— Cc SIC ’ IA VIVEKANANDA KENDRA-. PATRIKAZremplimentary Copy Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers for India under No. R. N, 21643/71 SS VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA DISTINCTIVE CULTURAL MAGAZINE OF INDIA VOLUME 13 NUMBER 2 HALF YEARLY IN ENGLISH August 1984 Founder-Editor : EKNATH RANADE THEME: MUSIC INDIA Editor: Dr. M. LAKSHMI KUMARI ‘Sub-Editor: C. S. RAVE VIEWS, APPROACHES AND INFORMATION COLLECTED AND PRESENTED AS ARTICLES IN A COMPREHENSIVE VOLUME SUBSCRIPTION RATES: LIFE (Inland) + Rs. 500 i» CForeige) + Rs. 800 (Sea Mail) ANNUAL (Inland) : Rs. 40 »» (Foreign) : Rs. 85 (Sea Mail) SINGLE COPY : Rs. 25 (Postage Extra) Editorial Office: 3, Singarachari Street, TRIPLICANE, Madras-600 005. (Phone : 842843) Am oficial organ of VIVEKANANDA KENDRA, an All India Service Mission with Service to Humanity as its sole motto and with Headquarters at KANYAKUMARI The views expressed by the authors are not necessarily the views of the journal, ; =AN APPEAL VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA, as you are aware, is one of the official organs of Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari. You are also aware that each issue of this deluxe half.yearly is devoted to some aspect of Indian culture and offers the readers, a wealth of materials presented in the form of contribated articles and materials collected very carefully from the best available sources on the set theme. Since a collection of the volames will constitute a veritable encyclopacdia for authentic information and delightful reading, we solicit the active assistance of our enlightened subscribers ant readers in achieving the ideals the Kendra has set before itself by enrolling themselves as Life-subscribers to our deluxe journal. ‘The Life-subscription for the joarnal is Rs, 500/- (Inland) and Rs. 800/- (Foreign by sea-mail). [0 case of institutions the period of Life-subscription is twenty five years, Manager APPLICATION FOR VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA LIFE-MEMBERSHiP The Manager, Vivekananda Kendra Patrika, 3, Singarachari Street, ‘Triplicane, MADRAS.600 005 I/We enclose DD/Cheque for Rs... sess ieteecesenesess Kindly enrol mejus as a life-subscriber of the Patrika. The amount subscribed should form part of your corpus, {/We may be seat the journal from... Date: Signature Name and Address) Cin Block Letters) Vol. 13 No. 2— Eprforiat. 1. Indian Music—A Brief Survey 2. Music of Ancient India with Special Emp- hasis on the Vedas 3. Indivisibility of Indian Music—A Study in Synthesis 4. The Geography of Music 5. Evolution of Indian Music—A Descriptive Study 6. Music in Silappadikaram a 7, Naada a 8. The Role of Musical Composition in our Music 9. Bhaava 10. Talas of Carnatic Music I. Understanding Modern Talas in the Back- ground of the Ancient System of Tala om 12. Music and Tantras 13. Indian Musical Scales 14. Ashtapadis and Tharangas is 15, Harikatha—A Composite Art ae 16, Saint Avunagirinathar and His Thiruppugazh ... 17. Music in our Epics 18. Music in the Kathaasaritsaagara 19. A Galaxy of Musical Thinkers 20. The Musical Content of Bharata Natyam — ... 21. Raga-Ieonification in Indian Music 22, The Impact of Annamacharya’s Sankirtanas on Carnatic Music 23, Sri Purandaradasa—Father of Karnataka Music 24. Kshetrajna—Exponent of Padam 25, Venkatamakhi and his 72 Melakarta Raga Scheme Contents Swami Prejncnananda Dr. K. D. Swaminathan 'S. Satyamurthi Ayyangar Sister Violita A. C. R, Vedavalli Prof. S. Ramanathan K. R. Seethalakshmi Prof. S. Rs Janakiraman Vidya Sankar Ritha Rajan Dr N. Ramanathan Prof. MR. Gautam B. M. Sunderam T. Ss Vasudevan M. Fremecla B.S, Lochan Radha Rajagopalan Dr. C.S, Sundaram Prof. R. K, Ramenathan Prof. P. Sambamoorti Dr. R. Sathyanarayana Dr. B. Rajanikanta Rao Yirumala Seshasayee T Amuktamalyada Dr. $. Seetha Page mn di ae Be Reet 36 40 a 48 oe 48 oa 57 wae 8. we 68 Sega: 81 86 . 92 99 as 104 107 aay a 130 we 134 ow 13627. 28. 29. 30. al. 32. 33. 34. 35. 31. 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. 44, 45. 47. 48. 50, Syama Sastry and his Compositions Sri Tyagaraja Sti Muthuswami Dikshitar and His Kritis Maharajah Swati Tirunal Sree Rama Varma Vasudevacharya as a Composer ‘The Musical Trinity and their Contribution Tyagaraja’s understanding of Music and Mystical Union The operas of Tyagaraja A few Music Dynasties of South India ‘The Haridasas of Karnataka and their con- tribution to Music Musical Instruments in Ancient India Stringed Instruments in Indian Sculptures and Paintings Musical Instruments of India Vamsee Sruthi and Sruthi Dandi—The Newly Designed Drones Folk-Music of Tamilnadu Folk-Songs of Tamilnadu Salient Features of the Compositions of the Vaggeyakaras of Mysore The Foik-Songs of Orissa Rajasthan-Its Contribution to Indian Music ... Rabindra Sangeet : A Study of its Source and Philosophy Vocal Music of North India Development of Hindustani Music Music Over the Vindhyas Gharanas in Hindustani Music ‘The Raga presentation in Hindustani Cla- ssical Vocal Music N.R.V Prabhu T. S. Parthasarathy Dr. S. 8. Janaki G P.S. Nayar NR. Bhuvarahan V. Balakrishnan William Jackson T. S. Parthasarathy T. Sankaran R.K. Srikantan Dr. N. Gangadkaran Dr. V. Premalatha Premlata Puri T. Lokanadha Sarma Shyamala Balakrishnan P. Raja Dr. M. B. Vedavalli Manmatha Kundu Dr. B.S. Jain Prof. Tarun Sanyal Purnima Sinha Abhayambika Balamurali - krishna ‘Skandanarayan Sakuntala Narasimhan Prof G. H. Tarlekar 143 145, 151 154 161. 164 168 176 ist 187 193 196 210 247 28 225 235 238 241 246 252 261 263 265. 27051. 52. 53. 54. 55, 56, 57. 58. 59. iii The Raga-Ragini system in Hindustani Music Dhrupad and Yoga ‘Music Education in India : Tasks Before Us ... ‘The Glory of Music—The need for its revival ... Some of the recent developments in Musi- cology in India ‘A Comparative study of the Methodologies of Ethnomusicologists and Indian musi- cologists Changing Values in Music ‘The Changing Styles in Indian Music Music Festivals ‘Musicians and Critics Dr. Indrani Chakravarti Dr. E. S. Perera Prof. R. C. Mehta Prof. Vasantha Srinivasan K. R, Rajagopalan Dr. S. A, K. Durga A. S. Mani K. L, Raman Shyamala G. Bhave N, Pattabhiraman Cover Dusicnep By : SITRA’ am 283 291 295 299 305 313 316 318Acknowledgements We acknowledge with thanks the valuable services extended to us by our contributors who have kindly responded to our request for contributions, amidst their heavy preocoupations and other limitations. But for their help and co- operation, it would haye been well nigh impossible for us to accomplish the difficult task of bringing out such a volume on the various aspects of Indian Music, Articles by eminent musicologists and scholars have not only enriched the contents of this issue but has also helped us to present a detailed study of Indian music. We are specially thankful to Dr. S. Seetha, Prof. and Head of the Dept. of Indian Music, University of Madras, for actively participating as an adviser to this number. Right from the beginning of the current volume, we have sought her guidance and her enthusiastic and full-hearted help and co-operation went a long way in enabling us to give its present shape and quality to this volume. We are also thankful to Shri T.S. Parthasarathy, Sceretary, Music Academy, Madras, who offered his yaluable comments and advice during the initial stages of planning of this number. We are also thankful to the members and staff of the Music Department, University of Madras, for their active co-operation in our present venture and rendering us guidance at times of need. Apart from the many original articles, some of the contributions have been extracted from journals and works which have been duly acknowledged at the end of the articles concerned. Our thanks are due to the following journals / iv publishers for having willingly granted us permission to reproduce articles from their publications ; Concept Publishing Company, H-13, Bali Nagar, New Delhi-110 015, The Music Academy, Madras-600 014, Marg Publications, 148, Mahatma Gandhi Road, Bombay-400 023, University of Madras, Sundeep Prakashan, B-3/53, Ashok Vihar, PhiaseIl, Delhi-110 052, Sruti, Madras. Perpne We ate thankful. to, artists. Shri Bhaskar Doss-and -M. Ne ‘Raja for having designed the cover’ page’ and prepared the inside drawings appearing in this issue. a We are thankful to M/s, Shanmugam Peess Pvt, Ltd., for their co-operation ig the printing of this volume amidst many odds. While we have taken every care to_give a line of courtesy wherever required, we eathestly Solicit forgiveness for any mistakes’ of, Omission or commi- ssion which, Of Coursé, has not been deliberate.VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Vol. 13 No.2 August 1984 EDITORIAL Like the unique Vedanta philosophy, the ancient yet vibrant Sanskrit language, the all-encompassing system of yoga, Indian music is yot another exercise of the Indian mind in its path of exploration into the mysteries of Nature and of Ultimate Truth. The word Bharata—which is condensed out of the musical expressions of Bhava~ Raga and Tala - rightly emphasises the inalienable relationship between human Jife-thoughts, :words and action—and music in Indian life. On one side, it can be said that itis the music within, the Sat-Chit-Ananda that finds manifold expressions outside in man’s life. Viewed from the other side, it is the sublimation of actions, words and thoughts that lead one to hear the same music within. In India, music is considered as a subtle divine thread capable of linking up the Jeevatman with the Paramatman, a concept originating in the tantric idea of Sabdabrahman, the primeval source of creation, This idea finds expression in the cloquent words of the renowned violinist, Yehudi Menuhin, “Indian music reflects Indian life havingviii no predetermined beginning or end but flowing without interruption through the fingers of the composer-performer”. To fully under- stand the beauty, depth and clevating qualities of Indian music, one must therefore, understand, if not experience these concepts at least to some extent. It is believed that the Supreme Being is of the nature of Sabdabrahman or Nadabrahman, This Ultimate Sound Principle gets manifested as its vibrations - and through the samyoga and viyoga— union and separarion—of these vibrations, create the world of ‘forms’, from sub-atomic to the biggest and the mightiest! The entire cosmos is the manifestation of the Sabdabrahman. That being so, in uniting the entire creation and forming the basic note of creation, Jies ‘nada’. As the ‘naada’ evolves, differentiates and expands from the subtle to the gross, it gives rise to articulate sounds—‘varnas’, ‘srutis’ and ‘swaras’ and moves on to create ‘ragas’, capturing the bhavanas of the mind. From ‘varnas’ arise by permutations and combi- nations, the world of ‘forms’. Today, scientific substantiation of these concepts has been forthcoming through the experimental demons- tration that different geometrical figures can be produced by manipula- ting sound! That means, it is possible to reduce all ‘physical forms’ to ‘sound forms’ and vice-versa. In other words, ‘form’ is ‘sound’, made manifest. According to ‘tantras’, there are 50 basic sounds out of which the world of forms has come into being. Nowhere in the world has the science of Sound and Music been studied so deeply and exhaustively as in ancient India, Panini, Patanjali Bhartruhari, Nandikeswara, Anjaneya and Bharata are outstan- ding among those who have contributed to the unravelling of the mystery of sound, music and creation. The ‘sabda’ itself is classified into Para, Pashyanti, Madhyama and Vaikhari, The grossest of these four is Vaikhari, the dense audible sound. Madhyama is the stage where thought takes the form of sound or word. Pashyanti is the preceding stage where ‘thought’ assumes a ‘form’ where sound vibration becomes ‘visible’ in mind. At that stage, there is no impress of language on the form. That is, the barrier of language has no meaning. Beyond it lies the subtlest, highest and most transcendental stage of Para where neither thought, nor names nor forms finda place, as there are no waves nor wave- lengths there. It is the ultimate unifying substratum—the undifferenti- ated, yet potential sound or Sabdabrahman. This is the stage of God- head—sans thought, sound or form, the goal of deep meditation.ix No wonder that such aconcept and understanding of music developed into a form of worship nadopasana and has carried many on its wings to self-unfoldment and merger with the Ultimate Truth or Parabrahman. From the unmanifest to the manifest, from the manifest to the unmanifest, thus goes the cycle of naada, stretching from Eternity to Eternity—linking everything, without any distinction of desa-kala- nama-roopa. Only in the land of ‘Nataraja’, ‘Saraswathi’, ‘Veena’ and ‘Murali’ could such a sublime concept have been conceived ‘creating such a vibrant life, science and tradition in Music. Sri Ramakrishna had beautiful visions bearing on this principle. He used to see a long white thread proceeding out of himself. ‘This mass would open and within it he would see the Mother with a Vina, Then, she would begin to play and as she played he would see the music turning into birds and animals and worlds and arrange them- selves, Then she would stop playing and they would all disappear. ‘The light would grow less and less distinct till it was just a luminous mass, the string would grow shorter and shorter and the whole world would be absorbed into himself again.” What an incomparable vision! A condensed drop of the entire philosophy of sound and music. From where and how did Indian music originate? Our ancient seers living in communion with Nature must have sseen’ and heard the music in myriad ways and forms, In the rising sun, in the light of the stars, in the heights of the snow-clad Himalayas, in the thick forests, in the thundering clouds, in the gurgling Ganges— in the cries of birds and animals, in the blooming of flowers, dropping of petals, ripening and sweetening of fruits, in birth, growth and decay of created beings, anywhere and everywhere, they would have felt the resonance of the one nade. Capturing this music in Nature, they must have felt their souls ringing in harmony with them and instinctively realised the same waada vibrating within them. With joy and thrill, they must have picked up the basic notes and built around them their grand repertoire - ‘Sa’ from the cry of the peacock with jts two sounds of lower and higher pitches, ‘re’ from the cry of the bull, ‘ka’ from that of the goat, ‘ma’ from the cry of the Krauncha bird, ‘pa’ from the voice of the Koel in spring, ‘dha’ from the neighing of the horse and ‘ne’ from the cry of the elephant.+ x It is said that Lord Shiva in his cosmic dance produced from his Damaru various types of sounds and the great saint, Patanjali, grasped them in his Maheshwara Sutras and explained the formation of the Universe. According to this view, the origin of the 7 basic notes can all be traced back to Shiva. According to some others, the 7 key-notes which form the units of music all over the world, personify 7 levels of human consciousness. Out of this consciousness springs forth the stream of life, essentially consisting of one’s aspirations to reach that sanctum of happiness, bliss and fulfilment within. In a particular direction, it is called music, in another, dance, ina third, painting, in a fourth, poetry. But among all the fine-arts, the finest is indeed music. One who has understood naada as the very basis of music,: realises it as the subtlest of vibrations, which forms the life-current in each and every cell in his body. It is this omnipresent Naada, which, following particular rhythms, curves and waves, flows through our life, enriching us with experiences. Ifone tries to discover it within and mani- fest it without, he becomes the fittest musical instrument in the hands of the Supreme and his life itself turns into a music with a rare melody of tune and rhythm, The study of Indian music has its own practical lessons to impart to our every day life. To learn music is a discipline in itself, controlling one’s body, breath, voice, one’s very nature itself. In childhood, learning music helps one to develop a rhythm and order in his daily activities. Through upasana of naada, he catches glimpses of the unity in diversity. In the second stage, by enriching the bhavana in the music, one can control and sublimate the emotions of the mind, As the evening of life approaches, music turns intoa source of peace and joy. Equanimity and tranquillity of mind may come as by-products of an advanced musical mind, If one is a true Upasaka, before late, from the outer music he,will turn towards the inner and start enjoying the subtlest of music - the anahara naada, the soundless sound—in the innermost chamber of one’s heart. Thus, music can truly form the vehicle to take man from the gross to subtle, from the finite to the infinite. As his life’s vibrations become attuned to the divine, his soul’s music reveals to him the music in the creation and of the creation. He finds the entire universe resounding with the Eternal nhotes—Seham Soham.xi The chords of life can be tuned properly as in a musical instru ment with self-effort. If one masters this art of tuning and brings out the best of swaras without any aPaswaras, then his life becomes attuned to the Supreme Music and he would sing the soul-stirring music of love, compassion and understanding. Veenaavaadana tatwajnah: Swarajnaana vishaaradah: Talajnachaaprayainena Param Brahmaadhigachati | “One who plays the Veena with full knowledge of the basic prin- ciples of sound, the science of tune evolution and the beat of music could attain Parabrahma without much effort”. There is no aspect of life where music cannot play its role, The soothening of nerves and the calming of the mind that music brings about are marvellous. Just as a mother can sing her child to sleep through her lullabies, at every context in life, whether in the farms or factories, in games or studies, music can bring ina sense of unity and harmony. In India, we have established long long back that through proper combinations of swaras we can create ragas which have the capacity to call forth forces of Nature such as the rain, fire, etc, Stones can be melted, glass can be broken, lamps can be lighted. Trees and plants can respond to the music of one who has attuned him- self to the Eternal vibrations. Today, Indian music has caught the attention of musicologists, scientists and other learned men. With more and more research in the field of Indian musicology, more and more hidden treasures are surfacing. In spite of all the ups and downs it has gone through during the several centuries of its growth, Indian music has retained its highly aesthetic and elevating spirit and its unique individuality. Rightly has Shakespeare said of music: “The man that has no music in himself, nor is moved with concord of sweet sound, is fit for treason, strategems and spoils”. Nearer home, we have the Lord Him- self proclaiming:xit “Naaham vasaami Vaikunte, Na yogi hriday gavatil Madbhakia yatra gayanti tatra tishthami Narada”. «J dwell not in Vaikunta, nor in the hearts of yogins nor in the Sun; (but) where my bhaktas sing, there I reside, O Narada”. That is the uniqueness of Indian music, Glimpses of this central truth projected through the multifaceted prisms of a few renowned scholarly minds are what we have presented in this issue. May the noble-minded accept and bless this offering. May that—all-pervading Nadabrahman, remove all the apaswaras from our lives and fill it with pleasing, unifying and harmonising swaras so that the music of our lives may flow melodiously, taking us from untruth to Truth, from darkness to Light, from death to Immortality.HOES Indian Music — A Brief Survey * IG % J. Introduction : An Early Phase of History Music that breathes the air and atmosphere of India, is known as Indian Music, It took its birth in the hoary antiquity of pre- historic India. Before the settlement of the Vedic Aryans in the land between Sarasvati and Drisvadvati, the vast land of the pre-historic Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalivanga and other places were occupied by the so-called non-Aryans. The non- ‘Aryans were the original dwellers of the different cities of pre-historic India. They were most cnltured, developed and art- loving people, though some of them were nomadic xboriginal type of men, Among the original dwellers of the pre-historic cities of India, were the Panis, Rakshasas in their race. Itis said that the Gandharvas were one of the dwellers of those antique pre-historic cities. They loved the art of music and fashioned a new type of music, Gandharva, which was different in type and character than those which were created by the Vedic Aryans. The Vedic Aryans were more cultured, and when they settled in) the lend between the holy rivers, Sarasvati and Drisvadvati, as has been said before, they composed the Rigvedic hymns, The hymns, which were meant for sacrifices or Yojnas, were known as the Yojur Veda and those which were meant for singing, were known as the Sama Veda. The Samavedic hymns were practically known as the Vedic songs. The historical fact is that the Rigvedic hymcs, which were mainly meant for Vedic sacrifices, were really the Yajurvedic hymns and when those hymns were added with Vedic notes or set to tunes and were sung before the sacrificial fires by the priests, known as the Samagas, they were known a8 the Samaganae For making it clear, it can be said that specially the Samaveda Samhita of the Kautnumas consists of two parts, the Archika or Purvarchika, ‘the collection of stanzas? and the Upicrarchika, ‘he second collection of stanzas’, Both parts really consist of verses or hymus-all of which recur in the Rigveda. In the Samaveda, the text both in the Archika (i. ¢, Purvarchika) and in the Uttararchika-are only a means to an end. What is essential is the melody, and the purpose of both parts is to teach the melodies (songs). The first part of the Samaveda- Samhita, the Archika (or Purvarchika) consists of 585 individual stanzas (or Ric or Yoni, the womb), to which the various hymn-melodies (Samans) belong, and they were used during the Vedic sacrifices (yajnas). ‘The word saman, although used for denoting the text, were meant for singing and yet it means originally the ‘hymn-tune’ or ‘melody’ (gana). The Uttararchika, the second part of the Sama Veda-samhita consisis of 100 songs, mostly of three stanzas each, from which the storras were chanted (or sung) at the main sacrifices. The songs of the Uttararchika are orderly arranged according to Agni, Indra, Soma, the presiding deities of the sacrifices. And it appears that the hyma-melodies for the Soma-sacrifices, performed in the village (grama), were different from those from the sacrifices of SWAMI PRAJNANANANDA. (Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, Calcutta)2 the hermits living in the forest (aranya)- Those two songs were known as the Gramageyagana and the Aranyage yagana. There are also two other books of songs, the Udhagana and the Ukyagana, which were known as the Rahasya-ganas. There was also a ritual book of the Sama Veda, known as the Samavidhana-Brahmana. Thus, the Sama Veda-samhita is very valuable to the history of the Indian concept of sacrifice, and its songs (ganas) are also very important for the history of Indian music. The Samaganas or Vedic songs were different in their forms in different branches (Sakhas) of the Vedas. The Kauthuma- Shakha used in their songs ot Samaganas, seven Vedic tones, whereas other Vedic branches, Abharakas, Taittiriyas and others used different numbers of Vedic tones. In fact, the Samans or Samaganas were sung to please the presiding deities of different Vedic sacrifices or Yajnas. The detailed des- criptions of the Vedic sacrifices and the Vedic songs, as were used to be applied during the performance of the Vedic sacrifices, are really a long amazing history. Now it can be sald in this connection, that the gandharva type of music that can be considered as the contemporary to the Vedic music Samagana, was different from the Vedic music, as the tones, used in the Vedic music, Samagana, were five, six or seven, and were in downward movement (avarohana-gati), whereas the tones, as used in the gandharva music, were seven in number and were in upward movement (arohana-gati). The names of the Vedic tones were prathama, dvitiya, tritiya, chaturtha, mandra, atisvarya, and krusta, whereas the names of the tones, as used in the gandharva music, were sadja, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata and nishada. The two ancient systems of music of India, Samagana and Gandharva, were quite different in form and structore though their real aim and object were the same, VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Il, What is Muste ? When we define the word music, we practically find that it is the sound. but sonorous, sweet and soothing sound or the combination of sounds, In the Rigvedic tune, when the notes were added to the Ric-stanzas (or hymns), they were knowa as gana, i.e., the Vedic music, the Samagana. Similarly when any sound or sounds, full of minute vibrations, is or are set to tones or tunes, they are known as music. The musical sounds are different from other sounds, as the musical sounds are sweet and soothing. They create soothing vibrations (samskaras) and sensations, and tinge the minds of all beings, and tinging means that the impressions of the musical sounds give pleasure and happiness. So the specific pature or character of music or musical notes is to please and to make one happy and delightful. 1. Music daring the time of Bharata, the author of Natyasastra Now, music of India, during the time of Naryasasira was developed in system and form, of it can be said that during Bharata’s? time the system of Indian music was scienti- fically systematised, as microtones (Srutis or audible fine tones), murchhanas, basic standard scales or gramas and other ingre- dients evolved. The time of Bharata! can be ascribed to somewhere about 500 B.C. as has been preferred by the noted South Indian Connoisseur of music, Ramakrishna Kavi. I myself am also inclined to ascribe the same date of Bharata for many reasons. It should be noted that Gandharva Narada’s Naradishiksa, was composed before the Natyasastra of Muni Bharata, and can be considered as prior to NS, and therefore, 1. It should be mentioned that Bharata was a title for the expert and efficient masters of music ‘and dramatic themes. And so there are many ike Briddha or Druhina-Bharata, Kohala-Bharata, — Datti Bharata ‘The author of the celebrated treatise, a dramatic performance, the Natyasastra, was known a8 Muni Bharata,— August 1984 the date of the Naradishiksa can be ascribed to somewhere about 600B.C., or before the compilation of the NS of Muni Bharata, ‘as Muni Bharata has followed Narada’s Shilesa in many cases. ‘This matter of assumption of the dates, we know, are very controversial, but yet, we, after critical repeated examinations, are inclined to ascribe tie same dates of Narada of the Shiksa and Muni Bharata of the Natyasastra. IV The Natyasastra about Indlan Music Muni Bharata discussed mosic in rela- tion to dramatic performances, and so thongh music discussed in the NS, is known asthe watyagiti.yet it gave inspiration to the wide development of music of India, and all the post-Bharata authors on music followed Bharata in defining and explaining Indian Music. Muni Bharata practically discussed music, ie. music for drama, in the 28h chapterftill the 36th chapter. He discussed the emotional aspects (rasa-paryaya) in the 6th chapter, which is very essential for clevating or Vitalizing the melodies®, used in the dramatic performances. The melodies discussed in the NS are the Jatis (i. ¢., Jatiragas), which are the seeds (cause) that gave rise to all other melodies (ragas) ; sjattsambhutatvat sarva ragini’. Tt shold be remembered that Muni Bharata explained and elucidated ragas as the jatiragas, gramaragas, bhasharagas, ‘iibhasharagas and antarabhasharagas, which were used as the gandharva type of music, and they were scientifically devised by the art-loving Gandharvas. Gandharva music, sald Muni Bharata, was pleasing to and foved by the gods, i, e., the Vedic Aryans: 2, We Know that the word melody does not convey. the idea of Raga, but yet we have Used it for cosy understanding of the onal element. 3 ‘atyartha-misiam devanam tatha pritikaram punah’ (NS 28.9). In gandharva music, musical instruments, both flute (ven) and lyre (veena) were used, whereas in the Vedic music, Samagava, only thelyre or veena with its variant forms were used (NS 28.10). Muni Bharata also remarked thatthe characteristic of the gandharva music was composed of the ‘svara, tala and pada, which conveyed quite different meanings than nritia, gita and yadya, as used in the latter marga or classical type of music that evolved with different ragas and raginis (vide NS, 28. 12-28). During the Natyasastra, two basic scales of gramas, sadja and madhyama, were used, whereas the gandharagrama, which were mainly used in gandharva music, was out of practice, as gandharya music was obsolete for its specific form and structure, Muni Bharata divided the 7 Jaukika or non- yedic tones into 22 finer tones, known as Srutis and he devised. them by the two lyres (veenas), shifting (chala) and unshifting (achaJa). He defined 18 jatiragas, pore and mixed, and their development was made upon the pre-existing 7 pure jatiragas, which are found in the 4th canto of the Ramayana by Valmiki, Muni Bharata determined the 18 Jatiragas by the ten specific characteristics of graha, emsha, tara, mandra, nyasa, apanyasa, alpasya, vahusva, shadava ‘and audava and this method was followed by all the post-Bharata authors of music. Muni Bharata used in the Jasiragas emotional sentiments (rasas), moods (bhavas), prasanna, etc., varnas, alamakaras, different kinds of talas and fayas, along with madraka, uparanaka, ete., 7 geetis of songs, along with 4 religious sophisticated. music, magadhi, grdha-magadhi, ete., having in them some, specific characteristics. Bharata’s remarkable depictions of 84 Dhruyagitis being classified into 7 names (sam jnas), richa, panika, gatha, ete., are4 worth-mentioning, and they the gandharva type of music. are purely 'Y. Indian Music io the Post-Bharata Works After Muni Bharata’s Naryosasira, we find different works on Indian ‘music from the beginning of the Christian era up to 13th-14th century A.D. and they are mainly Dattilam by Dattila, Brihadasi by Matanga, Sangisa-samayasara by Parshvadeva, Sangi- 1a-Ratnakaya by Satangadeva, The Sangita- Ratnakara really gave a graphic description of the new revival of music in the Indian soil. Dattila followed Muni Bharata in defin- ing and describing all the materials of the ancient music of India, which can be said to be the gandharva-music. The marga-type of classical music was taking at that time a definite shape on the background of the gandharva music, devised and cultured by the Gandharvas who were known as the so-called semi-divine beings. Matanga brought a renaissance, which means the re-birth of new sangs (gitis) with reformed tunes or melodies, and they were included in the category of sophisticated highway art-music, Hundreds and thousands of regional songs with their simple folk tunes were formalised with the help of ten shastric tunes or characteristics of the highway music, which wereknown as dasha-lakshanas. Gradually, different Ragas and Raginis evolved from the idea of janya-janaka scheme, and in the times of Sarangadeva, Pundarika Vitthala, Pandit Somanath, Shubhankara, Pandit Damodara, Kavi Lolana (Sangisa-Ratnakara, Sadragachadro- daya, Ragavibodha, Sangita-Damodara, Sangitadarpana, Ragatarangini, etc.) and other later authors, the Raga-Ragini forms took yarions definite shapes, having in them different aesthetle qualities and emotional lustres, Different. schools (zharanas) also found their way to evolve for determining different forms and characteristics of different Ragas and Raginis, with a standard scale (melas or thatas) as their bases. VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA VE. Two Systems of Music - Northern and Southern Indian music was practically divided into two systems, Northern Hindustani and Southern Carnatic. But when we think and speak of Indian music, we have in our mind both the systems of music, Hindustani and Carnatic, for though they differ fundamentally in their forms or structures, characteristics, and methods of application, yet both of them stem from the saime source, and are governed by the same laws of musie, so much so, that their differences can truly be characterised as dialectical. Besides, both of their glorious tradition sing the song on the same harp, as they originated from the same source of the Vedic music and the gandharva music cf the antique days. From the core of Tamil culture, South- Indian music first got the inspiration, and Tango, the compiler of the Silap padikaram, devised Tamil music. He used seven palais or murchhanas through modal shift or Kural Tiripu; The current names of the Palais are Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Todi, Karahara- priya and Sankarabharana, All these Palais were cligible as Panny or Ragas. The panns were created by the seven tones, Kura, Tuttam, Kaikkilat, Uzhai, Nit, Villari, and Taram. I is said the sage Agastya lived in the southern hills. He wrote a musical book, known as Isai-Nunukkam. The book Tike Silappadikaram ani Tevaram gave inspira- tion to Tamil and Dravidian music. Expert musicians and musicologists arc of the opinion that the Suddha-saptaka of the Samagana was somewhat similar to the scale of Karaharapriya. But the original scale of Tamil music was Tonrupadumurai, which is akin to the present form of Harikamboji. Bxpetts say that its Il (or Panchgma) is taken as Kural (or Shadja) the scale being changed into Tonmural or Karaharapriya. Ut is said that this was the relationship between Muni Bharata’s Kaphi scale and the scale of Tamil music./ August 1984 The Pallava Kings, said R. Ranga- ramanuja Ayyangar, inherited the tradition of the Cheras, Chozhas and Pandyas as patrons of music. Mahendra Varma Pallava (7th century), was the first ruler of the South to design rock-cut temples like the monoliths in Kancheepuram and Mamalla- puram, He inscribed in a cave near Padukollah, an array of musical diction. In the rock of Kudumiamalai, there remain some genuine proofs of South Indian music. It is said that the king was inspired by the Tevaram which is regarded as the Tamil Veda in the South. The Tamil hymns in praise of Siva are known as the Tevaram. Experts say that those hymns were more than 9,000 in number, and were sung in the Varam or second tempo. There isa long history about the sacted book, Tevaram and its sacred hymns, which inspired the whole system of South Indiaa music. The Tevarain practically used 21 scales, and the Pans as used in them, bore the Tamil names which were equalled to the present system of Carnatic music. So far we have discussed in short the early form of music of the South. But the Golden age crept in the time of Venkata- makhin. The Melakarta (Mela or Thata in the North) chart was devised by the talented artist and author Venkatamakhia, who really placed the Carnatic system in the South on its sound and scientificiground. He devised 72 Melakartas which infused new life in the Carnatic system of music. The Melckarta means the scientific standard scale which gives rise to various other scales. The books, Sangivasara-samgraha, Sangita- shasira~samkhes pa, — Samgraha-chudamani, etc. supplied inspiration to the musical artistes of the South. Besides, King Tulaja, Syama Sastri, ‘Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Maha~ raja Svati Tirunal and other outstanding religious teachers elevated the field of musle in the South, Their devotional songs with classical forms and enchanting tumes and rhythms enriched the treasury 5 of music of the South, and similarly Dhrwvapada, Kheyal, Thumri, Kirtan and different classical Bhajans and desi types of Indian music entiched the treasury of the North-Indian music. Vil. The Time-patterns in Indian Music The tala is the phase of Kala or Mahakala, and that means in music, both Northern and Southern. We have divided the eteraal time into various divisions or units to fit the length and breadth of time in songs. The time-patterns consisting of certain specified rhythmic phrases known aslaghu druta, anudruta form the avarias. The talas of the North Indian system of music are somewhat different from the telas as used in the Carnatic or South Indian music. In Carnatic music, the number of calas are gencrelly thirty-five, though by the use of other angas, called pluta and kakapada, they will be one hundred and eight, whereas in North Indian Hindustani Classical music, ¢afas ot time- patterns are many, but only five or six talas are generally used in music. But, in Carnatic music, said Prof. T.L. Veukatarama Aiyar, ralas are classified into seven in relation to augas, and each tala is sub-divided into five categories in accordance with the quantity of laghu, and thus we get the traditional thirty-five zalas. The alamkaras, as used, are usually seven, one in each of the seven major falas. VIII. The Ragas and their Visual Pictures The initial motive behind the visual pictures of the ragas and raginis are spiritual and they evolved from the contemplative ideas of the artistes and are the personified pictures of the ideas It is commonly believed that Pandit Somanath, for the first time propagated this idea of dhyanamurtis (contemplative compositions) of the ragas and raginis in 1606 A. D. i.e, in the beginning of the 17th century. 3. Vide the Rogaviboda, 1606 A.D,But before this time, we find references of colours (varnas) and presiding deities (Devatas) of the musical tones,. which saturate the structures of the ragas and raginis In Narada’s = Panehamasara- samhita, probably of the 16th-17th century, we find also the diyana mantrams of dife- rent ragas and raginis. Io Shubhankara’s Sangita-damodara and other contemporary treatises, the dhyananurtis are also depicted. It is a historical fact that the real necessity of idealistic and spiritualistic contemplative forms or figures, together with their poetic compositions came into Deing from the respective aesthetic senti~ ments and moods of the ragas and raginis. Tt is. believed that all kinds of melodic types of ragas, from the pure and mixed jariragas down to the present type of melodic types of Hindustani and Carnatic systems of music are impregnated with different kinds of aesthetic sentiments and moods (rasas and bhavas). In the fourth canto of the Ramayana (400 B.C,), Valmiki deseribes about seven pure type (suddha) of jariragas, having their gramas or bases of manifesta tions (sthanas), chhandas, rasas and bhavas. Valmiki mentions about the Ramayana-ganas which were composed with the materials of glorious life and activities of Sri Rama- chandra, ‘Those songs were demonstrated by the Wandering Bards or Kusifavas like Lava and Kusa, in the Royal Court of Ayodhya. Inthe Naryasastra of the 500B.C., Muni Bharata mentioned about cighteen jari- ragas, pure and mixed (7 pure + 11 mixed) impregnated with emotional sentiments and moods, The ancient Jaliragas and the Grama- ragas gave rise to varieties of the later desi ragas. The systems of tribal and regional music were at that time studied and formalised. The medieval and modern periods found many varieties of ragas and yaginis, slong with different systems, schools and characteristics. The Jari~Grama- Ragas were used in both the systems of music and dramatic music. The Kudimia- VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA malaj (vide Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XI, pp: 226—237) Pailava Inscription of the 7th century A.D. proved the fact of the use of the Gramaragas in the system of music, which have been stated already. The inscription proved that the Gramaragas-kasika, kisika-madhyama, sadava, madh yama-grama, sadjagrama, panchama and sadharita were the current ragas, to be used in both music and drama, Dattila, Kasyapa and others, as wellas the commentator Abhinavagupta also mentioned about various ragas which were, possessed of eight rasas and bhavas. The gramaragas were evolved from the jatiragas, having bases as thelr parent scales. Bharata mentioned and defined the seven jariragas, which were impregnated with eight aesthetic sentiments and moods (rasas and bhavas) and those sentiments were, sringara, hasya, karuna, raudra, vird, bhayanaka, vibhatsa and adbhuta (NS. 6.15). Those eight sentiments were permanent (sthayi). Similarly, there were correspond- ing eight moods and they were: rari, hasa Chasya), shoka, krodhay utsaha, bhaya, jugupsa, and vismaya (NS. 6.17). Bhurata treated the colour and deities (varnas and devatas) of those eight rasas. He also defined and described about bhavas, anubhavas, vibhavas and yyabhi- chari-bhavas of them, and said that rasa- nlspatti (realization of rasa) is possible by the combination of those bhavas, anubhavasy vyabhichari-bhavas. Those dhavas, pure and mixed, were used in songs and dramatic performances (abitina yas). Bharata said that from the bhavas (expressions or moods) different temperaments (sa/tvas) evolved in the minds, and they were known as different mental attitudes, and from those sativas or temperaments, there originated balancing tranquillity (prasada) of the mental states, and those balancing tranquillity used to bring permanent peace and ltappiness, which are the prime aim and object of the culture of music. ©Music of Ancient India with Special Emphasis on the VEDAS The earliest cognisable root of Indian Music and dance could be traced in the Rig Veda. (second half of the 2nd millennium B.C) Hymns in the form of dialogues, viz. the Sama Veda Sooktas with references to music and drama are abundant in the Vedic sourees.?_ The Vaajasanaayi Samhita of the Sukla Yajur Veda details the norms for music, dance and drama. The term saifoosha occurring therein, seems to refer to an actor.? The Taittiri ya Brahmana refers to sailooshanatha as a performing artiste of music and dance.8 Ancient Indian Music developed as a paitern out of human speech and speech music culminated into chants and hymns of the Vedic Age. It could be deduced from the perusal of the texts that when the Sana- gana was falling out of practice during the period 600-502 B. C., the Jaukika gandharva type of systematic seientific music, gained ascendancy. The musical pattern was based on one, two or three notes: archika, ghatika and samika respectively. The chantings of Sama Veda wore recited in the three sthana svarasudaatta, anudaatta and syarira. The notation of the Gayatri Mantra uses the R of the middle octave, N of the lower octave and S of the middle octave (same us the mode of chanting the Sama Veda). Tt certainly took a long time to develop the three notes into seven as madhyama, gandhara, Rishabha, Shadja, Daivata, Nishaada, panchama in the descen- ding order relating to the’ later notes 165,170, , Fe Cambridge,’ Mass, 1951 33, Viti-100, 1 Ty-18,42, V-il. V 28, 51-53, 86, 108. 2. Vajasaneeyi Samhita, XXX-6. 3. Taittereya Bralimana, UIE ~ 4-2, 4 Bhattacharya, A, 4 Treatise on Ancient Hindi Musle, Cateuita, 1978, pp 5 ff. Dr. K. D. SWAMINATHAN Institute of Asian Studies, Ttruvanmiyur, Madras. prathama, dvitiya, triteeya, chaturtha, mandra, atisvarya and krstha. References to more minute semitones were given definite connotation as srutis by Narada and Bharata in the first two centuries of the Christian era. Narada defined these srutis as .dipta, aayata, Karuna, mvidu and madhya. With twenty- two sruiis evolved thus, Bharata arranged them under those fiye original micro tones and nomenclatured them as’ jati or adhara. The names of the five jatis reflect an imaginative and symbolic interpretation. The music of the ancient world presents three theories as to its origins. Imitation of animals and birds was associated with the origin of svaras. The seven notes sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, imitate the tone and pitch of seven different animals and birds. Shadje badati mayooro gabhoo rambhanti charsavaa aja badati gandharva kraunchana dasna madhyamee | ‘puspa saadhaarana kaale kokilaah panchame svare Aunjarastu nishadabarn. | Music perhaps descended from spoken language aud intensified speech. On the physical plane, the power of music was easily grasped when one understood that, on the one hand, sound regulated human society through its power to form letters, syllables and words and that, on the other hand, vocal music was that very sound in its spontaneous form. The ideal means asvastu. dhatvatee praahaVIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Plate 1 Udayagiri ~ Khandogiri - Rani Gumpha Cave No.t, Purk District : Detall of frteze showing dancing scene-verandah-lower storey; Late st cent. B. C. Sandstone.August 1984 9 Pinte Vijayawada - Jammidoddi, Krishna Dt.-Sage Satakarni and; celestial mustelans, ~ GlOih century A.D., Sandstone. Plate 1 Rarsapiri, Sikar; frieze of musictans and dancer, Mahadeva temple, Rajasthan,VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Plate IV Surawaya, Shivpuri Dt., Temple No. 1 Mukhachatuski ceiling, detail showing panel of musicians and dancers. \0th cent. A. D.: Buff Sandstone. AAugust 1984 i Plate V Kaveripakkam, North Arcot Dt., Architectural fragment with Sivagana playing flute, 10th century A. D., black’ granite. ee Plate VI Nagapattinam, Thanjavur District, !Karyavarohana ‘Temple vimana, west wall, pilaster detail, lth century A. D., granite.n YIVBKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Plate VEE Garwah, Mirzapur Distriet-Panel showing Vishnu's Viswarupa form with details of musicians, Sth century A, D., red sandstone. Photo Credits I. Centre for Art and Archaeology, American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi. 2, Los Angeles County Museum, U.S. A.August 1984 to influence and regulate the course of human existence would be a combination of words and musical sounds, the intoned formula or mantra, which is profusely used in every form of religion in India, In the philosophical construction of aahata and anaahata naada, one finds the crystalli- sation of the ancient Indian belief that music has. well defined power to influence the: course ‘of human life in this world and’ that it even can lead to the ultimate bliss of the merging of the self with the divine principle of the Universe. Hence, the nomenclature vimuktida (bestowing liberation)’ given in Sanskrit texts. The music of the Vedas is replete with intoned words and formulas which are the pivots of the whole claborate structure of Vedic offerings and sacrifices. It is the power of words enunciated with correct intonation that determines the efficacy of the rites: a mistake may destroy everything, The priests claim that by their activity, they not only uphold the order of human society: but maintain the stability of society and the Universe. By means of well-conducted ceremonies, they have compelling powers over the Gods themscives. The instrument that conveys the power is the word. The Vedic offerings comprise a great many actions: altars are built, fires are lit, butter and other substances are poured into the flames and animals sacrificed, These activities may continue for a yeat or longer in some cases, but none of them have any value unless accompanied by the prescribed recitations, uttered with exactly the tight intonation. Musically, those reci- tations are of great interest, as in their suceessive forms, they represent the develop- ment from ordinary speech to elaborate singing with a compass ranging from one ortwo notes to an octave. The bhaasika svara (speech tone) has the narrowest com- pass and is employed in reciting the formulas of the (sukla) Yajur Veda. It 2 13 isan éveri recitation without variation in pitch. A greater compass is found in the Rig Veda, the basis of all texts used at the Vedic offerings. It contains the hymns to the different deities as they were com- posed by the sages who are known by name but whose dating is uncertain. Opinions range over a couple of thousand years, one placing them in the 4th mille- nnium B.C., another about the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C, The way of chanting the Rig Vedie hymns has definite musical importance, as the three accents employed, the udaatta, the anudaatta and the svarita denote a distinct difference in pitch. There is some controversy as to the original meaning of these accents and their relationship to the prachaya (multitude)—a term denoting a succession of unaccented syliables. The accents indicated a compass of a minor or major third, the middle note being the udaaita, which is unmarked in the Vedic texts. The anudaatta is indicated by a horizontal line under the syllable, the svarita, by a perpendicular line over it. The melodic line follows the text in every detail; the words prescribe the rhythm and the flow; there is one note to cach syllable; the pitch is independent of duration, The melody only supports the words. The Rig Veda is extensively used not only during the Vedic sacrifices, but alse during the lesser ceremonies in every day life in the house. Adherence to the here- ditary style would certainly last as long as faith in the efficacy of the rites in question persisted, That faith has not yet died in India in spite of the onrush of modern sation. In the Sama Veda which in contrast to the Rig veda, is used extensively in conne- ction with the larger offerings and sarcifices, one finds a complete reversal of the rules laid down for the recitation of the Rig Veda. The compass used is much wider and some4 schools of Sama Vedic chanting use the full octave (the texts give the names of the seven notes, originally counted from the highest note downwards) but even if, as among the Nambudiris who follow the Jaiminiya tra dition, the compass of onlya second is used, the tendency is to deviate as far as possible from ordinary speech or even chanting, The words are broken up in an arbitrary fashion and often the periods start in the middle of a word. Vowels are lengthened beyond recognition and syllables without rational importance are inserted in the text. In most cases, the basis of the Sama Vedic chants is a hymn from the Rig Veda but it is overlaid and changed to such an extent that the original is well hidden. The object of this procedure is purely liturgical. By the very minutely prescribed change or changes, the spiritual efficacy of the formula is heightened and the success of the sacrifice ensured. The limitation in the use of the Sama Veda to the actual offerings and sacrifices, is the cause of its much greater rarity. It is in South India that the tradition acc- ording to the different schools is carried on and handed down from teacher to pupil as has been the case for centuries. Priestly families in which the tradition is known to have persisted unbroken for twenty gene- rations are not uncommon, Research in this field, except by members of the priestly class itself is greatly hampered by the secrecy that surrounds this type of singing, which is not meant to be heard, much less written down or recorded by uninitiated persons. This is hardly surprising when one rea- lises the supernatural effect attributed to the correct reproduction of the melodies. At the actual sacrifices, a hymn is executed by three priests who sing its seven divisions alone or in chorus. The priests to whom the singing of Sama Veda is allotted are the Udgaatar, with their two SS lll eee le VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA acolytes; the prastota and the pratiharta. The introductory part, the Aumkaara (the singing of the syllable aum) is done by the three together. Then follow (2) the prastova ot prelude, sung by the prastora; (3) the udgeetha or main theme, by the udgaatar; (4) the Pratihara, the| first responsorium, by the prariharta; (5) the upadrava, second responsorium, again by the wdgaatar; (6) the Nidhaana or final chorus by the three priests in unison ; and finally, (7) the Pranava, the chanting of the syllable ‘Om’, also in chorus, which seals the hymn like men. For’ purposes of study or practice, the hymns are sung by one person only accor- ding to the song books, the Ganas, of which there are four. The different schools of Sama Vedic chanting all use these four books, but sing them to quite different melodies, Even in one and the same school, the differences are considerable. Examples : Rendering of Kaushuma Sama Veda in Chidambaram and Tiruchirapalli and Baroda. It should be mentioned that the tra~ dition of Kauthumas as observed in Tiruch!- rappalli and Chidambaram, both centres of South Indian orthodoxy show no differences at all, apart from those that might have resulted from individual uncertainties of one singer or the other. The totally different style in Baroda may be due to foreign in- vasions and their cultural consequences and bear traces of their flourishings of the purely secular musical style, influenced by Muslim practices. One can thus sce that the claim made by the classical Indian theory of music that the proper use of this art leads to salvation, has its roots in the Vedic practices, It is true that the object of the Vedic ceremonies, built on the proper enunciation of the intoned word, is not salvation, in the spiri- tual sense, but the upholding of the order of the world by extension of the Universe.August 1984 In both cases, the aim is to get in touch with the powers of the world of Gods, an aim that has perpetuated itself through the centuries, varying only as to the natuse of the Gods and the nature of the desired contact. The second component of the triad comprised of the word Sangita or instru- mental music, has perhaps not such direct and clear connections with Vedic ceremonies as vocal music. Instruments are mentioned in the Brahmanas, the treatises that described the procedure of the ritual with drums and cymbals widely used as secondary. As to the third component of Sangira, dance, which shares the epithet vimukeida with vocal and instrumental music, its links with Vedic ceremonies, are direct and clear. ‘The chanting was accompanied by movements of the hands and also by prescribed steps when executing certain tasks that involved going from one place to another. The hand movements are partly more technical ; the position of the thumb against the different phalanges of the fingers indicating certain notes or figurations partly had a textual meaning, in as much as certain postures indicated certain ideas or symbolised certain deities thus approaching a sign language that accompanied, followed and intensified the meaning of the chanted text. These sequences of the hand postures and their development into a kind of sign language, are the basis of the most classical form of all Indian dancing, the Bharatanatya, as well as the mimed dramas of the coast of Kerala, the Katha- kali and the Yakshagana. As these move- ments are an integral part of the Vedic ceremonies and share the holiness of every- thing that belongs to a revealed religion, one sees how they are by right the third component of sangita in so far as they have their roots in the practices of the Vedic ritual. The oldest data about the theory of music are found in Bharata- naiya sasira (¢. 200 B.C) This has 36 is chapters of which only chapters 28 - 33 deal with music. Tt seems doubtful whether, outside the ritnal sphere, the spiritual importance of musi¢ was always folly realised. After all, the Aaharanaada was said to be for enjoy- ment as well as for breaking of the cycle of existence and one cannot wonder that the accent was often laid on the first function rather than the second, Still, many traces of the original sanctity are preserved in the movements of adoration and obeisance which one sees musicians and actors perform and more especially in the attitude of the pupil towards his music master, which is to a great extent that of a novice towards his spiritual guide, It is not forgotten that if the latter understands his task properly, he ought to lead his pupil on the way to salvation. It may perhaps be interesting to end this brief survey with a note on early European interest in Indian Music. Francis Fowlkes, was the earliest to publish a paper on The Vina of the Hindus, in 1788.9 He was followed by the great Orientalist, Sir William Jones, in an essay on The Musical Modes of the Hindus, published in 1792.6 Later, for many years, Indian Music remained the affair of Orlentalists and not European musicians, One might almost go so far as to say that Indian Music has no history. More accurately, its history is of slow, deep changes. Treatise succeeds treatise, each refining or expanding the theory of the system often confusing it with modern practices. Names of great musicians as Tyagaraja of Thaojavur (1767= 1847), etc. appear but their works are preserved maialy through oral traditions. Composer and Interpreter are one and the same. 5, Asiatic Researches, 1. 17 6. Ibid ML, 1792, P55.