1

Suwi Muwowo
IR-3/11AP
03/5/18
Data Collection Part 1:
Peppermints Effect of Cognitive Abilities Data Collection Summary

 Topic: The main compounds of peppermint could potentially harness a short-term treatment for
Alzheimer’s and other forms of neurodegenerative diseases, such as dementia, CTE, and
Parkinson’s disease. The menthol present in peppermint serves as an active compound which
could inhibit the growth of bacteria, in this case, the amyloid plaques. When peppermint interacts
with the hard-insoluble amyloid plaques, it can proceed to break down the sticky buildup, thus
halting the deterioration of neurons.

 Citations: I will not be doing a survey, but I will use these publications in my lit review surveying
scholarly articles, books and other sources, also including my current knowledge and substantive
findings, as well as theoretical contributions to this topic.

LOOK ON PAGE 4
 Intended Audience: The intended audience for this research are individuals with high risk for
Alzheimer's disease, individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, and researchers across the
nation.

 Distribution Plan: Since I will not be doing a survey, a distribution plan is not necessary.
However, my finished project will be distributed. The plan is to compile all the studies that are
related to this topic and complete analyses of each one. After the analyses of the individual
studies are completed, they will all be compared to find an overall result across all the studies.

Key Points:
 Alzheimer’s Disease, a neurodegenerative disease impairing memory, thinking, and behavior,
affects one in eight adults in the United States and is projected to cost the country $200 billion in

2012 


 Recent research suggests peppermint essential oils improve memory and retrieval in cognitive
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tasks requiring sustained focus 


 Although memory enhancement via an olfactory mechanism is well-supported, relatively little

research investigates a similar outcome when peppermint is ingested prior to a memory task 


Data Collection Part 3:

Data Analysis – Meta Cognitive Literature Review:
Alzheimer’s Disease, a form of dementia affecting memory, thinking, and behavior, currently
affects one in eight adults and is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. According to
Alzheimer’s Disease Facts and Figures, the disease is projected to cost the United States $200 billion this
year, increasing rapidly as the Baby Boom generation reaches late-adulthood (Williams, 2012).

No cure or treatment is known, rendering prevention and symptom management strong

motivators of research on the potential to prolong cognitive function. Recent studies suggest the
possibility of combating Alzheimer’s disease through diet, supplements, and “brain-training” designed to
challenge cognitive function. The possible protective effects of vitamin and herb supplements have drawn
substantial attention and created a market for products such as “Memory Gum” and peppermint essential
oils. A study at the University of Cincinnati claimed experimental subjects who were exposed to the scent
of peppermint showed increased performance on tasks requiring sustained focus (Brand & Ydstie, 2007).
Whether or not this is “hard science,” however, remains open to debate. Skeptics argue that peppermint is
nothing more than aromatherapy, and favors social facilitation, the tendency for an audience to enhance
performance in common tasks, as a more likely explanation.

Existing literature suggests that consumption of natural compounds can improve memory. Fish
oils, extra virgin olive oil, and antioxidant-rich foods such as spinach and berries have been shown to
improve working memory and reduce loss of established memory (Bickford et al., 2000; Hashimoto et al.,
2011; Farr et al., 2012). More recently, studies examining the effect of aroma on memory and alertness
suggest that aroma of peppermint may increase cognitive function. Further, animal studies have shown
the ability of volatile organic compounds to directly affect physiology and behavior. Compounds emitted
from a deciduous oak attenuate stress in a rate model, indicated by a return from hyperthermia to the
homeostatic range (Akutsu et al,. 2002).

A study of peppermint’s modulation of long- term potentiation showed a direct correlation

between peppermint oils and enhanced memory (Moss et al., 2008). When compared against exposure to
other ambient odors, peppermint produced a marked increase in word recall accuracy (Herz, 1997). In
recall tests of extended memory, improved cognitive function arose in response to exposure to peppermint
aroma during both the learning and memory retrieval tasks (Herz, 1997). In vivo exposure of glial cells to
peppermint oil has been shown to inhibit heat-shock- induced apoptosis of astrocytes in rat and human
cell models, suggesting peppermint’s preservation of central nervous system microglia as a mediator of
improved cognitive function (Koo et al., 2000).

In a battery of questions assessing cognitive performance, aroma of peppermint increased

alertness and performance on tasks requiring sustained visual attention. Exposure to the aroma also
reliably produced EEG fluctuations during REM sleep, ruling out subject expectancy as a confounding
variable. ANOVAs of task accuracy in peppermint versus control groups revealed increases in the quality
of working memory without sacrificing speed. The aroma did not influence subjective mood but produced
a significant increase in alertness and thus demonstrated peppermint’s ability to modulate cognitive
performance independent of effects on motivation (Moss et al., 2008).

Conclusion: Some challenged I experienced in starting my data collection was organizing all my sources.
In a being a topic that is somewhat popular in nature, I had a lot of sources. This meant I had to go
through every source I found and pick the ones I felt were not only beneficial to my project, but also
complemented where I intend to be. In doing so, the data collection is accurate and concise with my
paper. In relating back to the initial hypothesis, the data collection is on a positive trend. So far in
previous experiments done by credited researchers, peppermint has a significant impact on the brain, but
how that translates to Alzheimer’s Disease is a problematic area.
Questions:
1. Where does aromatherapy stand when performing an experiment on the actual protein from AD?
2. If there are many studies posing beneficial correlation to the brain, then why not create a sample drug or do
more in-depth studies?
3. How does the smell of peppermint effect productivity?
4. What are some other research being done for the treatment of AD?
5. How do the other scents (rosemary, curcumin, and spearmint) compare with peppermint?
6. Does the form of ingestion have an effect?
7. Does the time of day have an effect?
8. Do other factors such as gender or age have an effect?
9. How can this information be spread to the population its directed to?
10. What is the sample size of peppermint needed to have a significant effect?
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AD DATA COLLECTION SOURCES
NASAL DISTRIBUTION
 Djupesland, Per G, Ramy A Mahmoud, and John C Messina. “Accessing the Brain: The Nose
May Know the Way.” Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 33, no. 5 (May 2013):
793–94. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2013.41.
 Grassin-Delyle, Stanislas, Amparo Buenestado, Emmanuel Naline, Christophe Faisy, Sabine
Blouquit-Laye, Louis-Jean Couderc, Morgan Le Guen, Marc Fischler, and Philippe Devillier.
“Intranasal Drug Delivery: An Efficient and Non-Invasive Route for Systemic Administration:
Focus on Opioids.” Pharmacology & Therapeutics 134, no. 3 (June 2012): 366–79.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.03.003.
 Türker, Selcan, Erten Onur, and Yekta Ozer. “Nasal Route and Drug Delivery Systems.”
Pharmacy World & Science: PWS 26, no. 3 (June 2004): 137–42.
 Turin, Luca. The Science of Scent. Accessed October 23, 2017.
https://www.ted.com/talks/luca_turin_on_the_science_of_scent.

GENERAL AD
 “Alzheimer’s Brain Plaques - Alzheimer’s Association.” Accessed December 21, 2017.
https://www.alz.org/braintour/plaques.asp.
 Liu, Chia-Chen, Takahisa Kanekiyo, Huaxi Xu, and Guojun Bu. “Apolipoprotein E and
Alzheimer Disease: Risk, Mechanisms, and Therapy.” Nature Reviews. Neurology 9, no. 2
(February 2013): 106–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2012.263.
 Gómez-Pinilla, Fernando. “Brain Foods: The Effects of Nutrients on Brain Function.” Nature
Reviews. Neuroscience 9, no. 7 (July 2008): 568–78. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2421.
 “Latest Alzheimer’s Facts and Figures.” Latest Facts & Figures Report | Alzheimer’s Association,
September 17, 2013. //www.alz.org/facts/overview.asp.
 Mucke, Lennart, and Dennis J. Selkoe. “Neurotoxicity of Amyloid β-Protein: Synaptic and
Network Dysfunction.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 2, no. 7 (July 2012).
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006338.
 Bagyinszky, Eva, Young Chul Youn, Seong Soo A An, and SangYun Kim. “The Genetics of
Alzheimer’s Disease.” Clinical Interventions in Aging 9 (April 1, 2014): 535–51.
https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S51571.
 Spires-Jones, Tara L, and Bradley T Hyman. “The Intersection of Amyloid Beta and Tau at
Synapses in Alzheimer’s Disease.” Neuron 82, no. 4 (May 21, 2014): 756–71.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.004.

PEPPERMINT SPECIFIC
 Göbel, H., G. Schmidt, and D. Soyka. “Effect of Peppermint and Eucalyptus Oil Preparations on
Neurophysiological and Experimental Algesimetric Headache Parameters.” Cephalalgia 14, no. 3
(June 1, 1994): 228–34. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-2982.1994.014003228.x.
 Clark, R. J., and R. C. Menary. “Environmental Effects on Peppermint (Mentha Piperita L.). II.
Effects of Temperature on Photosynthesis, Photorespiration and Dark Respiration in Peppermint
with Reference to Oil Composition.” Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 7, no. 6 (1980):
693–97.
 Meamarbashi, Abbas. “Instant Effects of Peppermint Essential Oil on the Physiological
Parameters and Exercise Performance.” Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine 4, no. 1 (2014): 72–
78.
  “Memory Boost: Can Drinking Peppermint Tea Help You Remember?” Express.co.uk, April 27,
2016. https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/3002/Top-10-foods-that-make-you-happy.
 Mentha x Piperita - Peppermint - Flora of Northwest Europe, 2014.
http://oilsesense.com/pages/mentha-x-piperita-peppermint-flora-of-northwest-europe.
 MOSS, MARK, STEVEN HEWITT, LUCY MOSS, and KEITH WESNES. “Modulation of
Cognitive Performance and Mood by Aromas of Peppermint and Ylang-Ylang.” International
Journal of Neuroscience 118, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 59–77.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450601042094.
 Boyles, Salynn. “Peppermint: Scent of a Winner?” WebMD. Accessed September 18, 2017.
http://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/news/20010720/peppermint-scent-of-winner.
 Norrish, Mark Ian Keith, and Katie Louise Dwyer. “Preliminary Investigation of the Effect of
Peppermint Oil on an Objective Measure of Daytime Sleepiness.” International Journal of
Psychophysiology 55, no. 3 (March 1, 2005): 291–98.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2004.08.004.
 Meamarbashi, Abbas, and Ali Rajabi. “The Effects of Peppermint on Exercise Performance.”
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 10 (March 21, 2013): 15.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-15.
o SPEARMINT
 Herrlinger, Kelli A., Kristin M. Nieman, Kristen D. Sanoshy, Brenda A. Fonseca,
Joanne A. Lasrado, Arianne L. Schild, Kevin C. Maki, Keith A. Wesnes, and
Michael A. Ceddia. “Spearmint Extract Improves Working Memory in Men and
Women with Age-Associated Memory Impairment.” Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine (New York, N.Y.), January 9, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2016.0379.

PATHOLOGY
 Paulson, Jennifer B., Martin Ramsden, Colleen Forster, Mathew A. Sherman, Eileen McGowan,
and Karen H. Ashe. “Amyloid Plaque and Neurofibrillary Tangle Pathology in a Regulatable
Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease.” The American Journal of Pathology 173, no. 3
(September 2008): 762–72. https://doi.org/10.2353/ajpath.2008.080175.
 Abbott, N. Joan. “Astrocyte-Endothelial Interactions and Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability.”
Journal of Anatomy 200, no. 6 (June 2002): 629–38.
 White, J. D., M. J. Eimerbrink, H. B. Hayes, A. Hardy, E. A. Van Enkevort, J. L. Peterman, M. J.
Chumley, and G. W. Boehm. “Hippocampal Aβ Expression, but Not Phosphorylated Tau,
Predicts Cognitive Deficits Following Repeated Peripheral Poly I:C Administration.”
Behavioural Brain Research 313, no. Supplement C (October 15, 2016): 219–25.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2016.07.032.
 Balducci, Claudia, Marten Beeg, Matteo Stravalaci, Antonio Bastone, Alessandra Sclip, Emiliano
Biasini, Laura Tapella, et al. “Synthetic Amyloid-β Oligomers Impair Long-Term Memory
Independently of Cellular Prion Protein.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 107, no. 5 (February 2, 2010): 2295–2300.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0911829107.
 Hoover, Brian R., Miranda N. Reed, Jianjun Su, Rachel D. Penrod, Linda A. Kotilinek, Marianne
K. Grant, Rose Pitstick, et al. “Tau Mislocalization to Dendritic Spines Mediates Synaptic
Dysfunction Independently of Neurodegeneration.” Neuron 68, no. 6 (December 22, 2010):
1067–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.11.030.
 Selkoe, D. J. “The Molecular Pathology of Alzheimer’s Disease.” Neuron 6, no. 4 (April 1991):
487–98.

SYNAPSE
  Selkoe, Dennis J. “Alzheimer’s Disease Is a Synaptic Failure.” Science 298, no. 5594 (October
25, 2002): 789–91. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1074069.

 Koffie, Robert M., Bradley T. Hyman, and Tara L. Spires-Jones. “Alzheimer’s Disease: Synapses
Gone Cold.” Molecular Neurodegeneration 6 (August 26, 2011): 63.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-1326-6-63.

 “Brain Synapses and Neurotransmitters - Alzheimer’s Association.” Accessed December 21,

2017. https://www.alz.org/braintour/synapses_neurotransmitters.asp.
 Sheng, Morgan, Bernardo L. Sabatini, and Thomas C. Südhof. “Synapses and Alzheimer’s
Disease.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 4, no. 5 (May 2012).
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a005777.

PREVIOUS EVIDENCE ON IMPORVEMENT

 Hardy, J. A., and G. A. Higgins. “Alzheimer’s Disease: The Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis.” Science
(New York, N.Y.) 256, no. 5054 (April 10, 1992): 184–85.
 Lehrner, J., G. Marwinski, S. Lehr, P. Johren, and L. Deecke. “Ambient Odors of Orange and
Lavender Reduce Anxiety and Improve Mood in a Dental Office.” Physiology & Behavior 86, no. 1–2
(September 15, 2005): 92–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.06.031.
 Zhou, Xiaoling, Yifei Li, Xiaozhe Shi, and Chun Ma. “An Overview on Therapeutics Attenuating
Amyloid β Level in Alzheimer’s Disease: Targeting Neurotransmission, Inflammation, Oxidative
Stress and Enhanced Cholesterol Levels.” American Journal of Translational Research 8, no. 2
(February 15, 2016): 246–69.
 Banno, Norihiro, Toshihiro Akihisa, Ken Yasukawa, Harukuni Tokuda, Keiichi Tabata, Yuji
Nakamura, Reiko Nishimura, Yumiko Kimura, and Takashi Suzuki. “Anti-Inflammatory Activities of
the Triterpene Acids from the Resin of Boswellia Carteri.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 107, no. 2
(September 19, 2006): 249–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.03.006.
 Singh, Rajinder, Muftah A. M. Shushni, and Asma Belkheir. “Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities
of Mentha Piperita L.” Arabian Journal of Chemistry 8, no. 3 (May 1, 2015): 322–28.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2011.01.019.
 Rasooli, Iraj, L Gachkar, D Yadegarinia, M Bagher Rezaei, and Shakiba Darvish Alipour Astaneh.
“Antibacterial and Antioxidative Characterisation of Essential Oils from Mentha Piperita and Mentha
Spicata Grown in Iran.” Acta Alimentaria - ACTA ALIMENT 37 (March 1, 2008): 41–52.
https://doi.org/10.1556/AAlim.2007.0019.
 Pilau, Marciele Ribas, Sydney Hartz Alves, Rudi Weiblen, Sandra Arenhart, Ana Paula Cueto, and
Luciane Teresinha Lovato. “Antiviral Activity of the Lippia Graveolens (Mexican Oregano) Essential
Oil and Its Main Compound Carvacrol against Human and Animal Viruses.” Brazilian Journal of
Microbiology 42, no. 4 (2011): 1616–24. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-838220110004000049.
 Johnson, Andrew J., and Christopher Miles. “Chewing Gum and Context-Dependent Memory: The
Independent Roles of Chewing Gum and Mint Flavour.” British Journal of Psychology 99, no. 2 (May
1, 2008): 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712607X228474.
 Baker, Jess R., Jessica B. Bezance, Ella Zellaby, and John P. Aggleton. “Chewing Gum Can Produce
Context-Dependent Effects upon Memory.” Appetite 43, no. 2 (October 1, 2004): 207–10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2004.06.004.
 Tucha, Oliver, Lara Mecklinger, Kerstin Maier, Marianne Hammerl, and Klaus W Lange. “Chewing
Gum Differentially Affects Aspects of Attention in Healthy Subjects.” Appetite 42, no. 3 (June 1,
2004): 327–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2004.01.003.
 Zoladz, Phillip, and B Raudenbush. “Cognitive Enhancement through Stimulation of the Chemical
Senses.” North American Journal of Psychology 7 (January 1, 2005): 125–40.
 Barker, Shannon, Pamela Grayhem, Jerrod Koon, Jessica Perkins, Allison Whalen, and Bryan
Raudenbush. “Improved Performance on Clerical Tasks Associated with Administration of Peppermint
 Odor.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 97, no. 3 Pt 1 (December 2003): 1007–10.
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
o AROMATHERAPY
 MOSS, MARK, JENNY COOK, KEITH WESNES, and PAUL DUCKETT. “Aromas
of Rosemary and Lavender Essential Oils Differentially Affect Cognition and Mood in
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 Johnson, Andrew J. “Cognitive Facilitation Following Intentional Odor Exposure.”
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 Jimbo, Daiki, Yuki Kimura, Miyako Taniguchi, Masashi Inoue, and Katsuya Urakami.
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 Ali, Babar, Naser Ali Al-Wabel, Saiba Shams, Aftab Ahamad, Shah Alam Khan, and
Firoz Anwar. “Essential Oils Used in Aromatherapy: A Systemic Review.” Asian
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 Moss, Mark, and Lorraine Oliver. “Plasma 1,8-Cineole Correlates with Cognitive
Performance Following Exposure to Rosemary Essential Oil Aroma.” Therapeutic
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 Wu, Shuhua, Krupa B Patel, Leland J Booth, Jordan P Metcalf, Hsueh-Kung Lin, and
Wenxin Wu. “Protective Essential Oil Attenuates Influenza Virus Infection: An in
Vitro Study in MDCK Cells.” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 10
(November 15, 2010): 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-10-69.
 Mishra, Shrikant, and Kalpana Palanivelu. “The Effect of Curcumin (Turmeric) on
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1 (2008): 13–19. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.40220.
 Lakhan, Shaheen E., Heather Sheafer, and Deborah Tepper. “The Effectiveness of
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article. Pain Research and Treatment, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8158693.
 Herz, Rachel S. “The Effects of Cue Distinctiveness on Odor-Based Context-
Dependent Memory.” Memory & Cognition 25, no. 3 (May 1, 1997): 375–80.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211293.
