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(Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PHD, Seyyed Moham (B-Ok - Xyz) PDF
(Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PHD, Seyyed Moham (B-Ok - Xyz) PDF
REPORT WRITING
PREFACE VII
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS VIII
III
CHAPTER FOUR: REFERENCES
1. Introduction 49
2. References 49
2.1. Books 50
2.2. Secondary sources 51
2.3. Journals and periodicals 52
2.4. Non-print media 53
2.5. Personal communication 53
2.6. Government documents 54
2.7. Electronic sources 54
2.8. Abstracts 56
2.9. Pamphlets and Brochures 56
2.10. Unpublished materials 57
3. Bibliographies 57
4. Annotated bibliographies 58
5. Final remarks 58
IV
2.3.1. Law dictionaries 75
2.3.2. Codes 75
2.3.3. Administrative regulations 75
2.3.4. Court decisions 75
2.4. Periodicals and journals 76
2.5. Government documents 76
2.6. Pamphlets and directories 77
2.7. Unpublished materials 78
2.7.1. Masters' theses 78
2.7.2. Doctoral dissertations 78
2.7.3. Other unpublished sources 79
2.8. The Internet 79
3. Library search methods 80
3.1. Note keeping 80
3.2. Standard search methods 81
3.2.1. Determination of topics 81
3.2.2. Finding sources 81
3.3. Other search methods 82
3.3.1. Course work in other disciplines 82
3.3.2. Readers 83
3.3.3. The interdisciplinary team 83
3.3.4. Browsing 83
4. Importance of library research 83
4.1. Know the original source 84
4.2. Be more informed 84
4.3. Be critical 85
5. Final remarks 86
V
SECTION THREE: REPORTS AND THESES
REFERENCES 151
VI
PREFACE
VII
Section three, too, is composed of two chapters: The Research Report,
and The Thesis. Chapter eight focuses on the detailed format that a
modest research report should have. The different sections of the
research report are discussed, along with visual illustrations to foster in
undergraduate students the skills they need for writing their research
reports. The final few pages of the chapter elaborate on the differences
between student research reports and journal papers. Chapter nine is
most useful for graduate students. A brief synopsis of the differences
that exist between short research reports and masters' theses or PhD
dissertations is presented. The discussions of the chapter are enriched
with visual illustrations that are helpful to the graduate student in the
process of writing his thesis or dissertation.
AUTHORS' NOTE
Dr Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan (born in 1969/1348) is an
assistant professor of TEFL at the University of Zanjan, Iran.
November, 2004
VIII
SECTION ONE
APA STYLE
APA STYLE 1
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL PRESENTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
General presentation refers to the overall appearance or look of your
research report, thesis, or dissertation. The term "format" is sometimes
used to signify the same point. On the whole, format includes the
following considerations:
APA style requires that you stick to a fixed format. This format should
not change when you submit a paper to a journal for publication.
However, when you wish to submit your PhD dissertation or masters'
thesis to the university, you should go by the guidelines that your
university or supervisor sets. Iranian universities usually require that you
go by APA style although there may be some modifications.
GENERAL PRESENTATION 3
As you have already noticed, there are different kinds of paper. Papers
used in notebooks, filler papers, A4-size, legal-size, letter-size, etc. are
only a few examples. Students usually use standard filler papers.
However, it is highly recommended that you use A4-size paper for your
research reports.
An A4-size sheet of paper is 21×29.7 centimeters. Remember that you
should write or print your report on only one side of each sheet. Also
notice that you should not fold your papers, and that you should keep
them clean. Some teachers do not like folded and dirty papers, and this
may put your scores in danger.
Some supervisors do not recommend stapling the pages of your report
together. Making punch holes on the left gutter and placing the report in
a modest file may be preferred by some other supervisors. So make sure
to ask them which method they prefer.
If you type your report using Microsoft Word, make sure that the correct
paper size has been selected by default. If the default paper size is not
A4, you can change it very easily. There are two steps to this:
On the File menu, select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1).
This will open the "page setup" window (as shown in figure 2). Now you
should click the "paper" tab. This will change the appearance of the
4 GENERAL PRESENTATION
"page setup" window. Now you can click to choose a paper size. Be sure
to use A4 size (as shown in figure2).
After selecting the A4 size, you can either click the "ok" or the "default"
button. Clicking the ok button will change the paper size for this
document (the one you are working with) only, but clicking the default
button will change the paper size for this and every other documents you
work with hereafter. It is recommended that you click the ok button,
especially if the computer is not your own personal computer. For
masters' theses and PhD dissertations, however, it is better to click the
"default" button because you will be typing more than one document—
one for each chapter, and one for each section of the front and back
GENERAL PRESENTATION 5
matters. This helps you make sure that you do not change the paper size
unwittingly across different documents.
3. PAGE MARGINS
Page margins are the blank spaces around the edges of the page. In
general, you insert text in the printable area inside the margins.
However, you can position some items in the margins. For example,
headers, footers, and page numbers normally appear in the margins.
When you prepare your research reports, you should leave some empty
space all around the sheet of paper on which you write. If you pay
attention to this page (that you are reading now), you see that there is
6 GENERAL PRESENTATION
some distance between the text and the edge of the page on each side.
This distance is called margin. Technically, there are four margins on
each sheet of paper: top, bottom, left, and right. The generally-accepted
size of a margin in APA style is 2.54 cm (or 1 inch). So, you should
allow a distance of 2.54 cm on each side of the sheet of paper on which
you write.
If you type your report using Microsoft Word, make sure that the correct
margin sizes have been set by default. On the File menu, select "page
setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup
window. If the margin tab (as shown in figure 3 above) is not the default
tab, click it to see the margin window (as shown in figure 3 above). Now
you should be able to use the margin setting boxes (labeled "margin
setting" in figure 3 above) to set the desired margin sizes (i.e., 2.54 in
APA style). Then you can click the "ok" or the "default" button.
Figure 4 is the schematic representation of what is meant by page
margins and gutter.
Top Margin
You may want to punch (make holes in) your sheets of paper and file
them. If so, you need to add an extra 1 cm space to the left edge of the
GENERAL PRESENTATION 7
page. This extra 1 cm is called the gutter. In Persian, the gutter should be
added to the right edge of the page because Persian writing is right-to-
left. In your dissertation or thesis, this consideration is vital since your
work needs binding, and binding requires at least this 1 cm extra space at
the edge of the page.
To set the gutter size and position in Microsoft Word, on the File menu,
select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page
setup window. If the margin tab (as shown in figure 3 above) is not the
default tab, click it to see the margin window (as shown in figure 3
above). Now you should be able to use the boxes labeled "gutter setting"
and "Arabic/English gutter" to set the size and position (i.e., left or right)
of the gutter. Then you can click the "ok" or the "default" button.
8 GENERAL PRESENTATION
When working with Microsoft Word, knowing how to set page layout or
orientation is very important. In fact, some versions of Microsoft Word
(like version 2000, and version 2002—also known as XP) are bilingual.
They provide the left-to-right and right-to-left cursor movements or text
direction. To avoid running into difficulties, it is better to set the page
layout before starting to type your project.
To set the page layout in Microsoft Word, on the File menu, select "page
setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup
window. If the layout tab (as shown in figure 5 above) is not the default
tab, click it to see the layout window (as shown in figure 5 above). Now
you should be able to use the box labeled "page orientation" to set the
layout (i.e., left-to-right or right-to-left) of the page.
Also use the boxes labeled "header position setting" and "footer position
setting" of the layout window (as shown in figure 5 above) to set the
position of the header and footer of the pages of your report. By default,
Microsoft Word sets both the header and the footer at a distance of 1.25
cm from the very edge of the page. When you are done, you can click
the "ok" or the "default" button. But before clicking either of these
buttons, take a look at the preview (as shown in figure 5 by the label
"previewing") to see if the look of the page resembles that of English
pages or not. If so, click the "ok" or the "default" button. If not, click the
"ok" or the "default" button to return back to the typing window and then
click the left-to-right button shown in figure 6.
You will read more about "header" and "footer" in the following sections
of this chapter. For the time being, it is important to know what the
terms "header" and "footer" mean. A header, which can consist of text or
graphics, appears at the top of every page. A footer appears at the
GENERAL PRESENTATION 9
bottom of every page. Headers and footers often contain page numbers,
chapter titles, dates, and author names. In APA style, short titles are used
as the header on each and every page (more on this in the following
sections).
4. PARAGRAPH INDENTATION
You have already learnt that margins determine the overall width of the
main text area (i.e., the space between the text and the edge of the page).
Indentation, on the other hand, determines the distance of the paragraph
from either the margins. Within margins, you can increase or decrease
the indentation of a paragraph or a group of paragraphs. You can also
create a negative indent (also called outdent), which pulls the paragraph
out toward the left margin in left-to-right languages like English. First-
line indent (also known as regular indent) pushes the first line of a
paragraph away from the left/right margin. You can also create a
hanging or dangling indent, in which the first line of the paragraph is not
indented, but other lines are.
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There are two different styles for writing the paragraphs of your research
report: (a) first-line-indent mode and (b) block mode. In the first-line-
indent mode, the first line of the paragraph is usually pushed a little
10 GENERAL PRESENTATION
away from the margin. In other words, the first letter of the first line of
the paragraph does not appear over the first letter of the other lines of the
same paragraph. That is, the first line of the paragraph starts from a
different column than the other lines. All the other lines, however, start
from the same column. This distance is called first-line indent. The
length of this indent varies from 5 mm to 1.5 cm. It is a matter of your
own choice. The generally-accepted length is 5 mm.
In APA style, however, the start of each paragraph is indented 5-7
spaces (roughly 5 to 7 millimeters). Do not indent the abstract. If the
abstract consists of more than one paragraph (e.g., in masters' theses and
PhD dissertations), APA style recommends that all of the paragraphs be
indented except for the first one. When the abstract is only one
paragraph long, APA style prohibits indenting it in your papers or
reports. There are two ways for setting paragraph indentations: (a) using
the ruler tabs, and (b) using the paragraph format feature. The easiest
way is to use the tabs on the ruler in your Microsoft Word to set the
paragraph indentation (See figure 8). Be sure not to use the space or tab
keys on your keyboard for this purpose since this can cause problems
when you want to print the document on another computer—as is
usually the case.
In the block mode, on the other hand, the first letter of the first line of
the paragraph appears exactly over the first letter of each of the other
lines of the same paragraph. That is, all lines start from the same
column. Compare figures 9, 10, and 11 to see how the ruler tabs should
be set for block, first-line indented, and other-line indented (i.e., first-
line hanging or dangling) styles, respectively.
GENERAL PRESENTATION 11
Figure 9. Block style ruler tabs (No indentation)
12 GENERAL PRESENTATION
Regular 1st line indentation Hanging 1st line indentation
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This selection will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14.
Once the window is open, make sure that the "indents and spacing" tab
GENERAL PRESENTATION 13
is selected. Click the "indents and spacing" tab to select it if necessary.
Then you should be able to see the following window (without the
appended labels, of course). Now you can use the available features of
this window to set the line alignment, text direction, line indentation,
left- and right-side indentation, paragraph spacing (or the vertical
distance between paragraphs), and line spacing (or the vertical distance
between lines within paragraphs). You can see the changes for your
settings in the preview window labeled "previewing changes" in figure
14. Once you are done, click the ok button so that your changes will take
effect.
In writing the paragraphs of your research report, the use of either the
block mode or the indented mode is not a matter of choice. APA style
requires that you use the regular first line indentation set at 5 to 7
millimeters for the paragraphs, and even for your reference items on the
14 GENERAL PRESENTATION
reference list. Your supervisor may want you to use hanging or dangling
indentation set at 5 to 7 millimeters for the reference list of your report.
Therefore, be sure to check this with your supervisor or university
authorities.
Where you use quotations, if the quotation is longer than 40 words, you
should set it off from the foregoing and forthcoming sections of your
report. Here you need to use the block style for the quotation. Notice that
where APA style is not required, like in books, the American writer
usually prefers the block mode whereas the British writer, on the
contrary, seems to prefer the indented mode.
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GENERAL PRESENTATION 15
are the same. This is the format that APA style requires you to follow in
your research reports. In the reference section of your research report,
APA style requires that you use single spacing for the lines of each
source and double spacing between different sources. Here, you may
sometimes use hanging or dangling indentation.
In block mode (see figures 16 and 17), in contrast, the vertical distance
between two successive paragraphs is twice as much as the vertical
distance between the lines within each paragraph. That is, paragraph
spacing is two times bigger than line spacing. APA style requires the
block mode in two situations: (a) in quotations larger than 40 words, and
(b) in the first paragraph of abstracts. Notice that in most cases abstracts
are only one paragraph long. Figure 16 shows how a block quotation
will look in a research report.
In block quotations, line spacing usually comes one step down from that
of the main text. In other words, if lines of the main text are double-
spaced, lines of the block quotation are one-and-a-half spaced. If, on
16 GENERAL PRESENTATION
the other hand, the lines of the main text are one-and-a-half spaced, lines
of the block quotation are single-spaced.
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To set paragraph spacing, you can use the features of Microsoft Word
available from the menu bar. Move your mouse pointer to the "format"
menu and left-click to choose "paragraph" as shown in figure 13 above.
This will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14 above.
Now you can set the vertical distance between successive paragraphs by
identifying the number of points you wish to include before and/or after
each paragraph. To do this, you need to use the boxes "before" and/or
"after" provided under the heading "spacing" in the "paragraph" window.
This feature has been labeled "vertical paragraph spacing in figure 14
above so that you can easily locate it. Using your mouse pointer, you can
add the required spacing between successive paragraphs. Be sure not to
use the "enter key" on your keyboard to double the vertical space
between paragraphs—as you would do on an ordinary typewriter—since
this will create problems when you want to print your document using
another computer, as is often the case. To make it easier for you to
understand, part of the "paragraph" window (figure 14) is reproduced for
you here in figure 18.
GENERAL PRESENTATION 17
Figure 18. Setting vertical paragraph spacing in Microsoft Word
There are three standard types of vertical line spacing: (a) single spacing,
(b) one-and-a-half spacing, and (c) double spacing. There are also as
many non-standard types of line spacing as you can imagine. Compare
the sections of figure19.
18 GENERAL PRESENTATION
To set line spacing, you can use the features of Microsoft Word
available from the menu bar. Move your mouse pointer to the "format"
menu and left-click to choose "paragraph" as shown in figure 13 above.
This will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14 above. To
make it easier for you to understand how to set line spacing, part of the
"paragraph" window (figure 14) was reproduced for you in figure 18
above. Use the "line spacing" feature of the "paragraph" window (see
figures 14 and 18) to set line spacing. Shortcut buttons of the main
window of Microsoft Word provide another method of setting "line
spacing." Click the appropriate shortcut button and you are there (See
figure 20).
6. LINE ALIGNMENT
You have already learnt that many factors tell you how text is
positioned. Margins control the distance from the edge for all the text on
a page. Spacing controls the space needed between lines, and before and
after paragraphs. Paragraph indentation and alignment tell you how
paragraphs fit between the margins.
Alignment refers to the appearance of the edges of the paragraph. On the
whole, there are four types of horizontal paragraph alignment: (a) left-
aligned, (b) right-aligned, (c) centered, and (d) justified. The most
common type of paragraph alignment is left alignment. In a left-aligned
paragraph, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin. In
a right-aligned paragraph, on the other hand, the right edge of the
paragraph is flush with the right margin. A justified paragraph is one
GENERAL PRESENTATION 19
which has been aligned on both sides. That is, the left edge of the
paragraph is flush with the left margin, and the right edge with the right
margin.
Center alignment is somewhat different. Here you can imagine a mid-
line that passes across the length of the printable area of the page. The
center of each line of the paragraph should be flush with this imaginary
line. As such, the appearance of your paragraph will become
symmetrical. Center alignment is used for specific purposes like in the
title page of books.
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20 GENERAL PRESENTATION
the top or center of the page, or justify the paragraphs so that they are
spaced evenly down the page. To this end, you can use the "paragraph
spacing" feature of Microsoft Word discussed above, and illustrated by
figures 14, and 18. Shortcut buttons of the main window of Microsoft
Word provide another method of setting "line alignment." Click the
appropriate shortcut button and you are there (See figure 22).
APA style employs two types of alignments: (a) left alignment, and (b)
center alignment. The information presented on the title page of your
project needs to be presented with the center-alignment format. The rest
of the report will be left-aligned. However, your supervisor may want
you to use other forms of alignment. Thus, it is recommended that you
consult your supervisor to make sure which form of alignment you
should use in your research reports.
Please understand that it is very difficult and almost impossible to justify
paragraphs when you are not using a word processor installed in the hard
disk of your personal computer that runs under graphic mode—one like
Microsoft Word. Therefore, hand-written or mechanically typed
reports—by means of regular typewriters—should be left-aligned. You
are not allowed to write in the right margin. When you approach the end
of each line, you should decide whether the next word is small enough to
go within the remaining space. If not, you can do one of the two things:
(a) syllabify the word, or (b) move it to the next line.
Notice that syllabification should not be haphazard. You cannot break a
word at any place you like. There are rules for it. Many dictionaries, like
the American Heritage Dictionary, tell you where to break words. They
GENERAL PRESENTATION 21
indicate separate syllables, usually by a heavy black dot in the first entry.
For example, the word English may look like En•glish, the word
dictionary like dic•tion•ar•y, etc. The dots tell you where to break the
word. If you need to break the word English, you can only do this after
the letter n. Similarly, you can break the word dictionary at one of the
three places (that is, after the letters c, n, r). The first part is written at
the end of the line and is followed by a hyphen (-). No hyphen is needed
at the beginning of the next line. The rest of the word goes to the
beginning of the next line. Take the following example:
Jack really loves Mary. He knew that Mary loved convert-
ible cars. He went to the . . . .
As the example shows, the word convertible has been broken into two
parts: convert and ible.
more successive paragraphs. That is, line spacing and paragraph spacing are the
same. This is the format that APA style requires that you to follow when . . . .
Figure 23. Page header and number at upper right corner of page
You don't need to type these on every page yourself: use the 'header and
footer' function of your Microsoft Word, and they will appear
automatically on each page.
22 GENERAL PRESENTATION
Figure 24. Selecting "page numbers" from insert menu
As shown in figure 24, from the insert menu on the menu bar, select
"page numbers." This should open the following dialogue box:
Now, use the features of this dialog box to set the page numbers. Select
the "Top of page (Header)" as the position, and "Right" as the alignment.
Then click ok. The page numbers will automatically appear on each
page. To format the page number (i.e., to decide on Arabic/Roman/other
numerals as well as to select the starting page number—for chapters
GENERAL PRESENTATION 23
within books, theses, and dissertations), you can click the format button.
The following dialog box (figure 26) will appear and you can adjust the
settings you want:
To place the "short title" next to the page numbers, from the menu bar,
select the "view" menu and then "Header and Footer" as shown in figure
24 GENERAL PRESENTATION
27 above. Once you have selected the header and footer option, the
following dialog box will appear on the screen:
You will be able to locate the blinking cursor. Now you should decide
whether you want to put the short title as the footer or the header (APA
style says that it should be placed as the header on the upper right-hand
side of the page at a distance of 5 millimeters from the page number).
You should use the left mouse button to click the appropriate place—
header of footer (the mouse pointers in figure 28 above identify the
header and footer boxes). The blinking cursor is moved to that position.
Now, you can type the short title and adjust its position relative to the
page number by means of the tabs on the ruler, line alignment buttons,
and text direction (language selection) buttons identified in figure 28
above. You can also set the font and type face of the page header and
page the number as shown in figures 29 and 30 below.
Once you are done, click the close button to return to the typing window.
Now you will see the header and the page number on the pages of your
report as an embedded opaque image.
In masters' theses and PhD dissertations, like in books, chapter titles may
replace the short title. In addition, footers may be used instead of
GENERAL PRESENTATION 25
headers. This is, however, determined by your supervisor or university.
So, before deciding to use footers, or chapter titles, ask your supervisor
or university authorities which one they prefer.
It is very easy to set the font and its size for your research project. Take
a look at the following figure:
26 GENERAL PRESENTATION
You can move the mouse pointer to the fields labeled "name of selected
font" and "size of selected font" in figure 29 to select the appropriate
font and set its size. Notice that most fonts can have four different
appearances (called type face): regular, bold, italic, and bold-italic. Take
a look at table 2:
To set the appropriate type face, move the mouse pointer to the
appropriate button and left-click. To use the bold-italic type face, you
need to left-click both the bold and the italic shortcut buttons. Also
notice that these adjustments take effect only after you have selected the
text to be modified. To do this, you need to click, and hold the left
GENERAL PRESENTATION 27
mouse button down and drag your mouse over the text you want to
modify. This will highlight the text (as shown in figure 31 below). Then
you can release the mouse button, move its pointer to the appropriate
type-face button, and click the left mouse button. Now, you should be
able to see the change. Notice that text buttons show the direction in
which the blinking cursor moves as you type your report.
Figure 31. Selecting text and changing its type face in Microsoft Word
28 GENERAL PRESENTATION
CHAPTER TWO
TABLES AND FIGURES
1. INTRODUCTION
If you are using tables and figures (graphs) to present the results of your
study, you should consult the APA publication manual for the
requirements (see pp. 120-158 of the manual). A brief synopsis is
provided in this chapter for quick reference.
2. TABLES
In APA style, tables and their captions should follow a very strict
format. Take the following example:
Table 1
Correlation between Perceived Control and Well-being for
Males and Females
Table 16
Specification of Devices Used by US Army
Now, under Table size, select the number of columns and rows. Under
AutoFit behavior, choose options to adjust table size. To use a built-in
table format, click AutoFormat. This will open the table autoformat
dialogue box as shown in figure 5 below. Now, you should be able to
You can use the font size, font name, type face, and line alignment
windows and shortcut buttons to change the appearance of your tables.
Another good technique is to click and drag those cells, rows, columns
and even the whole of the table that you want to modify so that they will
be selected or highlighted. Then, you should move your mouse pointer
In order to highlight the whole of the table at once, you need to move the
mouse pointer to the upper left edge of the table (in Persian to the upper
right edge) to see the "anchor" as shown in figure 7.
By left-clicking the anchor, you will see that the whole of the table will
be highlighted (or blocked). Now, move your mouse pointer to the
highlighted area and right click to open the built-in table customization
menu as shown in figure 6 above. Use the available options of this menu
to customize your table as you wish. One of the most important skills
you need to master to be able to comply with APA style is to know how
The options of this dialogue box are identified by black mouse pointers
in figure 8. You can use these click points to customize your table.
Notice that the preview represents the highlighted area of the table that
you have already selected. If you have highlighted the whole table, the
preview represents the whole table. If you have selected only one cell
you will see only one box in the preview which represents that one cell.
Clicking any of the vertical or horizontal lines in the preview area will
cause a change in the corresponding area of the table. Before clicking
the preview-area lines, you need to select the kind of style, color, and
width that you want to apply to the highlighted area of the table. After
setting your desired changes, click ok to return to the main window of
If you select two or more cells vertically (or even a complete column),
the preview window will look like the one shown in figure 9. Here, all
the internal grid lines of the selected area will be represented by the mid
line in the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box.
Figure 10. Comparing table highlighted area 2 and the preview area
In addition, if you select a few cells both vertically and horizontally (or
even the whole table), the preview window will look like the one shown
in figure 11.
Here, all the internal vertical grid lines of the selected area will be
represented by the vertical mid line, and all the internal horizontal grid
lines of the selected area will be represented by the horizontal mid line
of the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box.
To set the shading of the table, or cells of the table, follow the steps as
shown by figures 6 and 8 above. Make sure that the shading tab (labeled
"shading tab" in figure 8 above) is selected. If not click to select it. This
will open the dialogue box shown in figure 12. Now you can use the
features of this dialogue box to customize the shading as you wish.
3. FIGURES
Figures are also numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2) but
separately from tables. The figure caption is presented below the figure
that it refers to. In the figure caption, the word 'Figure' and the number
of the figure is underlined, however the title is not underlined (see the
example below). Unlike tables, the main words in the caption are not
capitalized (only the first word is). The figure caption finishes with a
period.
For example:
6 IELTS
TBRT-GM
5
TBRT-AM
4
Mean score
TBRT-EM
3
0
Proficient Fairly-Proficient Semi-Proficient Non-Proficient
1. INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, a footnote was normally defined as a note at the bottom of
a page, giving further information about something mentioned in the text
above. A reference number or symbol would usually be printed after the
relevant word in the text and before the corresponding footnote at the
foot of the page. More recently, the term "footnote" has been extended to
mean 'an extra comment or information added to what has just been said
within the text' (usually within parentheses). APA style uses the label
"parenthetical citation" to refer to this kind of footnoting.
Spacapan (1991). There are two aims of this study: (a) to explore the
relationship between perceived control of internal states as measured
by the PCOISS1 and psychological wellbeing as . . . .
3. PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS
"Parenthetical citation" is the technical term used in APA style to refer
to a popular form of footnoting. Your readers should be able to
discover—without undue fuss—the source of any language or ideas you
have used in writing your paper/project that are not your own. This is an
important part of being a responsible member of the academic
community. When you use the ideas or language of someone else, you
can refer your readers easily to that resource by using something called a
parenthetical citation. Within parentheses, at the end of the "quoted
language" or "borrowed idea," key words should be used that refer your
readers to your page of references, where the readers can then find out
whatever bibliographic information is necessary to track down that
resource. The APA system of citing sources indicates the author's last
name and the date, in parentheses, within the text of your paper or
project (i.e., inline with the main text of your report or paper. Figure 2
shows how a parenthetical citation will look within the running text:
(Wesche, 1992). In this context, performance testing borrowed from the field of
vocational testing in which a test taker needs to carry out realistic tasks applying
language skills in actual or simulated settings (Carroll and Hall, 1985). The criteria
used for . . . .
If the quotation is made from two or more pages, the system needs some
variations. For consecutive pages—pages that follow each other—a
hyphen (-) is used; for non-consecutive pages, on the other hand, the
page numbers are set off by means of commas. The hyphen means "to"
and the comma means "and" in parenthetical citations of this type. Take
the following examples:
Example
Consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23-37)
Non-consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23, 27, 36)
Some universities (or even your supervisor) may want you to use a colon
(:) between the year and the page numbers instead of using the
abbreviations p. or pp. This is part of Modern Language Association
(MLA) style. Therefore, you need to ask your supervisor about the
preferred style. Take the following examples:
APA MLA
Single page: (Jason, 1994, p. 23) (Jason, 1994: 23)
Consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23-37) (Jason, 1994: 23-37)
Non-consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23, 27) (Jason, 1994: 23, 27)
4. QUOTATIONS
APA style instructs writers to document quotations, paraphrases,
summaries, and other information from sources as follows: "Document
your study throughout the text by citing by author and date the works
you used in your research. This style of citation briefly identifies the
source for readers and enables them to locate the source of information
in the alphabetical reference list at the end of the article" (Publication
Manual, p. 207). When using APA style, you should consult the
Publication Manual for general style requirements (e.g., style for metric
units) and for advice on preparing manuscripts and electronic texts.
You can remember from the preceding section that language quoted
directly from other people should be identified by the use of
parenthetical citations that show, the author's name, year of publication,
and page number(s). Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are
incorporated into the text, enclosed by double quotations marks ("), and
followed by parenthetical citations. Line spacing for short quotations is
the same as line spacing for the main text of the report. Take a look at
figure 3:
the following claim: "We are rarely concerned just with the particular
performance per se but also with the knowledge, skill, and other attributes
that enable both the given performance and a range of other performances
engaging the same knowledge and skills" (Messick, 1994, p. 16). This
suggests that constructs like relevant knowledge and skills, rather . . . .
Tests developed in the real-life mold, which equate language ability with a
specific language performance, are analogs to the training courses . . . .
Example:
"A former department head [James Damber] wrote . . . ."
In this example, "James Damber" has been added to the quotation. If you
change the type face (i.e., italicize, underline, …) of some parts of the
quoted material, indicate the change in parentheses. Take the following
example:
1. INTRODUCTION
Throughout your paper or research report, you must acknowledge the
sources of all the information that you provide (quotations or
references). You have already learnt how to do this by means of
parenthetical citations. In addition to parenthetical citations, APA style
requires that you provide an alphabetical list of references at the end of
your report—after its conclusion section.
2. REFERENCES
According to APA style, the sources in a paper or research report should
be listed alphabetically on a separate page headed References. It follows
the final page of the text and is numbered. Entries appear in alphabetical
order according to the last name of the author; two or more works by the
same author appear in chronological order by date of publication. When
there are two or more books or articles by the same author, repeat the
name of the author in each entry. Two or more works by the same author
with the same publication date are identified by lower-case letters of the
alphabet. Do not double space the distance between different sources.
Do not use first-line hanging or dangling indentation in your reference
list either.
In listing the references of your report or paper, notice that the title of
books and journals must be italicized unless your are using regular
typewriters that lack this feature. Here you need to use underlining
instead of italicizing the book/journal title.
To give you an insight as to how different types of sources should be
listed in your References section, a few examples are provided here.
REFERENCES 49
When using these examples, it is important to follow the suggested
pattern closely, even to the spacing of periods, commas, etc.
2.1. BOOKS
Books fall into a few categories. Each kind requires referencing of its
own. There are seven major kinds of books: (a) single-author books, (b)
multi-author books, (c) editions other than first, (d) edited volumes, (e)
books without author or editor listed, (f) multi-volume works, and (g)
multi-author articles in a multi-author volume. Examples of reference for
each kind have been presented here.
Notice that the abbreviation et al. (for "and others") is not used in the
reference list, regardless of the number of authors, although it can be
used in the parenthetical citation of material with three to five authors
(after the initial citation, when all are listed) and in all parenthetical
citations of material with six or more authors..
Single-author books
Alverez, A. (1970). The savage god: A study of suicide. New York:
Random House.
Multi-author books
Natarajan, R., & Chaturvedi, R. (1983). Geology of the Indian Ocean.
Hartford, CT: University of Hartford Press.
Hesen, J., Carpenter, K., Moriber, H., & Milsop, A. (1983). Computers
in the business world. Hartford, CT: Capital Press.
Edited volumes
Stanton, D. C. (Ed.). (1987). The female autograph: Theory and practice
of autobiography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
50 REFERENCES
Pepin, R. E. (1998). Uses of time in the political novels of Joseph
Conrad. In C. W. Darling, Jr., J. Shields, & V. B. Villa (Eds.),
Chronological looping in political novels (pp. 99-135). Hartford:
Capital Press.
Multi-volume works
To refer to a single volume, include only the relevant date and volume
number; to refer to another volume in the work, create another entry.
REFERENCES 51
As Villa trenchantly points out, "Perhaps the conflict seems so strong
because the stakes are so low." (as cited in Affleck, Allen, &
DeLoatch, 1997, p. 21).
Newspaper articles
If the article is "signed" (that is, you know the author's name), begin
with that author's name. (Notice the discontinuous pages.)
Poirot, C. (1998, March 17). HIV prevention pill goes beyond 'morning
after'. The Hartford Courant, pp. F1, F6.
If the author's name is not available, begin the reference with the
headline or title in the author position.
New exam for doctor of future. (1989, March 15). The New York Times,
B-10.
52 REFERENCES
2.4. NON-PRINT MEDIA
Non-print media includes films, cassettes, musical recordings, and so on.
Reference to these materials has its own specific style. The following
examples show how you can write references of this kind.
Films
Cassettes
Musical recording
REFERENCES 53
Example: According to Connie May Fowler, the sources for her novel
Sugar Cane were largely autobiographical (personal
communication, July 22, 1997).
54 REFERENCES
Example 1: R.W. Runyon (personal communication, April 18, 1993)
Example 2: (M. Kohel, personal communication, June 28, 1993)
However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following
elements are necessary for the reference page:
The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If
the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date of
your search. Take the following example:
REFERENCES 55
On-line journals, subscriber-based
Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. (1993. October 2). Central vein
occlusion study of photocoagulation: Manual of operations [675
paragraphs]. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials [On-line
serial]. Availabe: Doc No. 92
2.8. ABSTRACTS
Abstracts are the short synopses of long research reports that appear in
one-paragraph or one-page formats. Very often they can be retrieved
from online sources. Some libraries provide CD-ROMs or Microfilms
that contain abstracts. Within brackets, identify the source: (e.g., [CD-
ROM] or [Microfilm]). Citing reference to abstracts requires specific
skills. The following examples will help.
On-line abstract
Meyer, A.S., & Bock, K.. (1992). The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:
Blocking or partial activation? [On-line]. Memory & Cognition, 20.
715-726. Abstract from: DIALOG File: PsychINFO Item: 80-16351
Abstract on CD-ROMs
Bower, DL. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals:
Characteristics of referring and nonreferring supervisors [CD-
ROM]. Abstract from: Proquest File: Dissertation Abstracts Item:
9315947
56 REFERENCES
2.10. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Unpublished materials are usually housed by college and university
libraries. The often-referred-to materials of this kind are masters' theses
and PhD dissertations.
Dissertations
When you have used the actual dissertation (usually from the shelves of
the University where it was written, sometimes obtained through
interlibrary loan), the reference will look like:
Dissertation abstracts
When you have used an abstract of the dissertation found on microfilm
in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), your reference may take
the following form:
For masters' theses, do the same thing. This time, you will use the phrase
"Unpublished masters' thesis" in the reference instead of the phrase
"Unpublished doctoral dissertation."
3. BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Bibliographies are alphabetical lists of books and articles dealing with
specific subjects or general areas of study; for example, the Cambridge
Bibliography of English Literature. Although they contain no facts
themselves, bibliographies are the most complete references of where to
find the facts. Most are annotated with notes about each item to indicate
special qualities or usefulness.
You are seldom asked to write bibliographies because the reference list
of your research report should normally include only reference to the
REFERENCES 57
items you actually used in your study. However, your supervisor or
university may require that you prepare a bibliography in addition to the
list of references of your report. If so, notice that the points discussed in
sections 2 through 2.10 above must be observed.
4. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
An annotated bibliography will have the same basic layout as a
Reference page. However, There are three major differences. First, you
can include in your bibliography works that you think would be useful to
your reader that you might not have used in the writing of this particular
paper or article. Second, you can break down the references into useful
categories and arrange those categories in ways that you think would be
helpful to your reader. Third, you can add commentary to the references,
telling your reader the particular virtues (or, if necessary, the
shortcomings) of that resource. Commentaries should be concise,
economical summaries, written in sentence fragments; if related,
fragments should be connected with semicolons. The commentary
should begin on a new line, indented slightly from the preceding line.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior:
Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-
1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Documents connections between children's lack of attention in
school and hours of television watching; provides scientific
evidence of changed viewing habits over ten years.
5. FINAL REMARKS
On the World Wide Web, the author's name is not always available. If
you have determined that the material nonetheless has scholarly integrity
(because, say, it was published on the web-site of a responsible scholar
or prestigious university), you would list that resource in your Reference
page the same way you would treat a book without an author: begin your
reference with the title. Parenthetically, within your text, use the title of
the document so that your reader can find the list on your References
page and discover, then, how to find that document.
58 REFERENCES
CHAPTER FIVE
APA INTRICACIES
1. INTRODUCTION
Chapters one through four presented the main elements of APA style.
There are a few other aspects of APA style that require your attention.
These aspects include:
2. HEADINGS
The APA publication manual gives clear guidelines concerning the
format to be used for the different levels of headings. The term
"heading" refers to the phrases that label the different sections of a
paper, research report, book, masters' thesis, or PhD dissertation. The
four major levels of heading identified by the APA publication manual
are illustrated below:
For many research reports only two levels of headings are required. In
this case, the publication manual suggests using heading level 2 and
heading level 3, as illustrated below.
APA INTRICACIES 59
Abstract
Title (Using Capital Letters for Main Words)
Method
Participants
Materials
Procedure
Results
Discussion
References
60 APA INTRICACIES
4. PUNCTUATION SPACING
Punctuation includes commas, colons, end-of-sentence punctuation (or
periods/full stops), punctuation in quotations, spaces between words, and
semicolons should be closely observed in your research reports. APA
style makes some suggestions for the correct use of punctuation in your
reports.
Place one space after punctuation (: ; . , ? ! etc.) because the APA now
calls for one space to appear after all punctuation marks. If you are using
a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces
after end-periods and colons, but consult your supervisor first to make
sure about his/her preferences.
EXCEPTIONS:
1) No space is needed after internal periods in abbreviations.
Example:
a.m. but not a. m. i.e., but not i. e. , U.S. but not U. S.
Example:
6:1 but not 6: 1 5:2 but not 5: 2 7:6 but not 7: 6
Example:
Dashes are typed as two hyphens with no space before, between or after
them.
Example:
APA INTRICACIES 61
Note that Microsoft Word will automatically change the appearance of
the dash. The above example, when typed in Microsoft Word will look
like this:
Example:
Example:
Here, again, Microsoft Word will automatically pull the hyphen to make
it longer so that it will resemble the "minus" sign more closely.
Also notice that opening punctuation marks like ( { [ " ' are preceded but
not followed by a space. Take the following examples:
CORRECT WRONG
It (the Moon) has . . . . It( the Moon )has . . . .
Jack said, "I will . . . ." Jack said , " I will . . . . "
etc.
Table 1. Examples of right and wrong punctuation use
The hints provided in the next section help you minimize the possibility
of punctuation and spelling errors in your research reports.
5. FINAL REMARKS
In Microsoft Word the enter key on the keyboard should only be used at the
end of each paragraph or block.
To minimize the possibility of error in your research reports. You can
use the features of Microsoft Word available from the tools menu on the
62 APA INTRICACIES
menu bar to set the writing and grammar options for your documents
before you start typing them. To access these options, you need to open
the "options" dialogue box. See figure 1:
This should open the Options dialogue box as shown in figure 2. When
the dialogue box opens, make sure that the "Spelling & Grammar" tab
should be selected for setting the required options. If this is not done by
Microsoft Word default settings, click the tab to select it. Then you will
be able to set the options as you like.
Also notice that if you are setting options for text written in a language
other than your language version of Word, the options may differ in the
dialog box. For example, if you are typing Spanish text in an English
document, the grammar and style options for Spanish will be different
from the ones for English.
APA INTRICACIES 63
Figure 2. Setting spelling and grammar options in Microsoft Word
The following are grammar and writing style options you can set in the
Grammar Settings dialog box (Tools menu, Options command, Spelling
& Grammar tab—as shown in figures 1 and 2):
Capitalization problems, such as proper nouns ("Mr. jones" should
be "Mr. Jones") or titles that precede proper nouns ("aunt Helen"
should be "Aunt Helen");
Numerals that should be spelled out (use nine instead of 9), and vice
versa (use 12 instead of twelve). The option also detects incorrect
usage of "%" in place of "percentage;"
64 APA INTRICACIES
Use of contractions that should be spelled out or that are considered
too informal for a specific writing style—for example, "We won't
leave 'til tomorrow" instead of "We will not leave until tomorrow;"
Gender-specific language, such as "councilman" and
"councilwomen" which should be replaced by non-gender-specific
(or non-sexist) language;
Questionable but not strictly incorrect possessive usages such as
"Her memory is like an elephant's" or "I stopped by John's;"
Pronouns "I" and "me," which shouldn’t be used in scientific or
technical writing;
Wordy relative clauses or vague modifiers (such as "fairly" or
"pretty"), redundant adverbs, too many negatives, the unnecessary
use of "or not" in the phrase "whether or not," or the use of "possible
… may" in place of "possible … will."
After setting the options, click ok. This will return you to the main Word
window. You will see the effect of the set options when you type your
research report.
APA INTRICACIES 65
SECTION TWO
LIBRARY RESEARCH
LIBRARY RESEARCH 67
CHAPTER SIX
THE LIBRARY
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the key capabilities that university students should be able to
develop in themselves is the ability to use research findings from their
own and related fields. A good place where they can assimilate an
increasing amount of knowledge to keep abreast of recent developments
in their field is the library. Literally thousands of books, periodicals,
documents, and pamphlets are placed on library shelves each year. Skill
is required in making a comprehensive search for information about a
specific topic. A failure to develop these skills will lead to much wasted
effort and frustration.
Although a knowledge of library methods is desirable for the consumer
of research, it is essential for the research worker. Too often graduate
and undergraduate students and other beginning research workers try to
solve a problem without attempting to determine whether others have
conducted investigations in the same area.
This chapter, designed to help the consumer and research worker gain
knowledge of library skills, emphasizes that library study is not a
meaningless activity but an essential ingredient of the systematic
approach to problem solving. The major sections of this chapter include
(1) a statement of the purpose of library study, (2) a description of
library resources, and (3) suggestions of methods which will aid in the
collection of data from library resources.
2. LIBRARY SOURCES
Many excellent libraries are available to graduate and undergraduate
students throughout the world. Because of the differences in
organization of materials, detailed instructions about the use of a library
THE LIBRARY 69
may not be helpful; therefore, attention has to be focused on library
sources and on methods which can serve in any library setting.
A useful method for learning about library sources is to visit the library
where the research is to be carried out. First, contact the head librarian
and arrange for a description of the sources and their location. A guided
tour of the various sections of the library should follow. The initial
orientation time can be spent browsing to become familiar with the
location of various sections and departments.
Library source are either general sources (called generalities) or specific
sources (called specifics). General sources talk about more than one
topic assigning a few pages or one single chapter to each topic.
Encyclopedias are the best example of general sources. Specifics, on the
other hand, are totally devoted to one single topic. For example,
Chomsky's Studies on semantics in generative grammar (Chomsky,
1972) discusses only one topic—namely semantics in generative
grammar.
Undergraduate students are asked to use generalities because their
research reports are supposed to be relatively short (not more than 20
pages). Furthermore, only a small section of this short report will be
dedicated to literature review—no more than a few pages, say, 2 or 3 at
best. PhD and masters' students, on the other hand, will find specifics
more promising for their research projects. This is because of the fact
that a full chapter is dedicated to the review of the related literature in
PhD dissertations and masters' theses.
On the whole, major library sources of use to research workers fall into
the following seven categories:
70 THE LIBRARY
2.1. STANDARD REFERENCES
Certain references are consulted first whenever there is a systematic
library search. The librarian can provide information about the
availability of these sources although the best way to become familiar
with the basic references is to study the organization of their contents
carefully.
2.1.1. ENCYCLOPEDIAS
Encyclopedias are the most important example of standard references.
They contain summaries of research studies arranged by topics. The
content of each topic has been prepared by a specialist who volunteered
to summarize research findings for his specific area of interest. These
summaries cannot be considered as substitutes for the original research
reports but can be used for screening purposes to limit the scope of the
library search. If a study appears relevant, a reference to the original
source is provided at the end of each section. Because of the time
required to prepare a comprehensive encyclopedia, studies in print less
than one year before the publication date of a given encyclopedia will
probably not be described in that source.
Recently, the major encyclopedias of the world have been marketed in
the form of CD-ROM volumes that can be viewed on personal
computers. Updates of these electronic encyclopedias are available on
the Internet. The major volumes that are available in electronic format
are Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia Africana, Encyclopedia
Encarta, and Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Encarta is perhaps
the best in this rich aristocracy of electronic encyclopedias.
2.1.2. DICTIONARIES
Dictionaries are the constant companions of a researcher. Because a
researcher must define terms with precision, a knowledge of which
dictionaries to use is an inevitable part of successful library research.
Among the better-known general dictionaries are the Oxford English
Dictionary (12 volumes), Dictionary of American English on Historical
Principles (4 volumes), Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary,
and Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language.
More specialized dictionaries are also needed at times. Longman
THE LIBRARY 71
Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by Richards,
Platt, and Platt (1985) is one such dictionary. A Dictionary of Linguistics
and Phonetics by David Crystal (1980) is another specialized dictionary.
Students of English literature will also find valuable information in
specialized dictionaries of their own field.
2.1.3. THESAURI
Thesauri are a new type of reference. A thesaurus is a reference book
that has been compiled in conjunction with the development of
information retrieval systems. A thesaurus of descriptors is a list of
words and phrases that indexers use to describe a periodical article or
research report so that it can be stored for future search and retrieval.
Researchers can use them to search for information that has been stored
in the system. Two of the thesauri that provide indexers and researchers
with a common communication system are (1) The New York Times
Thesaurus of Descriptors: A Guide for Organizing, Indexing, and
Searching Collections of Information on Current Events, and (2) The
Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors.
72 THE LIBRARY
less arduous and time-consuming if the researcher is well acquainted
with the various labor-saving devices at his disposal. He may find books
and periodicals in the library that will help him locate bibliographies that
have already been compiled. Of course, the bibliographies will vary in
type and quality; some will be exhaustive and others selective or brief;
some will be annotated—providing brief descriptions of each source—
and others not. If the bibliographies are compiled by experts in the field
and give clues to the content, general value, scholarship, and significant
features of the publications, that is, if they are annotated, they may save
the researcher weeks of searching time.
2.2. BOOKS
Material included in textbooks and other expository works may contain
authoritative information that is very helpful to the research worker.
Unfortunately, the contents of books are seldom classified in external
sources in sufficient detail to insure complete access by conventional
search methods. The sources of such information follow.
Author subject card index: All libraries contain card catalogues. Many
provide an author-title index and a subject index. The author-title index
is an alphabetical listing of all the titles and a separate listing for authors;
for example, three cards would be found in the author-title index for a
book titled Recreation by Jones and Smith, one under "recreation" and
one for each author. A card entry would also be found under "recreation"
in the subject catalogue and also, depending on the contents of the book,
references may be found under "camping," "fishing," "wild life," "golf,"
or "bird watching."
Each card in the author-subject card index will usually contain either a
cross-reference to another card or information regarding the (1) author or
authors, (2) title, (3) date of publication, (4) description of contents, and
(5) Library of Congress card number.
Subject headings: This source published by the Library of Congress is a
valuable adjunct to the card catalogue system developed by the college
library. As an example, if the researcher is unable to find a desired topic
in the regular card catalogue, use of Subject Headings will indicate other
categories where the topic might be found. Because many libraries use
Subject Headings as a guide for establishing subject card catalogues, this
THE LIBRARY 73
volume is usually conveniently located near the main card catalogue.
The library staff can assist in its use.
Books in print: This source is an author and title series index to the
Publishers Trade List Annual. It contains a listing of most books Printed
by 1,400 American publishers and includes more than 163,000 entries.
Included is a reference to author, title, publisher, and cost; however,
books, published in English in foreign countries, government
documents, certain law volumes, and many paperback editions are not
listed. Listings are divided into two sections; in the first, publications are
arranged alphabetically by author. The second section contains an
alphabetical listing of titles. Often, when only the author or title of a
work is known, Books In Print will enable the researcher to obtain
sufficient additional information to provide a complete bibliographic
reference.
Cumulative book index: Issued since 1938, this source contains a listing
of all books published in the English language; therefore, its coverage is
somewhat broader than Books In Print. The source, however, does not
list government documents.
Books out of print: Frequently the researcher is unable to obtain a
published volume in the library or through an interlibrary loan because it
is out of print. Several methods for acquiring such a source can be used.
First, the librarian can be requested to place the bibliographic reference
on an out-of-print list which is circulated among librarians and book
readers. Second, he can examine listings in the Antiquarian Bookman
available from Box 1100, Newark, New Jersey. This periodical contains
commercial listings of rare and out-of-print volumes. Third, the
researcher can contact University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, to
determine whether facsimiles of the volume are available on microfilm
or xerographic enlargements.
74 THE LIBRARY
practicing educator should possess sufficient skill in legal research to
meet the day-to-day requirements for information arising out of the
practice of his profession. Legal sources can be divided into four
categories, namely, dictionaries, codes, administrative regulations, and
court decisions.
2.3.2. CODES
Legal codes contain a list of laws enacted by legislative bodies. Federal
codes are listed in official sources in two ways: (1) serially by data and
(2) by topic. In the United States, both federal codes and the code of the
local state laws can be found in most university libraries; only large law
libraries contain complete sets of codes for all of the states.
THE LIBRARY 75
can be used as a good source of information regarding the state of
language teaching and learning policies in a country.
1. Bibliographic Index
2. Biography Index
3. Child Development Abstracts
4. Essay and General Literature Index
5. International Index to Periodicals
6. Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature
76 THE LIBRARY
access to specific sources is difficult. Government documents provide a
rich reference source frequently bypassed in routine library searches.
THE LIBRARY 77
2.7. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Results of most recently conducted research studies quite frequently are
first available in unpublished form. Many worthwhile studies in addition
to masters' theses and doctoral dissertations do not appear in published
form. These include papers presented at conferences, intern research
reports, studies conducted for associations and groups, and the products
of the efforts of school district personnel. The assumption should not be
made that the highest quality research is always published in journals.
On the contrary, because of the limited interest in certain topics,
valuable studies may not be included in the conventional research
journals.
78 THE LIBRARY
2.7.3. OTHER UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
Other unpublished sources can be found in the pamphlets section of the
library, in the card catalogue, or in special field service collections.
Direct contact can be made with associations and school districts where
certain types of research are known to be under way. Unpublished
research studies provide a rich source of information for the investigator
who desires to give an accurate portrayal of the present status of
knowledge in a specific topic area. The sources, however, are less
systematically organized and catalogued than other published sources.
THE LIBRARY 79
Figure 1. Ask Jeeves search window
80 THE LIBRARY
systematic method for collecting information that will help the
investigator utilize the results of library research more fully. In
conducting an historical study, an extensive content analysis, or a
comprehensive literature review or survey to determine the current
status of knowledge in a special field, the researcher may collect
material from a great many sources for future use. He must use an
adequate method for recording and filing notes that maximizes accuracy
and minimizes time spent in nonproductive clerical work. The easiest
and the most economical method is to use note cards. This is the focus of
the next chapter (chapter 7).
THE LIBRARY 81
educational psychology. Many of the journal articles listed under the
appropriate topics can be eliminated from consideration by examining
the titles.
A list should be made of journal articles and books with titles which
indicate a relationship to the selected topics. Sufficient bibliographic
information should be recorded to insure location of the sources. An
examination of the most recent sources will provide bibliographies to
earlier works which may be useful. A list of these should be compiled
and checked off when the search is continued. An important source of
information concerning current research not in published form can be
obtained by examining copies of the Dissertation Abstracts or the
Masters' Abstracts which contain short summaries of doctoral
dissertations and masters' theses completed by graduate students in
subscribing institutions. If the description of the study indicates it
contains needed information, the complete work should be obtained
through the interlibrary loan service or from the publishers of
Dissertation Abstracts.
The description of standard search methods presented in the preceding
paragraphs emphasizes one principle. It is absolutely necessary to refer
to original sources; use commentaries on and summaries of research
only as a means of identifying original sources.
82 THE LIBRARY
select pertinent areas of these disciplines to add to the body of
educational knowledge.
3.3.2. READERS
Reader is a name commonly used to designate selections of works which
have been collected into one volume with editorial comments and
explanation by the editors. The readers present an excellent source for
the research worker who wishes to gain knowledge about other academic
areas.
3.3.4. BROWSING
Many graduate students have encountered a study with important
implications for their investigation while browsing through books and
periodicals. The ease of browsing depends on the physical organization
of library facilities. When books and periodicals are catalogued in open
stacks without restrictions, browsing can be more easily accomplished
than when each book or periodical must be checked out prior to
examination.
THE LIBRARY 83
have a bearing on his specialty whatever it might be. Although the
research worker uses the library for somewhat different purposes, a
knowledge of his use of the literature is essential to evaluate the quality
and interpret the findings of studies.
In masters' theses and PhD dissertations, there should be a chapter that
presents the background and history of the topic under study. Although it
is often possible to locate a "state of the art" article about the research
topic in a specialized journal that presents this needed background and
history whole sale, very often PhD candidates and masters' students will
have to use library resources to write their reviews of the related
literature.
Before a research worker initiates a study, he must first determine what
has previously been done in the topic area. In addition to classic studies,
a thorough knowledge of contemporary research in the topic area would
also be necessary. Current status in a specific area cannot be determined
by skimming and by reading summaries of studies; intensive analysis is
required. Determination of current status in a field of knowledge
requires access to the most accurate sources available.
84 THE LIBRARY
relevant studies in other areas unless you take special steps in addition to
prescribed library search methods. Useful findings from other fields may
not be utilized by research workers because of a lack of communication
among research workers in the various fields of study.
4.3. BE CRITICAL
More than a single study usually has been conducted relating to a
problem area selected by you for your term project. The report of these
related studies must be analyzed line by line; even the meaning of each
word must be determined, if possible.
The purpose of this critical analysis is threefold. The quality of
individual studies must be ascertained. The findings of two or more
studies should be analyzed to determine if investigators concurred in
their findings and should be contrasted to identify differences in their
conclusions. Disagreements of two or more competent investigators
about the exact nature of facts leads to the third consideration, namely, a
determination of the gaps in the existing body of knowledge. The
research worker may then decide to do his research in such a way as to
fill this gap.
Library scholarship is essential for constructing a foundation upon which
quality research can be built. Before moving ahead, the research worker
must be aware of what is known with some degree of certainty, what is
accepted as truth by some but not by others, and must have some inkling
of the nature of unexplored areas where additional research should be
conducted.
Many research projects necessitate the use of instruments such as
questionnaires, schedules, attitude scales, rating scales, and achievement
tests, and apparatus such as soundproof booths, one-way mirrors, and
other devices. Development of valid and reliable instruments with which
to conduct an investigation may require a great amount of expertise,
time, and effort. If appropriate, the use of instruments developed and
validated by others will save time and serve also to relate the problem
under study to other better known "facts." A library-based survey of the
literature can be initiated for the primary purpose of identifying valid
instruments, proven methods, or appropriate apparatus. Therefore,
THE LIBRARY 85
library search is a useful tool, available for the research worker, that
makes the selection of data collection instruments easy.
To formulate the null and alternate hypothesis for statistical analysis in
an experimental design an investigator may be justified in guessing
tentatively the outcome of the research. This guess, or estimate, of the
outcome should be based on research findings from similar
investigations and related to a theoretical rationale. In comparing the
relative merits of two given methods of language teaching, for example,
the investigator should examine previous research studies in which these
methods were compared. He could make one of four decisions:
5. FINAL REMARKS
In connection to language teaching, the most important purpose for
conducting library research is to improve the effectiveness of teaching
practices. The aims previously described for library research were
86 THE LIBRARY
directed toward improving the quality of planned research
investigations. All investigations, however, are aimed at improving the
effectiveness of the classroom teacher.
Quite clearly, if the teacher and school administrator do not familiarize
themselves with results of studies, most of the effort expended by
research workers will be wasted. A thorough review of the literature
should be made before school district personnel embark on an
experimental language teaching program or make changes in existing
programs which have proven satisfactory in the past.
In addition to other considerations including acceptance by teachers,
parents, and members of the general public, change must follow a
careful examination of related research findings. By utilizing the library,
practicing educators can profit from the successes of others. They can
also eliminate or circumvent causes of failure.
THE LIBRARY 87
CHAPTER SEVEN
NOTE KEEPING
1. INTRODUCTION
The term "note" is often used to refer to something written down, often
in abbreviated form, as a record or reminder. There are two note keeping
methods: (a) note taking, and (b) note making. To take notes suggests a
passive procedure of recording words verbatim, like a secretary taking
dictation; to make notes demands your full attention. In this book,
however, the two terms have been used interchangeably.
2. NOTE KEEPING
Critical note taking is an exciting, challenging experience; passive note
taking is a monotonous, boring activity. A nonselective unsystematic
method of recording notes usually piles up tangled masses of data that
are a greater obstacle than an aid to a researcher who is working on a
problem. An efficient note taking system preserves the most significant
ideas in a form that facilitates shifting, comparing, grouping, and
ordering items. When you write the final report of your research study,
pertinent, precise, and flexible notes can be organized and synthesized
into original thought patterns more easily than continuous pages of
rambling, jumbled information.
There are two types of note cards: (a) subject notes, and (b)
bibliographical notes. Subject notes are used to keep paraphrased
material or quoted language. Bibliographical notes are used to keep the
bibliographical information of the source used in note taking.
Subject and bibliographical notes serve different purposes. Each type of
note possesses its individual characteristics. from a practical standpoint,
mongrel notes (part bibliographical and part subject) are useless.
Copying full bibliographical data on each subject card would be
NOTE KEEPING 89
excessively time-consuming; failing to put full data on mongrel notes
would cause difficulties; therefore, keeping the two types of note cards
separate is advisable.
Any note taking system that serves your needs is acceptable, but the
well-tested subject and bibliographical note taking procedures discussed
below are worthy of consideration.
Before taking any notes, skim quickly through a few of the best
references. Examine the table of contents, topical headlines, and
summary paragraphs to ascertain the purpose, scope, biases, and
distinctive features of the reference. Read only those sections that
90 NOTE KEEPING
relate to your problem and record the location of important facts or
passages. If you own the book, underline these items; if not, list the
location of them on a card in an abbreviated form, such as 198:2, 4-6
(page 198: paragraph 2, lines 4-6). Photocopying some materials may
save considerable time. After you have skimmed the references,
reevaluate the underlined, listed, or photocopied passages and copy or
paraphrase the most pertinent ones on your subject cards. (Van Dalen,
1962, p. 97)(italics mine)
NOTE KEEPING 91
typing; others prefer cards because they are more durable and easier to
sort and arrange. The nature of the study and the idiosyncrasies of the
writer determine what size card or paper is most serviceable. Subject
cards may require a larger-size card than bibliographical notes. It is
recommended that you use same size cards for both bibliographical and
subject notes. It is also recommended that you refrain from using paper
instead of cards.
Note cards are most convenient for recording notes from printed sources.
Most commonly used size is 10 × 15 cm. The paper used for making
note cards should be thick and stiff enough so that they can be handled
easily. It is recommended that two different colors be used for subject
and bibliographical cards for ease of reference at a later time. It is also
recommended that the subject and bibliographical cards be of the same
size.
92 NOTE KEEPING
Subject notes, also called subject cards, are used to keep paraphrased
material or quoted language. Each subject card should also contain brief
bibliographical information about the source, a blank subject line, and
the paraphrased or quoted idea or language (See figure 1 above).
At the upper left corner of the card, the author's surname and the year of
publication of the source should be indicated (e.g., Jason, 1994). A
comma will separate these two pieces of information. If there are more
than one authors, use APA conventions discussed in previous chapters.
At the upper right corner of the card, the page number(s) should be
written. If the material on the card is being quoted or paraphrased from a
single page of the source, the abbreviation "p." will precede the page
number (e.g., p. 48).
Pervin, 1963 p. 32
NOTE KEEPING 93
When the note has been taken from two or more consecutive pages, the
abbreviation pp. will be used, and the starting-and-end-page numbers are
used with a hyphen between them (e.g., pp. 32-35). If the pages are not
consecutive, hyphen will be replaced by comma (e.g., pp. 32, 35). One
space below the head information, you need to draw a centered line
(called the subject line). Nothing should be written on this line. It should
be kept blank until you have collected all the note cards you need for
your study. The reason for this will be discussed below. Paraphrased or
quoted information can be left-aligned or justified. A sample note card
will look like figure 3 below.
Writing notes on both sides of a card is a mistake. If you must flip cards
constantly when organizing notes into a logical order, you may become
confused and overlook items. Have you ever searched desperately for a
note, only to find it much later tucked away on the back of a card—
which you assumed to be blank?
Douglas, 2000 p. 19
OVER
94 NOTE KEEPING
*
NOTE KEEPING 95
Shohamy, 1995 p. 196
Cont 1
The second card does not need a subject line. If extra information
remains when you come to the end of the second card, your should either
96 NOTE KEEPING
write the remaining information at the back of the second card (if it is a
fragment of a sentence, or continue to the third, fourth, fifth … cards.
Here you need to use Cont 2, Cont 3, Cont 4, Cont 5, etc. Only the first
card requires the subject line (See figure 5).
Cont 1
Cont 2
NOTE KEEPING 97
Shohamy, 1995, Cont 2 p. 196
Cont 3
98 NOTE KEEPING
Entries on the card can be made in handwriting; however, if a typewriter
can be used in the library, note-taking is faster, especially when large
quantities of material are to be recorded verbatim. Recent technological
developments have made computers and scanners available. You can
scan the sections of the printed material you want to use, save them
using TIF file format, convert them into text by different OCR software
packages—like AABBYY Sprint—and open them in you Microsoft
Word software for editing and use.
Entries on note cards should be coded systematically to facilitate ease of
access when the materials are being analyzed for writing the research
report. The cards can be filed in small recipe boxes, steel files, or fiber
folders. Cards should be indexed in two ways—by author and subject.
The cards should be arranged with the author's surname listed in the
upper left-hand corner, using the standard bibliographic reference form.
Cards can then be filed alphabetically by author.
IMPORTANT NOTICE 1
Since bibliographical cards (explained below) carry the
complete data for references, the subject card may merely
identify the source by author's surname and publication date,
but it must indicate the exact page or pages from which the
note is derived. Since each footnote in your final report will
have to state the complete bibliographical information for the
reference, forgetting to record the source and page of a note
may cause discouraging delays when you are ready to write up
the study. Days may be spent in obtaining a reference again and
rereading it to locate a quotation—and the search may not
always culminate in success.
As you have already noticed, there are two types of note cards: (a)
paraphrased-information cards, and (b) quoted-material cards. Some
researchers include a third type of subject cards—summary cards. It is
much wiser if you use different colors for different type of cards. For
NOTE KEEPING 99
example, you may decide to use pink cards for paraphrasing, yellow
cards for quotations, gray cards for summaries, and white cards for
bibliographical notes. This will help you file and retrieve your cards
more easily. Furthermore, it will save you in case you forget to use
quotation marks on cards to identify quoted language.
Now you may want to know which type of materials should be
paraphrased and which quoted. It is wiser if you use direct quotation
cards for:
IMPORTANT NOTICE 2
For purposes of critically analyzing the results of research
studies, reproduction of the entire study should be obtained.
Most libraries have book copiers for photo reproduction of
material from bound volumes. To avoid its high cost, the
publishers of journals can be contacted to determine if reprints
of studies are available. The researcher must exercise judgment
in selecting and accurately recording the essential parts of
printed materials.
IMPORTANT NOTICE 3
It is much safer if you use separate cards, and preferably cards
with a color different from your subject and bibliographical cards,
for your personal ideas and reactions. Needless to say, this will
save you from later confusion.
To prevent materials from getting lost during the collection of data, file
your notes regularly in a convenient depository. Use vertical files, letter
files, accordion files, work organizers, or large manila folders and a
cardboard box of the proper size. To speed the filing of notes and to
order them in a manner that will facilitate writing the final report, label
the file guide cards with the main topics and subtopics in your report
outline. Keep your filing system up-to-date. If a category that was once
important is no longer useful, place the notes under other topics or place
them in an inactive file until the study is completed. When you must add
new topics, fit them properly into the organizational scheme of the
report.
Some professional researchers recommend that at least 35% of all the
cards should be quoted-information cards. The remaining 65% of the
cards will be paraphrased-information cards. After you have collected all
your cards, you need to leave them aside for a few days during which
you give yourself a period of rest. This is important because you need to
"desuggest" your mind before you can label the cards.
OK
OK
3. PLAGIARISM
Closely related to library research is the notion of plagiarism. The term
plagiarism is used to refer to the act of stealing original ideas of others
and presenting them as one's own original ideas without identifying their
sources. The plagiarist is the student or scholar who leads readers to
believe that what they are reading is the original work of the writer—
when it is not. There are several species of plagiarism.
4. FINAL REMARKS
While doing library research, always remember that the purpose of
"paraphrase" should be to simplify or to throw a new and significant
light on a text. Paraphrasing requires much skill if it is to be honestly
used and should rarely be resorted to by the student except for the
purpose of his personal enlightenment. Some ideas are clearly drawn
from an original source, but there are ideas that are in "the public
domain." In other words, they are ideas that have been accepted
generally, and that many writers have used before. In this case, the
student may use them without footnotes. However, if there is any doubt
about the source, the student should footnote the idea.
1. INTRODUCTION
A research reports consists of specific sections or chapters. APA style
sets specific rules as to how a research report should be prepared. Type
the manuscript on one side of standard-sized heavy white bond paper,
(A4-size, 20-pound bond). Computer paper ("tractor-fed") is acceptable,
but the pin hole borders must be removed. (Razor-edge is preferable.)
Erasable bond and onion skin are not acceptable. If you must prepare
your paper on erasable bond, prepare a good copy of your paper on a
copying machine and submit the copy instead of the original.
One-inch margins (2.54 cm) at the top, bottom, right and left sides are
now required by APA. Double spacing is required throughout the paper.
Double-space after every line of the title, headings, quotations,
references, etc. Do not use single or one-and-a-half spacing unless your
supervisor tells you to do so. If you wish to use single-spacing for
quotations of verse and drama because it more nearly approximates what
the poet and dramatist would want, consult with your supervisor before
doing so.
Each page is numbered consecutively, including title page and reference
page. Type the numbers in the upper right-hand corner using Arabic
numerals. Arrange the pages of the manuscript as follows:
Title page numbered 1.
Abstract (separate page numbered 2).
Text (start on a new page numbered 3).
Notice that pages with figures are seldom numbered. A short title is used
throughout the paper including the title page. The short title is a single
two or three-word derivation of the title of the paper. For example, if the
title of your paper were Understanding Patterns of Byzantine Intrigue,
title
Perceived Control of States
and Wellbeing Author's
name
Torqabah University
Name: Underneath the title you type your name (usually your first
name, initial and then surname). This is also centered.
Running head: The title also includes a 'running head'. It should be all
capitals and no more than 50 characters in length (letters, spaces,
punctuation included).
Page header: On the top right-hand side of every page of the paper (or
report) a few words of the title (usually the running head) will appear.
This short title is the short form of the main title that appears close to the
page number. Five spaces along is the page number. You do not need to
type these on every page yourself: use the 'header and footer' function of
your word processor as discussed in chapter 1, and they will appear
automatically on each page.
2.2. ABSTRACT
The abstract is presented on a page of its own, which is usually the
second page of the report, using the heading 'Abstract', which is
centered. The first line is not indented. It provides a brief summary (120
words or less) of the main elements of your report. It is important that
the abstract describe the following:
Perceived Control 2
Abstract
Perceived Control 3
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 439 adults, ranging in age
from 18 to 82 years (M=37, SD=13). Forty-two per cent
of the sample were males, 58 per cent were females.
Fifty eight per cent of participants were either married
or living with a partner, 24% were single . . . .
2.4. METHOD
The method section is not presented on a new page, but flows on from
the end of the introduction—or the review of literature where it is
presented as a separate section (See figures 3 above). It describes exactly
how your study was conducted, with sufficient detail so that another
researcher could repeat the study. The method is divided into a number
of subsections. These subsections are flushed left and underlined. The
first letter of each of these subsections is capitalized. The most important
subsections of "method" are (a) participants, (b) materials, and (c)
procedure.
Perceived Control 4
Materials
Each questionnaire booklet contained a number of
validated scales and demographic questions. Respondents
were asked to provide details of their gender, age, marital
status and educational level. Details of the scales included in
the booklet are provided below.
Perceived Control of Internal States Scale (PCOISS:
Pallant, in press). The PCOISS1 is an eighteen-item scale
designed to measure respondents' perceptions of their ability
to control their internal states and to moderate the impact of
aversive events on their emotions, thoughts and physical
wellbeing. According to the author (Pallant, in press) the
PCOISS has good internal consistency (Cronbach alpha=.92)
and adequate test-retest reliability (.89 over a two-week
period . . . .
Perceived Control 5
Procedure
The students enrolled in a research subject at
Torqabah University were asked to distribute
questionnaire booklets to their friends, family and
acquaintances.
Each potential participant was provided with a
package containing an explanatory statement, the
questionnaire booklet and a reply-paid envelope.
Participation in the study was voluntary and all
questionnaires were completed anonymously . . .
2.5. RESULTS
In this section you would describe your data, the statistics used and the
results of the descriptive and inferential techniques used. This section
should be brief and to the point, but provide sufficient detail that the
reader can understand what was done. It needs to be well structured,
perhaps following the order of the hypotheses that were specified in the
introduction. Remind the reader of each hypothesis, describe the
statistical analysis used and report the results. Do not attempt to explain
the results (except where it is necessary to perform an additional analysis
to explore the outcome further)—the interpretation of results should be
saved for the discussion section.
When reporting the results of statistical analyses you need to include the
name of the test (e.g., independent samples t-test), the value obtained,
the degrees of freedom, the probability level, the effect size and the
direction of the effect (e.g., were males higher or lower than females).
Where appropriate, you may also need to report the mean, standard
deviation and number of subjects for each group.
Sometimes the results of analyses can be presented more clearly in table
or graph format, rather than described in a paragraph. Do not go
overboard with graphs save these for dramatic effect (e.g., when
presenting significant ANOVA interactions). All tables and figures must
be referred to in the text and sufficient explanations provided to ensure
that the reader can understand what is presented. There are some quite
strict guidelines for the formatting of tables and figures (See the
explanations presented in the previous chapter). Figure 6 below shows
how you should report the results of your project.
Results
2.6. DISCUSSION
In the discussion section you attempt to integrate or pull together all the
various sections of your report. This involves a summary of the main
findings of the study, followed by your interpretation of these results, in
light of your literature review presented earlier in your report.
Perceived Control 7
Discussion
Perceived Control 8
References
1. title page
2. abstract
3. introduction (not identified by any heading)
4. method
4.1. participants
4.2. materials
4.3. procedure
5. results
6. discussion
7. references
8. author identification notes (not usually needed for research report)
9. footnotes (if any)
10. tables (one per page), with titles attached
11. figure captions
12. figures (one figure per page), with no captions attached
Perceived Control 9
Author Note
Perceived Control 10
Footnotes
Perceived Control 11
Table 1
Pearson Product Moment Correlation between
the PCOISS and Wellbeing Measures
* p < .001
Perceived Control 12
female
200
male
180 sex
160
140
Mean Total PCOISS
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
18-24 25-32 33-40
Age Group
4. FINAL REMARKS
Notice that some journals may recommend the MLA (Modern Language
Association) or the Chicago style sheet (CSS). Each journal has a "notes
for contributors" or "submission policy" section that may be included
somewhere in the journal itself, or in the Homepage of that journal on
the Internet. Therefore, before submitting your manuscript to any journal
for publication, make sure whether that journal prefers APA, MLA, or
CSS style. APA style is the most popular one, though.
1. INTRODUCTION
Masters' theses and PhD dissertations are specific types of research
reports that usually remain unpublished. They are longer than journal
papers and may require considerations other than those outlined by APA
style. When preparing a thesis, or a dissertation, a number of
modifications to APA style are required, although many of the
conventions still apply. It is important that you consult your supervisor
for the specific requirements of your department and institution.
2. THE PROPOSAL
Before you are allowed to do your research in masters' and PhD levels,
you need to submit a research proposal to your department or the to the
professor whom you have chosen as your supervisor. Sometimes more
than one copies of the research "proposal" should be submitted. Your
department will tell you how many copies you are supposed to submit.
A research proposal is a plan you suggest for your research. It can serve
as a rough draft of your final research report. Therefore, you can save
time and effort if you use the same format for the proposal as you will
ultimately use in the final report.
The research proposal will answer the questions that any pedantic
cynical professor might ask when you first say that you have a question
or questions that you want to address in a research project:
1) What are the research questions, hypotheses, variables?
2) What has already been done to answer the questions?
3) What evidence do you expect to gather to answer the
question(s)?
I. Introduction
The introduction does three things: (a) states the purpose of your
research project, (b) describes the design of your research project,
and (c) justifies how your research project is significant.
II. Review of the related literature
The literature review does at least three things: (a) overviews the
background of your research project, (b) highlights the research
lag or gap in the literature that needs attention, and (c) leads to
your statement of the problem and research question(s).
III. Statement of the problem
Building upon your literature review, you will state what the
specific problem that you want to address in your research study
is.
IV. Research questions and hypotheses
In this section of your proposal, you will list the questions, and
3. STRUCTURE OF A THESIS/DISSERTATION
The main differences between theses/dissertations and the research
report discussed in chapter eight are highlighted below:
There are three distinct parts to a thesis or dissertation: (a) the front
matter, (b) the body, and (c) the back matter. The front matter includes:
The approval page lists the names of the members of the thesis or
dissertation committee and provides a leading line for the signature of
each of them. It usually begins with a short paragraph of approval (See
figure 2 below).
The abstract may be longer than one paragraph. The first paragraph is
not indented, but the other paragraphs may be indented. Check with your
supervisor or department.
The body of a thesis or dissertation normally consists of five chapters:
PERCEIVED CONTROL
OF STATES AND
WELLBEING
by
Hasan Taghavi Aliabadi
September, 1921
September, 1921
II
III
Page
Title page I
Approval II
Acknowledgements III
Table of contents IV
List of tables VIII
List of figures X
Abstract XI
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
Introduction 1
Statement of the problem 2
Questions and hypotheses 6
Definition of key terms and concepts 7
Delimitations of the study 9
Final remarks 13
IV
Page
Chapter 3
Subject frequency 83
Reliability analysis of PCOISS 84
Validity analysis of PCOISS 85
Reliability analysis of GEFT 87
Validity analysis of GEFT 88
91
Chapter 4
ANOVA for group 1 PCOISS 94
ANOVA for group 2 PCOISS 99
ANOVA for group 3 PCOISS 102
ANOVA for group 4 PCOISS 111
ANOVA for group 1 GEFT 113
ANOVA for group 2 GEFT 115
ANOVA for group 3 GEFT 116
ANOVA for group 4 GEFT 117
... ...
VIII
Page
Chapter 3
Pie chart for subject distribution 83
Reaction time scatter plot 1 84
Reaction time scatter plot 2 85
Reaction time scatter plot 3 87
Reaction time scatter plot 4 88
Reaction time scatter plot 5 91
Chapter 4
Bar graph for subject group 1 94
Bar graph for subject group 2 99
Bar graph for subject group 3 102
Bar graph for subject group 4 111
... ...
XI
Hatch, E., & Lazaraton, A. (1991). The research manual: Design and
statistics for applied linguistics. New York: Newbury House
Publishers.
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