five states mentioned above.60 This
reflects a range of factors including weak state
government, an underdeveloped civil society,
and low economic development.
This can be frustrating for donors who want to
focus on high need areas, as it makes it harder
for funding to have an impact. Compared to
richer states, fewer effective NGOs are in place,
existing systems are weak and government
has lower capacity. Expectations often have to
be scaled back, both in terms of impact and
timescales.
So, while evidence of need would suggest
that funding should be directed to northern
states, it will also require more in-depth due
diligence of NGOs and their capacity, as well
as possibly more hands-on support. One
way for an individual donor to surmount this
is by channeling funding through foundations
or INGOs with established infrastructure and
contacts in these states.
However, while it is useful to make wider
comparisons between states, there are dangers
in being too dogmatic. Even within states that
* Due to difficulties and inconsistencies in data collection, there are some anomalies. Apparently over 90% of households in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have access to
improved sources of drinking water, yet this is inconsistent with other sources of data. Information in the same NFHS-3 survey states that these two areas have the
lowest percentage of households connected to piped water supply.
Giving in India I Water and sanitation
are considered to be ‘developed’, there are
individual districts that have acute problems.
NPC has heard worries from some experts
that needy districts in states such as West
Bengal and Andhra Pradesh are now getting
overlooked by funders.
Urban versus rural
Unsurprisingly,
The other way of analysing need geographically,
already touched on above, is through the states with
separating urban and rural issues. the weakest
In terms of sheer numbers, India is indicators
predominantly a rural country, with the 2001
census showing that 72% of the Indian tend to be the
population live in the countryside.61 And eastern and
28.3% of the rural population was in poverty,
compared to 25.7% of the urban population.62 central states—
This is reflected in much lower headline water Orissa, Uttar
and sanitation statistics, as well as a host
of other problems including literacy rates, Pradesh, Bihar,
education levels and poor health.
Jharkhand
But while rural disadvantage has been the and Madhya
Chapter 3: Water and sanitation
traditional focus of government and funders,
there is a growing argument for increasing the Pradesh.
focus on urban issues. Rapid urbanisation is
leading to a recalibration of the landscape of
need, with the urban population expected to
reach 41% by 2030.63
Already, urban infrastructure is under strain,
with many cities struggling to supply water and
remove waste in densely populated areas. As
noted above, the brunt of the burden is felt by
people in slums—particularly those who are
‘unofficial’ and therefore considered largely
outside of government responsibility. They are
also particularly vulnerable to outbreaks of
diseases, such as cholera or dengue fever.
So on both counts—numbers affected and
degree of need—urban issues are gaining While rural
importance, and due to demographic shifts, this
is expected to continue. Focusing attention on disadvantage
cities now can help head off problems in the
future.
has been the
traditional focus
Stage 2: What works? of government
Having looked at the nature and levels of need and funders,
in the sector, the next stage of analysis is to
see what can be done about it. By identifying
there is a growing
approaches and interventions that have a argument for
strong evidence base, it is possible to direct
donors to areas with potentially high impact. increasing the
Thinking about what works can also provide focus on urban
criteria for donors to judge current activity in the
sector, and see how closely government, NGO issues.
or private sector activity reflects good practice.
37
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
In terms of the practicalities of carrying this
out, numerous data sources exist—such as
government documents, academic studies, UN
evaluations and NGOs’ own information. Yet
these vary in terms of quality and also in the
level of evidence that they provide. As explained
in Chapter 2, evidence can be provided with
varying degrees of robustness.
By identifying
Rarely is it possible to identify any magic bullets.
approaches and The complexity of the social problems involved
interventions and India’s vast cultural and geographical
diversity challenge attempts to impose a
that have a standard solution. Individual problems often
strong evidence require tailored solutions.
base, it is Given these challenges, NPC and Copal think
that it is more productive to focus on general
possible to components of success rather than specific
direct donors interventions. The available evidence does
suggest that these common components and
to areas with qualities underpin successful approaches.
potentially high Looking at them in more detail can provide
donors with transferable lessons to apply to any
impact. consideration of individual projects.
In the water, sanitation and hygiene sector, NPC
and Copal have identified five main components
that need to be in place to ensure good access
to water, sanitation and hygiene. These are:
• education and information;
• involvement of local institutions;
• appropriate technology, infrastructure and
expertise;
• adequate financial resources; and
• environmental resources.
A need for Details of what each of these components
entails, and examples of good practice, are set
strong local out below.
institutions is a It is important to bear in mind however that
central theme not all interventions will address all of these
five areas at once; many will focus on a
to all Indian particular element. Covering all of these five
development disparate areas can be challenging for a single
organisation. An NGO that knows how to
work, because work with communities does not necessarily
have technological or financial expertise.
they are Likewise, government departments may
critical to have technological knowledge, but no clear
knowledge of environmental considerations.
enforcing state Partnership working is often key.
and central The key lesson for a donors is that, even
government when looking at an individual intervention that
is focused at a particular component, it is
accountability. important to see it within this wider context.
Weaknesses in any one area may undermine
the overall impact. So, while a project may
educate and inform the community about
sanitation, if the money is not there, or if local
institutions are not involved, its effectiveness will
be seriously weakened.
38
Education and information
Education and information have traditionally
been seen as add-ons to more capital-intensive
projects. Yet recent reviews have highlighted their
central importance in successful interventions.
This is partly because education stimulates
demand for improved water and sanitation.
While considerable demand exists for access
to more water, there is less ‘natural’ impetus
for other improvements, such as sanitation,
hygiene and improved quality.
From NPC and Copal’s analysis of current
efforts, it appears that more successful
programmes invest in activities at the
community and household level, focusing on
door-to-door campaigns, social marketing of
sanitation products, and hygiene promotion
among poor and vulnerable groups.64 Larger
and less targeted awareness-raising activities,
such as radio advertisements, appear to have
less impact.
As well as changing attitudes towards sanitation,
hygiene and water, it is also important to change
behaviour. Knowledge and understanding of
germs and the impact that sanitation can have
is not enough: people still need information,
reminders and prompts on what they should
do—that they should wash their hands, how
they should do it, how to clean utensils, and the
different purification techniques for water.
Delivering behaviour change in relation to
hygiene is one of the most vexing and least
well-understood areas of water and sanitation.
NGOs use techniques, including classes in
schools, poster campaigns and peer influence,
but improvements tend to be difficult to embed,
and may not last over time.
There is an opportunity for an ‘engaged’
donor to support research here into better
approaches. This is likely to involve working
closely with communities, health experts and
local government.
A final area of education and information is
community mobilisation and empowerment.
This can sometimes sound woolly to donors.
Yet it is pivotal in terms of ensuring that people
know their rights and have the confidence to
do something about enforcing them. Often
people are unaware of the legal responsibilities
of government or municipal utilities, and
do not know how to hold them to account.
Supporting community ‘empowerment’ is a
way of potentially leveraging wider resources.
For example, women’s self-help groups can be
encouraged to run community toilet complexes,
or to provide microfinance facilities for sanitation
hardware. This relates closely to the next
component of good water and sanitation—local
institutions.
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

Local institutions ability of communities to choose the water and

A need for strong local institutions is a central
theme to all Indian development work, because
they are critical to enforcing state and central
government accountability. Water and sanitation
services are no exception. Alongside the gram
panchayat (main village council), each village is
also supposed to have a water and sanitation
committee. In addition to its political role, this
can drive a greater sense of ownership and
involvement, helping to embed operations and
maintenance systems. Where this works well,
people have more knowledge and investment in
the project, and are able to devise local systems
to raise revenue. As a consequence, results have
been shown to be quicker and more sustainable.65
Yet the involvement of local institutions is not
a guaranteed sign of success—donors need
to be sensitive to this. For instance, there are
cases where villages have given low priority to
water and sanitation, or certain aspects of it,
such as quality. Even where it is a priority, local
sanitation system that is best for them. Local
people are often unaware of the full range of
options available. Instead, they can be locked into
systems that are externally imposed and do not
suit them, their needs or the local environment.
Implementation
There are numerous examples of water and
sanitation facilities being badly implemented—
wells being dug in the wrong place and latrine
pits being constructed so that sewage flows
into the garden or contaminates drinking water.
Implementation problems reflect the lack of
expertise at all levels—from geohydrologists
who are able to find water sources, to engineers
who can build check dams, to masons who can
construct latrines. In addition, in some cases
there are cultural barriers. NPC and Copal heard
about one case where village latrines were
constructed to fit in with vedic positioning (an
Indian version of feng shui), but which meant
they ended up flooding regularly.

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

institutions can lack technical knowledge of
different water systems and how to implement
them. Without self-confidence or proper
leadership, they may be unable to deal with
higher levels of government or with contractors.
The limitations of village governance in relation
to water and sanitation are most clearly visible
in relation to socially marginalised groups.
Dalits, tribals and poor groups often face
prejudice within villages and get overlooked in
spending decisions. This is a difficult problem
for NGOs to overcome, as they have to tread
a fine line between working within village
institutions to strengthen their confidence, and
challenging exclusion.
The key questions for donors to ask are: how is the
local community involved? How is that community
being defined? And who is excluded from it?
Ongoing maintenance
Without regular repair, pumps and toilets stop
working. The main challenge here is financial—
funders have tended to be better at meeting
capital costs than establishing systems to meet
ongoing revenue costs (see below). Additional
barriers are the continuing need for technical
know-how and access to parts.
A lesson of this problem is that, as a general
rule, donors should prefer simple technologies.
Rope pumps, for instance, are an ancient
technology that can easily be repaired by rural
communities (where water tables are not too
deep). Traditional rainwater harvesting sources,
such as underground tankers and community
ponds, provide a relatively low-cost way to
collect water in drought-prone areas.

Technology and infrastructure

The third necessary component of successful

water and sanitation services is appropriate
technology and infrastructure. Though this
area tends to be the focus of most spending,
important parts still get overlooked—in
particular, the ability to choose the right
technology, how best to implement it, and how
to maintain it in the future.
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand

Choice

The temptation for many funders is to produce

standardised technology. This leverages
economies of scale and specialisation, but the
danger of this approach is that it reduces the

39
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
Resources
The fourth component of successful water and
sanitation schemes is financial resources. This
includes money for initial capital costs and, as
noted, for operations and maintenance.
Traditionally, government has provided substantial
The amount subsidies for toilets, wells and sewerage systems,
of freshwater then has continued to contribute to operations
and maintenance. The difficulty here is that
available per funding constraints limit scale, and maintenance
funding tends to get neglected.
person in India
is declining These factors have led many analysts to look at
market-based approaches to financing water—
rapidly, and it is and this is where much of the cutting-edge
predicted that thinking in the sector now sits. The advantage
of involving communities and individuals in
by 2020, India paying for their own water and sanitation is
twofold. First, ongoing user payments can help
will be a water- improve the sustainability of projects (they are
scarce country. not dependent on outside funders; locals are
more involved). Second, if projects are self-
financing, it is easier for them to grow and be
replicated in order to reach more people.
The key concerns of a market or fees-based
approach centre on equity and access. Some
NGOs argue that by making people pay for
water or sanitation, the really poor will get
priced out, or will be forced into using too high
a proportion of their income. Targeted subsidies
may be able to offset this risk, but for donors
and NGOs who see water as a right rather than
a commodity, this is not an adequate response.
Environment
The fifth and final component of successful
water and sanitation schemes is environmental
sensitivity. Without thinking about local water
resources, projects are at serious risk of
Targeting failure—both short-term and long-term. How to
women is factor in future risks is especially tricky given that
utilities with high capital costs are meant to last
important a generation, yet there are major uncertainties
because of their about the impact of climate change.
own needs and The amount of freshwater available per person
in India is declining rapidly, and it is predicted
also the wider that by 2020, India will be a water-scarce
impact they country—which means that there will be less
than 1,000 cubic metres per head.66 This
have on the is exacerbated by significant seasonal and
behaviour of geographic disparity. Some areas of Rajasthan
get an average of just 150–300mm of rain a
their husbands year, while floods plague regions such as Bihar
and children. and Orissa.67 Half of India’s annual precipitation
occurs in 15 days, and 90% of annual river run-
off occurs in a four-month period.66
40
For any project, efforts need to be taken to
protect and augment water resources—in
particular, groundwater. Around 85% of rural
drinking water sources depend on groundwater,
yet water levels are dropping alarmingly.68 In
Ahmedabad, the city’s water table has dropped
an average of seven feet per year in the past
20 years.69
The main threat is agriculture, which uses 92%
of all groundwater extracted, as compared
to the 5% used by the industrial sector, and
the 3% left for domestic use.70 Drinking water
is prioritised over other forms of water under
the government’s National Water Policy.
However, there are few effective ways to police
use and restrict extraction of water. Instead,
large agricultural farmers are able to deplete
groundwater sources, with little legal recourse
for community opposition.
Donors who are serious about tackling the
structural causes of inadequate water and
sanitation in India may need to fund policy,
research and campaign work to address the
distortions caused by over-exploitation of
groundwater. However, as set out in Chapter 2,
there is a trade-off: this work can potentially
have impact at scale, but is also risky and
uncertain to produce results.
Common qualities
The five elements set out above provide a donor
with a broad outline of what needs to be in
place to improve water, sanitation and hygiene
provision. Every project that a donor looks at
should be located within this framework—and
even if it is focused on only one of these areas,
donors should ask questions about how it fits
with these other components.
Another way of looking for potential indicators of
success is to look in detail at the characteristics
and qualities of individual projects. Successful
interventions share four common qualities:
sustainability; local context; equity; and a focus
on impact.
Sustainability is an important theme linking the
components—whether talking about financial
models, technology, education and information,
environment or local institutions.
Associated with the idea of sustainability is the
need to tailor initiatives and approaches to the local
context. External systems that are parachuted in
without proper consultation, and without input from
communities and the people that are actually using
them, are unlikely to last or work.
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

Table 4: A matrix showing examples of the interaction between the components and qualities of successful water, sanitation
and hygiene interventions

Components Education and Technology and

Local institutions Resources Environment
qualities information infrastructure
Sustainability Hygiene promotion Female self-help Handpumps that Urban community Wells that do
activities that are groups that have are easy to repair toilet complexes not over-exploit
embedded into the capacity and and fix, using local that are able to groundwater, and
school curricula organisational technology and cover costs through are complemented
structures to attract labour charging users by water charging
and maintain structures, such as
membership check dams
Local context Sanitation promotion Local water Water purification Community Handpumps in flood
activities that take committees systems that are enterprises that prone areas that
into account local that are elected chosen based on raise income for are protected from
cultural practices— by community the type of impurity the maintenance of contamination by
such as the use of members and found in that local communal water being placed on a
ash or anal cleansing responsive to their area sources raised platform
wishes
Equity Information Local village water Water delivery Water supply Urban sanitation
campaigns that committees that systems that are systems that reach infrastructure that
include women and include female connected to all all members of a ensures waste is not
scheduled castes, representatives members of a village kept and processed
along with the rest of and members of village and not just a in slum area

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

the community scheduled castes certain caste
Integrated Information and Local water Toilet complexes Community toilet Rural sanitation
education activities committees that also that also provide schemes that use systems that ensure
that stress the address sanitation bathing facilities revenue earned for that the disposal of
importance of water and hygiene and access to clean hygiene promotion human excreta does
quality, as well as problems water activities not contaminate
the quantity of water water sources
Focus on Systems to capture Monitoring systems An understanding Clear data on the Data on the rate that
impact change in behaviour that can capture and of the amount of costs and charges groundwater levels
due to interventions judge the impact, water delivered of running systems, are dropping
aimed at hygiene transparency and through urban water and realistic
promotion success of local infrastructure assumptions about
government people’s willingness
to pay

The principle of equity involves ensuring sometimes be a better model—but it does

that all people are helped and included—for
instance, so that women and lower castes
are represented in local institutions. This is
not just a matter of social justice, but also of
efficacy. Targeting women is important because
of their own needs and also the wider impact
they have on the behaviour of their husbands
and children. Likewise, when thinking about
sanitation, overlooking disadvantaged groups
has repercussions for the whole community, as
it can potentially lead to the spread of infectious
diseases, such as cholera.
Across all five components, initiatives for water,
sanitation and hygiene need to be integrated to
maximise their impact. Increasing the amount of
water available alone will make some difference,
but will offer a lower ‘social return’ if sanitation
and hygiene issues are ignored. Likewise, it is
hard to promote hygienic activities, such as
hand-washing, without providing enough water.
It is important to note that this does not mean
that the same organisation needs to provide
water, sanitation and hygiene—specialism will
mean that the links between the different areas
need to be made carefully.
Influencing
A final theme is that efforts have to be planned
with a clear focus on impact. Building toilets government has
and wells is not an end in itself, but a way to
improve the well-being of people and affect
considerable
long-term outcomes such as better health, potential—
livelihood and education. Measuring success
in these terms, rather than just in outputs like
whether it is
‘pumps constructed’, is the best way of judging lobbying and
the impact of different approaches.
campaigning or
For a donor considering where to fund, thinking
about these areas does not give a single
illustrating what
answer to the question ‘what works?’, but they a successful
do provide a framework for judging the quality
of different services, as can be seen in Table 4.
project looks like.
Where a donor comes across a programme that
neglects sustainability, local fit, equity, outcomes
and partnership, it should raise a red flag. More
generally, using this approach can empower
donors to challenge and question NGOs.
41
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

Stage 3: Government and other Influencing government has considerable

potential and risks—whether it is lobbying and
funders
campaigning or illustrating what a successful
project looks like. But it matters: after all,
The third part of NPC and Copal’s analytical
government has the ultimate responsibility for
framework for thinking about social problems
water and sanitation services, and it is the only
involves looking at the role of other actors in
actor with the money, the infrastructure and the
the sector, including government, the private
legitimacy to reach India’s 1.2 billion people.
A difficulty for sector and other funders. This helps to make
philanthropy more effective in several ways.
a donor who Government
First, it provides general background to enable
cares about a funder to engage credibly with NGOs and A difficulty for a donor who cares about
government government. government is in unpicking exactly what is
happening, and how closely official policy
is in unpicking Second, it helps focus resources on gaps. matches reality. For example, since 1992,
Without knowing what else is happening, it is local government that has had the
exactly what a philanthropist is at risk of wasting money actual responsibility for delivering water
is happening, on something that is the government’s and sanitation services. The role of central
responsibility or that could be better addressed and state governments has been to act as
and how closely through the private sector. facilitators through enabling policies, budgetary
official policy Third, it facilitates thinking about partnership
support and capacity development, but this
has been slow to happen. In the words of the
matches reality. work, scale and exit. Donors may choose government’s Planning Commission*:
to fund direct services where government
provision is non-existent. They may fund ‘Due to their inherent weaknesses like funding
projects that complement and build on top of constraints, low technical ability, the devolution
government initiatives. Or they may decide to of power is yet to make a desirable impact on
develop projects that influence or get taken on the ground. While sporadic success stories are
by government. trickling in, this concept has yet to go a long
way.’40

In practice therefore, central and state

government policies are still the main influences
on the sector. The story is one of them shifting
focus over the past two decades, moving from
a heavily supply-side model to one focused on
stimulating demand.

Traditional focus on supply-side policies

From the start of the 1970s, the government

focused its rural efforts on building up the
water and sanitation infrastructure in rural
India. Through the Accelerated Rural Water
Supply Programme (ARWSP), the Department
of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) channelled
money to state engineering departments to
build wells.

A major weakness of this approach was

the lack of community participation and
low emphasis on sustainability. Often water
systems would be built with no understanding
of local needs, with no consideration of local
water resources and with no real mechanism
for ongoing operation and maintenance.
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand

While state government was technically

responsible for repairs, the allocated budget
was modest and responsiveness slow. Even
where communities wanted to repair systems
themselves, they lacked the relevant skills.

* The government body that sets the framework for India’s economic development through a series of five-year plans.

42
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

Box 11: Urban government policy

When looking at urban government policy, a donor would be forgiven for wondering exactly what was going on. All the publicity and
focus has been on rural initiatives, while urban efforts are largely hidden—either integrated into large-scale infrastructure development
projects, or part of a long-standing and inefficient programme to convert dry toilets into latrines connected to the sewage system.

The recent announcement of a new National Urban Sanitation Policy in October 2008 might be the start of greater government
focus on urban issues, but the exact details of the strategy are still unclear. The initial policy outline seems to be based on the
rural Total Sanitation Campaign, with an emphasis on awareness generation, operation and maintenance, and establishing open
defaecation-free cities.71 While it is still too early to say for sure, the programme’s development may provide interesting opportunities
for philanthropists.

The government approach to urban water supply has traditionally been about building up the necessary infrastructure, and less
about running it successfully. Although water and sanitation spending makes up most of the main government infrastructure funding
projects, Indian water and sanitation utilities are, as already noted, regularly rated as the worst in Asia. Water supply is unreliable and
insufficient for people’s requirements, and it does not reach those in most need. This is partly due to problems raising revenue and
partly due to poor management of the services.

In 2007, only a third of urban utilities were able to recover their operating costs. A key reason for this is that they undercharge for
water. Some utilities, such as the one serving Kolkata, do not bill residential users at all.72 Others keep prices artificially low. For a
family of five living on the poverty line and using 20 cubic metres of water a month (which is the international standard—roughly
ten bathtubs), it would cost 1–2% of average income. Affordability thresholds developed by the WHO suggest that 5% is a more
appropriate figure.73

What can be done about it? Efficiency improvement is one answer—reforming and retraining public utilities to overcome high-staffing

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

ratios and poor management. But from the other side, many analysts argue that the only long-term solution is to raise prices to cover
operating costs.

Charging more for water is a vexed topic but there is some survey data to suggest that even poor Indian families would be willing to
pay more for a better service.74 However, urban governments are worried about alienating voters, as well as the danger that rising
costs would penalise the very poor.

Donor sympathies may also be divided here. On the one hand, it does seem that access to water is a basic human right that should
be subsidised by government. Yet on the other, excessively low costs mean that in reality water supply in urban areas is unstable
and low quality. Also, it appears that the bulk of government subsidies do not go to poor families, but instead go to companies that
use high volumes of water at reduced tarriffs.73 The 40% of people without any access to water from utilities get nothing.

In truth, unless a donor has millions at their disposal, their own utility company, or wants to fund a particularly focused advocacy
group, utility reform is not going to be easy to engage with. Beyond, that is, getting a clearer idea of the context and challenges
facing urban NGOs. Moreover, there is a strong argument (often made against the World Bank) that overseas donors should not
have such a strong role in influencing urban water policy.

By contrast, an interesting recent development has been a growing trend to involve local communities in government’s decision-
making around urban water and sanitation. It is important not to overstress this; in the main, decisions are made at state level, or by
public utilities where local people cannot hold people to account or communicate their preferences. However, interesting initiatives
are being explored by municipal corporations to listen and to involve local groups in planning and delivering services. In some cities,
local groups have been able to persuade local government to extend water and sanitation infrastructure into unofficial urban slums.

National sanitation policies took the same
approach, although starting somewhat later.
From 1986, the Central Rural Sanitation
Programme (CRSP) provided a 100% subsidy
of Rs.2,000 (£25) to families below the poverty
line to construct toilets but, again, community
participation was low. Toilets were built without
any attempts to persuade people to use them,
to educate communities on the benefits of
sanitation, or to teach people how to operate
and maintain them.
Over the 1990s, there was a growing realisation
that these approaches were not working. In
response, a number of pilot projects were
developed such as the Swajal project in Uttar
Pradesh and the Intensive Sanitation project in
West Bengal.75, 76 These were designed to test
out different ways of stimulating community
demand and improving sustainability. Their
success led to a change in government
approaches and policy in regards to rural
provision; innovation in urban water policy has
lagged behind. While the focus of this section
is on rural government policy, Box 11 sets out
current progress with urban policy.

43
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

Box 12: Main demand-driven government programmes

Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC)

The Total Sanitation Campaign started as a pilot project in 1999, and has since grown to be the government’s major programme in
the area of sanitation. It covers 590 of the 610 districts of India.41 In 2007/2008, the budget for the programme was US$235.56m
(£143m).77 Its scale and importance mean that any donor visiting water and sanitation projects will need to know about it.

This is not least because its design incorporates some of the lessons of earlier policy failure. Although the scheme has evolved
slightly over the years, its core principles include that it is community-led, focused on information, education and communication
(IEC) activities, and involves minimum subsidies. Funding is meant to go to developing a supply chain of technology that can provide
a flexible menu of options rather than a ‘one size fits all’ approach.

Central government provides most of the money, but individual states have been able to adapt and experiment with the
programme.75 In Maharashtra, for instance, the government has pursued a ‘community-led total sanitation’ approach that has
broadened the focus beyond individual toilets, and concentrated on making villages ‘open defaecation-free zones’. Cash prizes were
awarded to successful villages.

This community-focused approach is now at the centre of a lot of sanitation thinking. Central government itself backed ‘open
defaecation-free’ zones in 2003, when it started the Nirmal Gram Puraskar (‘Clean Village Award’). Under this scheme, cash
incentives are given for panchayats, blocks and districts that are fully sanitised. As of October 2008, the TSC has supported the
building of 57 million household toilets, 680,000 school toilets, and 200,000 anganwadi (nursery) toilets.41

Swajaldhara

On water supply, the main programme that donors should know about is called Swajaldhara, which makes up 20% of the
government’s main funding stream—the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP). Started in 2002, it is a significant
improvement over its forebears. Key principles include that it is:

• Demand-driven: Communities decide on the choice of the drinking water scheme including planning, design, implementation,
control of finances and management arrangements.

• Community contribution-based: Communities have to share costs (initially 10%) and pay 100% of operation and maintenance costs.

• Community owned: Communities own all water systems.

• Water conservation focused: Projects should include groundwater recharge systems and rainwater harvesting.

An interesting feature of the programme is that government intervention is staggered, from initial funding for community mobilisation,
to a two-tier payment system for implementation, with final authorisation coming from central government. Overall the aim of the
programme is ‘shifting the role of government from direct service delivery to that of planning, policy formulation, monitoring and
evaluation, and partial financial support’.78

National Rural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Programme

A third policy development that will inform donor practice and influence resource allocation is the National Rural Drinking Water
Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Programme. This was started in February 2006 and now makes up 20% of the government’s
water budget.

Under the programme, the importance of quality issues is spread through information and education activities. Local communities are
meant to be given kits to test the quality of their water sources; positive samples are then tested at district and state levels.79 The idea
is that by making water contamination better known and more visible, it will help create demand among the populace for cleaner water,
increase the pressure on government and water suppliers to improve services, and encourage safe practices like boiling.

Growth in demand-focused work continued this community involvement theme.

The main trend in the development of
government policy over the past decade has
been the shift towards initiatives that stimulate
local demand. Government programmes
such as the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC)
and Swajaldhara are explicitly designed to
empower communities through education
and information, to make interventions more
responsive to local needs, and to reduce the
use of central subsidies. Recent attempts
to improve water quality monitoring have
See Box 12 for an account of the three main
government programmes.
What do these three programmes mean for
donors? The implications are at least threefold:
First, they show that government is taking
water and sanitation more seriously, devoting
substantial resources to it. A mid-term
evaluation of the TSC in 2004 found that
hygiene education had increased, drop-
out rates in schools had fallen by 64%, and
enrolment increased by 48%.80

44
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

Second, due to the focus on community
involvement and information, education and
communication, government is starting to
involve and fund NGOs to deliver parts of its
programme. This provides opportunities for
philanthropists to provide match funding or to
fund joint programmes.
And third, despite improvements in government
policy, significant weaknesses still exist—
particularly around implementation and
community involvement. These challenges
tend to remain across most government
activity in India. Getting a clear idea of exactly
how this affects how government policy
translates into reality is a key role for analysis.
Only by understanding this are donors able
to identify opportunities where they can make
improvements, strengthening existing resources
and filling in any gaps. It is these challenges and
problems that we will look at next.
Current challenges
Lack of government capacity
to oversee the TSC programme.82 Yet, as
shown above with Andhra Pradesh, there
are also many examples where government
unsuccessfully tries to deliver on its own.
Lack of proper decentralisation
The second major problem, the lack of proper
decentralisation, is both a product and a cause
of constrained government capacity. It can be
The lack
easier and quicker to run things from the centre, of proper
or just to ignore the requirements for community
involvement. A government review of its policies decentralisation
stated that: is both a product
‘While our programmes have elaborate and a cause
guidelines for community involvement, it is
obvious that field-level adoption is far from
of constrained
satisfactory.’40 government
In a study of 1,700 rural piped water schemes, capacity.
less than a third were actually managed by
the villages themselves.83 Even when the local
community has been involved, disadvantaged
groups remain overlooked. In villages in

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

Bihar—even those that have been awarded the
The first major challenge that government Nirmal Gram Paraskar award (see Box 12)—no
faces in implementing its new initiatives is a consultation with poor Dalit communities had
lack of capacity, particularly when looking at taken place and women were not aware of the
community involvement. Water and sanitation programme.65
projects are usually overseen by state
engineering departments who have little history Corruption and political interference
of working with communities. Proper implementation of projects has also
been affected by corruption and political
One well-documented example comes from
interference. A wealth of anecdotal evidence
the state of Andhra Pradesh, where the Public
suggests that local politicians are able to
Health Engineering Department recruited
influence the design and location of projects.
temporary ‘resource officers’ to deal with the
NGOs report significant problems in getting
community-mobilisation aspect of the TSC.
needy villages funded, as politicians prioritise
But the short tenure of the position made it
their own constituencies. Or they undermine the
hard to recruit experienced or locally-respected
long-term viability of certain projects, such as
personnel. Resource officers were generally
community toilets, by making election promises
young and inexperienced, with little professional
to provide these services for free.
support, training or incentive to serve the
communities. Unsurprisingly, usage rates of
toilets constructed as part of the project were
less than 50%.64

Government has also found it hard to live up

to its ambitious pledges on setting up a new
mechanism for testing water quality—water
testing kits and laboratories. In Jammu and
Kashmir, out of 14 districts, only four had water
testing labs, of which one was not functional.
Haryana clinics were supposed to test 94,000
samples between 2002 and 2007, yet only
13,980 were tested.81
Photograph supplied by Tara Chand

This lack of government capacity should

provide greater opportunities for NGOs—
particularly as their traditional strength is
working with communities. And in some cases
too, government is outsourcing the community
component of its programmes. For example,
in Mandi District in Himachal Pradesh, three
full-time NGO workers have been employed

45
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

In Jharkhand for instance, 10,341 sites were Private sector

drilled for construction of Deep Tube Wells
between 2002 and 2007. Yet over a tenth of Of course, government is only one player in
these were declared as unsuccessful due to water and sanitation, and donors also need
wrong selection of sites, which were often some understanding of the other main agent
chosen at the insistence of local politicians, shaping the environment: the private sector. A
rather than any geohydrological data.81 key question in water and sanitation debates
is what should be paid for by donors and
Despite a Inadequate focus on behaviour change or
government, and what services could be
other outcomes
recognition that provided through the market.
A fundamental problem in what government is
the ultimate doing is that progress on all of these projects Donors may have heard about the major
debates on the privatisation of public water
aim of every is still being measured in terms of numbers
utilities across the world (see Box 13). However,
or percentage coverage. Indicators are not
sanitation designed to capture either usage or behaviour this has tended to obscure discussion of other
types of private enterprise in the wider sector
program is to change. As a recent World Bank study of the
TSC says: that are probably more relevant to donors’
improve public decision-making. For a significant proportion
‘Despite a recognition that the ultimate aim of of people, small businesses, such as masons
health and well- every sanitation program is to improve public and bottled water sellers are the main way
being, program health and well-being, program performance is they access water and sanitation services.
almost always measured by physical or financial Roughly three quarters of all the toilets built in
performance is progress. In other words, government ministers rural households had been constructed by the
private sector, with the rest built by government
almost always and program managers are interested in how
many toilets have been built for their money, and NGOs.84
measured rather than the program’s long-term impact on
the incidence of diarrhoeal disease or on infant Interesting work is going on to explore and
by physical mortality’.64 extend the role of the private sector, looking
or financial at the problem from two directions: firstly,
These metrics impede a focus on the real extending and developing lines of credit to
progress. drivers of change, such as community reach the poor (ie, microfinance); and secondly,
involvement and demand management. developing the skills and capacity of the private
World Bank Enthusiastic officials are instead often striving sector to provide a better, cheaper service.
to meet ambitious coverage targets, such as There may be opportunities here for donors to
the achievement of 100% coverage within their support ‘social businesses’.
jurisdiction, regardless of the real impact.
The original focus of microfinance was on
income-generating activities, but recent
Box 13: Privatisation developments have also focused on providing
credit for improved water and sanitation
One of the most controversial issues in water and sanitation has been the
infrastructure, such as connection to sewerage
involvement of business—in particular, the privatisation of urban water supply.
systems or buying household water purifiers. The
While hailed on some sides as a viable solution to poorly performing municipal
thinking here is that saving money on increased
water utilities, it has also faced stiff opposition from community groups. They
productivity and fewer medical expenses will
feel that water is a public good rather than a private commodity, and that
lead to savings in the long term, and also better
privatisation would automatically lead to higher prices that shut out the poor.
access to water may help earn an income
The debate has raged over the past 15 years, with occasional flashpoints— through increased household production
such as the attempted privatisation of the Delhi water board or the successful (eg, growing and selling vegetables).
privatisation in Bangalore. It has also brought in other dynamics, in particular
Currently, it seems that microfinance is able to
criticism of the power of ‘foreign’ funding bodies, such as the World Bank and
fill a useful gap, reaching people just below or
the Asian Development Bank, to set the agenda.
above the poverty line. Yet the poorest of the
For donors, unless they are passionately interested in funding anti-privatisation poor are not necessarily viable customers, and
community groups or have links to private water utilities, the intricacies of this the recent economic downturn has affected the
debate are probably not relevant. Instead, it is enough to know that it is taking ability of microfinance lenders to draw down
place and that the global evidence base on this debate is not conclusive in credit, limiting the people they can reach.
favour of either private or public water and sanitation utilities. The World Bank
says that privatisation is just one of a possible range of answers.

46

During our research, NPC and Copal visited
one specialist water microfinance provider.
Its ideas were interesting, but the model was
underdeveloped, with limited deal flow and
inadequate capital to grow. Donors wanting to
operate in this area should recognise it is a high-
potential but high-risk option at the moment.
Elsewhere, work is being done to develop
and improve the market in water hardware
and sanitation and hygiene supplies. The
government’s Total Sanitation Campaign,
described above, calls for the development
of rural sanitary marts (basically, local supply
shops) that would be run by self-help groups,
NGOs or local government. UNICEF also
funded a programme in Bihar to encourage,
train and support masons in sanitation—both in
terms of construction techniques and marketing
their products.
The development of social enterprises, with
avowedly social aims, provides opportunities
for philanthropists to contribute financial and
non-financial resources. This has also enabled
philanthropists to think about other financial
mechanisms, beyond grant-giving, such as
loans or equity stakes.
Yet while social enterprises and private sector
involvement is becoming increasingly trendy,
it is important not to gloss over its risks and
challenges. Establishing social enterprises and
nurturing new businesses is difficult, particularly
for people or NGOs without private sector
experience. Conversely, donors must be sure
that social enterprises do have an explict social
agenda and are not just a hook to attract extra
capital or make up for a deficient business plan.
Beware social enterprises that promise too much.
Funders
The final area of government and other funder
activity to consider is that undertaken by
professional agencies like INGOs, trusts and
foundations. This is particularly important for
new donors who may be able to leverage
professional skills and experience.
The story here is that water and sanitation is
growing in popularity—after years of being relatively
overlooked and under appreciated. The Millennium
Development Goals include the target to halve the
proportion of people without sustainable access
to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2015.85
This has helped provide a focus and framework for
funding going into the sector.
Unpicking exactly what is happening is challenging;
little coordination exists; donors often do not
publicise information; it is unclear how much
money is being spent or where it is going. However,
it is possible to piece together some indicative
information for different groups of funders.
Giving in India I Water and sanitation
Multilateral and bilateral agencies
Looking globally, US$6.2bn (£3.8bn) or 7% of
all aid directed through multilateral and bilateral
agencies goes to the water and sanitation
sector. India gets more of this money than any
other country—receiving 13% of the total. Most
of this came from Japan (US$635m/£385m),
the World Bank (US$130m/£79m) and the The main trend in
European Union (US$47m/£28m).86
the development
These big sums are largely in the form of of government
interest-free loans for major infrastructure
projects, such as the Bangalore Water Supply policy over the
System, or to augment state strategies. The
EU is funding the Rajasthan State Government
past decade has
€80m (£69m) over three years to strengthen been the shift
water supplies across the state.
towards initiatives
Funding is also directed to NGOs, particularly by that stimulate
the small bilateral agencies that are no longer able
to direct government-to-government support. local demand.
International Non-Governmental
Organisations (INGOs)
Chapter 3: Water and sanitation
The main specialist INGO operating in this
area is WaterAid, although other organisations,
such as Plan, ActionAid, Oxfam and Save the
Children also fund water and sanitation projects
on a large scale as part of their work. Plan also
provides the secretariat for a network of water
and sanitation organisations, the WES-Net.
CARE is currently looking at establishing a
specific stream for water and sanitation.
WaterAid India is the liaison office for the
international WaterAid organisation, an INGO
based in London. In 2007/2008, it channelled
£2.3m to partner NGOs, working across a
range of issues. Over the past decade, it
Looking globally,
has gone through a general recalibration of $6.2bn (£3.8bn)
focus—moving its headquarters from Tamil
Nadu to Delhi, and narrowing its focus to ten
or 7% of all aid
states, mainly in the north. In each of these directed through
states, it has a strategy that it implements
through funding a range of partner NGOs. For multilateral
example, in Orissa it is funding ten partners to and bilateral
provide blanket water and sanitation coverage
in the district of Puri. If successful, state agencies goes
government has agreed to replicate the model
to the water and
in other districts.
sanitation sector.
As well as funding individual NGOs, WaterAid
also aims to build up the capacity and skills
Organisation for
of the sector. It does this through supporting Economic Cooperation
NGO networks, such as in Bihar and Orissa,
and Development86
and holding conferences to share good
practice and research. It recently held a national
conference, in partnership with UN-HABITAT
and the government of Madhya Pradesh, on
urban water and sanitation. Urban issues are an
increasing focus of its work.
47
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
Corporates, Trusts and Foundations
Trusts and foundations can be divided into
two main groups—those that fund water and
sanitation as part of their general programmes,
and those with a specific focus. The bulk tends
to be in the first group—including established
players such as the Tata Foundations, the Ford
The new wave Foundation and the Michael and Susan Dell
Foundation. Often funding spans both drinking
of business water and general water management, such as
philanthropists— irrigation and groundwater.
such as CIFF, The new wave of business philanthropists—
the Bill and such as CIFF, the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation and the Acumen Fund have
Melinda Gates also started to look more closely at the
sector. This is partly because of the level of
Foundation and need, but also because of possibilities for
the Acumen expansion, replication and scalability. Increased
government commitments, and the potential for
Fund have also community and individual contributions, provide
started to look a strong environment for sustainable business
models.
more closely at
Water and sanitation is rarely a specific funding
the sector. stream for foundations. If it is, it is largely part
of a wider specialisation on water resource
management, as with the Ford Foundation and
the American Indian Foundation. The Arghyam
Foundation, set up in 2005 by a private
individual, is the only dedicated funder that NPC
and Copal have come across.
Yet there are also corporate foundations
where water and sanitation ties into their work.
Hindustan Unilever funds the Shakti Vani project
to spread hygiene practices. The international
Coca-Cola Foundation funds work in the water
sector and has recently given a substantial
grant to the Naandi Foundation, an NGO based
in Andhra Pradesh.
Stage 4: Voluntary sector
The final area of analysis is the structure of the
voluntary sector. This matters primarily because
NGOs remain the central ‘unit of action’ for
philanthropists, despite growing interest in
A donor looking quasi-market approaches.
for a range of Where effective NGOs do not exist in a certain
specialist water area, it limits a funder’s ability to act. Likewise,
donors benefit from a clearer understanding of
and sanitation the features of the sector and the challenges
that NGOs often face, as it can help improve
NGOs in India the effectiveness of their funding. This is
is likely to be relevant both in terms of choosing which
organisations to fund, and also in improving the
disappointed. quality of their funding.
48
When NPC and Copal analyse voluntary sectors and
individual NGOs we concentrate on four main areas:
• activities;
• results;
• management and leadership; and
• finances.
Comprehensive data on these areas is limited,
both for individual NGOs and, in particular, for
the sector as a whole. Yet NPC and Copal’s
research into a spectrum of individual NGOs
has highlighted some general observations that
can usefully inform funding.
1. Activities
The first main area that NPC and Copal look at
is activities. This involves getting to grips with
what NGOs, as a whole, actually do within the
water and sanitation sector.
A donor looking for a range of specialist water
and sanitation NGOs in India is likely to be
disappointed. Instead, for most organisations,
their water and sanitation work is part of a
wider portfolio of projects focused on general
community development. This can make it hard
to identify NGOs working in the sector, and
get a handle on what proportion of their time is
spent on water and sanitation issues.
Nonetheless, it is possible to divide the activities
of the sector into a crude typology of five main
areas of activity. Categorising different activities
into this kind of taxonomy helps to highlight
areas where NGOs are traditionally strong and
prevalent, and also provides a way for funders
to think about possible areas they could fund.
The key areas are:
• community work;
• project implementation;
• developing pilot projects;
• strengthening the structure of the sector;
• and lobbying and campaigning.
Many NGOs in the sector work across these
different areas, but we will consider each of
these activities in turn below.
The first area, community work, has been
the traditional focus and strength of NGOs in
this sector. Utthan was founded in 1981 in
the Bhal district of Gujarat, one of the poorest
areas in the state. Its aim was to work with
disadvantaged communities, (particularly
women) and it soon started to focus on water
and sanitation, major issues in the drought-
prone region. In 1991, it carried out a survey
of needs in Gujarat and highlighted three other
districts where it thought its expertise working
with communities would have most impact.

Its first major project was working with village
communities to help establish specialist water
and sanitation sub-committees—pani samitis.
These would help coordinate local services,
interact with government and help to collect
fees for the operation and maintenance of local
water systems. The success of this project
led the state government to make pani samitis
mandatory in each village. In 2009, the Minister
in charge of rural drinking water sent a letter to
each state water board to encourage them to
form pani samitis in their area.
The bulk of Utthan’s current work is building up
the capacity of these pani samitis, to ensure
they have the necessary skills, motivation and
knowledge to carry out their responsibilities.
It currently supports around 400 villages, as
well as running the People’s Learning Centre
on water and sanitation, which produces and
disseminates literature on topics such as good
hygiene practices and the impact of unsafe
drinking water. It has recently run intensive
awareness activities on ‘ecosan’ toilets, a
technology that is particularly appropriate in
Gujarat’s flood-prone coastal areas.
Other organisations, such as Jal Bhagirithi
Foundation in Western Rajasthan, do wider
awareness raising activities. The Foundation
found that few people had much idea about
their rights around water and what services
government was meant to provide. It ran water
education and awareness campaigns across
300 villages in the Thar desert of Rajasthan.
As well as awareness-raising and community
work, Jal Bhagirithi Foundation also helps
to implement water and sanitation projects,
reviving traditional water conservation systems
in the Thar desert. These include a complex
system of ‘Tankas’, village ponds and channels
that help to collect and conserve the sporadic
rainfall in the region. In the 18 months of the
project, it helped build 76 community Tankas,
14 school Tankas, two community Beris and 98
‘Talabs’ (natural reservoirs).
This meant that the ‘water-distress months’
in all villages reduced by three to six months.
The time saved for most women and children
was five to six hours a day. An independent
evaluation of the work calculated that it reduced
water costs by 140%. It also helped reduce
competition for water between villages.
The history of the sector has seen a general
movement from community mobilisation and
education to the direct implementation of
programmes and projects, the second group
in our typology. Although this can ensure proper
community participation in the design and
construction of water and sanitation systems,
progress is not always smooth.
Giving in India I Water and sanitation
In some cases, NGOs lack the necessary
technological skills. Employing properly trained
engineers can be expensive, and staying on top
of technological advances is time consuming.
In certain cases, the benefits of water and
sanitation projects are jeopardised by shoddy
implementation—poorly constructed latrines will
pipe sewage directly into drinking water sources.
The Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
India (AKRSPI) is one of the largest NGOs
in the north west of India, with an income of
Rs.180m (£2.3m) and activities that stretch from
Gujarat to Bihar. It works across drinking water,
more general water resource management
and livelihood promotion. Its activities rely on
a stable of engineers and technicians, with
specialist knowledge of water projects. It
currently helps 35 villages to construct water
supply systems as part of the government’s
Swajaldhara funding project. This involves
constructing check dams, digging wells and
building water delivery systems.
One of AKRSPI’s innovations is the design of
Chapter 3: Water and sanitation
a new delivery system for drinking water. This
establishes water tanks for clusters of houses,
where water can be stored in case of power
cuts that stop water from being pumped.
UNICEF has highlighted it as an example of
good practice. An in-depth evaluation of one of
the village systems found that after four years,
it had improved outcomes across a range of
indicators. Outcomes included: a rise in monthly
family income of 25%; time savings of 3.8 hours;
a reduction in waterborne diseases of 80%; a
reduction in medical expenditure of 73%; and a
decrease in the school drop-out rate.
For its work, AKRSPI brings in funding from
three main sources: the government; the
communities themselves; and philanthropy.
In this case, its main funding source is the
European Commission (EC).
The EC funding has also helped AKRSPI to
set up a laboratory to test water purity in the
district of Surendranegar. This not only tests
water from AKRSPI’s projects, but is also used
by government to test water across the district.
So instead of having to use facilities in the
capital, there is a quicker option run by trained
professionals. Based on the results of these
tests, AKRSPI can help communities to rectify
the impurities.
One of the things this has helped to track is
the decline of water quality from the source. So
while the water may be relatively clean when
drawn from the well, it becomes progressively
contaminated by poor hygiene practice as
it is carried into the household, stored and
then consumed. AKRSPI is now developing a
programme focused on hygiene promotion.
49
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
The largest sanitation charity in India is Sulabh
International, which runs 7,500 toilet and
bathroom complexes across India catering for
ten million people each day. It also provides
cleaning for hospitals, schools and major
public events. Costs are covered through user
charges, and it receives no foreign philanthropy.
Sulabh also tackles the social prejudice and
economic disadvantage of manual scavengers.
It runs its own school and vocational centre,
to train the children of scavengers and help
integrate them within the general population.
It also raises awareness of the situation of
scavengers through media work and events.
It recently ran a fashion show and organised a
ceremony with the President of India.
The third main activity for NGOs, beyond
working with communities and implementing
projects, is developing pilot projects of new
technological and financial models.
In Orissa, the NGO Gram Vikas has developed
a specific approach to help rural villages with
their water and sanitation, and to strengthen
their local governance practice. This involves
insisting that village committees sign up to a
stringent list of conditions before starting a
project, to ensure that provision is equitable,
sustainable and covers sanitation. The
conditions include:
• Everyone in the village has to sign up and
contribute to the construction of pumps
and toilets.
• Women and all disadvantaged groups
have to be involved in decision-making
and local committees.
• Communities have to agree to build high
quality facilities, including piped water
to each house, and individual latrines
and bathrooms.
• Communities have to establish a system
to pay for operations and maintenance—
for example, using community land for
cashew farming.
• A corpus fund has to be established so that
the interest can be used to subsidise new
households to connect to the system.
In return, villages receive Gram Vikas' support
in applying for government funding, its help
implementing the project, and also an extra
subsidy on top of the community contribution
and government subsidy.
Although expansion is limited by the willingness
of villages to accept the terms of the
programme, this programme has spread to over
500 villages across Orissa. It has also worked
with other NGOs in Madhya Pradesh and Bihar
to replicate the model, as well as further afield
in Tanzania.
50
Gramalaya, based in the city of Trichy in
Tamil Nadu, has developed a model where
community toilets in slums are run by female
self-help groups. While the city corporation
provides the facilities, and in some cases water
and electricity, the self-help groups organise the
operation and maintenance of the facility.
This includes installing child-friendly toilets,
maintaining cleanliness and organising repairs.
A small fee is charged to cover costs, with any
surplus either going to develop community
assets—such as community halls and rainwater
harvesting schemes—or into a central fund.
This fund is then used to subsidise facilities in
areas where they are unable to cover their costs
due to low usage or where local government
requires that they pay for electricity.
The Naandi Foundation in Andhra Pradesh
has established a model for providing purified
water in areas of high contamination. In 2006,
it established Community Safe Water Schemes
(CSWS) in 25 villages that lacked access
to clean drinking water—reaching 12,500
households. Each CSWS involves establishing
a village water treatment plant where people
can get access to clean water for a small fee
(generally 10 paisa [0.001pence] per litre).
The model depends on coordination between
three main partners:
• Panchayats provide a regular source of
water, secure land, organise a community
financial contribution and electricity.
• The Naandi Foundation acts as project
manager and provides pre-financing for
each project, as well as collecting user
fees. It raises awareness and carries out
measurement.
• A private company, WaterHealth
International, which is based in the US, has
established a new technology to purify water
by UV rays—UVWaterworks™.
Following the success of the original project in
establishing sustainable schemes, the Naandi
Foundation has developed and expanded
its work. In response to a request from the
Government of Punjab, it set up schemes in
53 fluoride-affected villages during 2008 using
reverse osmosis technology supplied by Tata
Industries. Similar schemes were set up in
2009, in Haryana and Rajasthan. Over the next
two years, the Naandi Foundation hopes to
reach 1.3 million people.
The fourth area of activity for NGOs is in
improving the structure and performance of
the water and sanitation sector as a whole.
One of the interesting developments of the last
couple of years is the construction of various
online networks and resources that NGOs,
government, academics and individuals can use
to share and disseminate information.
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation

The Arghyam Foundation established the India
Water Portal with funding from the National
Knowledge Commission (a government council).
This is a web-based platform to gather information
and resources about water, in order to share
good practice and stimulate debate. It includes
a range of different materials, research and
articles, resources to use in schools, and links to
organisations working in the field. In 2008, it also
established an online portal for sanitation.
This complements the WES-Net group—set
up by the UN agencies and other major
stakeholders, and supported by Plan
International. Again, this shares information
about training sessions, workshops and
events. With the help of WaterAid, it is aiming
to lead and coordinate research in the sector,
identifying gaps, building partnerships and
minimising overlaps and unnecessary repetition.
NPC and Copal have been surprised by the
lack of sharing and cooperation between
NGOs in the field. Often organisations appear
to concentrate only on their own work, and do
In 2005, JBF organised a conference with other
stakeholders and NGOs to discuss a shared
approach to groundwater legislation, and water
resources more generally. This was followed
up by a workshop with state officials, and the
appointment of the foundation to the ‘Expert
Committee for Integrated Development of Water
Resources’. This has produced a state water
policy, which is currently being debated in the
state legislative assembly. If it passes, it has
the potential to have a significant impact. It is
a strong example of the benefits that lobbying
can produce.
2. Results
Having looked at their activities, the second
aspect of the voluntary sector to examine in
detail is results, in particular the outcomes
of individual NGOs. This chapter has already
spelled out general components and qualities
of a successful intervention, to help donors to
recognise what a well-designed intervention
looks like. However, this is not a substitute for

Chapter 3: Water and sanitation

an in-depth analysis of each NGO’s impact
not share their lessons with others. They seem
measurement. This is vital in identifying
to worry that they might lose funding, that they
organisations and projects that have a strong
are helping ‘competitors’ and also feel that the
track record of delivering results or the potential
lessons they learn are not necessarily relevant in
to deliver results in the future.
other locations.
Measurement in the water and sanitation sector,
This is regrettable, and NPC and Copal believe
as with the voluntary sector as a whole, is largely
that NGOs should proactively look at how
poor. Generally speaking, there are three main
they can share and disseminate their lessons
types of data that can be collected: outputs (such
for wider impact. In Gujarat, the NGO Utthan
as numbers of toilets and wells); outcomes (such
has started a ‘training the trainers’ scheme,
as usage of toilets and access to water); and
building up a cadre of NGOs, professionals and
impact (such as reduced level of diseases and
academics who can then advise local village
increased income). In almost all circumstances
water and sanitation committees, reaching
NGOs concentrate on output, while outcomes
villages where Utthan does not work.
and impact tend to get overlooked.
Beyond this, Plan International is looking
This lack of data is worrying, and arguments
to develop formal qualifications for people
used to justify these gaps can be weak. Often
working on water and sanitation, which can be
NGOs point to the fact that the general links
delivered through higher education providers
between improved water and sanitation and
or universities. Currently, practitioners have to
better outcomes and impact are already
go abroad to receive high-level training, and
established, and it is therefore unnecessary to
instead have to learn on the job.
do it again. This will be a common story in other
The final main role of NGOs is lobbying and sectors. But it misses the point.
working with government. Often this is done
First, it is too simplistic to assume that the
in an ad hoc and sporadic manner. Chief
work of all NGOs leads to improved water and
executives of water and sanitation charities,
sanitation—particularly over the long term.
such as Nafisa Barot of Utthan and Joe
NPC and Copal have heard of many examples
Madiath of Gram Vikas, represent the sector
of projects that have wasted time, effort and
on national committees and steering groups.
motivation—wells that have run out within
Meanwhile, on a day-to-day level, NGOs look to
weeks, or hygiene promotion work that has not
lobby and influence local government officials—
led to any behaviour change.
normally as part of their existing projects.
Second, even successful approaches that
In rare cases, NGOs’ lobbying coalesces around
follow good practice examples produce
certain campaign issues. The Jal Bhagirithi
different levels of results in different contexts.
Foundation (JBF) has been focusing on the
Understanding how these differ is important
issue of groundwater and trying to introduce
both to charities looking to improve their
legislation in Rajasthan to regulate its extraction.
services and to donors wanting to make
Currently, no national law protects groundwater;
informed funding decisions.
instead, it is left to the states to regulate.

51
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
Other reasons for lack of measurement include:
inadequate staff time to collect data; no central
capacity to manage and organise internal
monitoring and data collection; and inadequate
donor interest. Funding is rare for intensive
evaluations and NGOs have complained about
the difficulty of finding trained researchers who
can carry out quality studies.
These are all real barriers, and a major aim of
philanthropy should be to provide funding to
pay for this work. Yet often funding is not the
only barrier, and is part of an uneasy nexus of
unwillingness to measure and poor capacity.
NGOs may be reluctant to expose their activities
to outside scrutiny and fear that funders may
misinterpret their results.
A key question is what level of evidence a
donor should expect to see. Quality of data
differs significantly, from large-scale randomised
control studies, to basic monitoring of toilet
usage. In general, the larger and more
established an organisation is, the greater the
burden of proof should be. Bigger organisations
have more resources, the capacity and the
longitudinal data to demonstrate impact.
AKRSPI received specific funding from the Ford
Foundation to establish a corpus fund for its
research. In 2004/2005, this paid for a full-time
researcher to pull together different evaluations
and look in more detail at individual projects. Since
then, it has been able to pay for one-off studies
and evaluations, and in 2007/2008, it spent
Rs.1.3m (£16,000) on monitoring and evaluation.
Other organisations benefit from one-off grants for
evaluation work. The Naandi Foundation received
funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
to carry out an in-depth evaluation of its water work.
The content of the report is still being finalised.
As well as external evaluations, NGOs should
also have some form of internal measurement
and monitoring system to ensure that results
are maintained and mainstreamed across all of
their projects. Too often, successful individual
evaluations are fixated on as indicative of all of
the NGO’s work, for all time.
In Orissa, the NGO Gram Vikas has a strong
reputation for data collection, integrating baseline
surveys, follow-up questionnaires, and long-term
indicators into its projects. This data includes:
expenditure on healthcare; incidence of disease;
and income and productivity. It has been able
to establish a team of people in its central office
to help collect and collate the data, as well as
regularly drawing on external academics.
Gram Vikas has recently reviewed its data
collection system, to ensure that it is continuing
to collect the right information. This has involved
piloting a new way of measuring improvements
in female empowerment using pictures. It has
also looked at ways of training project staff to
improve the quality of the data they collect.
52
3. Management and leadership
Management and leadership is the third area
of the voluntary sector that NPC and Copal
analyse. This ranges from the make-up and
structure of governing boards and senior
management, to questions over staff retention
and recruitment. Analysis of management and
leadership helps to establish the organisational
strength of the NGO, and identifies possible
risks to its activities and results—for example,
key staff leaving or insufficient oversight.
Considered alongside activities and results, it
gives insight into which organisations are really
delivering within a sector.
NPC and Copal have been impressed by
many of the chief executives that we have
come across during our research on water
and sanitation. The NGOs in the sector
include some committed, knowledgeable and
charismatic individuals. Many have both national
and international reputations, sitting on global
councils and regularly participating at some of
the main international conferences.
Yet, as noted in the previous chapter’s account
of Indian NGOs as a whole, it appears that
the strength and charisma of these individuals
often masks a general weakness at the level of
senior management. Organisations have tended
to grow up around their founders, and chief
executives’ time is often spread thinly over a
wide range of activities—from fundraising and
programme management to strategy and vision.
This leads to bottlenecks, delays and a lack of
focus on long-term strategy.
A donor should always be extremely careful to
look beyond the chief executive of an organisation
and get some idea of the depth of senior
management. The question of succession is
often pertinent particularly when the current chief
executive is the organisation’s founder. Surprisingly
often, succession plans are not in place.
The reliance on the chief executive is
compounded by the apparent weaknesses of
trustees and governing bodies in water and
sanitation NGOs. Meetings are rare, often only
two or three times a year, and board members
usually have limited experience of areas beyond
the voluntary sector. Lack of skills in finance, legal
issues and HR are a particular weakness. Chief
executives are also often on the board, which
(again, as noted for NGOs generally in the previous
chapter) confuses the boundaries between
operational management and oversight, and may
help to explain the lack of succession plans.
NPC and Copal’s analysis found that the central
capacity of NGOs is often weak across the
sector. Organisational functions such as HR,
financial management and administrational
support are normally underdeveloped and
operate on a shoestring budget.

Staff issues are another common problem in
water and sanitation NGOs, both in retention
and recruitment. The focus on building strong
relationships with communities they work with
often leads to field staff living in isolated and
uncomfortable communities. Staff from outside
the community can find it hard to acclimatise
and can leave after only a short time in post, at
great disruption to projects. In response, NGOs
are increasingly hiring people from the areas they
work in. This has several other benefits, such as
increasing local knowledge, building up the skills
of local communities and overcoming suspicion.
However, local recruits may not have a strong
set of qualifications and skills, and will require
training to come up to speed. Training budgets
and supervision are often inadequate.
A final issue is recruiting people in the first
place. As mentioned in the previous section,
pay is extremely low across the sector. This
makes it harder to recruit candidates at all levels
of the organisation. The water and sanitation
sector is no exception.
4. Finances
Finances are the final issue that needs to be
considered by a donor when looking at the
nature of the voluntary sector and the potential
of individual NGOs. This helps to establish an
organisation’s future stability and its ability to
sustain and grow projects. It is also important
to ensure that finances are being used properly
and efficiently.
While the situation differs markedly across the
water and sanitation sector, it is possible to pick
out some common features (some of which
have already been touched on above).
Focus on project funding: Funding for work
in the water and sanitation sector tends to be
project-based. Donors give money for NGOs
to fulfil specific activities and objectives. Yet this
rarely takes into account the full cost of running
these projects if all the management, central
running costs and overheads are included.
Financial management is weak: Poor financial
management is partly a chicken and egg
situation. Without adequate central funding,
NGOs are unable to pay for good quality
financial staff, which in turn makes it harder to
fully cost projects and manage funding.
Despite exceptions, most funding is
short-term: NPC and Copal have come across
extremely divergent experiences in terms of
length of funding. Several of the NGOs we
visited have benefited from committed and
long-term funding streams. AKRSPI has
had ten years of funding from the EC, while
Gramalaya has had funding from WaterAid
on and off for decades. It is still their largest
grantee in India.
Giving in India I Water and sanitation
There does seem to be a link between long-term
secure funding and successful NGOs. Because
NPC and Copal’s research has been focused
on identifying examples of good practice, a
disproportionate number of organisations we
have visited have benefited from long-term
funding relative to the rest of the sector.
Our wider analysis of the sector suggests that
long-term funding is the exception to the rule.
For most NGOs in the sector, funding can be
extremely short-term and precarious. Although
funding is often arranged for three-year periods,
this can be dependent on an annual review,
which makes it harder for NGOs to plan in
advance, to offer security for their staff and to
sustain projects.
As noted in Chapter 2, one response to the
vagaries of funding flows is that NGOs are often
focused on building up their corpus fund. This
is effectively an endowment, similar to financial
reserves, yet the capital is not meant to be
touched. Instead, the interest is used at the
discretion of the charity.
Chapter 3: Water and sanitation
Growth in joint funding models: A welcome
trend in the past five years has been the growth
of joint funding models. This includes coordinating
and bringing in money from government,
community contributions and philanthropists.
Unpicking the exact nature of joint funding models
is difficult, as funds are not necessarily directed
through NGOs’ accounts. In a number of cases,
community contributions and government
subsidies get paid into community bank accounts.
Also, community contributions can be paid in
kind, in the form of labour or local materials.
Drawing down loans: A final development in
the sector is the growth of larger NGOs drawing
down loans from banks, in order to pass money
on to individuals or communities who would
otherwise not have access to credit. This seems
particularly useful when government subsidies
are paid in arrears and subject to delays.
Lessons for donors
The last ten pages have covered great swathes
of information: the importance of water and
sanitation; the current situation; the gaps in
government activity; and the nature of the
voluntary sector. Where, then, does this leave
donors? Beyond simply having access to
more information, is it possible to use this
analytical framework to identify a relatively
clear set of priorities for a donor and tools to
choose effective charities and improve funding
quality? NPC and Copal suggested earlier
in this document that there are at least three
key questions that donors need to answer in
any funding decision: what to focus on; which
organisations to fund; and how to fund. We
would argue that the information above provides
insight that helps answer all these questions.
53
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
What to fund
Based on the cumulative empirical analysis of
this section, NPC and Copal have highlighted
four areas where we believe that funding can
have the most impact. These are:
• mobilising communities around hygiene
promotion;
• developing new financial and technical
models around water quality and sanitation;
• strengthening the voluntary sector; and
• influencing government programmes.
Each of these is explained, below.
Mobilising communities and building
capacity—particularly around hygiene
practices and behaviour change
Community work is one of the traditional
strengths of the NGO sector, and one that is
often overlooked by government and the private
sector. Evaluations have shown that in-depth
and long-term relationships rooted in local
knowledge produce the best results, rather than
one-off temporary approaches to education
and empowerment.
While government has started to fund NGOs in
this area, sums are still small-scale and largely
a precursor to infrastructure development. So
while government will support NGOs to mobilise
communities and support them to implement
projects, it rarely sustains funding once projects
and systems are in place.
This is particularly telling in the area of improved
hygiene practices. Improving hand-washing is
one of the most cost-effective approaches in
the sector. It is low-cost and has a high positive
impact on diarrhoea, malnutrition, mortality and
lost productivity. Yet hygiene is often overlooked
and ignored, compared to the more tangible
and high-profile water and sanitation sectors.
Without a change in hygiene behaviour, the
results of other interventions, such as better
toilets and access to improved water sources,
are bound to be less effective.
Although few NGOs have established hygiene
projects, it is an area of growing interest.
Donors can help organisations pilot different
approaches and establish a better evidence
base. While its importance is well-established,
there is little evidence on the best way to
improve hygiene practice.
54
Developing new financial and technical
models around water quality and sanitation
A key role for the voluntary sector is developing
new pilot projects, using its flexibility, expertise
and links with communities. As the above
analysis has shown, it has been able to
establish different models to deliver drinking
water in a more successful and sustainable
manner, such as AKRSPI’s work in Gujarat.
However, more work needs to be done in
the area of water quality and sanitation.
Government projects still struggle on these
points, while private sector activity is uncertain
and overlooks the most disadvantaged.
The voluntary sector is beginning to rise to
the challenge, often integrating community
contributions, government initiatives and the
potential of the private sector. However, many of
these initiatives are still small-scale and struggle
to demonstrate their impact, let alone improve
their model and scale up and replicate their
work. Private philanthropy can give NGOs the
flexibility and security to experiment, to look at
ways to develop and grow their model, and to
measure their impact properly.
Strengthening the voluntary sector
The third area moves away from direct
services and into the more intangible concept
of strengthening the sector. Although water,
sanitation and hygiene are relatively discrete
issues, the voluntary sector lacks much
cohesiveness. This is despite the common
challenges that most NGOs in the sector face,
which are highlighted in this chapter’s account
of the sector’s activities, results, management
and finances. Moreover, the sector lacks
the infrastructure to bind it together in order
that, collectively, it is greater than the sum of
its parts.
This latter point is changing to some extent;
the establishment of internet portals and the
growing emphasis on conferences, networks
and sharing good practice are positive
developments. However, coordination and
partnership are improving from a small base
and face strong resistance. NGOs are often
unwilling to share their own lessons and remain
suspicious of learning from other people. The
emphasis on grassroots experience, while
important, tends to blind organisations to the
possibility of learning from work in other areas.

It is NPC and Copal’s impression that this
absence of a strong sector infrastructure leads
to considerable replication of work, as different
organisations ‘reinvent the wheel’ across India.
They miss out on research and lessons that
have been learned.
Strengthening the capacity of the sector
as a whole could also help overcome
organisational weaknesses. Shared HR or
financial management support could help NGOs
struggling to maintain their central functions.
Lobbying and campaigning work could also be
improved by working in networks and combining
and consolidating experiences and data.
Influencing government programmes—
and lobbying and helping community
campaigns
Frustrating and unwieldy as it often proves to
be, government plays the key role in the sector,
whether as service provider, funder or regulator.
Influencing and improving the way it works has the
potential to reach millions of people across India.
Action is needed at all levels of government,
from central departments to local officials.
NGOs have a potentially large role here—either
providing targeted and expert advice, or
supporting individuals, social campaigns
and self-help groups to hold government
to account.
However, few NGOs have the capacity and
capability to carry out this role. Also, the lack
of data on the effectiveness and impact of
lobbying and policy influencing work makes it
harder to allocate funding between NGOs. It is
often left to INGOs and UN agencies who have
the capacity, credibility and contacts to reach
government. There is a space potentially for
an engaged donor to support more grassroots
activity.
Who to fund
Once a donor has chosen an area to target, the
next decision is identifying effective NGOs to
fund. How does the analysis in this chapter help
to identify which organisation to fund?
Primarily, it provides donors with a framework
and a toolkit for judging and analysing NGOs
themselves. Looking at an organisation’s
activities, results, management and finances
is vital in establishing its potential for
delivering impact.
Giving in India I Water and sanitation
Moreover, the information and the data included
above helps donors to put this analysis within
the wider context of the voluntary sector—to
see whether its experiences or attributes are
exceptional or typical.
In a more practical way, this analysis also
starts to suggest and to spell out ways for
funders to identify NGOs. There are numerous
mechanisms to help identify NGOs, including
co-funding with other funders, working
through INGOs and intermediaries, and doing
independent research.
Working through other funders appears to
be a sensible way to donate—leveraging
their existing infrastructure, knowledge and
relationships. Particularly for donors with large
amounts of money but little time, co-funding
provides a way to share risk, magnify funding
and minimise reporting requirements. Co-
funders may bring to the table complementary
non-financial resources.
Yet finding other funders can be challenging, as
Chapter 3: Water and sanitation
few have distinct water and sanitation funding
streams. Unless large amounts of money
are involved, other funders may not want to
engage. More fundamentally, it is important to
choose co-funders who have a shared strategic
vision and who choose NGOs based on their
results and impact.
The same considerations around shared
strategic vision and a focus on impact are
also pertinent when looking at INGOs. Again,
they have the benefit of existing networks and
relationships and can bring in other sources
of funding. They can also absorb a range of
donations from small to very large amounts.
Donors can fund INGOs directly to help them in
their own work, networking and campaigning. In
the water and sanitation sector, they are some
of the few organisations that are able to fill this
role at scale.
Donors can choose to find NGOs directly
or with the help of intermediaries. Credibility
Alliance and GiveIndia’s website has lists of
NGOs that have met basic due dilligence criteria,
while other sites such as WES-Net, India Water
Portal and Indianngos also have lists of NGOs.
In all cases, donors have to think clearly about
what they are trying to achieve and how the
NGO will be able to deliver that. As set out
above, this involves going through a series of
issues that contribute to an organisation’s ability
to deliver results.
55
 Giving in India I Water and sanitation
How to fund
The third and final area where donors can use
the analysis in this report is in improving the
quality of their funding. Consistent lessons from
our analysis include:
Building capacity
The importance of improving the capacity of
NGOs is one of the most consistent findings to
come out of this report. The vast majority of the
NGOs that NPC and Copal visited and spoke to
(with a few notable exceptions) struggled with
poor capacity. This was due to several reasons:
• a culture within the voluntary sector of
deprioritising central functions;
• an over-reliance on chief executives;
• the prioritisation of direct services at the
expense of central costs; and
• a lack of funding.
It is this last point that appears to be the most
telling factor, as NGOs reported receiving
funding for specific projects, but without
covering the full cost of running central
functions.
NGOs find it hard to pay for training and
infrastructure. Yet by directing money to these
areas, a donor has the potential to improve the
way an organisation runs, strengthen the quality
of its services and provide a basis for growth.
Building the capacity of the organisation also
involves focusing on staff resourcing issues.
Raising salaries can help retain and recruit high
quality workers.
In many cases of course, NGOs require more
than just financial assistance. For donors with
extra capabilities or contacts, there is potential
to use these resources directly to advise and
support NGOs in developing their effectiveness.
Funding impact measurement and
evaluation
Another core way of improving the quality
of funding is to ensure that project funding
includes a component for monitoring and
evaluation. A donor may also want to fund
internal monitoring systems directly. Doing this
has considerable potential for maximising the
impact of funding.
56
Ensuring that projects are properly tracked,
monitored and evaluated helps to establish
the impact and value of each project. It can
demonstrate the importance of continuing a
project and also point out ways to improve it.
Proving an approach’s impact can also help
to get it re-funded—whether by another
philanthropist or, ideally, by government funding
streams. Successful lessons can also be shared
throughout the sector.
Again, there is a non-financial component here.
Some specialist or experienced funders have
contacts and advice on how to improve data
management.
Helping with networking and knowledge
dissemination
NPC and Copal’s analysis found that the
amount of dissemination and knowledge
sharing between NGOs working in water and
sanitation is poor, and that NGOs’ activities are
isolated and cut off from each other. Project
funding rarely covers disseminating and sharing
these lessons. These are often extra costs
borne by charities themselves. Donors should
rectify the situation.
Moreover, donors who are funding across
multiple organisations to tackle the same issues
can help to organise networks and conferences
to share lessons and experiences.
Taking a long-term view
A final area is the question of timing. In the past,
funding has been weakened by a short-term
approach. Ad hoc funding does not necessarily
allow an organisation to establish and test a
new model. Conversely, funding that goes on
for years without scrutiny of the relationship has
the danger of making both parties complacent.
NGOs are in particular danger if the relationship
breaks down for any reason.
Instead, donors should be aware of the length
of time necessary, and work out an exit plan—
what happens after their funding runs out. Is
the plan to get government to pay, to increase
community contributions, or to find other grant-
makers? These are important questions that
donors should be thinking about even before
they start funding.
Conclusions
This report aims to be a cross between a
manifesto, a toolkit for donors and an in-depth
analysis of the water and sanitation sector.
Underpinning it all is the argument that better
analysis and research can help to improve the
effectiveness of philanthropy in India.
In the first section of the report we explored a
key hypothesis—that philanthropy in India is not
working as effectively as it could be. From the
available evidence, it appears that funding is
not being allocated to the greatest needs and
that NGOs are not being chosen on the basis of
their impact.
The chapter went on to build a theoretical
model of why this is the case, introducing the
concept of a broken funding market: donors
are not asking for information, charities are not
supplying it, and the flow of information is poor.
The broken funding market provided the
context for exploring another of the report’s
hypotheses—that analysing social issues
and individual NGOs offers a way to fix these
problems and improve the effectiveness of
philanthropy. Analysis helps donors to decide
three things: which issues to focus on; which
charities to support; and how to structure
funding for greatest impact.
The second section of the report suggested
a potential analytical framework, derived from
NPC’s work in the UK. This is based on looking
at donors’ interests, resources and which
issues can be tackled. Deciding which issues
can be tackled has four stages of analysis:
needs; what works; the activity of other actors;
and the nature of the voluntary sector.
The remaining parts of this report tested the
potential of this framework to provide useful
information and guidance for donors. It was
applied to the Indian voluntary sector as a
whole then, in Chapter 3, applied specifically
to the water and sanitation sector. This sought
to demonstrate how it is possible to analyse
existing information to provide guidance and
advice to philanthropists.
Yet more work needs to be done
Alongside its sister report, Starting strong, this
research is NPC and Copal’s initial contribution
to the wider discussions of effectiveness in the
Indian voluntary sector. More needs to be done
to explore and test some of the issues and
ideas raised. There is a lack of primary research
on the nature and the scope of the voluntary
sector in India, as well as analysis of social
issues and specific geographies.
Both NPC and Copal are looking at ways to
continue and develop discussions and initiatives
to improve the effectiveness of the Indian
charitable sector, but for it really to work, we
believe that this initiative should be taken on by a
coalition of India-based organisations. We hope
that this document can be a basis for action and
provide the call to arms for philanthropists and
NGOs to develop this work further.
57
 Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the following individuals and their organisations for their input into
this report.

ActionAid Jagat Ballav Pattanaik

Aga Khan Rural Support Programme India Apoorva Oza and Umeshkumar Desai
AID India Dr. Balaji Sampath
American India Foundation Tarun Vij
Arghyam Foundation Amitangshu Acharya and Sunita Nadhamuni
Ashoka Sohini Bhattacharya and Robin Bose
British Asian Trust Abha Thorat-Shah
Byrraju Foundation Jacob Verghese
CARE India Mukesh Kumar
Centre for Advancement of Philanthropy Noshir H. Dadrawala
Children’s Investment Fund Foundation Samit Tandon
Credibility Alliance Vijay Nadkarni, Daniel Herzog and Vijay Jani
Dasra Neera Nundy and Alison Adnitt
FCRA Division, Ministry of Home Affairs S. K. Shahi
Ford Foundation Vasant Saberwal
GiveIndia Ujwal Thakar
Gomukh Trust Suneel Waman
Gram Vikas Joe Madiath, Sojan K. Thomas and
Chitralekha Choudhury
Gramalaya Jagannathan Geetha and Alfred Ramesh
Guardian Paul Sathianathan
HelpAge India Mathew Cherian
Indianngos Sanjay Bapat
Jal Bhagirathi Foundation Kanupriya Harish and Prithvi Raj Singh
KPMG Parul Soni
Madani Afsar Ali
Management Systems International Dr. Rajani R. Ved
Michael and Susan Dell Foundation Barun Mohanty

58
 Giving in India I Acknowledgements

Monitor Varad Patel

Naandi Foundation Amit Jain
NM Sadguru Harnath Jagawat
Oxfam India Nisha Agrawal and Kunal Verma
Plan International Kalimuthu Arumugam and Mohammed Asif
SCOPE M. Subburaman
Society for Social Unit and Development Gobinda Chandra Nayak
Sulabh International Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak
Swayam Shikshan Prayog Prema Gopalan
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Dipak Roy
Utthan Nafisa Barot, Kaushik Rawal and
Priyanka Sinha
Voluntary Action Network India (VANI) Paresh Tewary
Voluntary Action Cell, Planning Commission, Dr. Lalit Kumar
Government of India
Water for People Wende Valentine
WaterAid India Lourdes Baptista, Dr. Indira Khurana and
Dr. Ishaprasad Bhagwat
Wells for India Om Prakash Sharma
Watershed Organisation Trust Marcella D’Souza

Additionally we are heavily indebted to the following individuals who provided us with valuable
input after taking the time and care to read the consultation version of this report:

Alison Adnitt Dasra

Kalimuthu Arumugam Plan International
Mathew Cherian HelpAge India
Vijay Nadkarni Credibility Alliance
Samit Tandon Children’s Investment Fund Foundation
Tarun Vij American India Foundation

59
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Magazine, 4(47).
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Government of Rajasthan Irrigation Department (2008)
State Water Policy (Draft).
59
Chatterjee, R. and Purohit, R.R. (2009) Estimation of
replenishable groundwater resources of India and their
status of utilization. Current Science 96(12): p. 1581-1591.
60
Debroy, B. and Bhandari, L. (2003) District-Level
Deprivation in the New Millennium Rajiv Gandhi Institute
of Contemporary Studies.
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(2001) Census of India 2001. Government of India.
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Ministry of Finance (2009) Economic Survey 2008-2009.
Government of India.
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The Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (2009)
India: Urban Poverty Report 2009. Government of India.
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Water and Sanitation Program (2005) Scaling-Up
Rural Sanitation in South Asia: Lessons Learned from
Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan.
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WaterAid India (2008) Feeling the pulse: a study of the
Total Sanitation Campaign in five states.
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Briscoe, J. (2005) India’s water economy: bracing for a
turbulent future. World Bank.
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(ARWSP). Ministry of Rural Development.
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(1999) Willing to pay but unwilling to charge.
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programme: From experience to policy West Bengal and
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Other NPC publications
Published research
Research reports are focused on specific areas of charitable activity
in the UK unless otherwise stated.
Community
• B
 reaking the cycle: Charities working with people in prison
and on release (2009)
• Short changed: Financial exclusion (2008)
• Lost property: Tackling homelessness in the UK (2008)
• Hard knock life: Violence against women (2008)
• When I’m 65: Ageing in 21st century Britain (2008)
• Not seen and not heard: Child abuse (2007)
• A long way to go: Young refugees and asylum seekers in
the UK (2007)
• Home truths: Adult refugees and asylum seekers (2006)
• Inside and out: People in prison and life after release (2005)
• Grey matters: Growing older in deprived areas (2004)
• Side by side: Young people in divided communities (2004)
• Local action changing lives: Community organisations
tackling poverty and social exclusion (2004)
• Charity begins at home: Domestic violence (2003)
Education
• Inspiring Scotland: 14:19 Fund (2008)
• After the bell: Out of school hours activities for children and
young people (2007)
• Lean on me: Mentoring for young people at risk (2007)
• Misspent youth: The costs of truancy and exclusion (2007)
• Read on: Literacy skills of young people (2007)
• On your marks: Young people in education (2006)
• What next?: Careers education and guidance for young people
(2005)
• School’s out?: Truancy and exclusion (2005)
• Making sense of SEN: Special educational needs (2004)
Health and disability
• Heads up: Mental health of children and young people (2008)
• A life less ordinary: People with autism (2007)
• What price an ordinary life? Financial costs and benefits of
supporting disabled children and their families (2007)
• Don’t mind me: Adults with mental health problems (2006)
• Valuing short lives: Children with terminal conditions (2005)
• Ordinary lives: Disabled children and their families (2005)
• Out of the shadows: HIV/AIDS in Burundi, Democratic
Republic of Congo and Rwanda (2005)
• The hidden assassin: Cancer in the UK (2004)
NPC’s research reports and summaries are available to download
free from www.philanthropycapital.org.
• C
 aring about dying: Palliative care and support for the
terminally ill (2004)
• Rhetoric to action: HIV/AIDS in South Africa (2003)
Environment
• Green philanthropy: Funding charity solutions to environment
problems (2007)
International
• Philanthropists without borders: Supporting charities in
developing countries (2008)
• Going global: A review of international development funding by
UK trusts and foundations (2007)
Cross-cutting research
• Critical masses: Social campaigning (2008)
• Striking a chord: Using music to change lives (2006)
• Everyday cares: Daily centres in Italy and the UK (2009)
Improving the charity sector
• Feelings count: Measuring children’s subjective well-being for
charities and funders (2009)
• What place for mergers between charities? (2009)
• Board matters: A review of charity trusteeship in the UK (2009)
• How are you getting on? Charities and funders on
communicating results (2009)
• Granting success: Lessons for funders and charities (2009)
• Valuing potential: An SROI analysis on Columba 1400 (2008)
• M
 ore advice needed: The role of wealth advisors in offering
philanthropy services to high-net-worth clients (2008)
• Turning the tables: Putting English charities in control of
reporting (2008)
• T
 urning the tables: Putting Scottish charities in control of
reporting (2008)
• On the bright side: Developing a questionnaire for charities to
measure children’s well-being (2008)
• Advice needed: The opportunities and challenges in philanthropy
for ultra high net worth individuals and family offices (2007)
• Trading for the future: A five-year review of the work of the
Execution Charitable Trust and New Philanthropy Capital (2007)
• Funding success: NPC’s approach to analysing charities
(2005)
• S
 urer Funding: Improving government funding of the voluntary
sector (2004, published by acevo)
• Full cost recovery: A guide and toolkit on cost allocation (2004,
published by NPC and acevo)
• Just the ticket: Understanding charity fundraising events (2003)
• Funding our future II: A manual to understand and allocate
costs (2002, published by acevo)
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