SOME ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR

PRECISION APPLICATIONS
By D. G. TUCKER, Ph.D., Associate Member.
(The paper was first received 28th May, and in revised form 14th October, 1947.)
SUMMARY tioned have been found very satisfactory. Moreover, since no
The design of balanced rectifier modulators of ring and Cowan serious attempt appears to have been made to develop a simple
types is discussed, and it is shown how the performance of the but accurate method of analysis and design, it must be con-
modulator depends on rectifier characteristics, the circuit impedance cluded that the experimental basis of design which has been
in which the modulator operates, the resistance of the carrier generator customary has given results adequate for the needs of the
and the carrier voltage. communication systems.
The main performance features discussed are efficiency, stability, In spite of the apparently satisfactory performance of the ring
production of unwanted modulation products, impedance, and carrier
leak. and Cowan modulators, there are many ways in which their per-
It is shown that there are advantages in designing a modulator for formance can be improved, and in the main these involve little
maximum efficiency by choosing a circuit impedance of optimum value extra cost. The main application of these improved designs may
and a carrier supply of high resistance. Variations in efficiency due to be to precision measuring and laboratory equipment, the needs
variations in carrier voltage, circuit impedance and temperature are of which initiated the present investigation; but there is no doubt
then a minimum although it may be necessary to have each rectifier that communication systems generally would benefit by their
shunted with a constant resistance to achieve this. The production use.
of modulation products of higher order is greatest in a modulator of It is proposed here to make an investigation of the performance
maximum efficiency in which the circuit providing the carrier is of
high resistance, and is reduced considerably if inefficient working and of ring and Cowan modulators, chiefly from the points of view
a low-resistance circuit are used. Further reduction, if desired, can of (a) improved efficiency and stability, and (b) reduction in
be obtained by the use of a large bias on the rectifiers, and it has been unwanted output components.
found possible to reduce the 3/ c ; / sidebands to over 26 db below As a background to this work, a selected list of published
the fc + f sidebands (where fc = carrier frequency and / = signal papers on modulator theory and design is given in References 2
frequency). This method is of value only in ring modulators, as with to 7. Most of these have been discussed in a previous paper*
the Cowan circuit it introduces products of the type 2/ c i /. on rectifiers and modulator theory, to which the present paper is
It is shown that the ordinary potentiometer adjustment for carrier closely related, and to which frequent reference will be made.
leak compensates only the unbalances between the low forward re-
sistances of the rectifiers, and there remains an out-of-balance current
at small values of the instantaneous carrier voltage. This effect can (2) THE MODULATING FUNCTION AS A BASIS OF
be reduced by using a high-resistance carrier supply and by appropriate ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENT OF PERFORMANCE
selection of the rectifiers; a further improvement, in the case of ring In order to discuss the performance of modulators, it is useful
modulators, can be obtained by the use of large biases on the rectifiers. to consider a factor which will be termed the "modulating
Carrier leaks as low as — 60 db relative to 1 volt in 600 ohms, or function." This is the factor, designated <j>{t), by which the
40 db below sideband-level, when high-level signals are applied, can input signal is multiplied to give the output signal; it is evidently
readily be obtained and maintained in modulators with at least 1 volt the reciprocal of the insertion loss of the modulator regarded as
carrier peak voltage across the rectifiers.
It is assumed throughout that the rectifiers are purely resistive, as a time function, since the loss varies from instant to instant
with the diodes and crystal valves now available, the effect of the according to the instantaneous value of the carrier voltage.
capacitance is negligible up to frequencies of the order of 1 Mc/s. In the simplest conception of a ring modulator, for instance,
A method of design of a ring modulator is described in which the where the rectifiers are regarded as switched instantaneously
input impedance remains relatively constant over the cycle of carrier from high to low resistance and vice versa by the action of the
voltage; this may have important applications in precision circuits. .carrier voltage, the modulating function is a symmetrical
rectangular wave which can be expressed in terms of a Fourier
series as
(1) INTRODUCTION sin nct)ct
The design of modulators for suppressed-carrier communica-
tion systems has not changed materially for many years, and the
E n
modulators used are almost exclusively of the "ring" and the where n is odd and <j>m is the maximum height of <f>(t)
Cowan (or "short-circuiting") types.* As the design of com- above the axis, cuc being the angular frequency of the carrier.
munication systems as a whole has progressed and altered con- It is clear that the harmonic components of this series give the
siderably, the inference is that the two types of modulator men- relative amplitudes of the components of the output (modulated)
Radio Section paper. Written contributions on papers published without being signal of the type nfc ± f, where fc is the carrier frequency and
read at meetings are invited for consideration with a view to publication. / is the signal frequency. In a practical modulator, using
Dr. Tucker is at the Post Office Research Station.
* Both the ring and Cowan modulators use four rectifiers; in the former they rectifiers which do not switch suddenly from high to low re-
form a lattice 4-terminal network which (in its simplest conception) is "switched"
by the carrier voltage so as to reverse the polarity of the signal to be modulated
sistance, the waveform of <j>{t) is more rounded,1 and the output
every half-cycle of the carrier; in the latter the rectifiers bridge the main circuit, and components of high order are relatively smaller in amplitude.
are so arranged that on one half-cycle of carrier they partially short-circuit the main
signal, while on the other half-cycle they have little shunting effect. In both types In the simplest conception of a Cowan modulator, where the
of modulator the carrier voltage is applied longitudinally, so that ideally none leaks input signal is short-circuited on alternate half-cycles of the
into the modulator output. In the ring modulator, the input signal frequency also
does not appear in the output. carrier, the modulating function is a rectangular wave where the
VOL. 95, PART III. [161 ] 11
162 TUCKER: SOME ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF
amplitude is <f>m on one half-cycle and zero on the next. The
Fourier series is thus A2\
A
sin nu) ,t B'
n
- - - " *\
where n is odd. The relative amplitudes of the nfc ± /products Ai >
are thus the same as in the ring modulator.
It can be seen that all information regarding the efficiency* of
the modulators is given by the modulating function, provided >
that the rectifiers can be regarded as non-reactive. Although it \
is not always practicable, it is generally possible to achieve this
C' D
condition with modern rectifiers, the range of which includes
diode valves with a capacitance of only a few micro-microfarads 0 +
and crystal "valves" with a capacitance of only about | /*/xF. V
It is desirable, as a general rule, to keep to the non-reactive con- Fig. 2.—Typical rectifier characteristic.
dition, as then the modulator has a constant efficiency over a V = Voltage across rectifier.
r -• A.C. resistance of rectifier.
wide frequency-range. If the rectifier capacitance is such that it Logarithmic scale for r.
cannot be neglected, then the analysis of the circuit becomes
almost impracticable, and its design must be empirical. stant backward to constant forward resistance at zero applied
It should be noted that the modulating function can be voltage. Curve A 2BCD represents the exponential relationship,1
92V
examined as a trace on a cathode-ray-tube by applying a small r = r0 4- k 2 €~ , where r is the a.c. resistance in contrast
d.c. voltage to the input of the modulator. The output from to R which is considered the d.c. resistance, and where rQ, k2 and
the modulator is then equal to a constant multiplied by <f>(t), q2 are constants for the a.c. characteristic of a particular rectifier.
i.e. the waveform of the output is that of <f>(t). The waveform It will be seen that this last curve represents the rectifier charac-
of $(/) cannot be observed by such a direct method if the teristic quite well except at large negative voltages, and here the
modulator is to work at frequencies where the rectifier reactance resistance is so high that it often has little influence on the circuit
cannot be neglected. performance. It can readily be appreciated that, since no perfect
representation of the characteristic can be derived in simple form,
(3) PERFORMANCE OF THE BASIC MODULATOR CIRCUITS it is necessary to use the approximate law that gives the most
appropriate analysis of any particular problem. Thus we shall
The basic circuits of the two types of modulator are shown sometimes use the square wave and sometimes the exponential
in Fig. 1. Two factors which affect the efficiency of the overall representation.

(3.1) Efficiency and the Modulating Function

Fig. 1.—Basic modulator circuits with potentiometer for balancing
carrier leak.
(a) Ring modulator. (6) Cowan modulator.
circuit but which will not be considered from this aspect here
are the transformers and the balancing potentiometer (P); they
are not fundamental to the modulator operation and can be
considered separately if necessary. Factors which will be
considered are:—
(a) The forward and backward resistances of the rectifiers, and
the rectifier characteristics in general.
(b) The nature and voltage of the carrier supply.
A typical rectifier characteristic is shown in Fig. 2, which
relates the a.c. resistance (designated r) to the voltage (V) across
the rectifier. Curve ABCD represents the characteristic of a
practical rectifier, such as one of copper-oxide type, although
with some types, such as silicon crystal "valves," the resistance
falls with increasing negative voltage, as shown by Ai. Curve
AB'C'D represents a simplification of the characteristic which is
sometimes convenient in approximate analysis; this is the
"perfect-switch" case, where the resistance changes from con-
* "Efficiency" is used in the sense of the amplitude ratio of the wanted output
components to the input signal.
(3.1.1) Effect of Circuit Impedance and Ratio of Backward to Forward
Resistance.
In using modulators in practice, it is rarely that the most
efficient operating conditions are determined and used. Using
the "perfect-switch" representation, it is shown in Appendix 9.1
that the greatest efficiency of a ring modulator is obtained
when the circuit impedance (i.e. the terminating impedance at
input and output) is equal to the geometric mean of forward
and backward resistances of the individual rectifiers, and
Appendix 9.2 shows the corresponding condition for a Cowan
modulator to be twice the geometric mean. Thus for a low-
frequency ring-modulator using G2 type copper-oxide rectifiers,
which have a forward resistance of about 50-100 ohms and a
backward resistance of about 100 000-200 000 ohms, the cir-
cuit impedance should be about 3 000 ohms. It is common to
find such modulators used in 600 ohm circuits. The loss of
efficiency (as determined in Appendices 9.1 and 9.2) in relation
to the ratio of the backward to the forward resistance and to
errors in circuit impedance is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. From
these curves it is seen that such a modulator should have only
0- 5 db loss of efficiency due to the rectifier resistances, but owing
to the use of the wrong circuit impedance, a further loss of 0- 8 db
is introduced.
Thejise of circuit impedances lower than that giving optimum
efficiency has frequently some justification in the facts that
(a) input signals of higher level can be handled without over-
loading, since the signal voltage developed across the rectifiers
is obviously less in circuits of lower impedance, and (Jb) greater
stability can be obtained in respect of temperature variations, as
discussed in Appendix 9.3.
The matter of overloading and non-linearity of response is
 BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR PRECISION APPLICATIONS 163
this gives quite an accurate analysis. This shape depends on
the following additional factors:—
(a) The rectifier resistance/voltage characteristics, both a.c.
(for the transmission path) and d.c. (for the effect of the carrier
voltage).
(b) The peak amplitude of the carrier e.m.f. (assumed sinu-
soidal).
(c) The resistance of the circuit supplying the carrier.
As far as (b) is concerned, it is usual to use a carrier e.m.f.
sufficient to ensure that the rectifiers give the constant forward
resistance over the greater part of the appropriate half-cycle of
the carrier; in these circumstances the response of the modulator
to the input signal is substantially linear. As far as (c) is con-
1 10 KX) 1000 104
cerned, the modulating function approaches more nearly a
Backward resistance _ ?
square waveform as the resistance is increased.
Forward resistance Given the factors (a), (b) and (c) above, the modulating
function can be calculated,1 and Figs. 5 and 6 show the modu-
Fig. 3.—Effect of ratio of backward to forward resistance on
efficiency of ring and Cowan modulators (for case of optimum
circuit impedance).

/
i

/ y
/ / woo

1 // 0° 10° 20° 30 40°

(Vet
50 60° 73 80° 90

/ rf-1000
Fig. 5.—Calculated modulating function for ring modulator with
rectifiers having laws R = 100 + l O V - ^ a n d r — 60 + 5 000e-6^.

,—
-
Em = E.M.F. of carrier generator.

.——* n 2 -10 4
10 10
Rc «= Resistance of carrier generator.
Circuit impedance 600 il Circuit impedance 3 000 LI

r
•MWMW

Fig. 4.—Effect of circuit impedance on the efficiency of ring and fo-8

o — - —
mm •

Cowan modulators. fn-07

iGn-1-5/

where
Z" 1
Zx — Forward resistance
Zy «=• Backward resistance
Z •= Circuit impedance.
106
•J0-4
A
02 /
rather difficult and involved to deal with in detail, and will not
be discussed further in the present paper. The question of
stability is generally much more important, and can readily be V 10° 20° 50° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80" 90s
fcfct
analysed. Appendix 9.1 shows that the maximum efficiency
condition gives maximum stability in respect of variation in Fig. 6.—Calculated modulating functions for ring modulator with
circuit impedance, but on the other hand Appendix 9.3 shows rectifiers as in Fig. 5: effect of varying e.m.f. of carrier genera-
tor (Em).
that, owing to the backward resistance of the rectifier being more
Circuit impedance «= 600 £1.
unstable than the forward, a lower circuit impedance is necessary Resistance of carrier generator •= 0.
to give maximum stability against rectifier changes. To obtain
good all-round stability, the use of stable resistors shunted across lating function obtained from a ring modulator using rectifiers
the rectifiers is recommended, with a circuit impedance based on with
maximum efficiency for the modified circuit; an example is given
in Appendix 9.3. * = 100 +
(3.1.2) Consideration of the Modulating Function. and /• = 60 +
For determining the actual shape of the modulating function, for various carrier-supply conditions. As can be seen from the
it is desirable to use the exponential rectifier representation, as previous paper, this represents quite closely a copper-oxide
164 TUCKER: SOME ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF
modulator using G2-type rectifiers. Circuit impedances of
600 ohms and 3 000 ohms have been considered, the former
being the most usual and the latter approximately the most
efficient. The observed modulating function of such a modu-
lator, when the impedance of the carrier was approximately
zero, was recorded from the trace of a cathode-ray tube and
found to be indistinguishable from the calculated function. A
Fourier analysis of the measured modulating function (with
carrier voltage 1 volt peak, 600-ohm circuit) gives relative
amplitudes of harmonics as follows:—
Fundamental .. .. 1 0
3rd harmonic .. .. 0186
5th harmonic .. .. 0043
as compared with the 1 : 0-33 : 0-2 relation of the square wave.
It can be seen that the shape of the modulating function
becomes nearer a square form as (a) the circuit impedance is
made more nearly that required for maximum efficiency (i.e.
approximately 3 000 ohms for the rectifiers concerned), and
(b) the resistance of the carrier generator is increased, with the
e.m.f. adjusted so that approximately the same voltage peak
occurs across the rectifiers in each case. The use of a more
nearly square modulating function is rarely an advantage in
itself, as it introduces more of the modulation products of higher
order which are not usually wanted; but the dependence of
the amplitude of the wanted products on the carrier voltage is
decreased as the modulating function approaches a square form.
The efficiency of the modulator as regards the sum and dif-
ference modulation products is measured by the amplitude of
the fundamental component in the modulating function. The
fundamental component in a square wave is 4/TT times that of a
pure sine wave of the same maximum amplitude, and it is
evident, therefore, that the efficiency of modulation is increased
as the modulating function approaches the former. It is for
this reason, moreover, that variations in carrier voltage have
most effect on the efficiency when the carrier-generator resistance
is low, since then, as can be seen from Fig. 6, the modulating
function is far from square, and changes in voltage have a
relatively large effect on the shape.
A similar illustration of the modulating function of a Cowan
modulator is shown in Fig. 7, where the same rectifier charac-
80° -60° -40° -20° 0° 20 60 80
Fig. 7.—Calculated modulating function for Cowan modulator with
rectifiers having laws R = 100 + lCMe-^ and r = 60 + 5 OOOe-6^.
Em — E.M.F. of carrier generator.
Re = Resistance of carrier generator.
Circuit impedance 600 il.
teristics have been taken as for the ring modulator, but the cir-
cuit impedance has been raised to 6 000 ohms, which is near the
optimum value for the Cowan modulator. The resistance of
the carrier generator has the same kind of influence on the shape
of the modulating function as before. It should be noted that
the modulating function is not symmetrical about its mean value
in the case of practical Cowan modulators. Thus, although in
the ideal modulator the modulating function contains only odd
harmonics, in practice it contains even harmonics as well.
(3.1.3) Other Factors Affecting Efficiency.
The efficiency of a modulator can be increased by the use of
a terminating impedance at the output which is resistive to the
wanted sideband, but gives a short-circuit or open-circuit condition
to unwanted sidebands. In such a case power is diverted entirely
into the wanted sideband.3-4 This process is generally impossible
to realize accurately, and, since any departure from the short-circuit
or open-circuit condition is unlikely to be constant over the
frequency band of the unwanted sideband, it is clear that the
power-diversion effect will vary over the frequency band, giving
a distorted frequency response to the modulator efficiency. It is
usual in good practice, therefore, to provide a constant resistive
termination for the modulator, and to obtain this by inserting
an attenuation pad between the modulator and any filter
following it.
Modulators are often used at frequencies where the rectifier
capacitance determines the backward impedance, and in such
circumstances circuits of lower impedance are necessary. Thus,
for instance, a small copper-oxide rectifier (say H or G type)
has a capacitance of the order of 0 001 /xF across the backward
resistance. At lOOkc/s, this represents a reactance of about
2 000 ohms, so that the backward resistance is no longer of any
significance. Above 2-3 Mc/s, the ratio between backward and
forward impedance becomes too small to be of much use.
CaruthersS has discussed this problem, and shown that circuit
impedances of only about 50 ohms have to be used for copper-
oxide modulators at these relatively very high frequencies.
However, there seems to be very little useful purpose in using
rectifiers under such conditions in future. Diodes and crystal
valves are available which, since they have capacitances of the
order of 1 jUfiF or less, may be considered essentially resistive up
to frequencies of the order of 1 Mc/s; they also remain efficient
rectifiers up to several hundred megacycles per second. It is
not proposed, therefore, to give any further consideration to the
effect of capacitance here.
(3.2) Carrier Leak
In addition to problems associated with the modulating
function and with efficiency, the problem of carrier leak has
often to be considered. Both the types of modulator under
consideration are nominally balanced to the carrier, i.e. ideally
there is no component of carrier frequency or its harmonics in
the output. But if the four rectifiers comprising the modulator
are not identical or otherwise adequately balanced, there will be
such components in the output. A certain amount of balance
is nearly always a requirement in practice, but as no special
arrangements for balancing, apart from the potentiometer dis-
cussed in the next Section, are usually provided, a carrier leak of
about one-twentieth of .the carrier voltage is often accepted as a
reliable value. In certain types of equipment, particularly
measuring equipment, a very high degree of.balance is essential,
and if realized at all, generally requires constant readjustment.
Filtration is commonly used as an additional means of suppressing
the carrier leak.
(3.2.1) Simple Potentiometer Adjustment in a Ring Modulator.
The potentiometer mentioned above is connected as shown by
P in Fig. 1. A suitable adjustment can generally be found to
give a carrier leak of lower magnitude than that obtained with
no potentiometer. The balance is always a compromise in the
ring modulator, where it is not possible to balance both half-
 BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR PRECISION APPLICATIONS
cycles of carrier with the same adjustment, since different pairs
of rectifiers are involved. It is only the carrier leak of funda-
mental frequency and its odd harmonics for which the approxi-
mate balance is obtained, since the potentiometer adjustment
may increase even-harmonic leak when it is adjusted for odd-
harmonic or fundamental leak. This can be overcome to a
large extent by using a potentiometer at each end of the
modulator. A balance made in this way is usually not very
stable. Generally, too, it is not a very good balance, since it
provides compensation only of the main part of the rectifier
characteristic, where the forward resistance assumes its con-
stant low value at large carrier voltages. Experience shows that
the parts of the carrier cycle where the carrier voltage is very
small are not dealt with, and the residual leak is of the type
shown in Fig. 8. In other words, the leak occurs when the recti-
<S ujct
Fig. 8.—Residual carrier leak in ring modulator.
fiers are in the transition stage between forward and backward
resistances; and considering the resistance/voltage law R = i?0
+ &1e-«iK, it is evident that while the adjustment processes are
equivalent to making i?0 the same for all rectifiers, the four
rectifiers have different values of Ar1# (It has been shown in an
earlier paper1 that ql tends to be the same for all rectifiers of
one type, only i?0 and kr being variable.)
The leak waveform may be easily calculated for the condition
that only k^ is unequal in the four rectifiers, as shown in
Appendix 9.4. Fig. 9 shows in curve (b) a calculated waveform
/ which will now be discussed in detail.
(o)
\ /
\ /v
(b)
V selection can be effected rapidly if a fairly stable wave-analyser
(c)
\
V shape, although in general of different amplitude. Then, when
002
0
002
\ /
A Fig. 10(a), and therefore contains mainly only even harmonics.
w V V
-60° -40° -20° 0° 20° 40° « f
ufct
Fig. 9.—Typical calculated waveforms of carrier leak in ring modu-
lator when main part of rectifier characteristic is balanced.
(a) Em 10, 0 (o)
(b) Em 3, 100
(c) Em 21, /?c = 1000
{d) Em 3.
100
i.e. as (6), but with rectifiers of one pair interchanged.
for the case where 7?0 = 100 ohms, qx — 10, the carrier voltage
is derived from a generator of e.m.f. = 3 volts (peak) with an
internal resistance, Rc, of 100 ohms, and kx is respectively 3 075,
165
3 000, 3 000 and 3 150 ohms for the four rectifiers taken cyclicly
round the ring. Curve (d) shows the corresponding waveform
when the first and third rectifiers are interchanged.
The effect of the carrier source impedance is important. It is
evident that the actual voltage peaks of the carrier leak are un-
affected if the carrier e.m.f. is always arranged to give the same
peak voltage across the rectifiers. But with higher impedances,
the angular width of the "pulses" of carrier leak is smaller, and
the content of carrier fundamental component is proportionately
smaller still. Typical leak waveforms for various conditions of
the carrier generator, but with other details as before, are shown
in curves (a), (b) and (c) of Fig. 9. Thus the impedance of the
carrier generator should obviously be high if the carrier leak is
to be kept small in this basic modulator circuit.
It is worth pointing out that rectifier capacitance, which varies
considerably from one rectifier to another, contributes to the
problem of carrier leak, and in modulators used at frequencies
where the capacitance represents a fairly low impedance it is
necessary to connect small capacitors across one side or the other
of the balancing potentiometer in order to obtain a reasonable
balance. It should be added that in most cases of a ring modu-
lator to which this has to be done, the reactive unbalance is
due to unbalance in the transformer windings and hardly at all
to the rectifier capacitances.
(3.2.2) Selection of Rectifiers for Low Leak in a Ring Modulator.
The first step in obtaining a smaller leak than that given by
the potentiometer adjustment is to make a preliminary selection
of the rectifiers from a large batch so that their characteristics
match as far as practicable. The simplest process of selection is
to measure the rectifier currents at a fixed applied voltage, and
to select the four that are most nearly the same; this is a very
crude selection. The whole relevant resistance/voltage or
current/voltage characteristic of a rectifier may be measured, and
the selection made on the basis of the nearest identity of the
whole characteristics; but this is very laborious and does not
give as good results as might be anticipated, owing to the effect
of small discrepancies which are hardly evident from the measured
characteristics. The best method of selection appears to be one
The method is to choose any three rectifiers at random, and
to select the fourth to give the minimum output of the funda-
mental frequency of the carrier. During this test the potentio-
meter is made ineffective by short-circuiting each arm. This
is connected to the output and correctly tuned. Since the recti-
fiers all have characteristics of similar shape, the waveform of
adjacent half-cycles of carrier leak must be of almost the same
the output of fundamental frequency is adjusted by selection to
be nearly zero, the residual leak must be of the same polarity
and nearly the same amplitude in every half-cycle, as shown in
The two rectifiers of one pair (i.e. two rectifiers which are both
conducting on the same half-cycle of carrier) are now inter-
changed, so that the output waveform becomes symmetrical, as
H-lcyde—l
| of carrier I
Fig. 10.—Illustration of the selection process.
166 TUCKER: SOME ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF
shown in Fig. 10(Z>). This waveform now contains only odd
harmonics, including the fundamental frequency. The potentio- -n/4 IF/4 -rr/4 ^ 71/4

meter is made effective at this stage, and adjusted so that once

again the output of fundamental frequency is a minimum. This

Leak

Leak
adjustment means that the amplitude of the wave of Fig. 10(6)
is reduced to a small value, and it is evident that there is a
simultaneous minimum of output of carrier frequency and all
its harmonics, odd or even, so that the modulator is very well
balanced. Fig. 11.—Residual carrier leak in Cowan modulator.
It is evident that, since the balance is not a compromise in the (a) High-resistance carrier generator.
sense of the usual simple potentiometer balance, but does really (b) Zero-resistance carrier generator.
compensate for the rectifier differences, the adjustment is likely
to be satisfactory over an appreciable range of ambient tem- balanced fairly well for the forward half-cycle of carrier. That
perature, carrier amplitude, etc. this is sufficient for a first approximation will be clear from
The effectiveness of the process will be illustrated by some Fig. 11, which shows the residual leak waveform in a typical case
measured results obtained from 5 entirely separate modulators when the potentiometer is adjusted to compensate for the main
made up from among 30 rectifiers of copper-oxide (G2) type, part of the forward half-cycle. It is clear that the backward
using the selection process described above.* The modulators half-cycle contributes practically nothing to the carrier leak, and
were used in a 600-ohm transmission circuit, with a 2 000-c/s the only important part of the cycle is that corresponding to
carrier at 1-4 volts r.m.s. from a constant-voltage source. As small forward voltages.
already shown, this is actually the worst condition, and a high- As a result of tests made using various types of rectifiers, it
resistance source would give still better results. They were set appears that the optimum adjustment of a Cowan modulator
up with no input signal, but the effect of applying an 800-c/s (including the use of bias, discussed in a later Section) gives a
input signal at 0-78 volt is also shown. All the figures in the leak some 10 or 15 db higher in level (relative to sideband level)
table are in millivolts across the load resistance. than that obtained from a ring modulator using the same type
of rectifier. This is due, in part, to the fact that the modula-
tion loss is more than 6db greater in the Cowan modulator,
Table 1 resulting in lower-level sidebands from a given input signal.
CARRIER LEAK RESULTS OF FIVE MODULATORS SET UP BY THE
SELECTION PROCESS (4) THE USE OF BIAS ON THE RECTIFIERS
With no input signal With input signal So far we have discussed the performance and design con-
siderations of modulators of the basic type, comprising four
Modulator
Fundamental 2nd Fundamental 2nd Sideband
rectifiers, the balancing potentiometer, and such transformers as
carrier leak harmonic carrier leak harmonic are required. Further control over the performance can be
carrier leak carrier leak fo±f
obtained by the addition of bias voltages to each rectifier. The
mV mV mV mV mV efficiency can sometimes be increased, the proportion of un-
A 11 40 1-4 4-5 wanted modulation products can be reduced, and carrier leak
B 10 3-2 3-6 2-9 can be stabilized at a low level by this means. It will be con-
C 10 60 3-6 5-8 I 385 venient to deal with small and large bias voltages separately.
D 07 3-5 3-5 5-5
E 015 0-4 3-7 1-5 The former are around 0 1-0-2 volt; the latter are about 0-5
volt in typical cases.
It will be seen that with the input signal at the high level of (4.1) Small Bias Voltages
0 • 78 volt, the carrier leak of fundamental frequency is still more These can be used to increase efficiency and decrease carrier
than 40 db below the sideband level. leak.
The results remained very nearly as shown over ten temperature
cycles from 20° to 45 C, and were maintained for a long period (4.1.1) Maximum Efficiency Obtained by means of Bias.
(several months at least). It can be seen from the characteristic of a typical metal-
Results as good as these could never be expected from the rectifier of Fig. 12 that over a portion of the forward voltage
ordinary methods of setting up modulators.
(3.2.3) Cowan Modulators.
Owing to the fact that all four rectifiers of a Cowan modulator
are of low resistance simultaneously and in the backward half-
cycle are of high enough resistance to ensure that the carrier
current, and therefore the unbalance current, is small, it can be
seen that the processes o£ selection and balancing by a potentio-
meter are considerably simplified as compared with a ring
modulator. Selection and balancing can be carried out with
reference to the forward half-cycle only. The selection process Fig. 12.—Typical rectifier characteristic.
consists merely of replacing any one rectifier by a series of others Linear scale of r.
until one is found which gives a small enough carrier leak. It
is immaterial on which of the four bridge arms the operation is range the resistance is still high. The extent of this effect varies
performed. Similarly, the potentiometer adjustment is not the from type to type; selenium "Sentercell" rectifiers show it most
compromise it is in the ring modulator; the bridge can be markedly, and it can represent nearly one-third of the usual value
of forward carrier-swing. It is evident that this represents a loss
* The standard deviation of the resistance values was about 50 % of the average at
any particular voltage. of efficiency since the "switching" does not occur when the
 BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR PRECISION APPLICATIONS 167
carrier voltage is zero. Improved efficiency can be obtained, This result suggests that the efficiency can in many cases be
therefore, by the use of a small positive bias voltage in series improved in this way by over 0-5 db on the fundamental com-
with the rectifier and so adjusted that the bend coincides more ponent. The fact that the modulating function is nearer to the
nearly with the point where the carrier voltage is zero. square wave is not generally of value, and may involve addi-
In a similar way, diode characteristics do not generally show tional filtration to eliminate the 3/c ± / and similar products
"switching" at zero applied voltage. Fig. 13 shows a typical which are increased by several decibels.
(4.1.2) Reduction of Carrier Leak by Adjustment of RectiOer Bias for

V
0 +
v (4.2) Large Bias Voltages
Fig. 13.—Typical diode characteristic.
A.C. resistance (r) against voltage (K).
diode characteristic, and it will be seen that the a.c. resistance
is low over part of the backward voltage cycle. Diode charac-
teristics vary very much with heater current, but that shown is
typical; it is not usual for the characteristic to be of the type of
Fig. 12. Thus a negative bias voltage is required to improve
the efficiency, and this is easily applied by means of a resistor
and capacitor in series with the diode, as shown in Fig. 14. The
Equal Rectified Currents.
Results comparable with those discussed in Section 3.2.2 can
be obtained by adjusting all four bias circuits so that the rectified
currents are equal in all four rectifiers. A combination of this
process with selection of rectifiers can give even better results.
Allowance for the transformer unbalance should be made
separately by the use of the potentiometer.
(4.2.1) The Use of a Large Bias to Reduce the Output of Unwanted
nfc db / Products.
If the negative bias is increased beyond the point at which
maximum efficiency is obtained (which means, in the case of
metal rectifiers, merely applying negative bias), the condition
arises that all four rectifiers are of high resistance over that portion
(say 9 radians) of the carrier cycle where the carrier voltage is
sufficiently small. Thus over this portion in a ring modulator
the modulating function is zero or very small. Fig. 15(a) shows

-u/2 *G*i/ rt/2

(o) (b)

-n/2 0 n/2
(ifct

J Fig. 15.—The modulating function <f>(t) for the large-bias condition.

(a) Ring modulator.
Cowan modulator.

the general shape of the modulating function of a ring modulator

Fig. 14.—Circuit ofringmodulator using biased diodes. when the bias is increased considerably. A waveform such as
this can be represented by a Fourier series, containing only odd
best way to adjust the circuit for maximum efficiency is to adjust harmonics, in which certain harmonics can be practically zero
each bias resistor so that the rectified carrier current is the maxi- according to the bias. If the modulating function were a perfect
mum (i.e. with the carrier circuit connected but no input applied) square wave, then any harmonic could be eliminated com-
in each diode. When this is done, the modulating function is the pletely.8 The angular distance 9 is in this case related to the
nearest approach to a square wave which is realizable with the order n of the harmonic to be suppressed thus:
particular carrier and signal circuits used. Table 2 indicates
these effects; the figures are relative only, and were obtained
from a ring modulator with Dl type diodes; the carrier supply radians
\2 n*
was effectively of constant-voltage type, and therefore the
modulating function is inherently as far from the square shape and it is seen that to eliminate the 3rd harmonic, B must bo
as possible. 303. Since the modulating function is not, in practice, a perfect
square wave, a slightly different value of 9 is required, and perfect
Table 2 suppression of the harmonic is not obtained. It must be noted
that it is in any case only when the modulating function is not
ANALYSIS OF MODULATING FUNCTION OF DIODE RING MODULATOR square that a reduction of the 3rd-harmonic component is
realizable with the simple over-biased arrangement; it is desirable
No bias; Biased to Square wave that the generator providing the carrier should have a low
Component rectified current maximum rectified for comparison
«=500nA current (750 (xA) (relative only) impedance so that the bias can give a large enough time interval
before the carrier voltage overcomes the bias.
Fundamental .. 58 62 1 The same result applies to a Cowan modulator, in which the
3rd harmonic .. 13 18 0-33 modified modulating function appears as shown in Fig. 15(6).
5th harmonic .. 4-8 7-5 0-2 It is important, however, to note that even harmonics (which are
always present in small amounts in a practical Cowan modulator)
168 TUCKER: SOME ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF
are introduced in large amounts in this case; this largely removes As an example of what can be obtained by the overbias
any advantage the suppression of an odd harmonic may offer. method, it can be stated that a ring modulator using diodes
The significance of this effect, in practice, is that modulation type Dl in a 2 400 ohms transmission circuit with a 1 0 volt
components of the type 3/c ± / or 5fc±f can be considerably (r.m.s.) carrier from a low-impedance source, and with rectified
reduced in amplitude. This may result in a saving of filters carrier current of 200 fxA (optimum efficiency current = 750 fj,A),
if such components have in any case to be suppressed. In can be stabilized by means of a barretter in the heater circuit to
general, it will be desired to reduce the 3/c ± / products, and give a carrier leak not worse than 40 db below one sideband
this can be done to the extent of 25-30 db below the/ c ± / p r o - (/c ± / ) at a signal level as high as 0-35 volt over a range of
ducts. Some typical measurements taken on the same diode ring applied heater-circuit voltage of about ± 1 5 % .
modulator as used for Table 2, adjusted approximately to the It is evident that this method has no application to a Cowan
optimum suppression of 3rd harmonic in the modulating function, modulator.
were as follows:—
Fundamental (5) CONSTANT-IMPEDANCE MODULATOR
43 "1 relative figures
3rd harmonic 2 f- on same scale In general, the input impedance of a ring modulator varies
5th harmonic 6-3 J as Table 2 considerably with the instantaneous value of the applied carrier
voltage. This effect can be measured by replacing the carrier
The rectified current was 200 /zA in each diode. It will be by a steady voltage of variable and known magnitude and then
seen that there is a 3 • 2 db loss of efficiency (in respect of the measuring the input impedance with a low-level test tone. The
fundamental) as compared with the optimum condition, but that impedance may vary over a ratio of 2 or 3 to 1, so that it is not
the 3rd harmonic is 26-6 db below the fundamental as compared possible to predict accurately the insertion loss of any filter im-
with 10 • 7 db for the adjustment for optimum efficiency. Almost mediately preceding the modulator, and to overcome this
identical results were obtained with G2 copper-oxide rectifiers objection, a resistance pad is usually inserted between any filter
using an audio-frequency carrier. and the modulator.
By suitable design, it is possible to obtain the input impedance
(4.2.2) The Use of a Large Bias to Obtain Still Lower Carrier Leak. reasonably constant over the range of carrier voltage, and thus
(Ring Modulator Only.) to eliminate the wasteful loss of the pad.
If a large bias voltage is used with a carrier generator of To develop this design method, we must consider the rectifiers
sufficiently low impedance so that the angle 6 becomes, say, at to be represented by the exponential law r = r0 + k2e~^y
least 10-15°, then we have the condition that, when the carrier as discussed earlier. The ring modulator may be represented
voltage rises sufficiently to overcome the bias on the two of the as in Fig. 17(o). By a well-known transformation of lattice
rectifiers which are intended to go over to their forward re-
sistance, the other two rectifiers are of very high resistance, and
the carrier leak (which can only now become noticeable) is due
only to the unbalance of the one pair of rectifiers. (Without the
large bias, the carrier leak is a function of both pairs.) The
state of affairs is now that the leak is of the form shown in
Fig. 16, where the contributions of each pair of rectifiers are

(«)
Leak

Fig. 17.—Constant-impedance modulator.

>

networks, the circuit of Fig. 17(b) may be drawn as identically

Fig. 16.—Leak of modulator with large bias, before adjustment.
quite separate. This enables the two pairs to be separately
compensated, by adjustment of the bias, for the carrier leak at
low carrier voltages, while adjustment of the potentiometer com-
pensates for the remainder of the carrier cycle.
By the use of this method it is possible to obtain carrier leak
voltages some 12-20 db lower than those obtained by the
methods described in previous Sections. It is an important
feature of the use of bias resistances, however, that the input signal
currents also contribute to the bias, and in such a way as to un-
balance the modulator; thus extremely low carrier leaks can only
be maintained if the signal level is restricted to very low values.
But it must be remembered that it is mainly only at low signal-
levels that the very low carrier leaks are required. This difficulty
does not arise, of course, if battery bias is used, although it is
found, in practice, that very high signal levels (of the order of
the carrier voltage) always tend to unbalance the modulator, as
illustrated by the results shown in Table 2. Another effect of
the use of bias resistors is to make the balance to some extent
dependent on the peak voltage of the carrier.
equivalent. By the principle of constant-impedance networks
as put forward by ZobeP in connection with the equalization of
frequency response, it can be seen, regarding the lattice portion
of Fig. 17(6), that if this lattice is terminated at one side by a
resistance
R = T/(k2€-<Hyk2e+«iV) = k2
then the resistance at the other side, seen looking into the lattice
network, is also R(= k2).
Returning to the real network of Fig. 17(a), it is now evident
that if the terminating impedance at one pair of terminals
is made a resistance of value k2 — r0, then the impedance seen
looking into the other pair is k2 + r0, which is constant and
independent of the carrier voltage.
In practice, the constancy of impedance obtainable is limited
by the closeness with which the exponential resistance law
represents the actual rectifier characteristic. However, the close-
ness of representation is important only over that portion of the
voltage range where the resistance is not very high, so that its
actual value does appreciably affect the modulator performance.
It should generally be possible to obtain the impedance constant
to say ± 1 5 % , and a measured impedance response of a diode
ring modulator is shown as curve A in Fig. 18. The diodes
 BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR PRECISION APPLICATIONS
-10 -0-5 0 05 10
DC. voltage on carrier terminals
Fig. 18.—Input impedance of ring modulator at various instantaneous
carrier voltages.
Curve A: 2 000 ohms termination.
Curve B: 600 ohms termination.
were type D l and the terminating resistance was about
2 000 ohms. It will be seen that the measured impedance is
constant to within about ± 9 % . For comparison, the impe-
dance of the same modulator when terminated by 600 ohms is
shown in curve B, and it will be seen that this varies over a
ratio of more than 2 to 1.
It is worth noting that if k2 > r0, then the modulator designed
for a constant impedance has also optimum efficiency, since the
circuit impedance is the geometric mean of forward and back-
ward resistances at all carrier voltages.
The output impedance of the modulator could equally be
made constant if the input were correctly terminated, but this
would not generally have any application, since a pad is usually
inserted in any case between the modulator output and any filter
following it to avoid the effect of the frequency-variable filter
impedance as a termination to the modulator—as discussed in
Section 3.1.3.
It is thus seen that the most useful practical application of the
constant-impedance design is to the input side, where only a
single range of frequencies is concerned; the existence of the
various sidebands in the output complicates the application rather
excessively at the output side.
It is, of course, quite impossible to obtain a constant impedance
in a Cowan modulator; the variable impedance is inherent in its
principle of operation.
(6) THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE CARRIER
GENERATOR
It will have been noticed in the preceding Sections that the
resistance of the circuit which supplies the carrier to the modu-
lator has a marked influence on the performance of the modulator,
and has always to be taken into account. For convenience,
therefore, the various effects of the magnitude of this resistance
are summarized together here.
(a) It is seen from Section 3.1.2 that the higher we make the
resistance of the carrier generator (always adjusting the carrier
e.m.f. to maintain the same peak voltage across the rectifiers)
the nearer the modulating function approaches the square shape.
As has already been pointed out, this is rarely in itself an ad-
vantage; but it is an important fact that variations in the carrier
voltage have less effect on the efficiency of modulation, and the
efficiency is itself higher, the nearer the modulating function
approaches the square shape.
(b) It is seen from Section 4.2.1 that, not only does the use of
169
a carrier generator of low resistance cause the production of less
unwanted output of the type nfc ± f, but it is also possible
in such a case to reduce still further the output of one par-
ticular pair of products (say 3/ c ± / ) by the use of over-biased
rectifiers. This cannot be achieved with a carrier source of
high resistance.
(c) It is seen from Section 3.2.1 that when the modulator is
balanced by means of a potentiometer so as to produce the
minimum amount of carrier leak, then the residual leak depends
on the resistance of the earlier generator, and the amplitude of
the fundamental component of the leak diminishes rapidly as
this resistance is increased.
(d) On the other hand, the method of Section 4.2.2 for obtain-
ing a very low carrier leak by using large bias voltages is de-
pendent on the use of a low resistance.
It is evidently not possible to draw a general conclusion as to
what is the best value of the resistance of the carrier generator,
but it is probable that a high resistance is best for most ordinary
requirements.
(7) CONCLUSIONS
The paper has reviewed the performance of balanced modu-
lators of ring and Cowan types, chiefly from the points of view
of efficiency of modulation, production of unwanted modulation
products and carrier leak. It has been shown that there are
advantages in designing a modulator for maximum efficiency by
choosing a circuit impedance of optimum value and a carrier
supply of high resistance. Variations in efficiency due to
variations in carrier voltage, circuit impedance and temperature
are then a minimum, although it may be necessary to shunt
each rectifier with a constant resistance to achieve this. The
production of modulation products of higher order is greatest
in a modulator of maximum efficiency with a high-resistance
circuit supplying the carrier, and is reduced considerably if
inefficient working and a low-resistance carrier-supply circuit are
used. Further reduction, if desired, can be obtained by the use
of a large bias on the rectifiers, and it has been found possible
to reduce the 3/ c ± f sidebands to over 26 db below the fc±f
sidebands. This method is of value only with ring modulators,
as with the Cowan circuit it introduces products of the 2/ c ± / t y p e .
It has been shown that the ordinary potentiometer adjustment
for carrier leak compensates only the unbalances between the
constant low forward resistances of the rectifiers, and there
remains an out-of-balance current at small values of the instan-
taneous carrier voltage. This effect can be reduced by using a
high-resistance circuit to provide the carrier and by appropriate
selection of the rectifiers; a further improvement, in the case of
ring modulators, can be obtained by the use of large biases on
the rectifiers. Carrier leaks as low as — 60 db relative to 1 volt
in 600 ohms, or 40 db below sideband level when high-level
signals are applied, can readily be obtained and maintained.
A summary of the effects of the various design factors on the
ring modulator performance is given in Table 3. No special
table has been prepared for the Cowan modulator, since in those
performance factors where it differs from the ring modulator it
is generally less suitable for precision applications.
It is assumed throughout that the rectifiers are purely resistive;
although capacitance is generally associated with rectifiers it is
not necessary to consider it in precision designs, since with
diodes and crystal valves available with capacitances of 1 //,/zF or
less, the effect of the capacitance is negligible up to frequencies
of a megacycle per second or more.
A method of design of a ring modulator is described in which
the input impedance remains relatively constant over the cycle
of carrier voltage; this may have important applications in
precision circuits.
170 TUCKER: SOME ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN OF

Table 3

SUMMARY OF EFFECTS OF DESIGN FACTORS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF RING MODULATORS

Design factors
Performance factors
Circuit impedance Impedance of carrier generator Selection of elements Bias
and resistance balancing

Efficiency Maximum efficiency when High-impedance generator Negligible effect A small bias (positive for
circuit impedance gives maximum efficiency metal and crystal recti-
_ / /forward xbackward\ fiers and generally nega-
V ^ resistances ) tive for diodes) will in-
crease the efficiency
Stability A compromise is generally Effect small Negligible effect Auto-bias will make effi-
required (see Appendix ciency more dependent
9.3) on carrier voltage

Carrier leak Unbalance current is inde-
pendent of circuit impe-
dance.
Leak voltage is propor-
tional to circuit impe-
dance
Proportion of nfc ± / Since optimum impedance
products gives a modulating func-
tion which is nearest to a
square form, this condi-
tion also gives maximum
proportion of the nfc ±f
products
High-impedance generator
gives minimum carrier
leak in the basic circuit,
but makes the use of a
large bias ineffective
High-impedance generator
gives a modulating func-
tion which is nearest to a
square form, so also gives
maximum proportion of
the nfc ± /products
A suitable selection and A large negative bias en-
balancing process en- ables better adjustment
ables the leak to be re- of carrier balance to be
duced much more made; requires a carrier
generator of low impe-
dance
Negligible effect A critical adjustment of bias
enables the proportion of
one pair of products of
the type nfc ±f to be
reduced. The reduction
may be considerable if a
carrier generator of low
impedance is used

(8) REFERENCES dance (equal at both ends of the modulator), then the value of
(1) TUCKER, D. G.: "Rectifier Resistance Laws," Wireless the modulating function <j>(t) is given by
Engineer, 1948, 25, p. 117. Z(Zy-Zx)
(2) SCHMID, A.: "Die Wirkungsweise derRingmodulatoren," (1)
Veroffa.d. Gebiete der Nachrichtentechnik, 1936, 6, p. 145.
(3) KRUSE, S.: "Theory of Rectifier Modulators," Ericsson The value of Z for which this is a maximum is obtained by
Technics, 1939, No. 2, p. 17. d
(4) PETERSON, E., and HUSSEY, L. W.: "Equivalent Modulator differentiating with respect to Z and equating -p^j>(t) to zero.
Circuits," Bell System Technical Journal, 1939, 18, This gives immediately
p. 32.
(5) CARUTHERS, R. S.: "Copper Oxide Modulators in Carrier Z= V(ZxZy) (2)
Telephone Systems," ibid., 1939, 18, p. 315. Suppose that the backward to forward resistance ratio is
(6) DEGAWA, Y.: "On the Modulation Less of Ring Modu- Zy\Zx — n2. This gives the maximum value of
lator," Nippon Electrical Communication Engineering,
1940, Jan., p. 143. x
(7) DEGAWA, Y.: "On the Metal Modulator of Shunt Type ~ (n + 1)2 n + 1 • * * • {i)
and of Series Type," ibid., 1940, Jan., p. 139. Based on this, the variation of efficiency with n is shown in
(8) STANSEL, F. R.: "Some Analyses of Wave Shapes used in Fig. 3.
Harmonic Producers," Bell System Technical Journal, Consider now the general case where Z = m^(ZxZy) or
1941, 20, p. 331.
(9) ZOBEL, O. J.: "Distortion Correction in Electrical Circuits —\/{ZxZy). Then from equation (1),
with Constant-resistance Recurrent Networks," ibid.,
1928, 7, p. 438. : 'JZ t (4)
(1 + m/i)(l + n/m) • • • v/
from which the relative values of <f>(t) for different values of m
(9) APPENDICES are easily calculated.
(9.1) The Relation between Circuit Impedance and Efficiency in The value of <f>(t) determined from equation (4) can only be
a "Perfect-Switch" Ring Modulator regarded as the efficiency of the modulator when the rectifiers
It has been shown in a previous paper1 that if Zx and Z~ are function as a sudden change from a constant high to a constant
the forward and backward resistances of the rectifiers for a low resistance and vice versa, i.e. when <f>(t) is a square wave (the
particular value of carrier voltage, and if Z is the circuit impe- "perfect-switch" condition). The values given for <£(/) apply
 BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR PRECISION APPLICATIONS
otherwise only to a certain instant of time defined by a certain
value of carrier voltage. For the perfect-switch condition, the
relative decrease of efficiency as the circuit impedance is changed
from the optimum value is given by
(1 + /wi)(l + n/m)
Decrease of efficiency = 20 log10 db . (5)
Graphs of this decrease in terms of m for several values of n
are given in Fig. 4. It will be seen that, in general, the value
of the circuit impedance is far from critical. It can easily be
seen by differentiating the ratio term in equation (5) that the
rate of change of efficiency with m is zero when m = 1.
Similarly from equation (3), the rate of change of efficiency
with n is zero when n = oo. Thus the stability of the modulator
is highest in these respects when it is designed for maximum
efficiency.
171
than ten times that of the forward resistance; moreover, the
variation from one rectifier to another within a sample may also
be more than ten times as great for the backward as for the
forward resistance. It is thus necessary to determine and
examine the conditions for stability in such a case. The working
and discussion which follow are in terms of a ring modulator,
but apply with only slight modification to a Cowan modulator.
Suppose the forward resistance changes by a proportion
A to Zx (1 + A), and the backward resistance changes by a
proportion pA to Zy (1 + p/S). Assume throughout that A is
small, i.e. A < 1. Put VCZ^Zp = Z 0 so that the initial value
of m, designated w0, is Z/Zo.
After change, we have
Z0A =

(9.2) The Relation between Circuit Impedance and Efficiency in so that the new value of m is
a "Perfect-Switch" Cowan Modulator
Z
Using the same terminology as in Section 9.1, we have the A ; OA
value of (f>(t) at any particular instant given by 4

2Z.
, for the forward half-cycle of carrier, If nl is the initial ratio, and n\ the new ratio,
Z + 2Z,
7 (\ 4- n/
_2Zy_ then A
and : , for the backward half-cycle of carrier. ZA.(1 + A)
Z+2Z,
Assuming perfect switching from Zx to Zy and vice versa, the and
efficiency of modulation is evidently proportional to, and may
be defined by the difference between these two values of <f>(t).
Thus, from eqn. (4), the height of the modulating function is
Let 7) be this efficiency,
2Zy 2Z.
then Z + 2Zy Z + 2ZX mAn A)(l + —
dt\
dr\ — 0
For maximum efficiency, ~
dZ
- DA]
-2Z, 2ZV
i.e. Z,)2 ( Z -f 2ZX)2
With the "perfect-switch" conception, this represents the
or Z=2 A /(Z A .Z >r ) (6) efficiency of the modulator. The efficiency will be constant and
independent of small changes in the rectifiers ifd<f>A(t)/dA. is zero.
If the ratio Zy\Zx = n2, then the maximum efficiency is So, differentiating the above expression and equating d<f>A(t)fd&,
«2 - l n - 1
to zero, we find the condition
Vmax (/| + 1)2 n + 1 ' ' • ' V)
- no(p - 1) ± (iig - \Wp
m
which is the same as that of the ring modulator. « = - ^ -
2
In the general case where Z = 2m\/(ZxZy) or ~^/(ZxZy) where the ± sign is due to the solution of w0 from a quadratic
m
the efficiency becomes equation. It can be seen that the + sign is the correct one, so
that the modulator is most stable in respect of rectifier varia-
1 . . . . (8) tions when
1
(1 + mri){\ + /1//11)
also as in the ring modulator. pnl-l
It can be seen that, since m0 must be real and positive, com-
(9.3) Stability Conditions with respect to Rectifier Variations plete stability can be obtained only when p is positive and of
The condition of maximum efficiency of the modulator is not magnitude not exceeding //§. This means that complete stability
the most stable condition in respect of rectifier variation when (for small variations of rectifier resistance) can be obtained in
the backward and forward resistances of the rectifiers do not respect of temperature, because then (in all cases known to the
vary by equal proportions in the same direction. In practice author) both forward and backward resistance change in the
this is most frequently the case, and in rectifiers such as the same direction, and the ratio of temperature coefficients of
copper-oxide, and silicon and germanium crystal types, the resistance does not exceed the ratio of backward to forward
variation of backward resistance with temperature may be more resistance.
172 TUCKER: ASPECTS OF DESIGN OF BALANCED RECTIFIER MODULATORS FOR PRECISION APPLICATIONS
As an example, take n% = 100 and determine the relation to be large and roughly of the same order in both cases. As
between the optimum value of w0 and p. This is shown in an example, consider a modulator made up with rectifiers having
Fig. 19. The condition of maximum efficiency (m0 = 1) is the backward and forward resistances nominally 100 000 and 100
ohms, respectively. Assume the backward resistance may vary
from 500 000 to 10 000 ohms as the rectifiers are changed for
10 others, but neglect any variation in forward resistance.
Then
0-8 \ (a) if m0 = 1 nominally, loss varies from 0-12 to 2-75 db,
\ i.e. by 2-63 db,
06 (b) if m0 — 0-3 nominally, loss varies from 0-67 to 1-74 db,
i.e. by 1-07 db, so that a low WQ does give improvement.
\ (c) If the rectifiers are shunted by a 10 000-ohm resistance,
04
> however, and m = 1 on the basis of an effective back-
ward resistance of 10 000 ohms, then the loss varies
from 1 • 76 to 2 • 6 db, i.e. by 0 • 84 db.
That is to say, a good stability against replacement of rectifiers
°1 2 5 K> 20 50 100 is obtained in the condition that also gives good all-round
P stability in the normal respects.
Fig. 19.—Relation between optimum value of mo and^, for n% = 100.
(9.4) The Calculation of Carrier Leak in a Ring Modulator
condition for maximum stability only when p = 1. As p in- It is here assumed, as discussed in Section 3.2.1, that the con-
creases, the stability condition can be met only at the expense stant resistance Ro is made equal in all four rectifiers by some
of efficiency. It is useful to make a comparison of two modu- process of selection or balancing. The index coefficient qx is
lators, one designed for maximum efficiency and one for also assumed equal for all, so that k^ is the only variable para-
maximum stability in respect of temperature. Take p = 9, meter. The transformer resistances are neglected.
assume Zx changes from 100 to 102, and Z from 10 000 to Since we are dealing only with the d.c. resistance, it is con-
11 800. Thus nl = 100, n\ = 116. venient, for the purposes of this Appendix only, to omit the
subscript 1 which has hitherto been used to signify the d.c.
Maximum
resistance parameter. Thus k will signify the d.c. resistance in
Maximum- temperature- general, and then ku k2, k3, and k4 can be used to indicate the
efficiency stability
modulator modulator values appropriate to rectifiers Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, counted round
the ring, starting with the uppermost one in the circuit diagrams.
m0 10 0-241 Let z'i be the current in one half of the output transformer
m\ 0-9 0-219 due to the currents in rectifiers Nos. 1 and 2. Let i2 be the
Loss* of modulator initially l-74db 3-30 db
Loss after change 1 61 db 3-30 db current in the other half due to the currents in rectifiers Nos. 3
Variation of loss 013db 0 and 4.
Variation of loss due to 10% change
of circuit impedance 0 0-22 db Then

Thus, in this case, a variation of temperature (about 7 deg C and

with a typical rectifier) giving A = 002, gives 0-13 db variation
in loss in an efficient modulator, or zero variation at the expense Thus the carrier leak, or unbalance current = /j — /2.
of 1 • 6 db loss. Stability against variations of circuit impedance The carrier voltage V across the rectifiers can be calculated
(which may represent a frequency-response) and against changes with sufficient accuracy by assuming all four rectifiers have the
of carrier voltage is greatest in the condition of maximum average value of resistance Ro + k€±Qy. The method of calcula-
efficiency. It is clear that in practice the choice of m is a matter tion was shown in a previous paper,1 and consists in solving
of compromise. graphically the equation
Provided that a loss of efficiency can be tolerated, it is possible
to make a modulator of maximum all-round stability by shunting _, a + b cosh qV
each of the rectifiers with a stable resistance such that the varia-
tions in effective backward resistance are the same (propor- where a = i?§ + k2.
tionally) as those in the forward resistance. Then, effectively,
p = 1, so that the design using m0 = 1 (on the basis of the b = 2i?ofc-
modified rectifier resistances) is simultaneously the most stable c = Rl + k* + 4RcR0.
in all respects. It is possible for the resistance shunt to com- d=2k(R0+2Rc).
pensate largely for variation from one rectifier to another as Rc = resistance of carrier generator.
well as for temperature, because the ratio of variation in the Em = peak e.m.f. of carrier generator.
backward to that in the forward resistance is found, in practice, coc = angular frequency of carrier generator.
Thus the carrier leak can be plotted in terms of the angular
* This loss is, of course, the loss of efficiency as compared with an ideal switch
of Z* «» 0, Zy — oo, i.e. in the sense of Appendix 9.1. value o)ct, i.e. effectively as a time-function.