620 The assessment of rockfall hazard at the base of talus slopes! S.G, Evans Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ont., Canada KIA OE8 AND. ©, Huncr Thurber Engineering Lid., Suite 200-1445 West Georgia Street, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6G 273 Received September 25, 1992 Accepted March 18, 1993 Fragmental rockfall is characterized by the independent movement of individual rock fragments after detach- ‘ment from a rock face. The continued operation of the process leads to the accumulation of talus slopes. On talus slopes the rockfall shadow extends beyond the base of the talus and consists of scattered boulders that have run out beyond the base of the slope. The landing probability of boulders in the shadow is examined; return periods of the order of 1000 years relative to a house site are typical. Rockfall behaviour particularly with respect to run out into the shadow can be assessed using geological evidence, empirical methods, physical modelling, and computer: based analytical models. An empirical minimum shadow angle of 27.5° (ie., the angle between the distal limit of the shadow and the top of the talus slope) is suggested and would be useful in rockfall vulnerability studies at the hhase of talus slopes as a first approximation to shadow limits. Iti preferable to the use of the rockfall fahrbdschung. as proposed by several authors. A random collision lumped mass model (KOCKFALL) is outlined. ROCKFALL uses {wo restitution coefficients and a transition to rolling criterion, ROCKFALL is used to analyse two fatal rockfall acc dents in southern British Columbia, at Hedley in 1939 and Sunnybrae in 1983, which are documented in detail ‘An additional nonfatal incident is also analysed (Barnhartvale in 1974). Results based on an initial calibration were encouraging. Documentation of the three rockfall incidents shows that, in each case, rockfall fragments impacted on hhomes at equivalent shadow angles of 30° or more. This would suggest that a review of existing development within rockfall shadow areas at the base of talus slopes may be in order. Key words: rockfall, dynamics, talus stopes, landslides, British Columbia L’éboulement rocheux fragmentaire est caractérisé par le mouvement indépendant de fragments rocheux indi- viduels apres détachement de Ia face rocheuse. L'action continue de ce processus conduit a l'accumulation de pentes de talus. Sur les pentes de talus, I'éboulement rocheux étend son empreinte au-dela du pied du talus consistant en des cailloux éparpillés qui ont poursuivi leur course au-del& du pied du talus. La probabilité d'atterissage de cail- Joux dans cette empreinte est examinée; des périodes de récurrence de l'ordre de 1000 ans par rapport 2 un site résidentiel sont typiques. Le comportement d'éboulement rocheux, particuligrement par rapport a a distance de parcours dans l'empreinte, peut étre évalué au moyen de données géologiques, de méthodes empiriques, de modélisation physique, et de modéles analytiques pouvant étre traités & Vordinateur. Un angle minimum empirique de !'empreinte de 27,5° (i.e. angle entre la limite distale de lempreinte et le sommet de la pente talus) est suggéré et serait utile dans les tudes de vulnérabilité aux éboulements rocheux au pied des pentes de talus comme premiere approxi mation des limites des empreintes. Il est préférable de I'utiliser plutot que le fahrbéschung d’sboulement rocheux tel gue proposé par plusicurs auteurs. Un modéle de collision aléatoire de masse de blocks (ROCKFALL) est décrit. ROCKFALL utilise deux coefficients de restitution et une transition au crittre de roulement. ROCKFALL est utilisé pour analyser deux accidents mortels d’éhoulement rocheux dans le sud de Ia Colombie-Britannique, a Hedley en 1939 ct Sunnybrae en 1983, qui sont documentés en détail, Un autre incident non mortel est également analysé (Barnhartvale en 1974). Les résultats basés sur Ia calibration initiale sont encourageants. La documentation des trois incidents 'éboulement montre que dans chaque cas des fragments d”éboulement ont frappé Jes maisons sous des angles équivalents d'empreinte de 30° ou plus. Ceci suggérerait qu'il y aurait lieu de revoir les développements existants sur les empreintes d’éboulements rocheus au pied des pentes des talus ‘Mots clés : éboulement rocheux, dynamique, pentes de talus, glissements, Colombie-Britannique. [Traduit par la rédaction} Can, Geotesh, 5 10, 620-636 (1993) Introduction Rockfall (Fig. 1) is a slope process involving the detach- ment of rock fragments and their fall and subsequent boune- ing, rolling, stiding, and deposition (Varnes 1978; Hutchinson 1988), A rockfall event may involve the displacement of a single fragment or several pieces. It may also begin by the detachment of a more or less coherent block that then integrates during the course of movement. Rockfall is a common process in mountain terrain where its continued ‘occurrence forms talus slopes (Rapp 1960a, 19606; Church ‘Geological Survey of Canada Contribution 42290, et al. 1979), accumulations of rock fragments at the base of a source rock slope. This paper is concerned with assessing the hazard pre- sented by events at the lower end of the magnitude spec: trum, the “fragmental rockfall” of Hungt and Evans (1988, 1989), near the base of talus slopes. Fragmental rockfall is, characterized by a more or less independent movement of individual particles, as-opposed to the sliding or mass flow of coherent or broken rock typical of a rock avalanche. In general, fragmental rockfall involves relatively small detachments (<10° m'), although there is no well-defined volume limit.EVANS AND HUNGR. 621 Fic. |. Rockfall from Bastion Mountain, British Columbia on December 23, 1959. Shuswap Lake in foreground (photograph courtesy of Dorothy Brook). BE ug SIE es SRC Fic. 2. Example of large boulder runout in the Simitkameen Valley, British Columbia. Large boulder sits on river terrace beyond the foot of the talus slope and originated in a rockfall from the slopes to the left. Note person for scale. Low-magnitude fragmental rockfall is distinguished from larger rockfalls (>10° m'). These invariably disintegrate and are transformed into a rapid movement of unsorted frag- ments termed a stiirzstrom (Heim 1932), rock avalanche (McConnell and Brock 1904), or rockfall avalanche (Varnes 1978) where inclusion of the term rockfall implies an episode of free fall during the movement. Hungr and Evans (1989) compiled rockfall accident sta- tisties for Canada and found that rockfall has caused only four deaths in houses and nine deaths on transportation routes in this century. Even allowing for the fact that the records are incomplete, this number is surprisingly small, It may be compared with casualties in the mountainous regions of Europe where in Italy in 1969, for example, a rockfall from ‘Monte San Martino caused eight deaths in the town of Lecco (Bisbacher and Clague 1984), This paper enlarges on previous work (Hungr and Evans 1988, 1989), which gave partial results. It addresses the problem of assessing rockfall hazard on and beyond the base of talus slopes. Periodically a rockfall occurs in which fone or more larger boulders bounce and roll down the talus slope and move beyond its margin, coming to rest at some Ke | ta one nore Tht i 7 | i . . Jf ") A Pe Fic. 3. Typical downslope distribution of mean grain sizes in 2 talus deposit (data from Worobey 1972) distance from the slope base (Fig. 2). It is these boulders that constitute the greatest hazard in the vicinity of talus slopes, and uncertainty about their behaviour poses a major difficulty in rockfall-vulnerability assessment in mountain-622 CAN. GEOTECH, 1, VOL. 30,1998, eet — TAWS store ——~ Fic. 4. Schematic diagram of the characteristic rockfall path profile. A-C is the talus slope, with mean angle B,, and C-D is the rockfall shadow, with a shadow angle B. B,, substrate angle. onTAFRON TALUS APEX DATA FROM WOROBEY (1972) £8 ow 2 $8 10%] © LaNoNG PROBABILITY (© pact proBaBiiTy owas HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM APEX (im) Fio. 5. Landing- and impact-probability distributions calcu. lated for the talus slope shown in Fig. 3. ‘ous regions. This has emerged as an important problem in planning resource development in the vicinity of rock slopes in Canada (e.g., Ballivy et al. 1984; Boyd 1991) and is the primary focus of this paper, since, as noted above, although rockfall damage (o buildings at the base of talus slopes is rel- atively rare, the indirect costs of sterilization of tand endan- gered by rockfall are in the order of tens of millions of dol- lars. Continuing development pressure in the mountainous areas of Canada will necessitate more rigorous geotechnical analysis of potentially hazardous sites. The nature of rockfall deposition on and beyond talus slopes is investigated. Several methods of rockfall analysis are examined and a numerical analytical model (ROCKPALL) is outlined. Three case histories of rockfall accidents at the ‘base of talus slopes in the mountains of British Columbia are described and are analysed with ROCKFALL The behaviour of rockfall fragments on talus slopes Deposition on talus slopes ‘The depositional pattern exhibited in talus slopes reflects certain regularities. An important aspect is the natural “grav- ity” sorting by size observed by many authors (e.g,. Rapp 19604, 1960b; Gardner 1970; Kotarba and Stromquist 1984; Brundsen et al. 1984; Statham and Francis 1986) wherein the coarsest boulders are found at the base of the slope. Size sorting contributes an important roughness component to the talus slope surface, which becomes the characteris: tie path profile for successive rockfulls. ‘A typical example of size sorting on talus slopes is shown in Fig. 3, derived from data collected on a talus cone in the Similkameen Valley, southern British Columbia by Worobey (1972). The mean particle size is seen in this instance to increase gradually from about 5 to 10 cm over approxi- mately 300 m of slope length. Approximately the lower most 40 m of the cone surface is built up of boulders with characteristic sizes of | m or greater. The slope angle reduces to as little as 15° in the coarse basal accumulation. The rel atively low variation of grain size in the upper part of the cone is probably the result of redeposition by surficial talus flows, which are common in the area. Rockfall path profile ‘A rockfall-dominated talus slope exhibits a typical profile as seen in Fig. 4. Finer talus fragments accumulate below the apex (point A) at an angle of approximately 38°. Lower down, the talus angle ranges from approximately 32 t0 38°. ‘The lowermost part of the talus deposit contains the largest fragment sizes, and the talus slope angle sometimes fallsTOE OF TALUS END OF SHADOW 7 approx. | Soo "ER 200m WOTH BOULDERS Fi “0 No, O 30 0 ” 4060 ao toa DISTANCE FROM TALUS TOE (mn) Fig, 6. Distribution of boulders in the dlistal part of a rock- fall shadow area surveyed in the Similkameen Valley, British Columbia, Total number of boulders = 571; width of area sur- veyed = 200 m; mean boulder diameter = 1.8 m. *, based on 50% area coverage. to 10 oF 20%, as shown between points B and C. Point C is the base of the talus deposit. Beyond this point the slope is no longer completely covered by talus fragments ‘The average talus angle is B, (Fig. 4). The surface to the right of point C (Fig. 4) is termed the substrate surface, consisting of material and landforms predating the talus deposits. That part of the substrate surface covered discon- tinuously by scattered large boulders that have rolled or bounced beyond the base of the talus (C-D in Fig. 4) is referred to here as the rockfall shadow. The “shadow angle” is defined as the angle between the outer margin of the shadow and the apex of the talus slope (B, in Fig, 4). The distal part of the shadow often contains only very few boul ders, which are sparsely distributed on the sucface. Spatial distribution of rockfall impact on tatus slopes ralus cone slope angles remain fairly constant during their gradual formation. As a result, it can be assumed that a relatively uniform thickness of material is added to the entire cone surface over any long period of time. The prob- EVANS AND HUNGR: 623 z xX pe sane \ ww, Fic. 7. Unfolded plan of the cone surface, showing influence area used in calculations of impact frequency. ry Peseateresieee| oe a dea Fic. 8, Approximate retun periods for impact damage to a 10> 0 m hows sit ability of a unit volume of rock fragments landing at any particular location on the cone surface must then be approx- imately constant. In the Similkameen Valley of British Columbia, talus cones (exposures of the Mazama Ash deposited 6600 years BP; Clague 1980) can be found at a typical vertical depth of 3 m (Worobey 1972). The corresponding mean vertical growth (V) rate of the talus surface is 3/6600 = 0.00045 nvyear. The rate of growth in the direction normal to the cone surface is approximately (cos 34°) V, i.e., 0.00037 m/year (ef. Luckman 1988). ‘The probability of fragments landing on a given square metre plot of the surface is a function of the mean particle diameter; Ry De it where /;, is the frequency of landings per year per square meire of cone surface, R, is the surface growth rate in the normal direction in metres per year and D, is the charac- teristic dimension of the mean rock fragment, defined as the side of a cube with the Zame volume as that occupied by the fragment in the deposit. “The mean grain size of talus deposits increases with dis- tance from the apex. Consequently, by [1]. the frequency of landing decreases. The frequency variation shown by the62a (CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 20, Fic. 9. Rockfall hazard at Silverhope, British Columbia (A) Oblique view of Silverhope, showing source cliffs and veg: claled talus slopes. Borrow pit referred to in text is cleared area near the centre of the photograph. (B) Large boulder in rock- fall shadow at Silverhope, broken line with open circles in Fig. 5 has been derived by applying [1] to the average grain size profile reported by Worobey (1972) in Fig. 3. The landing probability curve in Fig. 5, constructed on the premise of [1], extends only to the toe ofthe talus slope To extend it beyond the toe into the rocktall shadow area, additional information is required. This is provided by Fig. 6, showing the distribution of rockfall fragments with distance from the talus toe, ilkameen Valley. The landing probability in the shadow area was estimated by surveying the distribution of boulders in strip-like seg. ments concentric on a talus cone. The measurements. were made on a plot of land 200 m wide, extending from the toe of the talus cone to the distal margin of the shadow. The distribution of boulder frequency versus distance from the toe is shown in the form of a histogram with a spacing of 20 m (Fig. 6). The boulders lie on a river terrace with an esti mated age of about 5000 years. (J.M. Ryder, personill com- munication, 1987), ‘The landing probabilities are calculated by dividing the boulder landing counts given in Fig. 6 by 5000 and by the survey area of 20 x 200 m. The resulting values are shown as open triangles in Fig. 5. The two segments of the landing probability curve show continuity of slope, although they originate from two different sites. In Fig. 5 the landing probability estimates in the steep central part of the talus slope are severely distorted by the fre. quent occurrence of talus flow movements. The probabilities estimated near and beyond the margin are, on the other hand, representative of individual particle deposition. Impact hazard affecting a structure situated on or near the talus cone derives not only from fragments landing at that location but also from those crossing the location and destined to land farther down the slope. This impact fre- quency, fin, can be estimated by integrating numerically the landing probabilities over an influence area sketched in Fig. 7: measured at another site in the where i is a counter of sampling points regularly spaced at a slope interval, d is the downslope from the point in con: sideration, and r is defined in Fig. 7. The point considered is located halfway between a pair of sampling points, as shown in Fig. 7. The calculation results are given as the solid line in Fig. 5 in terms of events per metre width. Return period T of impact events at various locations ean be estimated as 1 BI Ww Fn where Wis the width of the area considered. The resulting return periods for @ 10-m-wide house site are indicated in Fig. 8, At 50 m from the talus margin, the impact proba- bility is 0.000 05 events/m, and the corresponding return period for a 10-m house site is 1900 years. A housing sub- division located at the same distance and covering an area 200 m wide would face a probability of being struck by a sin- gle boulder of 1 in 95 years. Short-term probabilities can vary considerably from the long-term average. There is some evidence that rockfall rates have decreased throughout the Holocene (e.g., Worobey 1972). In this case, the estimated return periods represent a lower limit estimate. Prediction of rocKfall behaviour. 1. Geological evidence In some cases, i is possible to ascertain the past behaviour of a rock slope over a long period on the basis of geologi-| ; Le EVANS AND HUNGR 62s FIG, 10, Profiles of 16 surveyed rockfalt paths from British Columbia (modified from Hungr and Evans 1988). The profiles have been plotted with the talus apex as a common point. A, base of the talus slope; ©, distal margin of the rockfall shadow; either known source areas or the erest of the source elif. |, Hedley; 2, Similkameen A (Sweatiodge)*; 3, Similkameen B (rockslide); 4-Similkameen C (kame); 5-Simitkameen D (Winters Creek); 6-Similkameen E (campground): 7, Similkameen F (speedway); 8, Pukaist; 9, Sunnybrae; 10, Baron artvale*; 11, Silverhope A; 12, Silverhope B; 13, Silverhope D; 14, Si fethope C; 15, Hope North®; 16, Sawamus Chief* (asterisks denote sites where fresh debris was found in the rockfall shadow area). ‘TABLE 1. ROCKFALL: preliminary model parameters Normal restitution coefficient (K,) (np crushing)” Tangential restitution coefficient (k,)” Yield contact force F, (kN): Initial contact stifiness C, (kNim) Stiffness reduction ratio f Rolling friction coefficient (4) ‘Small rocks on clean rock (20-100 kg) Large rocks on talus (1000 ~ 20 000 kg) 208 09 50 10 100 100 0.05 0.05 0.52 0.52 Sp = ak where Vs vis Vi where Ve ‘or definition see Fulcetta (1988), cal evidence. Such information can then be extrapolated so as to predict the reach of future rockfall within @ given return period. ‘An example is provided by the evaluation of rockfall haz- ard at the community of Silverhope (Fig. 9A) in south- western British Columbia. The community is located on an alluvial fan in front of a deltaic terrace. Immediately behind the terrace, cliffs composed of massive Focene quartz dior- ite and homnfels rise to a height of 600 m (Fig. 9). Extensive talus deposits, and numerous lange boulders that have rolled Ts normal velocity component after impact, ‘angentil velocity component after impact beyond the talus margins, testify to rockfall activity, although this activity appears to predate the development of the exten- sive forest cover (Fig. 9). No rockfall accidents have been reported since the site was settled in the 1950s. The rockfall shadow at Silverhope is well defined (sce profiles 11-14 in Fig. 10)7The terrace surface beyond the rockfall shadow is underlain by a deposit of cross-bedded sand containing no gravel or boulders, which is exposed in a small borrow pit (Fig. 9). The sand is of deltaic origin, deposited in standing water, However, no lake has existed at626 CAN. GHOTECH. 3, VOL. 30, 1993 Go a0 e000 Hao im) ws Teo S20 So too We Te ea Go Fio. 11, Simulation of full-scale experiments carried out by Broili (1977). (A) Typical RocKFAtA. result, with a fragment volume of 0.5m’, Velocity is shown in upper frame. (B) Comparison of Broili’s results and calculations using ROCKFALL, showing the downslope distance d to the point of onset of rolling as a function of fragment volume V. the site in the Holocene, Therefore, the surface of the deltaic terrace must be at least 11 000 years old, dating buck t0 the last stages of glacial ice retreat from the valley (JJ. Clague, personal communication, 1986). The area immediately out- side the well-defined rockfall shadow therefore has a prob- ability of less than 1 : 11 000 of being reached by rockfall from the cliff in a given year. ‘The general frequency of rockfall in this area was indicated by a detailed inspection of talus deposits beneath cliff fronts totalling approximately 2700 m in length. The talus deposits are partly forested and heavily moss covered (Fig. 9). Only six rock fragments were found whose appearance indicated that they have been deposited within the last year, their sizes varying from 0.01 to 0.1 m’. The average frequency of fragments in this size range falling onto the talus apron therefore works out to 0.04 per year per 100 m length of cliffs, which is within the range of the frequency-magnitude curve described by Gardner (1980). No fresh fragments or tree damage associated with rockfall were identified within the rockfall shadow area Not all sites provide sufficient evidence to allow such reasoning. If it were not possible to reliably date the substrate surface, if weathering conditions change (e.g., because of deforestation or a recent major instability), or if there were boulders of glacial or debris-flow origin impossible to dis- tinguish from rockfall deposits, then this method may not provide satisfactory answers. Prediction of rockfall behaviour. I. Empirical evaluation Two related empirical measures have been suggested to estimate the run-out distance of rockfall fragments at the base of talus slopes, viz., the rockfall fahrbschung and the minimum shadow angle. Rockfall fahrboschung ‘The equivalent of a rockfall fahrbdschung has been sug- gested by Onofri and Candian (1979) in their analysis of 98 rockfalls triggered by the 1976 Friuli earthquake in Italy. The rockfall fahrbdschung (B) is the angle between the high- est point of the rockfall source scar and the stopping point of the longest run-out boulder for any given rocktall. Onofri and Candian (1979) found the limits of B to be 28.34 and 40.73°. They found that the values of B had a Gaussian dis- tribution and were able to assign probabilities to the various values of B. Toppe (1987) uses the same parameter to esti- mate rockfall runout. Although he does not specify the nature of his field data, he reports that 50% of rockfall frag- ments stop within 8 = 45° and 95% stop within B = 32°. These values contrast strongly with those of Ono[EVANS AND HUNGR er Candian (1979) who found that 50% stopped within B = 33.5° and 72% stopped within 8 = 32°. The calculation of the rockfall fahrbdschung requires the measurement of the start- ing and end points for individual rockfalls Minimum shadow angle ‘We suggest an alternative approach, following Lied (1977), where an empirical run-out angle, the minimum shadow angle (B,). defined in Fig. 4, is keyed to the apex of the talus slope and not to the source area of the rockfall on the rock slope above. The approach does not necessitate the start and end point of each rockfall to be located, since the effect of rockfall activity is integrated over time by con- sidering the longest boulder runout in a given rockfall shadow. A minimum value for (B,) has been suggested by several authors. Lied (1977) proposed that it should be in the range of 28-30°, and Hestnes (1980) suggested a value of 25°, although neither author discussed the bases of these estimates In this work, 16 profiles of rockfall paths from south- western British Columbia have been compiled (Fig. 10) The profiles have been plotted so as to join at the talus apex as a common point. The points, representing the limit of the shadow, plot con- sistently just below a line inclined at 27.5°, irrespective of the height of the source cliff, length of path, or the sub- strate angle, and represent a minimum shadow angle. The slopes in Fig. 10 are from locations both in the sparsely forested arid interior of British Columbia and in the humid southern Coast Mountains where there is dense forest cover outside the most active talus areas The use of an empirical minimum shadow angle of 27.5° would appear to be a useful method for the preliminary esti- mation of maximum rockfall reach, since the authors have observed that the same angle applies at many other sites in British Columbia Flatter angles sometimes result where the talus and (or) the substrate surface is relatively smooth. For example, a shadow angle of 24° has been measured by the authors for a single 4-m-diameter boulder rolling or sliding over the smooth surface of a glacier near Whistler, B.C. Rapp (1960b, p. 98) documents a rockfall in which a boulder ran out to a shadow angle of 23° on a surface partly covered by grass and snow. Some rockfall profiles from the Italian Alps (Govi 1977; Govi and Sorzana 1977; Fenti et al. 1977; Paronuzzi 1988, 1989) also suggest a flatter minimum shadow angle may result where the talus surface is relatively smooth, In addition, the impact of large rockfalls on loose talus, ‘may form flow-like slides that may run out beyond the rock: fall shadow limit, Kolderup (1955) describes an example from Norway in which the flow slide generated by such a process ran out to an equivalent shadow angle of 22° and destroyed two farmhouses. Interpretation In our investigations we have observed that long rock- fall trajectories on moderate slopes tend to be dominated by rolling. This is in agreement with full-scale experimen- tal observations made previously by such workers as Ritchie (1963), Broili (1977), and Kirkby and Statham (1975). ‘This observation helps to explain the concept of a limit ing shadow angle discussed above. The kinetic energy acquired by the fragment in the initial fall is largely lost in the first impacts on the talus surface near the top of the Sieunoen } TOM Z sa ocho Seor | (Fon tas — neotey \UZ British Columbia, showing location of 1939 rockfall release point and most probable impact zone. Contours in feet slope. Thus, regardless of the height of fall, each fragment begins rolling near the top of the slope and its final runout into the shadow is approximated by projecting the slope of the energy line, i., the rolling friction gradient, from the top of the talus slope. The value of 8, would thus appear to be the lower limit of the rolling friction angle for large boulders rolling over finer talus, and its variation would be expected to reflect differences in the surface characteristics of both talus slope and substrate, ‘The limited horizontal reach of boulders from Stawamus, Chief (profile 16, Fig. 10) confirms that the initial momen- tum from fragments falling from a near-vertical source is practically lost in the first series of impacts. Long hori- zontal reach is achieved only where fragments are able to build up sufficient horizontal and rotational momentum by travelling over a long inclined segment of talus slope. The rockfall fabrbdschung ignores the marked assyme- try in energy expenditure noted above and is dependent on the height of fall. In assessing rockfall vulnerability at the base of a talus slope, use of the fahrbdschung to delimit run-out distances requires knowledge about future detachment locations on the rock slope above. A conservative approach in these circumstances may involve taking the minimum fahrboschung angle from the top of the rock slope (Toppe 1987) which would overestimate the runout ata site. Prediction of rockfall behaviour. III. Development of ‘an analytical model In recent years, many investigators turned their attention towards computer-based analytical models, simulating the628 ‘CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 36, 1993 Fic, 13, Arca of Hedley affected by 1939 rocktall. Photograph taken in summer of 1939. Note location of houses close to the base of the talus slope within the rockfall shadow area (photograph courtesy of Helen Moore, Hedley Heritage Arts and Crafts Society), actual progress of a rock fragment down its path (Piteau and Clayton 1977; Azimi and Desvarreux 1977; Azimi et al 1982; Asté et al. 1984, 1987; Wu 1985; Falcetta 19 Bozzolo and Pamini 1986; Rochet, 19874, 1987; Kobayashi and Kagawa 1987; Descoeudres and Zimmerman 1987; Spang 1987; Spang and Rautenstrauch 1988; Bozzolo et al 1988; Paronuzzi 1988, 1989; Pfeiffer and Bowen 1989; Kobayashi et al. 1990; Fornaro et al. 1990; Azzoni et al 1992). Hungr and Evans (1988, 1989) developed a random collision mode! (ROCKFALL) which is outlined below. Bouncing mode ROCKFALL is based on a lumped mass model with sepa: rate normal (k,) and tangential (4) restitution coefficients (Azimi and Desvarreux 1977; Azimi et al. 1982; Wut 1985), fone of which (&,) is momentum scaled to allow for plastic deformation during impact. The assumption of constant restitution coefficients is rea- sonable only in cases where each impact involves approxi mately the same level of momentum normal to the contact surface. This is obviously not the case on paths where, for ‘example, the first impact on the talus surface follows a fong, free flight from the high cliff. ‘According to full-scale experiments by Broili (1974), 73-86% of the kinetic energy gai initial fall is, lost in the first impact. Subsequent volving lesser normal momenta, consume much less energy. It is for this reason that the bilinear contact deformation model devel- oped by Falcetta (1985) was incorporated in ROCKFALL, (Hungr and Evans 1989). Preliminary calibration of the model for large rocks was achieved using the results of Broili (1977). Figure 11 shows a simulation of one of the experiments reported by Broili (1977) in which a camera recorded three modes of motion: (i the initial fall from a height of 210 m, (i) a sequence of bounces, and (iii) a long segment dominated by rolling movement. The three modes are simulated by ROCKFALL in Fig. IIA. According to Broili’s observations, as reproduced in Fig. I1B, the length of the zone of bouncing increased with decreasing volume of the rock fragment released. This result is plotted in Fig. 11B over a range of 0.5-10 m’. By trial and error iterations of KOCKFALL, we have been able to approximate the experimental relationship as shown by the broken line in Fig. 11B, by using ROCKFALL parameter val- ues given in the first columa of Table 1 For preliminary purposes only, in the absence of more detailed calibration, these parameters are considered applic- able to impact of large rocks (1000 ~ 20 000 kg mass) on talus surfaces, without heavy vegetation Itis unlikely that the same parameters would apply for smaller rocks bouncing on different surfaces. For small rocks contacting clean rock surfaces, we have back analysed the results of experiments carried out by Wu (1985). The model parameters providing a reasonably good fit to these results are given in the second column of Table 1 It must be stressed that more detailed calibration based on controlled experiments is necessary. Transition to rolling mode The bouncing-only model does not simulate correctly that stage of rockfall movement when bounces become negligi- bly short and rolling begins. Its therefore necessary to pro- vide a transition at some point into a rolling mode, simu- lated by 2 frictional model. Several different criteria for transition between the bounc- ing and rolling mode were tried, including a limiting length of bounce, limiting time, and velocity. With all of these, there were problems with numerical instability of the model, as they allowed bounces of extremely short length or low amplitude. The most satisfactory results were finally reached with our transition to rolling criterion described in the fol- lowing paragraphs. ROCKFALL calculates the “energy head” of the fragment at every point during its descent, as indicated by the bro- ken line in Fig, 1B, While in trajectory, the fragment has a constant energy “head”, E:| | | EVANS AND HUNGR. 629 Fic, 14, Archive photographs of damage caused by 1939 Hedley rockfall. (A) Boulder which killed the two victims of the accident in the house behind. (B) Damage to a room al the corner of the Moore residence where the two Moore children escaped injury (photographs courtesy of Helen Moore, Hedley Heritage Asts and Crafts Society) where V is the length of the velocity vector, z is the fragment elevation, and g is acceleration due to gravity. ‘After an impact, the velocity component normal to the path is reduced by a ratio k, and the tangential velocity ‘component by &,. it can be shown that the resulting inere- mental loss of energy (AE) is, y2 | A? +42 wn? 0) () ae=¥ (aie Ai uni | 2e|{ itn? 6 | where @ is the angle of incidence prior to the impact. Thus, the kinetic energy is reduced in each impact by a ratio rang- ing from k? for very flat trajectories, through (k? + k2)/2 for 45° impacts, to K for steep trajectories approaching the perpendicular. ‘The “energy line” resulting from plotting the relationship in [4] appears as a series of steps, separated by horizontal lines (Fig. 11A), the length of which equals the trajectory length AL. When the ratio AB/AL is less than the tangent of the slope angle, the fragment accelerates continuously and the energy line rises above the path. When the ratio becomes greater than the slope gradient, the fragment decel ferutes and the trajectories rapidly become shorter, Deposition of the fragment then occurs. In ROCKFALL, a transition into rolling mode is made whe during three consecutive bounces, the ratio between the kinetic energy head lost in an impact and the horizontal length of the corresponding bounce (AE/AL) is greater than the rolling-friction coefficient, i.e., the rolling movement mode becomes more efficient than the bouncing mode. When there is a change in path-slope, such as at the crest of a small cliff, the fragment may temporarily move back into trajectory, For long slope segments that have slope angles <45 ROCKFALL generally predicts rockfall fragment paths that630 velocty (is) ovation metres asl) pct on nose . ' TP zm aan 1000 metres Fic. 15. The 1939 Hedley rockfall. ROCKFALL simulation of the longest rockfall path with k, (normal restitution coefficient) = 0.70, &, (tangential restitution coefficient) = 0.80, and rolling friction coeflicient = 0. are dominated by rolling movement. This is exemplified by the long travel paths simulated in the Hedley and Sunnybrae examples below, and it is in agreement with the empirical observations of Ritchie (1963). Under such circumstances, the variation and even the absolute value of the restitution coef- ficients are of secondary importance compared with the ‘magnitude of the chosen rolling-friction coefficient. jories of rockfall accidents at the base of talus slopes Three case histories of rockfall accidents at the base of talus slopes in British Columbia were investigated in detail, ‘The sites were visited in September 1987 and data collected on the geology of the detachment zone and the geometry of the path, Detailed theodolite surveys were conducted on the path and eyewitnesses were interviewed in the first two cases discussed. Hedley, B.C., January 17, 1939 Hedley is a small mining community located in the Similkameen Valley in the interior of British Columbia. Part of the community was situated directly beneath the rock faces and talus slopes of Stemwinder Mountain (Fig. 12). A rocktall from Stemwinder Mountain struck the town at (01:00 on Burns Night, January 17, 1939, killing two people and damaging several houses. The Slopes above the townsite are underlain by the Upper ‘Triassic Nicola Group, consisting of an interbedded, folded, and sheared sequence of basalts and limestone. The source of the 1939 rockfall is above the apex of a large talus cone consisting of relatively uniformly graded basalt fragments. Most of the talus surface consists of cubi- cal fragments with median sizes of approximately 40 mm, ranging from 10 to 150 mm. The surface is susceptible to shallow talus sliding and is free of vegetation. Its profile is uniform at 35° ‘The source area of the rockfall has been identified with the help of eyewitnesses. It is a large asymmetric wedge scar. Case CAN, GEOTECH. . VOL. 30, 1985, Fic, 16, Oblique aerial view of Sunnybrae (S), British Columbia. Note the source cliffs for rockfall from Bastion Mountain. m, location of release point of 1983 rockfall: @, loca: tion of damaged house in which two people were killed. ‘One side of the wedge formed along a faulted contact plane between basalt in the footwall and recrystallized limestone in the hanging wall, dipping at a mean angle of 52°, a few degrees to the left of the sliding direction. The opposite side of the wedge consists of a series of near-vertical cross joints striking perpendicular to the fault plane. Light-coloured, relatively fresh rock at the upper end of the scar, some 50 m above the talus, indicates that the volume of the detached rock was about 5000 m. A few large lime- stone boulders lie on the talus surface about 100 m below the apex. These boulders have a median size of approximately 0.7 m and a range of 1.5 mand are partly buried by the fine basaltic talus, The limestone rock that formed the rockfall is laminated but strong and sparsely jointed, tending to break into large blocks. In contrast, the underlying hasalt is closely fractured. No traces of the rockfall path were found on the talus, except for the few remnant boulders mentioned above The 1939 accident occurred in a newly built part of town known as the Ready Cash subdivision, consisting of two streets parallel to the toe of the talus cone (Figs. 12 and 13). Several boulders reached the subdivision, as recon: structed by arrows in Fig. 12. The boulders ranged from 1 to 2 min size. Four houses were severely damaged (Fig. 14) ‘A number of persons were awakened from their sleep by the walls of their bedrooms crushing under impact (Fig. 14) Fortunately, as noted above only two deaths occurred. The rockfall impact in the subdivision took place within the rockfall shadow at an equivalent shadow angle of 30°. The rockfall FahrbOschung for the Hedley event is 34°. Meteorological data from Hedley were analyzed for the 1939 event but do not suggest an obvious meteorologic trigger for the rockfall The discontinuity“patterns in the southeast face of Stemwinder Mountain indicate that similar conditions of detachment exist for future rockslope failures along the face. Although homes were moved from the run-out area of the 1939 event (B.C. Order in Council 1576), several homes atEVANS AND HUNGR 631 Fic, 17, The 1983 Sunnybrae rockfall, ( the damaged house in which two people were killed (photograph courtesy of Salmon Arm Observer), (B) The boulder involved in the rockfall being buried where it came to rest the present Hedley townsite are located beneath rockslopes and talus that are within the zone defined by the empirical minimum shadow angle of 27.5°. The profile of the longest rockfall path is shown in Fig. 15. ‘The path was simulated with ROCKFALL, and the calculated reach distance agrees well with the actual experience. The results of the computer simulation again confirm the pre- dominant rolling mode of movement. It is noted that the analysis could for practical purposes be replaced by one bused on a frictional model. Sunnybrae, B.C., November 23, 1983 Sunnybrae is a small community in the British Columbia interior located on the north shore of Shuswap Lake (Fig. 16) across from the town of Salmon Arm. The community lies at 350 m above seal level (asl) directly beneath the precip: itous faces of Bastion Mountain (Fig. 16), which extends to 1300 m asl. The cliffs are made up of metamorphosed limestone of the Sicamous Formation. The steep, sparsely forested slopes extending from the foot of the cliffs down towards the lakefront are underlain by weak schistose bedrock units, thinly mantled by fine-grained talus derived from the same rock. ‘The bedrock is exposed in ‘humerous small cliffs and outerops on the slope. Only very few boulders can be observed in the wooded rockfall shadow arca surrounding Sunnybrae. It appears that the main product of weathering of the slope above is a rel- aively fine grained talus material Comparison of photographs of the precipitous faces of Bastion Mountain taken in 1905 and 1983 by Geological Survey of Canada field personnel indicate tittle change in the morphology of the faces and therefore limited rockfall activ- ity in that time interval. In 1959, however, a substantial rockfall from the main face of Bastion Mountain (Fig. 1) occurred, suggesting that rockfall is a continuing, if infre- quent, process in the vicinity of Sunnybrae, ‘At 01:50 on November 23, 1983, a wheel-shaped boul- der of 6 x 6 x 2m detachéd near the base of the limestone cliffs, rolled, and bounced down a path 790 m long. Tt partly destroyed a house at the north end of Sunnybrae and killed two inhabitants (Fig. 17), The boulder demolished approx- imately one half of the house, leaving the other half rela-632 PROFILE OF PATH Honizonrat DISTANCE (mi CAN. GEOTECH. 3. VOL. 30, 1993 PLAN OF PATH by miler (1988) Fic. 18. Path of the 1983 Sunnybrae rockfall in profile and plan surveyed in 1987. tively intact. A person sleeping in that part of the house escaped injury. A second house was missed literally by & few centimetres (Miller 1983). The release point of the boulder is shown in Fig. 16. It is, in a vertical part of the cliff face some 25 m above its base. The rock is banded crystalline limestone, light to dark grey in color and very strong. The boulder separated along an exfoliation joint dipping 70° to the south (down the rockfall path). The upper edge of the fragment separated from the rock above along a curving near-horizontal joint, leaving an arch-like overhang over 2m deep. The exfoliation joint can be observed to continue "upwards into the overhang, It appears partly open, and slight groundwater flow issues from it, staining the face below (the rockfall boulder was reported by Miller (1983) to have had brown staining on one face). The eastern lateral bound- ary of the block was defined by a joint dipping approxi- mately 50° to the west. Tis clear that the detachment of the boulder resulted in the creation of an overhang more exposed than that which existed before. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the event of November 1983 was initial to a series of detachments from the same source area and with similar mechanics. The travel path of the boulder was reconstructed by sur- veying the marks left along its path, most of which were still discernible in 1987 (Fig. 18). The marks were of two types: (i) impact craters, typically 4x 1 m in plan and 0.3-0.5 m deep; and (ii) elongated rolling marks, resem- bling & trench 2 m wide and 0.5 m deep, up to 30 m tong. As shown in the profile in Fig. 18, the boulder moved by rolling throughout most of its descent. A long bounce occurred ‘below the erest of the lower cliff, followed by several shorter bounces and abrupt changes in direction, due to topographic detail (see plan in Fig. 18). Small fragments broke off from the boulder at several places near the end of its path. These fragments were generally found far from the impact craters, indicating that they separated during rotation of the boulder. ‘A simulation of the rockfall path using ROCKEALL appears in Fig. 19. The boulder mass was assumed to be 150 t, s0 ‘most impacts were plastic. It is of interest to note that the length of the parabolic trajectory at the lower cliff in the simulation is very close-to the length observed. Therefore, the velocity estimate shown in the upper part of the figure appears realistic. The analysis indicates that the relative shortness of the path, characterized by an equivalent shadow angle of 34° and a rockfall fahrbdschung of 35°, is due to theEVANS AND HUNGR. plastic energy losses incurred in bouncing below the lower cliff (Fig. 19), Had it continued rolling, the boulder may have travelled farther. It is of concern that many homes are located beneath these cliffs within the zone defined by the empirical minimum shadow angle of 27.5° discussed above. Barnhartvale, spring 1974 ‘The Barnhartvale subdivision is located within the City of Kamloops in the interior of British Columbia. The western part of the community is located at the foot of some promi- nent east-facing rock slopes and associated talus (Fig. 20). The rock is intensely jointed metavolcanics of the Cache Creek Group, with prominent joint sets dipping at about ‘50° into and out of the slope. These discontinuities form numerous detachment surfaces for fragmental rockfall, & fact which is reflected in the substantial talus accumulation downslope, We have been able to reconstruct the event using a 1:2500 orthophoto with 10-m contours and our 1987 field observations. In the spring of 1974, a boulder measuring about a metre in diameter, fell from about 775 m asl on the rock slope, bounced, and rolled over the talus slope and beyond its base. The rock severely damaged a house on Lot 16, Ronde Lane at 592 m asl. Fortunately no one was hurt. Impact took place at an equivalent shadow angle of 30°. The rock- fall fahrboschung is 34°, ‘The incident led to the implementation of the following mitigative measures: scaling of the rock slopes, which included the removal of problematical rock masses by blast- ing; the excavation of a protective ditch at the base of the talus (Fig. 21); and the erection of a wire-mesh fence as a further protective measure. Analysis of the 1974 rockfall with ROCKFALL, using sim- ilar model parameters to those used in the analysis of the Hedley and Sunnybrae incidents, simulates the path and run-out distance of the boulder (Fig. 22A). It also shows the effect of the ditch in stopping similar boulders (Fig. 22B) from moving into the rockfall shadow. Conclusions Rockfall is @ common process in mountainous terrain where its long-term operation leads to the accumulation of talus slopes. Although deaths from rockfall in Canada are small in number, the indirect costs of land alienation because of rockfall hazard are very significant. In western Canada the costs of such land sterilization are in the order of tens of tnillions of dollars. As development pressures increase, tec niques for assessing the vulnerability to big boulder impacts beyond the base of talus slopes have become a priority. ‘A new terminology for use in rockfall hazard analysis is, suggested. The area beyond the base of a talus slope that is reached by large boulders is termed the rockfall shadow, and the shadow angle is defined as the angle between the apex of the talus slope and the distal margin of the shadow. The angle between any point in the shadow and the apex of the talus slope is termed the equivalent shadow angle, Rockfall impact probability is a strong function of the distance from the source area. Within the rockfall shadow area return periods of the order of 1000 years relative to an individual house site are typical. Calculation of both landing and impact probabilities indicate that for the talus studied, a housing development located at 50 m from the 633 z | eo fie | i ——™ 1000 Teese | | reosotvapcoy | ovation (metres 2a) L Fic. 19. Simulation of the Sunnybrae rockfall path using the ROCKFALL computer program, with k, (normal restitution coef- ficient) = 0.70, k, (tangential restitution coefficient) = 0.80, and rolling friction coefficient = 0.52. Note position of actual stop- ping point of boulder. talus margin, covering an area 200 m wide along the talus base, would face a probability of being struck by a single rockfall boulder of 1 in 95 years. The prediction of rockfall behaviour in the shadow wa carried out using geological, empirical, and analytic meth- ods. The evaluation of geological evidence can be helpful in assessing the probability of a defined shadow limit being violated and for establishing probabilities of impact within the shadow. ‘An examination of 16 talus profiles from southwestern British Columbia yielded an empirical minimum shadow angle of 27.5°, which is thought to correspond to the rolling friction angle for the slope surfaces in question. This angle would be useful in a first approximation to shadow limits and is preferable to the use of the rockfall fahrbéschung as pro- posed by several authors. ‘The analytical lumped-mass model (ROCKFALL), which was developed, utilizes two restitution coefficients and a transition to rolling criterion. The model calculates the energy head of a boulder during its travel and was initially calibrated with reference to some full-scale Italian experi~ ments. Although further calibration is necessary, results from the analysis of three rockfall incidents at the base of talus slopes in southwestern British Columbia were encour- aging. In all cases the ROCKFALE. simulation of boulder runout agreed almost exactly with that observed in the respective incidents ‘The documentation of the three rockfall incidents shows, that, in each case, rockfall fragments impacted on homes634 CAN, GEOTECH. J. VOL. 30, 1988 Fic. 20. View of Barnhartvale subdivision, Kamloops, British Columbia, in the vicinity of the 1974 rockfall, showing proximity of homes to talus slopes and source rock slopes. Arrows show protective ditch seen in Fig, 21 vel [[erei] | ===! vo -| — wo -| | | i | E 10 | 4 : 1 eal a jo eo - fe bet ood Fic. 22. ROCKFALL simulation of the Barnhartvate rockfall, (A) The 1974 rockfall. (B) The 1974 rockfall with protective ditch,at equivalent shadow angles of 30° or more. This would suggest that a review of existing development within rock- fall shadow areas at the base of talus slopes may be in order. Acknowledgements ‘This paper is an outcome of joint research undertaken by the Geological Survey of Canada and Thurber Engineering Ltd. under the Government of Canada Unsolicited Proposal Program. The research was funded by Supply and Services Canada (Unsolicited Proposal Fund), Energy, Mines and Resources Canada (Geological Survey of Canada) and ‘Transport Canada (Transportation Development Centre). ‘The authors acknowledge the assistance of the following people who contributed by providing helpful information, advice, and (or) encouragement related to this study in its var” ious stages: M. Church, J.J Clague, D.M. Cruden, D. Fieber, D.R. Lister, J.C. Leighton, W.H. Mathews, G.C. Morgan, N.R. Morgenstern, G.E. Miller, H. Nasmith, L. Peckover, JM. Ryder, N.A. Skermer, and PJ. Woods. 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