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2:24:52 USA Joan Benoit 1984
2:25:40 POR Rosa Mota 1988
2:32:41 UT Valentina 1992
Yegorova
2:26:05 ETH Fatuma Roba 1996
2:23:14 JPN Naoko Takahashi 2000
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12 100–199
14 200–299
1 300–399
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1 0 384 1
2 0 0 0
3 0 69 131
4 0 19 173
5 0 1 265
6 0 0 210
7 0 178 44
8 0 2 277
9 0 13 32
10 0 1 3
11 0 4 35
12 9 0 112
13 0 543 477
14 0 17 289
15 0 1 227
16 0 0 103
17 0 51 222
18 0 0 149
19 244 197 313
20 0 3 491
21 1 0 130
22 0 3 234
23 0 1 164
24 0 45 198
25 90 13 17
26 1 3 253
27 0 1 87
28 309 1 121
29 0 1 266
30 0 0 290
31 0 0 123
32 0 551 167
33 0 2 250
34 0 1 245
35 0 1 48
36 0 1 86
37 0 0 284
38 0 74 1
39 0 1 208
40 0 241 173
J00 Q2 *; * 0
&
!
* <* •
.7 E+ 1/ 1 $; *;/ & 7 -
!

<* •
.7 E+ 1/ 1 $; / & 7 -
! •
. - 1 ' 1 1 7' 1 *' $ ;% & 7'
!
!* &* •
5 ? ; - - 4 - * $ 7 7 , 4 & 7 7
.2 0
! R0 •
.< K+ 0% 0/ 1 .' / - - - 1 .' &
+
:& 7' RA 1 1A 40 1 , 1 K 4G *3 K+ ( ) 1 *
400–499 300–399 200–299 100–199 0–99
:6 0 & !
* <*
400 300 200 100 0
:6 0 & !

<*
499 399 299 199 99
:6 0 !
399.5–499.5 299.5–399.5 199.5–299.5 99.5–199.5 0.5–99.5
:,0
$" !
!* &*
449.5 349.5 249.5 149.5 49.5
.100 * $A ! R0
J00 Q2 *; &
: A 4 K 4G "

Q20 5 1 1 1/ 6 7' . -A 7' .1
: ;D 1 7 T 6 .2
(highest value) - (lowest value)
class width ≈
number of classes
1? E+ .$-' *- $; 0 * $- 1 .$-' *- ( $; 0 * N 6 < * K+ $;
Q7' 0%
A 0 1/ O /
; 0/ 1 *;/ ; / 1 ; 0/ / A .*% 7 - & " A .3
Q" & 1
*% 7? ? ? - 7 T 7)) - 7 T *% 7 - $A .4
? - 0 *, 3 7 - A/
7 T 7) $3 3 7 - 0 *,
Q( .+& : 3 7
Q(- -) 7' - ; , - 6 .5
.7 +& 1) 4 $ 7 * 4 $A .6
+
:1A 40 $) 1 * 1 *3 K+ ( 2 *) * T'
1A 40 $) 1 * 1 2 *

1 0 131 173 265 210 44 277 32 3
35 112 477 289 227 103 222 149 313 491
130 134 164 198 17 253 87 121 266 290
123 167 250 245 48 86 284 1 208 173
.5 7' , T' 7' :1 &

: 7' T 6 :2 &
(highest value) - (lowest value) 491 − 0

class width ≈ = = 98.2
number of classes 5
.100 $; $A - E+ 100 0 N 98.2 * 6 5 7' T
.*% 7 - & ; & , ; *; -% " 0 :3 &
: A 7' - 6 :4 &
100 = 0+100 =7 T + *% 7 - = 3 7 -
200 = 100+100 =7 T+ 3 7 - = : 3 7 -
300 = 200+100 =7 T+ : 3 7 - =4 7 -
400 = 300+100= 7 T+4 7 - =R A 7 -
.99, 199,299, 399,499 $ A : 7' - ; , - 6 :5 &
? K 4G 0 *, 7 * 1) 4 $; $ 09 - :6 &
.N / 1 * ,
1 *
40 1? ? , 1 K 4G
1A
(frequency) ng/ml 1
11 0–99
12 100–199
14 200–299
1 300–399
2 400–499
$;* J00 Q2

$;* J00 Q2 •
? $A 7 * 1 1 09 - R' K 4G 7' R' $) K 4G
: 6 (relative frequency )
class frequency
relative frequency =
sum of all frequency
.100 ? K 4G ; 6) : K 4G 1 1 % 1 3 , $A
+
<3 ., K 4G 1/ , 1A 40 1 , 1 K 4G +AF
.3 *
3 * 1 *
K 4G ?
? K?
? 4?
?G
1A 40 1 , 1 1A 40 1 , 1
? ???? ????? ????
(relative
1??? (frequency)
1???
frequency)
ng/ml ng/ml
28% 0–99 11 0–99
30% 100–199 12 100–199
35% 200–299 14 200–299
3% 300–399 1 300–399
5% 400–499 2 400–499
$ 0 J00 Q2
$ 0 J00 Q2 •

7'? 4? 7? ? 2 6 (cumulative frequency) $A K 4G
"...1 *;/"
, 6 O)/ - , 6 .
+
<?3 .?, ? K 4G / , 1A 40 1 , 1 K 4G +AF
:4 *
4 * 1 *
?? K?? 4??G ?

? K?
? 4?
?G
1? , 1 1A 40 1 , 1
1A 40 ????? ????
? ????

(frequency)
1???
ng/ml
(relative
1??? 11 0–99
frequency)
ng/ml 12 100–199
11
100 1 *;/ 14 200–299
1 300–399
11+12=23
200 1 *;/ 2 400–499
23+14=37
300 1 *;/
37+1=38
400 1 *;/
38+2=40
500 1 *;/
& ! J00 Q2
.E 1 * 3 . ' T () 1/ 1 K 4G
+
< 6 ) * , A% $; K 4G .H + 40 1 '> 6 ) * 5 * 1
. ; *DA $ R 1/ S +& 0 O K ' $ ;% 1/ K 4G * , 9D .6 *
? ' ) 1 5 4 1/ 9D % * 0
.2 6 ) $3 1 3 30 *DA $ R 1/ K/
1 T , , K 4G O+ .4 ? 5 ) $3 1 3 15 *DA $ R 1 ; 4
. 0 * .
6 * 5 *
A% $; ) * $; * $;
* , 6 @A ) @A
6 ) 6
7 0 72 21 68 1
0 1 56 22 64 2
6 2 68 23 88 3
0 3 64 24 72 4
11 4 60 25 64 5
0 5 68 26 72 6
9 6 60 27 60 7
0 7 60 28 88 8
7 8 56 29 76 9
0 9 84 30 60 10
72 31 96 11
84 32 72 12
88 33 56 13
56 34 64 14
64 35 60 15
56 36 64 16
56 37 84 17
60 38 76 18
64 39 84 19
72 40 88 20
& *0 J00 Q2
. 1 K 4G $A O3
+
1 A T < : 1A $) , 1 1A S @A 40 1 '> 3 1A 40 1 0/ +A/
*? ? 1 ; . 1 A -, T , 1A S @A 40 1 '> 3 3
.7 * , 1 & K 4G " $ $3 1 (3 3 1 *9/ )
7 *
@A 40 $) - 3 , 1 K 4G
????
1A?
? ?
?M 1A?? ??M 1A 1???
1???)S 1 A 1) ng/ml
1 A

95% 85% 28% 0–99
0% 5% 30% 100–199
3% 3% 35% 200–299
3% 3% 3% 300–399
0% 0% 5% 400–499
0% 5% 0% 500–599
?, E ?& 1/ : $&S 1A 1 7DA E & 1/ -9 5 , . 3D3 1 ( . *
0? 99 0 1 1 $- 1 H A% , 99 0 1 1 $- 1A 1 28%
.85% *;%
& 0<I#
0G<
*3 7' ,% *3 .(bar graph),/ 4;
1 7> 1
a 1
$S-
D 1 : 4 $ . ; 4 6 ,% 4 2 ' .7 ;
., 1 T -)
+
.(4 1 2 *) 1A 1 K 4G ., $S- *3 1 *
Histogram SMOKER
15 14
12
11
10
Frequency
2
1
0
-0.5 99.5 199.5 299.5 399.5 499.5

Cotinine levels of Smokers
1 *
1 % 1 3 , 1 .., 7 0% 0% & $ $S- 1 ; * 1/ 9D
.2 * , 7 * 7 7 $A
Histogram SMOKERS
15 14
12
11
10
Frequency
2
1
49.5 149.5 249.5 349.5 449.5

2 0@A‫ا‬
& 0<I#
$;* 00 0G" •

$ < $ ; 1 .,% R' $S- * R' < $S&
.
+
.(4 1 2 *) 1A 1 K 4G ., $S- *3 3 *
Relative Histogram SMOKER

40%
35.0
30.0
Relative Frequency
30%
27.5
20%
10%
5.0
2.5
0%
-0.5 99.5 199.5 299.5 399.5 499.5

SMOKER
& 0<I#
J00 Q
4 •
.K 4G 7' 1 7 * 7 1 * 4; 1 * K 4)
+
.(4 1 2 *) 1A 1 K 4G ., K 4) *3 4 * •
Frequency Polygon
15 14
12
11
10
Frequency
2
1
0
49.5 149.5 249.5 349.5 449.5
4 *
& 0<I#
$&* $*; && •

*3 . $; * 0 ; * $ : A 1
A
.T -) ., R $;
+
$? .$D,% N+-
1 * 'X $, 50 1 '> +A/ : * 'X A $D,% 0 /
?# N+?& 5 ) $, * , 3 $A 1G * $A 1G R ; $ E+ . ; $, * * R ;
.(8 () 7 ,

*?% 1? O?3 7A 120 * 1/ A 1

1/ 1 .5 * < $D,% * A
.A%
Movie length (min)
60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Length
(min)
5 *
8 (
Movie Company Length Tobacco Alcohol
(min) Use Use (sec)
(sec)
Snow White Disney 83 0 0
Pinnocchio Disney 88 223 80
Fantasia Disney 120 0 0
Dumbo Disney 64 176 88
Bambi Disney 69 0 0
Three Caballeros Disney 71 548 8
Fun and Fancy Free Disney 76 0 4
Cinderella Disney 74 37 0
Alice in Wonderland Disney 75 158 0
Peter Pan Disney 76 51 33
Lady and the Tramp Disney 75 0 0
Sleeping Beauty Disney 75 0 113
101 Dalmations Disney 79 299 51
Sword and the Stone Disney 80 37 20
Jungle Book Disney 78 0 0
Aristocats Disney 78 11 142
Robin Hood Disney 83 0 39
Rescuers Disney 77 0 0
Winnie the Pooh Disney 71 0 0
Fox and the Hound Disney 83 0 0
Black Cauldron Disney 80 0 34
Great Mouse Detective Disney 73 165 414
Oliver and Company Disney 72 74 0
Little Mermaid Disney 82 9 0
Rescuers Down Under Disney 74 0 76
Beauty and the Beast Disney 84 0 123
Aladdin Disney 90 2 3
Lion King Disney 89 0 0
Pocahontas Disney 81 6 7
Toy Story Disney 81 0 0
Hunchback of Notre Dame Disney 90 23 46
James and the Giant Peach Disney 79 206 38
Hercules Disney 92 9 13
Secret of NIMH MGM 82 0 0
All Dogs Go to Heaven MGM 89 205 73
All Dogs Go to Heaven 2 MGM 82 162 72
Babes in Toyland MGM 74 0 0
Thumbelina Warner Bros 86 6 5
Troll in Central Park Warner Bros 76 1 0
Space Jam Warner Bros 81 117 0
Pippi Longstocking Warner Bros 75 5 0
Cats Don't Dance Warner Bros 75 91 0
An American Tail Universal 77 155 74
Land Before Time Universal 70 0 0
Fievel Goes West Universal 75 24 28
We're Back: Dinosaur Story Universal 64 55 0
Land Before Time 2 Universal 73 0 0
Balto Universal 74 0 0
Once Upon a Forest 20th Century 71 0 0
Anastasia Fox 94 17 39
20th Century
Fox
& 0<I#
C0 D && •

$;) ; ( K $; D
O 3) . 0 - . 1 -9 ; . A
.(
+
.$D,% N+-
1 * 'X $, 50 1 '> +A/ : * 'X A $D,% 0 /
N+& 5 ) $, * , 3 $A 1G * $A 1G R ; $ E+ . ; $, * * R ; $
.(13 , 8 * ,
#
*% 1 O3 7A 120 * 1/ A 1

1/ 1 .5 * < $D,% * ; . A
.A%
Stem-and-leaf of Length ( N =
50
Leaf Unit = 1.0
‫ اد‬
‫اآ‬ ‫ا ق‬ ‫ار‬

2 6 44
3 6 9
14 7 01112334444
(15) 7 555555666778899
21 8 001112223334
9 8 6899
5 9 0024
1 9
1 10
1 10
1 11
1 11
1 12 0
5 *
.; . A , / R & 1
*% :
/ 3 A , 9D
*3 *% D
O 3, .(.%) $; *3, : 3 / .(. ) ; 1 K $; *3 3
.3 (F, 1 ; 7)/ E+ 69 &
; <, 3 . 0 64 64 & 1 ;
1 .14 (F, 11 ; 7)/ E+ .74,74,73,73،74،74 72 71 71،71 70 & ; 11 <, : 3
. E 0 *'% 1 0% 1 / 1/ 9D .7 0 1;
& 0<I#
0 &0 •
.
; 1 "G/ * -9 */ 1 $A A

A
+
(8) * , 1 & A 5 , 6 100 1 7> 7 6D A K/
(8) ‫ول‬E‫ﺝ‬
6D 6D
A 9
B 26
C 31
D 23
E 11
. 5 *3

A (6) * -9
b (26, 26.0%)
a ( 9, 9.0%)
c (31, 31.0%)
e (11, 11.0%)
d (23, 23.0%)
Pie Chart of lev els

& 0<I#
0+ ; && •
; * 4) .Y 1 A/ X 1 1 ;D -9 A 1
3 A
,/ 1 / $A .(x,y) 3 * : Y 1 y 4 X 1 x
.&
‫ر ﺵ‬9‫ﺥى آ‬J‫وا ا‬
+
1 K+ 3 A $ .9 * ,
(WAIST) A (WT) 1G $A
.5 $A $ 3 A (9) * 1 .
, 6 * A 4 1G ;D
8 8 8
7
4
3
2
240
2
220
5
200
5
180
weight
16
160
7
140
4
120
1
100
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
waist
(9) 0@A‫ا‬
.3 A , O / R & A 1G 1 * $S- *3 )A% 1 1
.1 1 7 3 A %
' 0
9 (
Number AGE HT WT WAIST
1 58 70.8 169.1 90.6
2 22 66.2 144.2 78.1
3 32 71.7 179.3 96.5
4 31 68.7 175.8 87.7
5 28 67.6 152.6 87.1
6 46 69.2 166.8 92.4
7 41 66.5 135.0 78.8
8 56 67.2 201.5 103.3
9 20 68.3 175.2 89.1
10 54 65.6 139.0 82.5
11 17 63.0 156.3 86.7
12 73 68.3 186.6 103.3
13 52 73.1 191.1 91.8
14 25 67.6 151.3 75.6
15 29 68.0 209.4 105.5
16 17 71.0 237.1 108.7
17 41 61.3 176.7 104.0
18 52 76.2 220.6 103.0
19 32 66.3 166.1 91.3
20 20 69.7 137.4 75.2
21 20 65.4 164.2 87.7
22 29 70.0 162.4 77.0
23 18 62.9 151.8 85.0
24 26 68.5 144.1 79.6
25 33 68.3 204.6 103.8
26 55 69.4 193.8 103.0
27 53 69.2 172.9 97.1
28 28 68.0 161.9 86.9
29 28 71.9 174.8 88.0
30 37 66.1 169.8 91.5
31 40 72.4 213.3 102.9
32 33 73.0 198.0 93.1
33 26 68.0 173.3 98.9
34 53 68.7 214.5 107.5
35 36 70.3 137.1 81.6
36 34 63.7 119.5 75.7
37 42 71.1 189.1 95.0
38 18 65.6 164.7 91.1
39 44 68.3 170.1 94.9
40 20 66.3 151.0 79.9
& 0<I#
$* 2
$* •
4 N+& -9 G * .'A G/ , - $ 1
G *
.1G
+
.9 * ,
.$ 14 *DA - $ G * (10) * 1
Time Series Graph of datat
2000
1500
data
1000
8 5 86 8 7 8 8 8 9 90 91 9 2 9 3 9 4 95 9 6 9 7 9 8 99 00
19 1 9 1 9 1 9 19 1 9 1 9 1 9 19 19 1 9 1 9 1 9 19 1 9 2 0
Year
9 (
Number year data
1 1985 2100
2 1986 1500
3 1987 1300
4 1988 1250
5 1989 1230
6 1990 1200
7 1991 1100
8 1992 1050
9 1993 900
10 1994 880
11 1995 820
12 1996 800
13 1997 780
14 1998 760
15 1999 750
16 2000 700
:5 Q;0
' 20
:

. .K G# K 7 7 / ; ;
:

, . . -, -' 0 - @ A 1 & G *' +& , $-
. 3 $ -A E 'A 1 1 A K G# *' &
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
. G 6 7 'A . •
. - . K 7 7 •
.'A 1 1 A K G# •
20

‫ا
ا‬ •
0 - $; 4 . 1 6 K+ G R & $ 1 ‫ أو‬+‫* اﺱ‬#‫ا‬
: ;D - 1 N+& .$ N+-
mean =
∑x
n
. $; * 4 0 b ∑ :M*‫ﺡ‬
. 1
; *3 * b x
. $; *3 – n
:;D 1 6 x G - G $
x=
∑x
n
: Q,‫ ا‬$ R9‫ و‬µ - G P
A‫ ا‬P +‫* اﺱ‬#‫ا‬
µ=∑
x
N
.P
A‫د
ﺹ ا ا‬E 0T – N
+
. $ /
E+ "- 1 6 , @ R ; $ E ,

. µ g / m3 ,
1 $ % , @ *3 (10) *

1 $ % , @ .10 *
µ g / m3 ,
5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10
: &
x=
∑ x = 5.40+1.10+0.42+0.73+0.48+1.10 = 9.23 = 1.538
n 6 6
!‫آ‬#
‫ﻡ س ا‬
. 7 / G ,
1
G R
3% % * G R 7
E+ G .

. 7 ; O
20
&3 •
/ O 6 E+ 7 , 4 K+ G R & 1 %
. x G
% G . OG
:1 1# / +' $3 1 O / OG 6 O / $ % #
. ; 7 , O 1 % O , $ 1 + .1
. 7 , 1 1 1 6 . 1 6 % O G $ 1 + .2
1 +
. µ g / m3 6
"- , @ $ *3
5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10
: * , $ 6 O / $ % 6
0.42 0.48 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40
.7 , 1 1 6 . 1 6 % 1P, (6) O G $ 1/
0.73 + 1.10 1.83

median = = = 0.915
2 2
2 +
. µ g / m 6
"- , @ $ *3
3
5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10 0.66
: * , $ 6 O / $ % 6

0.42 0.48 0.66 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40
. O 7 , 4 & % 1P, (7) O, $ 1/
median = 0.73
20
(Mode) & & * •

. M G
O - G O 3% *3
% 3 1/ * 1 1 * 1 $9% R' - 1; o
.(bimodal)
%
1/ * - * 1 $9% R' - 1; 1 3/ o
.(multimodal)
. D 1/ * 1 ; K/ o
+
: 1
a. 5.40 1.10 0.42 0.75 0.48 1.10
b. 27 27 27 55 55 55 88 88 99
c. 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10
.O 3% % 1.10 & 0%

.$9% R' < - * 1% .55 27 1 - % 3 3
. ; $ - R 3 3
20
!* •
1 - 1 . , 09 1 7 ., 1
7
: ;D 6 2 0 5 ; 0 09 4 .
highest value + lowest value

midrange =
2
+
: 1
5.40 1.10 0.42 0.75 0.48 1.10
: 6 7

highest value + lowest value 5.40 + 0.42
midrange = = = 2.910
2 2
‫اري‬#'
‫ ا
زی( ا‬+‫ ب ا
ا
ﻡ‬-
: ;D ., K 4G 1 6 1
x=
∑( f ⋅ x)
∑f
:
7 – f
7 7 – x
5 $ $3 - 4 7 7 * 7 6) 6 </ K/
.7' * 2
‫ ل‬/‫ﻡ‬
: * 1 & 6 $ 1A 1 K 4G +AF
10 *
1A 40 1 , 1 K 4G
7 7 ; (frequency) 1
ng/ml
( f ⋅ x) x f
544.5 49.5 11 0–99
1794.0 149.5 12 100–199
3493 249.5 14 200–299
349.5 349.5 1 300–399
899.0 449.5 2 400–499
∑ ( f ⋅ x ) =7080.0 ∑ f = 40 2
x=
∑ ( f ⋅ x ) = 7080 = 177.0
∑f 40
0/
‫ا
ا
ا‬
: ;D 6 3 6 N+& , . -&/ 6 1 1G ; * 0 O /
x=
∑ (w⋅ x)
∑w
:
. 1G – w
2 0 5 $ $3 - 4 - 1G 6) 3 6 </ K/
.1G%
+
0 3 A 20% 0 *% A (85, 90,75 ) A 3 * 3 6
.50% 0, : 3 A 30%
: 6 3
x=
∑ ( w⋅ x)
∑w
=
( 20 × 85) + ( 30 × 90 ) + ( 50 × 75) = 8150 = 81.5
20 + 30 + 50 100
20 5 , )0(
(Mean)

.$ 2 0 5 $ $3 1 $ 4 2
7 , O %

. ; ‫*
ت 'دي‬+,‫د ا‬E
%
(Median)
. 6
1 4 6 %
&‫*
ت زوﺝ‬+,‫د ا‬E
; 7 , 1
.2 0 5 ; $3
(Mode)
.O 3%
(Midrange) ‫ى‬E‫ ا‬X

highest value + lowest value
midrange =
2
20
4%3 5
G N+& T () * .6 G . 1 * 1 A/ 0 *)' (
.6
G 1
6 G 3F 4 *A $A G R
$ , $
J
+ J6
3 4 * * $ $
V 3%
# . 1 O A Mean
,
V
3 $A %

+ $; median
1 D 1/ 1 / $A
1 Mode
1 3/

;

+ $ O R $
V O $A 7
Midrange
J0 !0*
J0 !0* •
:1 1;D P 6 1 $ N+& 7 1
$ K 7
(1) s=
∑( x − x)
n −1
n∑ ( x 2 ) − ( ∑ x )
2
(2) s=
n ( n − 1)
:1 1;D F 6 1 $ N+& 7 1
$ K 7
(1) s=
∑( x − x)
n −1
n∑ ( x 2 ) − ( ∑ x )
2
(2) s=
n ( n − 1)
J0 !0*B 3 ) •

. * $ M R K 7 .1
. $ 4 1 , ' 1 . O K 7 ; .2
.($ 1 O
)
+ ; * G K 7 ; .3
.% $
-' & K 7
.4
J0 !0* , )0(
: A 1) 9 1 (1) ;D $A K 7 6
. x 6 .1
( )
. x − x * 1 , ; 0 * $; 1 ; * 1 W .2
2
. x−x ( ) $ 0 * 2
A , - * $ $ 4 .3
2
.∑ x − x
( ) 0 * 3
A , - * $ * 4 .4
. ( n − 1) 0
A , < K+ 2 $ .5
.5
A 5 G .6
1 +
:. ;
E , 1 G 3 9 *3 $ N+& 1/ O 1, 3, 14 $ K 7 6
. x 6 .1
x=
∑ x = 1 + 3 + 14 = 18 = 6.0
n 3 3
( )
. x − x * 1 , ; 0 * $; 1 ; * 1 6.0 W .2
1-6 = -5
3-6 = -3
14-6 = 8
2
(
: x−x ) $ 0 * 2
A , - * $ $ 4 .3
25 , 9 , 64
2
:∑ x − x
( ) 0 * 3
A , - * $ * 4 .4
2
∑ ( x − x) = 98
. ( 3 − 1) 0
A , < K+ 2 $ .5
98
= 49.0
2
.5
A 5 G .6
49.0 = 7 min
2 +
$A E+ . ;
E , 1 G 3 9 *3 $ N+& 1/ 1, 3, 14 $ K 7 6
:9 1 (2) ;D
. ∑ x2 ∑x n 1 * 6 6 (2) ;D $A
n = 3,
∑ x = 18,
∑ x = 206 .
2
CB ;
n∑ ( x 2 ) − ( ∑ x )
2
s=
n ( n − 1)
3(206) − (18) 2 294

s= = = 7.0 Min.
3(3 − 1) 6

' (
J0 !0*
: ;D K 7 7
∑(x − µ )
2
σ=
N
7
. & b µ
. & b N
'
.K 7 4 & •

. s K 7 4 &
. σ K 7 4 &
: +
10 1 1 * 3 6 14 ,3 ,1 /
7 min K N+- K 7 1/ 10 1 1 * 3 ,
: 1 ,
s 2 = 7 2 = 49 min 2
.C $"
3 & ( *; C Q;0 $" + 8" $% ' /# IB*
'
.(coefficient of variation) * •

: 0 K 7D <F / * 7
: *
s
CV = ⋅100%
x
: *
σ
CV = ⋅100%
µ
: +
1 D 1 R ; $ : * 40 1 5 11 * ,
*3
HT is height in ) d# O N+& 1 * */ HT *3 .* 1 1/
1 * 6 $ * 6 .(Weight in pounds)* 1G% WT *3 .(inches
.HT, WT 1 1 * K 7
K 7

HT 68.34in 3.02in
WT 172.55lb 26.33lb
s 3.02in
CV = ⋅100% = 100% = 4.402% : *X * 1
x 68.34in
s 26.33lb
CV = ⋅100% = 100% = 15.26% : 1GX *
x 172.55lb
< K 7 .1 1 / 1 1 $A 1 E+
< R * 1/ 9D
:D3 / * 1G% M * 1/ * ; *DA 1 D
O 3, .1 S <A * % $
1/ V 6 1 7 )/ 3 ? A/ * 1 G 3/ * 1/ 1 + +& *% M * 1 7 )/
.7 )/ 3 ? Ae * 1 */ *
11 (
Number AGE HT WT WAIST
1 58 70.8 169.1 90.6
2 22 66.2 144.2 78.1
3 32 71.7 179.3 96.5
4 31 68.7 175.8 87.7
5 28 67.6 152.6 87.1
6 46 69.2 166.8 92.4
7 41 66.5 135.0 78.8
8 56 67.2 201.5 103.3
9 20 68.3 175.2 89.1
10 54 65.6 139.0 82.5
11 17 63.0 156.3 86.7
12 73 68.3 186.6 103.3
13 52 73.1 191.1 91.8
14 25 67.6 151.3 75.6
15 29 68.0 209.4 105.5
16 17 71.0 237.1 108.7
17 41 61.3 176.7 104.0
18 52 76.2 220.6 103.0
19 32 66.3 166.1 91.3
20 20 69.7 137.4 75.2
21 20 65.4 164.2 87.7
22 29 70.0 162.4 77.0
23 18 62.9 151.8 85.0
24 26 68.5 144.1 79.6
25 33 68.3 204.6 103.8
26 55 69.4 193.8 103.0
27 53 69.2 172.9 97.1
28 28 68.0 161.9 86.9
29 28 71.9 174.8 88.0
30 37 66.1 169.8 91.5
31 40 72.4 213.3 102.9
32 33 73.0 198.0 93.1
33 26 68.0 173.3 98.9
34 53 68.7 214.5 107.5
35 36 70.3 137.1 81.6
36 34 63.7 119.5 75.7
37 42 71.1 189.1 95.0
38 18 65.6 164.7 91.1
39 44 68.3 170.1 94.9
40 20 66.3 151.0 79.9
0G< / J0 !0* ,
: ;D $A $S- 1

K 7 6 1
n  ∑ ( f ⋅ x 2 )  −  ∑ ( f ⋅ x ) 
2
s=
n ( n − 1)
:
. – n
7 b f
.7 7 – x
+
, , $S- $;
S % 1/ : .1A 40 1 '> K 7 /
: *
?, 1 K 4G

1A 40 1
?
????? 1?? ??
(frequency) ng/ml
11 0–99
12 100–199
14 200–299
1 300–399
2 400–499
: * 1 & 1/ 1 $ N+& . ∑ ( f ⋅ x 2 ) ∑ ( f ⋅ x) n $ $G K 7 6
$S- 1 K 7 6
f ⋅ x2 f ⋅x ??
7 f 1
7 ng/ml
x
26952.75 544.5 49.5 11 0–99
268203.00 1794.0 149.5 12 100–199
871503.50 3493.0 249.5 14 200–299
122150.25 349.5 349.5 1 300–399
404100.50 899.0 49.5 2 400–499
∑ ( f ⋅ x ) = 7080 2
∑ ( f ⋅ x ) = 1692910
2
:K 7
n  ∑ ( f ⋅ x 2 )  −  ∑ ( f ⋅ x ) 
2
s=
n ( n − 1)
40 [1692910] −  ∑ 7080 
2
=
40 ( 40 − 1)
17590000
= = 106.2
1560
J0 !0* C #‫ﺕ ی‬
:;D $A 1A * K 7 ; 1

rang
s≈
4
rang = ( highest value ) - ( lowest value ) 7
:;D 6 09 1 K 7 ,
minimum value ≈ ( mean ) − 2 × ( standarad deviation)

maximum value ≈ ( mean ) + 2 × ( standarad deviation)
+
1 1 * ,
$A ) 1A 40 1 '> 1 K 7 ; 1A * ;
( 3
) 3 3
: 6 / $
rang = ( highest value ) - ( lowest value )

= 491 − 0 = 491
rang 491
s≈ = = 122.75
4 4
J0 !0* C #‫ﺕ ی‬
rang
s≈ :;D $A 1A * K 7 ; 1
4
rang = ( highest value ) - ( lowest value ) 7
:;D 6 09 1 K 7 ,
minimum value ≈ ( mean ) − 2 × ( standarad deviation)

maximum value ≈ ( mean ) + 2 × ( standarad deviation)
+
1 1 * ,
$A ) 1A 40 1 '> 1 K 7 ; 1A * ;
( 3
) 3 3
rang = ( highest value ) - ( lowest value )
: 6 / $
= 491 − 0 = 491
rang 491
s≈ = = 122.75
4 4
!';' 0I*
(Chebyshev s Theorem) 7 9 •

.1 − 1 *;% 0 K * K 7 1
K * * 1) 4 K+ "G
K2
:1/ K/
. * K 7 1
2 * * 1) 4 *;% 0 1 3 / 4
. * K 7 1
3 * * 1) 4 *; 0 1 8 / 9
+
:1/ 515 K 7 100 - 0 7 9 .
.130 70 1 K/ K 7 ') K * , 4 *;% 0 1 %75
.145 55 1 K/ K 7 7 )/ 3 K * , 4 *;% 0 1 %89
7 ; 1 -) 1 ; 1 .T 1 -) 7DA R K 7
.
K 7 ; 1 T -) 1
1
M K
G 7 $-' ' $-, 0 O3 (Chebyshev s Theorem) 7 9
J0 20
J0 20 •
: ;D 6 K R 1) $; 0 * 1 5 (z score) O / 0 K G#
x−x
z= :
s
x−µ
z= :
σ
.(1 1; 6;/ 0 z ; 6 )
+
7 63.6in H " 2.8in K 7 69.0 in * *% H
6 76in
* H 78in H 1
6 * 1/ T' .2.5in K
. Z 1 * 1
1 " 1
* 1 * 1 2in G 1 * 1/ () 1
.z score6 $ E+ K R 0 1 * 1 " 1 1 0 .1
x−µ 78-69.0
z= = = 3.21 /0(
σ 2.8
x−µ 76-63.6
z= = = 4.96 ;
σ 2.5
1 / * K 7 3.21 * * 1 / 1 * (*
.1 1 */ O 1P, .K 7 4.96 " *
J0 20 )*+
: - K G# 6 E+ 3 S $; 3 $; 0 $; 7
−2 ≤ z score ≤ 2 )*+ 0G C
−2 ≥ z score or z score ≥ 2 )*+ C
3 Z*#‫ا‬ 3 *Y Z*#‫ا‬ 3 Z*#‫ا‬
-3 -2 0 2 3
*) ;0
(First quartiles) 0% •

. - ; 75% ? 1 $ 1 0% 25% ? *' & 0%
(Second quartiles) 3 •

. & . - ; 50% ? 1 $ 1 0% 50% ? *' & Q2 3
.%
50% of sorted data ≤ Q2 ≤ 50% of sorted data
(Third quartiles) 3 3 •

. - ; 25% ? 1 $ 1 0% 75% ? *' & Q3 3 3
75% of sorted data ≤ Q3 ≤ 25% of sorted data
(Percentiles) # •

1 x , # # .K $; 100 0 $ P1 , P2 ,..., P99 ; 99
: ;D .
number of values less than x
percentiles of value x = ⋅100
total number of values
1 1 * ,

$A )
1A 1 *3 +AF +
( 3
) 3 3
.112 1 , /
$ * , 9 .( - 1 SortedSmoker 4 * -9 ) 6 O / $
: 112 1 M/ ; 12 E & 1/
number of values less than x

percentiles of value x = ⋅100
total number of values
12
percentiles of value 112 = ⋅100 = 30
40
( P30 & 112 ? , ) 30th & 112 , 1P,
*) ( )0(
*% GA $ P1 , P2 ,..., P99 $ * # .( Pk ) k $; GA ()
: k = 1, 2,...99 K/ , k $; 4
‫أ‬E‫ا‬
$ ‫*
ت‬+,‫ ا‬R*
‫ ا[آ‬4‫ا[ﺹ\ إ‬
*#‫ﺡ
ب ا‬
 k 
L= ⋅n
 100 
&P@‫ ا‬Z*#‫د ا‬E – n ،*‫^
ﻥ‬J‫ ا‬Z*#P ‫ل‬9 – k M*‫ﺡ‬
kth *‫^
ﻥ‬J‫* ا‬#‫ا‬
:&P‫ آ
ی‬R9 ( Pk )
* L 0‫ه‬ Z,‫ﻥ‬
(* &‫* ا‬#‫ ا‬-
9*9‫ﺹ‬ &'
(*P &‫* ا‬#‫ وا‬L
Z‫*
ت ا ﺙ‬+,‫
ا‬
2 4P *‫ ا‬Z#
J
* ‫ ا ب‬4‫ إ‬L ‫ب‬#‫ﻥ‬

( ‫ أآ‬9*9‫ﺹ‬
&‫* ا‬#‫ ( ه& ا‬Pk ) kth *‫^

ﻥ‬J‫* ا‬#‫ا‬
‫*
ت ا‬+,‫ '&
ا‬L
(*
&
$%'

(Exploratory data analysis) , * •

(K 7 G ; *3) # % $A & , *
$ % 6 1/ O / . % - A $-, 7- , : */ 1
*/ 1 @ 1 G 0 U 1P, $ * 1 . % @ A $-, 0 $S-
.(Outliers)
+ $ A - A , $-'
+
* 11111 * A $ : FA : 1A 1 R ; , * A </ T'
0
+ N+& 3> 7 .; $ 4 1 O
-%
+ ; & 11111 .1
J$S- , )# K 7
.450 0 172.5 1 1 * 11111 * A M
.1733 0 119.5 1 M K 7
.1 $S- N / $ (/) * -9
.11111 FA * A $S- (6) *
.0G< ' J0 !0* &

A( 0; '; 0+N 8' /# S* / D;
Histogram SMOKER
15 14
12
11
10
Frequency
2
1
-0.5 99.5 199.5 299.5 399.5 499.5
(‫ )أ‬0@A‫ا‬
50
40 39
Frequency
30
20
10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0
-5000 0 5000 10000 15000
SMOKER
(‫ )ب‬0@A‫ا‬
$C* $*; &&
$C* $*; && •

0 1 $ 1 7F 1
; A
$ % $ Q1 0% $ $ . 1 09
. Q3 3 3
; A " •

Q% 3 3 Q0% Q09 Q : $ 1 * 6 .1
Q09 1) U $ .2
.% < $ $ Q3 0 Q1 1 * * 0 . $ .3
.09 0 1 . 4 $ $ .4
+
.1A 40 1 1 *3 0

.% 3 3 Q0% Q09 Q : $ 1 * /
.; A $
:*
‫ ا‬Z*#‫ ا‬E‫( ﻥ‬LO_20 SESSION_ 4) , ) # $A
Variable Minimum Maximum Q1 Q3 Median

SMOKER 0.0 491.0 86.3 252.3 170
(15) * < ; A
4b,‫* ا‬#‫ا‬
500
Q3
400
*+‫* ا[وﺱ‬#‫ا‬
SMOKER
300
Median
200
100
Q1
0

*‫ﻥ‬E‫* ا‬#‫ا‬
‫ ‪:5‬‬
‫ ;‪ 0I* T‬‬
‫
‪:‬‬
‫‪.., * "
; 4
; * * " ), : $ :‬‬
‫
‪:‬‬
‫‪+& - , . * "
; 4
; *' * 9 % $& ' () *' +& , $-‬‬
‫'* ‪. 9 % ^ .‬‬
‫‪:
!"#‬‬
‫‪:0 *' +& , 6 7‬‬
‫' &‪Q* 9 % $‬‬ ‫•‬
‫;
‪Q4‬‬ ‫•‬
‫;
" * ‪Q‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ ^ ‪. 9‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ا‪ *#‬ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬
‫=‬
‫ا
ﺡ إ‪ 4‬ی
ر‬
‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
* ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬
‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬ ‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
*‬ ‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬ ‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬
‫ا‪*#‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪*#‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪*#‬‬ ‫ا‪*#‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬
0I* $C # "
7 •
. "# 5 / K/ & :
&; 7 •
./ 0 G 1 K+ : & :
* 4% •
5 * K/ ."# E -3 1 :% * & "# " ),
. -G 1 "# +-
+
:1 1"# 1
Q :1 "
. K :2 "
. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} : 1
1 "Y " ),
{1 − 1,1 − 2,1 − 3, 1 − 4, 1 − 5, 1 − 6, 2 − 1,… , 6 − 6} :
3 "Y " ),
. 36 1 '> &
./ 0 <G 1 5 1% 1 "Y : 1

5
.4b3 / 6b1 *3 / : 0 /G 1/ 1 7 1 2 "Y O O 3 7
7
: N+& 1 O 3D3 , 1 : * ;

(: E+ 0 O : * ) 1 •
G A : * 1 & . A : -, 6 a7 *
' O" 6;
: P ( A) G O <
Number of times A occurred
P ( A) =
Number of times trial was repeated
: 0 @ 0; 3 /*C •
. 1 1
.,
: * ; ; 1 / O :
+
. A . 1 , ; H @A 1 1/ * /

: & 1 13 1 '> +& , " ),
1
$A 1 N& * . A $A $ – B : A $A b A :
.6 * #
$-/ 0 $- @ A/ 710 / * OM O A 855 > A 6 * #
:1
$A 6 * 1 E+ . A A
710
P ( A) = = 0.830
855
‫ا ل ث‬
(: * D 5- ) 2 •

n */ 1 s 6 : 1/ 1 A 1 + .: * R' O - 7A : n "Y 1
+a
Number of ways A can occur s

P ( A) = =
Number of simple events n
+
.& N+& , A 1/ * 6/ . , 13 $; 0 1& @ A% / 1/ T'

O - : 38 1 7> " ), 1P, E+ .* R' O - (Slot) 4; 38 1 7> 6
: &
A ., : 37 E & : 38 ? 1 .2
. 6 1 .* R'
37
P ( loss ) =
38
‫ا ل ث‬
( : * + ) 3 •

. 79 , 0 O 1/ 1 P ( A) : *
+
. - EG E $ 1/ * /

1 7> " ), 1/ 6 .
EG $ : 1 7 $ 6 1
$A 1
1/ 7 .+ * 0 3
$A .2
$A * K S 13
11 O K/ 0.0000000001 ? * 1/ 1 A 0 O E+ O M 6 *
.1 */
7
7 •
. A : -, : 5 * 1
A G < G A : $
+
* * N+& 1 D
O ' A + .+ 105 $-, 1/ 1 1 205 1 +A/
.O+ 1 1/

: .100 K : # 1/
5 105 & , + 1/
100
P(not selecting boy) = P(boy ) = P(girl) = = 0.488
205
0
. 1 1 % 1 3 , (Odds) @' $A

( )
0
O - . P A / P ( A)
(actual odds against) A 7 7 0 •
.E $ ; - R 1 1 b a : ( a to b ) / a : b *
( )
),% + . P ( A ) / P A
(Actual odds in favor) A 7 7 % 0 •
. b : a & A : : , ),% 1P, a : b & A : :
+
:6 . 35 :1 * O G . , $5 6 13 0 & +
.13 @' 6/ .1
.13 0 & G, + , ( 6/ .2
N+& , 13 0 & G, + , ( 6 */ 1 * ( 6 G 1 , .3
.

1
P(13) = :13 0 & ( * 1P, O b1
38
37
P(not 13) = :$;
38
37
P(not 13) 37
actual odds against 13 = = 38 = = 37 :1 :13 : : @' 0 *
P(13) 1 1
38
net profit = 5 × 35=175$ :$5 * , ( 1P, $35 1$ e‫ار‬E# &'

‫ ﺹ‬f‫< * ر‬/ b2
13 : : @' O * G < K+ ( 1 ( 1 */ 1 6 * , b3
net profit = 5 × 37=185$ :G' * , , ( 1 37 :1 K/
,0 7
(Compound event) ,0 7 •

.3/ / 1 13 $) : K/ & 6 :
( B # A ) ,0 7 •
* . O &D / B : / A : 4 : +& 4 ( A or B ) G < G ( B / A ) :
:( A or B ) :
P (A or B) = P (event A or event B occurs or they both occur)

Q ( C
Q ( C •
( A or B ) B / A 13 / : * 6 ;D () 4
;
P ( A or B ) = P( A) + P( B) − P ( A and B )
. O B A 13 4 1/ * & P ( A and B ) /# 7
(Disjoint events) /B* /+ •

:1 . O 3 1/ 1 1+ 1 3 & 1D' 1 3
P ( A and B ) = 0
( A or B : * 6
;) 4
; $A ' () ; A
P ( A or B )
Addition Rule
Are Yes
A and B P ( A or B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B )
Disjoint?
No
P ( A or B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A and B )
Q ( C
+
1 D
O ; 'A A 5 .D
O 14 D
O , *
/ 85 1-
/ 99 1 0 * A /
.N / 1 * 6

/ 99 1 0 * A 5
A A
5 80 * D
O ,
/
11 3 *
/
* 5 1 / D
O , * 1 1/ * 6/
/ 99? 1 *
/ A + :6
.
- * 5 / D
O , * & / 99 */ 1
/ 88 - () * 1
88
P(pregnant or positive test) = = 0.889 :6 * 1
99
IB
1F
1 3/ K/ 4 O ;D G .(88=3+5+ 80) 4 * D
O , 1& / * 1- " 6
83 - 2 6 $3 (85=5+ 80) D
O , * " 6 $3 (83=3+ 80) * - " 6
.( * 1- * " ) 80 % E O;D N& , .168=85+
4 88=80b168 :;D 1 * 1- / * " 6 4
; . 0 *
.. 6
C
C •
A : $ : * 6 ;D () $
;
P( A) + p ( A) = 1
p ( A) = 1 − P( A)
+
.+ 1 1/ * 6 , 0.5121 K + 1 1/ * 1 +

P(boy ) = 0.5121
P(boy ) = 1 − P(boy ) = 1 − 0.5121 = 0.4879
/B /+
/B /+ •
.A% : * 0 &/ : 3> 1+ 1 3 & 1D 1 3
1 +
. Z * b A :
. * b B :
.A% : * 0 3> - K/ : 1% 1D 1 3 & B A 1 3
2 +
. b A :
.5 $; 0 * b B :
. A : : . B : : * 1% 1D S 1 3 & B A 1 3
$&0'
$&0' •
1/ T, 4 B : 2; * *3 P( B A) G < G A : 2; B : *
.4; ; A :
:1 A% : * 0 3> &/ : 1/ 1 B A 1 3 1
P( B A) = P ( B )
( C
( C •
. ( A and B ) O B A 13 : * 6 ;D () "
;
P ( A and B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B A) :;D "
; 0
P ( A and B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B ) :;D ( 1 B A 1 3 1

:"
; A ()
P ( A and B )
Multiplication Rule
Are
A and B Yes P ( A and B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B )
Independent
?
No
P ( A and B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B A)
( C
+
. G ")A
B " ;G
R / 1 + 1 3 W T/ -
: 5 <, . T'
.O 3
O
& / $3 . 1
O
. 3 0%
, " 1 1/ * 6/ b1
. 3 0%
, " 1 1/ * 6/ . 0
$ + O2

1/ * 1 * " 0%
,
1 1/ * ) 1 1 13 1F, . 0
/ + b1
2
:6 * 1 . K - * * (" 3
,
1
5
2 2 4
P(first ball is R and second ball is R) = ⋅ = = 0.16
5 5 25
1 . 3 : : * 0 3> *% : 1 1 S 1 3 ( . 0
$ + b2
:6 *
2 1 2
P(first ball is R and second ball is R) = ⋅ = = 0.1
5 4 20
" C3
" 7
:* 1 * * 1 " $ ;
.6 1 +' *;% 0

0 * 1/ * /
"3/ /

" : f, "*;% 0 " : 1/ 9D •
" " : & "*;% 0 " : $ : •
"*;% 0 " : * 0 19D 1 & $A
+
1/ 03% * K + * 1 T' E+ 03/ *;% 0 % 1 1 1/ * / . / 3 -,
/ T'
.< K+ 2 0 3> 2

: 1 3D3 % 1 *;% 0
03/ " = A : 1/ T'
:" ;D $A < A : * ."+ 3D3 % " = A
( )
P A = P( boy and boy and boy )
1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ =
2 2 2 8
P( A) = 1 − P A ( )
1 7 :1 $
; $A
=1- =
8 8
3 C
(Fundamental Counting Rule) 3 C •

3 1/ 1 B A 13 1P, m 6 : 1/ 1 B : n 6 : 1/ 1 A : 1
. n ⋅ m 6 O
+
4 0
1 1/ 1 $; (9 b 0 1 ; < $; * )$ ;/ 4 1 7> G *G % +# $ 9
6/ . 6 . 1 E+ *- + $ 9 ( G 0 * 1/ / T' .
. - $ 1/ 6

K G 10 < $; * $ ;/ / 1 7> G 1/
. 10 ⋅10 ⋅10 ⋅10 = 10000
$
C
1 . n K / M% % * " 0 ( n ! G < G) n ! G •
n ! = ( n ) ⋅ ( n − 1) ⋅ ( n − 2 ) ⋅… ⋅ ( 2 ) ⋅ (1) : ;
) . n ! K N& 6 'A 1P, n 1 1 :
; •
.( +& n − 1 6 N A $ 1/ 1 3 n 6 N A $ 1/ 1 *%
. 1/ .%

, 1A $ 0 $ 1/ E/ T' +
. -
.1A $ * . A 'A 6/
.1A $ 1 . A 'A 50!
; .
50! = 50 ⋅ 49 ⋅ 48 ⋅ 47 ⋅ 46 ⋅… ⋅ 2 ⋅1
= 30,414,093,201,713,378,043,612,608,166,064,768
$A * , 0 'A . 1 . * , 6 1 S 1 * ; O 5 1/ 9D 1
.6
; C
: 'A . 1P,

1 ( r ≤ n ) - r A n 1 1 + •
n!
. n Pr =
( n − r )!
n! n! n! n!
n Pr = = = = = n ! :* 1P, r = n 1
( n − r )! ( n − n )! 0! 1
A
; 1 . n 6 'A . K A N& , * 1 K/
.*
; 1
1/ .%

, 1A $ 1 $ 4 0 $ 1/ E/ T' +
.4% $ * . A 'A 6/ . - .
: . 1P, *

; . . 50 */ 1 $ 4
1 A 1/
n! 50! 50!
n Pr = = = = 50 ⋅ 49 ⋅ 48 ⋅ 47 = 5,527, 200
( n − r )! ( 50 − 4 )! 46!
;& 0* R ; / * ; C
) 'A * 1F, .< nk ... < n2 < n1 -, n 1 + •
:( 6 .
n!
.
n1 !n2 !… nk !
+
. N+& 7 6 1 'A $ BBBBBAAAA 7 T'

n = 9, n1 = 5, n2 = 4 . A 7 *3 - 4 B 7 *3 - 5 7 9 1 '>
:7 6 'A .
n! 9! 362880
= = = 126
n1 !n2 5!4! 2880
D% C

A 6 $ & K/ 1/ 1 ( r ≤ n ) - r A n 1 1 •
: A - 'A . 1P,
n!
. n Cr =
r !( n − r ) !
+
." T% ; @ A/ 3 1 '> $ * $-'/ 1 A ." )/ 9 1 , " % & 7F
:6 1/ <
# R R A E+
." A . 6/ .1
( 1/ <
# R R) % 6 A . 6/ .2

:K/ 9 1 3 ., & " A . 1P, E+ $- S " 6 1 .1
n! 9! 262880
n Cr = = = = 84
r !( n − r ) ! 3!( 9 − 3) ! 4320
1 3 * & % 6 A . 1P, E+ & $- 6 1P, % 6 A .2
:K/ 9
n! 9! 262880
n Pr = = = = 504
( n − r )! ( 9 − 3)! 720
:Q;
Q2
:

4G ) 4; 4G * $S& * 4 * *
. 4G
:

4G 6 A # E+ * 4G * ; *' +& , $-
4G 4G 0 A% "G , G . -3 4; 5 E -3 4; 5 1 G . *
.
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
Q * •
Q* 4G •
. 4G 4G •
$)'
(Random Variable) $)' •

. "# * 0 * (chance) '
; ; < * 1
*
(Descrete Random variable) Q& $)' •
.$ 1 * ; / $ 1 / < * & 4 *
(Continuous Random variable) 0 $)' •
<, R $ 1 O *M : * ; S $ 1 S < * & *
., /
:/0
.O / O * , * 1 + , .1
.
NBN ., 1 */ ./
.
NBN ., 1 -G/ 2 .6
Q2
(Probability distribution) Q2 •

. * $ 1 ; * * ) ;D / * / 1
* 4G
.*' 14 1 '> , : # b x * T' .
3 *' 14 1 T' +
x = number of girls among 14 babies
* * x * $ *3 (12) * . 0,1,2,3,… ,14 : $ +AF x *
. x * * 4G O+ -, * ; * * (12) * 1/ . ;
: # (12) *

X(Girls) P(x)
0 0.000
1 0.001
2 0.006
3 0.022
4 0.061
5 0.122
6 0.183
7 0.209
8 0.183
9 0.122
10 0.061
11 0.022
12 0.006
13 0.001
14 0.000
Q& Q2 < /# ,( $ &0'
: . 1/ 6 4 * 4G

∑ P ( x) = 1 .1
0 ≤ P( x) ≤ 1 .2
. x K * ; 1 1/ * – P ( x) :
.1 K * $; * 2 1/ *%
.1 0 ; 1 ; 4 * ; K/ * 3
. * * 4G (13)* *3 *& 1 +
1 .ND/
+ . 1% 6 * 4G *3
∑ P( x) = P(0) + P(1) + P(2) + P(3)
= 0.2 + 0.5 + 0.4 + 0.3
= 1.4
.* 4G *3 * ∑ P( x) ≠ 1 1P,
(13) *
: #
x P(x)
0 0.2
1 0.5
2 0.4
3 0.3
x
. * * 4G P ( x) *3 *& .3 / 2 1 $ +AF 1/ 1 x : P( x ) = 1 2 +
3
.ND/
+ . 1% 6 * 4G *3
0
P(0) = =0
3
1
P(1) =
3
2
P(2) =
3
∑ P( x) = P(0) + P(1) + P(2)

0 1 2
= + +
3 3 3
3
=
3
=1
x
.* 4G *3 P( x ) =
3
;D 1 0 ? 1 4 $ 4 ∑ P( x) = 1 1/ K/
Q& Q2 $*; +
O < & .(Probability Histogram) * $S& -&/ 1 4 * 4G *3 .

. 1 O * ; K 0 -9 < $S-
.*' 14 1 '> , : # b x * T' .
3 *' 14 1 T' +
* * x * $ *3 (14) * . 0,1,2,3,… ,14 : $ +AF x *
. ;
(14) * <3 * 4G * $S&
: # (14) *

X(Girls) P(x)
0 0.000
1 0.001
2 0.006
3 0.022
4 0.061
5 0.122
6 0.183
7 0.209
8 0.183
9 0.122
10 0.061
11 0.022
12 0.006
13 0.001
14 0.000
0.25
0.20
0.15
P(x)
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
x
1/ K/ .1 & - * T D G , 4 14,...3210 * $; 1/ ,% * 0 9D
4G *3 , O $- * ; 1 *3 +& .* G * ; * * *
.*
J0 !0* ' =&
* $ K 7 1 4 * * 4G / + •
:
µ = ∑ [ x ⋅ P( x )] : ;D 0 •
σ 2 = ∑ ( x − µ ) ⋅ P ( x)  :;D 0 •

2
 
σ 2 = ∑  x 2 ⋅ P( x)  − µ 2 /
σ= ∑  x 2
⋅ P( x)  − µ 2 :CB ; & J0 !0* •
+
.*' 14 1 '> , 1 : # b x * T' .
3 *' 14 1 T'
; * * x * $ *3 (15) * . 0,1,2,3,… ,14 : $ +AF x *
.K 7 , 6/ .

: O / 6 K 7 6
. $ 6 $3 x 2 ⋅ P( x) x 2 x ⋅ P ( x)
.() * , -9 x 2 ⋅ P( x) x 2 x ⋅ P ( x) $;
‫ اﺡ
ل‬-‫ زی‬σ 2 ‫ و‬σ ، µ $ 0‫( ﺡ
ب آ‬15) ‫ول‬E‫ا‬
x P ( x) x ⋅ P ( x) x2 x 2 ⋅ P( x)
0 0.000 0.000 0 0.000
1 0.001 0.001 1 0.001
2 0.006 0.012 4 0.024
3 0.022 0.066 9 0.198
4 0.061 0.244 16 0.976
5 0.122 0.610 25 3.050
6 0.183 1.098 36 6.588
7 0.209 1.463 49 10.241
8 0.183 1.464 64 11.712
9 0.122 1.098 81 9.882
10 0.061 0.610 100 6.100
11 0.022 0.242 121 2.662
12 0.006 0.072 144 0.864
13 0.001 0.013 169 0.169
14 0.000 0.000 196 0.00
‫اع‬ 6.9930 52.467
∑ [ x ⋅ P( x)] ∑  x 2 ⋅ P( x) 
:; CB ;

µ = ∑ [ x ⋅ P( x) ] = 6.993 ≈ 7.0
σ 2 = ∑  x 2 ⋅ P( x)  − µ 2 = 52.467 − 6.9932 = 3.564951 = 3.6
σ= ∑  x 2
⋅ P( x)  − µ 2 = 3.564951 = 1.9
0G H)*
J 0G '; (* •

. * 1 + J 0G '; $ *3 & n */ 1 W x ? ,
.O M P( x or more) x 1 0/ K/ . / x
J 0G ';

(* •
. * 1 + J 0G ';
C *3 & n */ 1 W x ? ,
.O M P( x or fewer ) x 1 M/ K/ . / x
+
.*' 14 1 '> , 1 : # b x * T' .
3 *' 14 1 T'
* * x * $ *3 (17) * . 0,1,2,3,… ,14 : $ +AF x *
J & 14 ? * '% 1 ' 13 . *& . ;
(17) *
: #
X(Girls) P(x)
0 0.000
1 0.001
2 0.006
3 0.022
4 0.061
5 0.122
6 0.183
7 0.209
8 0.183
9 0.122
10 0.061
11 0.022
12 0.006
13 0.001
14 0.000

P(13 or more) ,* #
P(13 or more) = P(13) +P(14)
= 0.001+0.000
=0.001
. S & 14 ? * '% 1 ' 13 O M P(13 or more) * 1/ 9D
$40 QC
(Mathimatical expectation) $40 QC •

0 * +& 5 *3 * (Expected Value) ; / ) 4;
E = ∑ [ x ⋅ P ( x)] :;D
+
K+ $; . + 999 000 1 $; O A $3 A 3 1 7> $; A $0.5 1& 4, 9 ,
4; 6/ .H A $ + ($0.5) < 1& K+ H $275 ( 6A $; 4 N A
.007 $; 0 1& +
A ( )
& 3 999 /1000 = 0.999 K - $0.5 &
A & 0% , 1 N& ,
. 1/1000 = 0.001 K - $274.50 N (
E = ∑ [ x ⋅ P( x)] = −$0.225 :
A ( 2 ; 1 1 (18) * 1
(18) *
x ⋅ P( x) P ( x) x :
$0.2745 0.001 $274.50 (
-$0.4995 0.999 -$0.5
A
-$0.225 2
$*U Q2
(Binomial distribution) $*U Q2 •

: . " 1 5 x 4 * * 4G & 4G
Q6 1 3 "Y .1
Q(A% 6 5 0 3> K/ ) - 6 .2
QB ...( /$) (* S/*) , 1, 0 -' 1 * 5 .3
.A% 1 3 0 1/ 6 5 .4
:/0
. 4G 5 "# 1 K/
J $-/ 1 *> W . 1 1'9 1 ( ./
.
50 .6
.5 $; 0 -, *
50 .
.
12 6
.:
.K, $; 0 -, *
12 6
.U
$* Q2
$ 2 0
.F G - G (Failure) *' S G - G (Succes) W :1 "# 1 1'
: G $A
.6 – n
n 1 – x
( P ( S ) = p )
, W * – p
( P( F ) = q )
, *' * O q
0; ;(#

$* Q2
+
.( A 1 , (a,b,c,d,e) A 5 *> * / 4 4) 7 6D A 1 / $ ;
7 1/ .) A 1 A 4) , AD O - F- S 1 6D / 1/ T'
:6 .% X 3 0 ) 6 & * *
. 4G 5 "# *& .a
. q p x n $; 4G 5 "# 1 + .b

: 4G A 4G 5 "# 1 , 1 .a
. 3 & 4 K % K 6 .1

.A/ *> A / # * 0 3> *> f A / ( 6 1% % 6 .2
.FA / :1, , 4 4% 6 1 * .3
* < ) ( 6 * 1P, E+ . - , (a,b,c,d,e) 5 *> * .4
.4% 6 , M O 3 0 * +& . 1/ 5 K (W
.$* Q2 &0' Q ( D 0( /L% ?8
:5 4G 5 "# 1/ .b

. n = 4 A / 4 .1
. x = 3 ) 3 0 * * .2
. p = 1/ 5 = 0.2 * , (( 6) W * .3
. p = 1 − p = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8 * , (( S 6) *' * .4
$* Q2 ,
: 4G ;D $A n , W x 0 * * ; 6 1
n!
P( x) = p x q n− x
x !( n − x ) !
:
.6 – n
n 1 – x
.
, W * – p
.
, *' * O q
+
/ 1/ T' .( A 1 , (a,b,c,d,e) A 5 *> * / 4 4) 7 6D A 1 / $ ;
6 +& * * 6 6 .) A 1 A 4) , AD O - F- S 1 6D
:6 .% X 3 0 )

:5 4G 4 . "# 1/ $ 1
. n = 4 A / 4 .5
. x = 3 ) 3 0 * * .6
. p = 1/ 5 = 0.2 * , (( 6) W * .7
. p = 1 − p = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8 * , (( S 6) *' * .8
:;D $A 6 % X ) 3 0 6 & * *
n!
P( x) = p x qn− x
x !( n − x ) !
4!
= ⋅ 0.23 ⋅ 0.84 −3 =
3!( 4 − 3) !
4!
= ⋅ 0.008 ⋅ 0.8
1!3!
=0.0256
:/0
O A / T' .0.723 K ; , * 1/ * 1P, O 1
A + .1
: 6/ 6
. ; , *;% 0 N+& 1 5 * 1/ * / ./
. ; , 3% 0 N+& 1 2 * 1/ * / .6
. ; , N+& 1
1 3/ * 1/ * / .
$* Q2
0 !0* ' =&
: ;D 0 4G •

 n! 
µ = ∑ [ x ⋅ P( x)] = ∑  x ⋅ p x q n − x  = np
 x !( n − x ) ! 
:;D 0 •

 n! 
σ 2 = ∑ ( x − µ ) ⋅ P ( x )  = ∑  ( x − µ ) ⋅
2 2
p x q n − x  = npq
  x !( n − x ) !
 
:;D 0 K 7 •

σ= ∑  x 2
⋅ P( x)  − µ 2 = npq
+
.*' 14 1 '> , 1 : # b x * T' .
3 *' 14 1 T'
* * x * $ *3 (19) * . 0,1,2,3,… ,14 : $ +AF x *
.K 7 6/ . ;

: q = 1/ 2 p = 1/ 2 n = 14 <, 4G *3 "#
1
µ = np = 14 ⋅ = 7.0
2
1 1
σ = npq = 14 ⋅ ⋅ = 1.9
2 2
$*; Q2
(Poisson Distribulion) $*; Q2 •

*3 x * 1 + . * , : : 0 . 4 4G 1
4G
µ x ⋅ e− µ
P( x) = :;D 0 * , x * 1P, * , : 2;
x!
.6 b µ = e = 2.71828 7
: 4G •
. * , : 2; *3 x * .1
. O 1 1/ 6 : .2
.A% 1
D
O 1 1/ 6 : .3
. * , $9 * 2G 1/ 6 : .4
$*; Q2
0 !0* ' =&
. µ K 4G •

. σ = µ K K 7 •
:$*; Q2 $* Q2 /; D0
. n, p 1i j 3F 4G µ *i j 3F 4G .1
. n G 4G ,
S 4G , * $ .2
+
.- S ; 535 - . 0.25km 2 * - * 2 ; 576 0 3 6 , 1 6 $;
:6
(*;/ 3/ ) O 1 O A 2 ; 6 1/ * 6/ .1
. O 1 6 1/ 4; 6/ .2

: 2 , * 1P, O 2 ; 576 1 '> * 0 / ; 535 1/ .1
number of bomb hits 535
µ= = = 0.929
number of regions 576
1/ ( 2 * ) * , : 2; *3 * 1/
: 2 1; * 4G < * , E+ .T 1 -) * *
0.9292 ⋅ 2.71828−0.929
P(2) = = 0.17
2!
1 6 1/ 4; 576 K 0.17 K 1 2 ; 6 1/ * 1/ .2
567 ⋅ 0.170 = 97.9 1 )
$* Q2
,0 $*; Q2
6 & $kAj O .

M p
n 1 4G 6 O / 4G $A
:1 1 .
. n ≥ 100 .1
. np ≤ 10 .2
;D 1 µ ; 6 - 4G 6 4G $A 1 1 1 .
. µ = np
+
A 3 1 7> $; 4 <A K+ $; . ( A 3 1 $; A $0.5 H 4, 9 ,
.$ 365 *DA ,

( 1/ * 6j/ .$ * 6 O A T' . O N A $

. p = 1/1000 $ , ( * n = 365 : 4G . "# 1/
:
365!
P(1) = p1q 365−1 = 0.2536
1!( 356 − 1) !
:1 1 A

n = 365 ≥ 100
µ = np = 365 ⋅ 0.001 = 0.265 ≤ 10
: 4G 4G 6 1 1 1 ,
µ x ⋅ e−m 0.3651 ⋅ 2.71828−0.365

P(1) = = =0.2533
x! 1!
.1 , O 1/ 9D
:1
:6 .D
O ' 11 $ * O A 760 - ; ,
. N+& , $ , / ./
. $ , 1/ * / .6
. $ ,

*;% 0 1/ * / .
Vj $/ N+& , $ * 1G& 1/ " / 0 6 *& 5 0 O .:
.,
)
:/ +
$ ;& Q2
:

.G - 9 K G K 4G 4G $9 4G * , 3 4
:

. - T G - 9 $- < 4G *' +& , $-
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
Q* , 3 4 •
Q$9 4G 4G •
. - T G - 9 •
%+ Q;
(Probability Density Fonction) %+ Q; •

4 . * * 4G *3 & (Density Curve) , 3 0 / * , 3 4
: . 1/ 6 * , 3
.1 K .1
.1 K / M/ 0 K / / ; 2 ' - 1 1/ 6 0 0 $ 4 .2
+
:1 1 . <% * , 3 4 *3 (19) * 1
:K 1 * K .1
Area = 0.5 × (52 − 50) = 1
.(0.5 K $ 4) K / M/ ' K / 0 $; 1 ; * .2
K x2 ; K / Ml/ x1 ; K / / * ; 1 1/ *
.(19) * 1 & x2 ? ; $ x1 ? ; $ 1 , 3
0.7
P( x1 ≤ x ≤ x2 )
0.5
50.5
x1 x2 51.5 52.5
50 51 52 53
(19 )*
/ Ml/ x1 ; K / / * ; 1 1/ * 1/ : , 3 * ; 1 *
. x2 ? ; $ x1 ? ; $ 1 , 3 K x2 ; K
I* Q2
(Uniform Distribution) I* Q2 •

* , 3 4 . $ * 0 * 2G <; + $9 4G * 1
.* * 1 $9 4G
+
; 52 50 1 $9 * 2G
) * 1/ T' .
" #
) " - E 1/ T'
6/ 6 . 1 AF EP, ; 51.5
) - + .(1 & ; 52 501 1G K/ 1/ K/)
. 1 EAF *

4 1 E+ ; 52 50 1 $9 * 2G x * .
) * 1 x * 1/ T'
* 1 O+ 51.5 1 /
) * 1 + * AF 1/ .(20)* 1 & D
O * , 3
51.5 ≤ x ≤ 52 : . x
) * 1 1/ * K AF
P(51.5 ≤ x ≤ 52) :AF *
*; 51.5 *; 1 , 3 4 K * +& 1F, O
:K % 1 1 * K N& . 52
Area = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25

0.7
‫ﺡ
ل‬J‫
' ا‬T‫ آ‬-
Area = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25
0.5
50.5 51.5 52.5

50 51 52 53
$ ;& Q2
(Normal distribution ) $ ;& Q2 •

*3 1/ 1 (21) * , R * < O9 * * , 3 4 1 +
:
2
1  x−µ 
−  
2 σ 
e
y=
σ 2π
. O OG * 1/ * &
. σ K 7 & 3 µ & *% :1i j , 4G •
Value
(21 )*
J0 $ ;& Q2
(Standard Normal Distribution) ‫ ري‬3

‫ ا‬$ ;& Q2 •
(22) * () .1 K K 7 0 K ; < 4G & K 4G
.K 4G
0.4
0.3
0.2
Area =1
0.1
0.0
µ -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(22 )*
J0 20 C %0 * C (
.K 4G ,% * 0 , *3 (Z score) Z 20 # J0 20 •
1 K G# 0 K 4G *3 K G# ; , * ;
G# ; R' 1 . A * 1 / / & 1 N& .(23) *
.* ; , K
0.4
0.3
Probability
0.2
0.1
0.0
z
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(23) 0@A‫ا‬
J0 Q2 J0 0G Q2 /
: $A K G# 0 * $; * 1
x−µ
z=
σ
;D 1 z ; 6 K S 4G , x ; K / M/ * ; 1 1/ * 6
.K 4G 1 z ? ., * ; 6 $3
x−µ
z=
σ 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
P P
0.0
z
K S 4G K 4G
x -4 -3 -2 -1
0
1 2 3 4
(24) 0@A‫ا‬
$* Q2
(Sampling variability) $* 0M •
. m M 7DA & 0j .A% 1 7A & $ *3 # $ .
4G
m 4G (Sampling distribution of the means)&
$*V Q2 •
. n $ R' - * *
+
N+& 1 1; 1 '> O A 1/ / T' .1,2,5 & $; 3 1 '> T'
1 4G / .(AZ A $3 1 N $3 A )
4
. 4G / $3 2 $

* * 6 $3 .
4 & A 1 2 - 1 *
$ . N+& * * * (23)* 1 . N& A
sum of values
mean = :;D .,
6
9
. 2.7 K 1 * 1 .1/9K $ 4 * 1/
1+2+5
µ= = 2.7 :
3
* J#
W / " *
&
& J
' (
& /# IB*
.( J# /
(18) *
*
1/9 1.0 1,1
1/9 1.5 1,2
1/9 3.0 1,5
1/9 2.5 2,1
1/9 2.0 2,2
1/9 3.5 2,5
1/9 3.0 5,1
1/9 3.5 5,2
1/9 5.0 5,5
2.7
;*
$* Q2
(Sampling distribution of proportion) ;*

$* Q2 •
4G 0 *, N+& * * 1 6n $3 . n $ R' - 4 +A>n
. E+
+
N& 1 1; 1 '> O A 1/ / T' .1,2,5 & $; 3 1 '> T'
.
A % 1 ' % .(AZ A $3 1 N $3 O A )
4
.(' % 4G)' % * 4G /

* , ' % 6 $3 .
4 & A 1 2 - 1 *
. N+& A * * , ' % * 1 (19)* . N& A *
.' % 4G D3 : 3 3
(19) *
* %
'
1/9 1 1,1
1/9 0.5 1,2
1/9 1 1,5
1/9 0.5 2,1
1/9 0 2,2
1/9 0.5 2,5
1/9 1 5,1
1/9 0.5 5,2
1/9 1 5,5
0.667
20 <* 0I*
(Central limit theorem)
:&
.( S / V 1 1/ 1 4G) . σ K 7 µ < x * .1
$ ) . n $ R' - : 1 A N+& 4 1 .2
(6A 1/ , ' R' - 1 n $ R' - 1 K/ 1/ : 6 A
:(*
. n ; G 4G 1 6 x * 4G .1
4G ) µ K * $ .2
.( µ K 1 , <
1 , < 4G K 7 ) σ K * $ K 7 .3
n
.( σ K
n
20 <* 0I* D;& *

C
1 3/ / 30 $ 1 * 4G 1P, O R 1) * 4G 1 + .1
1/ 6 - 4G 1 7
+ " 3 E &) 4G 1 * 6 1/
.(* ; N& 1 30 1 3 / $ 1
.( 4G & $ K/ 1 * 4G 1P, O 1) * 4G 1 + .2
&
J0 P&
1) 1 n $ + 4 A $ +
:1 & σ K K 7 µ K
K/ µ K µ x G - G $ •
µx = µ
K/ σ K <; σ x G < G $ K 7 •
n
σ
σx =
n
&
J0 P& O )/ 0 σ x
20 <* 0I* D;&
+
)' C03 $%
( n = 4 ) 4 1 '> A / T' . 0,1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8,9 $ ;% 1 7F 1/ T'
.
4 *
4G 1
0 * 4G 1P, E+ & A $ 1/ , 9 R' - $ ;/ 4
9 . 6, O R 0 4G 30 1 3 M/ n 1/ . O $9
4G 1/ U 1 </ 1 $S 0 .A ;& 1 4G 1/ U 1 G -
1
A% % $ ;% * $ E+ . .< 5 1/ 1 4G & R P, 4G &
.(24) * , $ ;% N+& * $& A $ 7A 6 50 ? K $;
% $ ;% $) %
% +AF ) $; 200 $) 0 *
, $ ;% 4 +
K ; 0 * (
1) -) (21) * 1 6 50 * K $; ,
A%
$ +AF : 1Z .(25) * <3 4G s = 2.8 K K 7 x = 4.5
$ 1 O9 R 0 * 4G 1/ 1 $S 0 </ 9D .(21) * < 50 *
.(26) * 1 4G 1 6; * 4G 1P, ( n = 4 ) O M
, * 20 <* 0I* D;&

+
( &
? @ A% 1G% + G $ .* 2004 / @A 12 ? 4 5G 6 ; T'
"/% " 1 " 1 O G 3/
1 * 1/ .( 2004 /12 = 167 ) * 167 1 3/ 12
172 K <; 4G < * 1
* 1G/ 1/ + .* 12 6 , 1
:6 * 29 K <, *
.* 167 1 / * N A $ * 1G 1 1/ * / .1
.* 167 1 / * $& A $ * 12 ? 1 1/ * / .2

1 1, K < <; 4G < * 1
* 1G/ 1/ .1
1 /
4G
1 * 167 1 / * N A $ * 1G 1 1/ * 6
: K 4G $A
x−µ 167 − 172
z= = = −0.17
σ 29
:;D z ; Tm
1 2
− ( z)
2
e
y= = 0.5679
2π
. O 4G @ A * $A . * ; 1
9 $A * 167 1 / * $& A $ * 12 ? 1 1/ * # .2
E+ O , * 4G 1P, .30 1 M/ $ 1/ 1 $S 0 G -
: <D j 1 O )/ O * 12 1 '> 1) 4G 1
µ x = µ = 172
σ29
σx = =
= 8.37158
n 12
:1/ 29 1 O σ x = 8.37158 K 7 $A 4 1 , ) . 2 P
x − µx 167 − 172
z= = = −0.60
σx 29
12
:6 * ; T

1 2
− ( z)
2
e
y= = 0.7257
2π
(*
.D
O 167 1 3/ @A 1G 1 1/ * 1 / D
O 167 G @A 12 1G/ 1 1/ *
/ * 20 <* 0I* @

<*
' (
A $ ( n > 0.05 N ) N $ 1 5% 1 / n $ - 1
N −n
: ( * <) . 1 σ x K ( $ 1/ 6 &
1
N −1
σ
S 1 1/ 6 σ x = ;D 1 σ x K ; 6 G - 9 .
n
; ( 1 & .
1 A $ - 1 1 3 , 1 .-
N −n
:
6 σ x
N −1
$* Q2
,0 $ ;& Q2
: + 4G 0 6mj 1/ 1 * * 4G
nq ≥ 5
np ≥ 5
: 4G &

µ = np
σ = npq
+
1 *;/ # 1/ 1 F 1/ 0 6 ; 1 6 6
* $
&/ 6 . - W 1) 0
1G 1/ :
1) G 1/ < W 0%
1 4 ) < W 0% T'A 1 ;
0
1/ * 6 * $& A $ O 200 1 + .* 120 *;% 0 $- 6 200 1 / 6
." * 1 R' K 1/ T, .*;% 0 * 120 $- 1

* ( n = 200 ) 6 1 3 : * & F N+- ., *
.( p = 0.5 ) * * :
/ / * & * 6 1 6 A *3
1 3% * 6 6 : ) GD 6 F N+& , S 4G ;D $A
: . : 4G 0 4G 6mn E+ (
$ 6 6
80
nq = 200 ⋅ 0.5 = 100 ≥ 5

np = 200 ⋅ 0.5 = 100 ≥ 5
µ = np = 200 ⋅ 0.5 = 100

: 4G D j
σ = npq = 200 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 0.5 = 7.07106
. 0.0029 K & O * 1 / 4G ;D 1 6 6 *
(*
.$ & . O *) * D
O 120 *;% 0 6 200 1 1 1/ *
(21) *
$; ,
A% % $ ;% $ ;X
6 50 * K x
4 6 8 1 4.75
6 3 3 5 4.25
8 8 8 9 8.25
5 2 1 5 3.25
5 3 3 9 5.00
2 6 2 4 3.50
6 1 7 7 5.25
4 5 1 9 4.75
9 3 3 5 5.00
1 4 8 7 5.00
1 6 5 0 3.00
2 2 8 9 5.25
7 5 1 6 4.75
0 3 1 8 3.00
9 6 9 5 7.25
4 3 2 6 3.75
7 0 4 7 4.50
6 5 7 5 5.75
7 5 1 4 4.25
6 0 2 1 2.25
8 2 0 4 3.50
5 2 1 3 2.75
0 4 3 0 1.75
0 1 5 1 1.75
0 4 7 9 5.00
1 1 3 7 3.00
3 1 1 9 3.50
9 5 6 8 7.00
1 4 6 5 4.00
5 9 3 9 6.50
3 7 0 6 4.00
6 9 2 8 6.25
6 8 2 0 4.00
7 9 0 2 4.50
0 9 8 5 5.50
9 4 5 6 6.00
6 7 8 4 6.25
0 2 1 7 2.50
0 5 9 2 4.00
2 2 3 8 3.75
6 1 7 2 4.00
1 7 7 6 5.25
9 3 3 2 4.25
5 7 4 2 4.50
7 3 4 5 4.75
8 3 4 0 3.75
6 8 5 2 5.25
4 3 1 7 3.75
0 7 3 8 4.50
7 6 6 5 6.00
20
Frequency
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
distribution of 200 digits
(25) 0@A‫ا‬
20
Frequency
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
distribution of 50 sample means
(36) *
:0' Q

' ( 0 0; 0
:

4G FA d & 3 * 3 K 7 1
.4 K 4G t
:

$ . d; FA d & K 7 . *' +& , $-
.4 K 4G t 4G R . ; FA d & G
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
. 1 . •
.7 1 7 K 7 1 . •

. . •
. ; FA d & G $ •

' ( / ;* 0
•
. 1
.1
. 4G 1
4G .2
. 4G 0 4G 6 1/ 1 .3
•
. p 1 *),/ & p̂ 1
x
.( pˆ = ) 0 W *3 p̂ 1 :
n
+
. ; 4) * R "/ , */ 1 % / , /
*3 $A $-) 1 / $- %51 1/ 1 H @A 829 1 +A/ ."
1
. ; $A T, E , 1 *),% / . N+&

& 1 *),/ 1/ 0.51 & 1 $A T @ A
.0.51 & $A 1) 1+ 1 *),/ 1P, E+ 1
1 0 * */ 1 $A : " # / *' +& ,
. */ 1 $A @A < 0 .
. *DA 1 1) $-
' N+& ,
1 :& 4G . , 1
1 N+& , .A% 1 3 0 *' W * Q(*, / W ) 5 1, Q 6 Q6
. 4G 0 4G 6 . & 6 & 6 0
. p 1 *),/ & p̂ 1 1 N+& .
x
.( pˆ = ) 0 W *3 p̂ 1 :
n
1 * ( -' 1P, 1 0 G
' N+& 1/ 1 $S 0
1) / * & 1) / * *), 1/ : .
.

' ( / ;* 0
(Confidence interval) + ( •

. % $A $ 1 * & 3 *
(Confidence level) + •
$ E+ 3 * -, K & 3
$ & α : 1 − α *
3 1 . 1 '
.3
.(Confidence coefficient) 3 * / (Degree of confidence) 3 / 0
. 95% 3 0.476 < p ≤ 0.544 1/ D
O 3 6
.3 $ & α : 1 − α *
3 1

' + . 1) *),/ & 1) 1/ 5 *DA 1
0
1 #
*/ 1 . +&
1
, K/ 1 1 <P,
.3 3 *
IB
:D
O 3, ( * 3 * $-' 1 6
. 95% 3 0.476 < p ≤ 0.544 3 * 829 1 '> 1 +
+A/ + A/ / . p K 0.544 0 0.476 1 * 1/ 95% 13 / +&
K N+& 1 %95 1P, * ., 3 * " ; 829 1 7> - * 1 O
.0.95 & 0.544 0 0.476 1 * 1) p ; 4 1/ * 1/ * FA 1 . p ?

' ( / ;* 0
( Critical value zα / 2 ) zα / 2 (0 •

.( * 9/) K 4G 0 - 0 α / 2 & *' & zα / 2
. 1 − α 3 ., zα / 2
z=0
zα / 2
+
.95% * 3 , zα / 2 /

: α ; 1 0.95 / 95% * 3
α = 1 − 0.95 = 0.05
: zα / 2 ; 1/ 5 O . α / 2 = 0.025
zα / 2 = 1.96
() * 9
Confidence level 95%
− zα / 2 = −1.96 zα / 2 = 1.96

' ( / ;* 0
3 FA d & . 1 5 FA 1

1 & $ 1 .'
: 7 6
(Margin of error) P& X " •
1 .' 09 G 1/ * ) 9% A & E G < G FA d &
7 zσ / 2 " FA d & ; 0 .( 1 − α & 1) -9D $
: 1) K
ˆˆ
pq
E = zσ / 2
n
pˆ − E ≤ p ≤ pˆ + E : ;D FA d & 3 *

0 * + ( )0(

' ( / ;*
: A 4 1 3 ., 3 *
:1/ . .1
Q & b
Q
, 4G b
. 4G 6 1/ 1 4G 1 b
.0 3 , zσ / 2 / .2
. E = zσ / 2 pq
ˆ ˆ n :;D 1 FA d & / .3
pˆ − E ≤ p ≤ pˆ + E : 3 * p̂ 1) E FA d & $A .4
. ' $ ;/ 3 0 $ 6; .5
+
. ; 4) * R "/ , */ 1 % / , /
1 ( &
A 1/ T') H @A 829 1 +A/ ."
1
:6 . N+& *3 $A $-) 1 / $- %51 1/
Q%95 * 3 ., E FA d & / .1

Q%95 * 3 ., 3 * / .2
; $A 1) 1 S 1/ U 1 *& 3 5 0 O .3
."
1 .

4G . 4G Q -/ T'
A : G 4 1/ 1 .
3 ; & pˆ = 0.51 (W * ) $A @A T 1/ * n = 829 6 :
$A 1 nqˆ = 409.21 , npˆ = 422.79 ≥ 5 .T 1 -) * 6 1/ QA% 1
. 4G 6 4G
: ;D 1 N / 1 FA d & .1

ˆˆ
pq
E = zσ / 2
n
0.51 ⋅ 0.49
=1.96 = 0.034030
829
(LO_3 , . 1 1 - $ zσ / 2 ; :)

: N $ 3 * .2
pˆ − E ≤ p ≤ pˆ + E
0.51 − 0.034030 ≤ p ≤ 0.51 + 0.034030
0.476 ≤ p ≤ 0.544
. 51% ± 3.4% 6 .3.4% FA d - 51% H 1) : - $ O S N& *3
; $A 1) 1 S 1/ U 1 5 0 O .3
50% 1 / F R 3 * 1% E+ "
1 .
.( 50% 1 / $; 0 50% 1 M/ $; 1 3 * )
0 * P& X < D% * (

' ( / ;*
1 FA d & ;D $A 1 N& , .
; FA d & G : $ O / 6
q̂ p̂ 1 * ; * & , p̂ 1 O / 1 . p̂ 1) ; , 6 ;D N+&
< N+& , . 0.25 K ; $9/ - 1 pq
ˆ ˆ " ; 1/ & 0.5 q̂ p̂ 1 * * , 6 . 0.5
:1 G
3 •
:;D 0 $ & . 1) p̂
[ z ] pq
n = α /2 2
ˆˆ
E
*+ •
:;D $ 0 N& , . 1) p̂
n=
[ zα / 2 ] ⋅ 0.25
E2
+
, * D -, $A *G 7 1/ 2 $ @A 1/ T'
:1 1 1 * , 4% G FA d & 95% 3 * 1 : $ 6 .%
. 16.9% K %

, A 1/ 1 / .1
.%
, A 1 K/ .2

: E = 0.04, zα / 2 = 1.96, qˆ = 0.831, pˆ = 0.169 0% , .1
2
[z ]
n = α /2
ˆˆ
pq
2
E
2
n=
[1.96] ⋅ 0.169 ⋅ 0.831 = 337.194 = 338
0.04 2
: E = 0.04, zα / 2 = 1.96 3 .2

2
n=
[ zα / 2 ] ⋅ 0.25
2
E
n=
[1.96]
⋅ 0.25
= 600.25 = 601
0.04 2
. - ( M% - n $ ; 0 + IB

' (
& 0
J0 !0* %0 *
&0' •
. 1
.1
., K 7 ; .2
. 4G 1
0 4G / 30 1 / $ .3
(* •
. *),/ & x
+
x = 98.20 F 6 $ .$- * $
R ; $ @A ( n = 106 ) 106 1 A/

$A 1

1/ T' . σ = 0.62 F , K 7# ; 1/ T'
.

, -)' K ; 30 1 / n = 106 1/ . 1
1/ T'
. µ = 98.20 F . & *),/ O+ σ = 0.62 F
., K 7 ; 1 0
' N& , G
. , 1 K 7 , 6 1, S 79 N& *3
& 0 * P& X "
K 7 K 3 ., FA d & •
σ
E = zα / 2 ⋅ .3 * , O ) $ R' -
n
x − E < µ < x + E : 3 * •
IB
σ
. = K 7 2G - $ R' - 1/ G - 9 /
n
µ &
+ ( )0(
: A 4 3 ., µ 3 *
:1/ . .1
Q & b
Q 30 1 / $ / * 2G b
.0 3 , zσ / 2 / .2
. E = zα / 2 ⋅ σ
:;D 1 FA d & / .3
n
x − E ≤ µ ≤ x + E : 3 * x E FA d & $A .4
. ' $ ;/ 3 0 $ 6; .5
x = 98.20 F 6 $ .$- * $

R ; $ @A ( n = 106 ) 106 1 A/ +
:/ 95% 3 */ 1 1
1/ T' . σ = 0.62 F
.FA d &.1
. µ 3 * .2
O+ σ = 0.62 F , K ; 30 1 / n = 106 1
1/

.
FA d & .1
E = zα / 2 ⋅ σ
n
0.62
= 1.96 = 0.118031
106
:3 * .2
1P, x = 98.20 F 1/
98.20 − 0.118030 ≤ µ ≤ 98.20 + 0.118030
98.08 ≤ µ ≤ 98.32
µ C 0 ,
& * (
: ;D 1 1 3 µ ; $ $GD $ 1 K 7 ; ,
2
z σ 
n =  α /2 
 E 
::
Q6 3 , – zσ / 2
Q6 " A d & b E
. K 7 b σ
+
E = 2 FA d - 0 * & A $ 1/ 6 $
. σ = 15 K 7 1/ O 95% * 3

:;D 1 $ 6
2
z σ 
n =  α /2 
 E 
. σ = 15 zα / 2 = 1.96 E = 2 ::
2
1.96 ⋅15 
n= = 216.09 = 217
 2 
. $ 1 5% 1 M/ $ 1 E+ N $ . n $ 1/ 9D
.K 7 FA d & 6 3 N $ 1/ O )/ 9D

' (
& 0
J0 !0* %0 *
•
. 1
.1
. 4G 1
0 4G / 30 1 / $ .2
•
. *),/ & x
+
. x = 98.20 F 6 $ .$- * $
R ; $ @A ( n = 106 ) 106 1 A/

. $A 1
1/ T'

*),/ + 30 1 / n = 106 1/ . 1
1/ T'
. µ = 98.20 F . &
., S K 7 ; 1 0
' N& , G
. ,
O <, K 7 , 1/ + . 79 N& *3
(%0 0G σ ) & 0 * P& X "
7 K (, S σ ) 3 ., FA d & •
.3 * , O ) $ R' - K
s
E = tα / 2 ⋅
n
: 3 * •
x−E < µ < x+E
K 7 K (, S σ ) 3 ., FA d &
- 9 / .3 * , O) $ R' -
σ
E+ , S σ 1/ . = K 7 2G - $ R' - 1/ G
n
(t-distribution) t 4G 1 ' tα / 2 ; $A s K 7 ; & - ; $A
:FA d & ( . zα / 2 4G 1 1
s
E = tα / 2 ⋅
n
: 3 * •

x−E < µ < x+E
t Q2
: 1F, . n $ 1 K 7 s x 1 . O 0 4G 1 + •
•
x −µ
t=
s
n
. n $ 1 * E+ t 4G ., 2G
. b µ :
0 (0
. - $; 0 T, M 1/ 1 $ & 1 •
:;D 0 n K - 1 1P, 6 +& */ 1 •
degrees of freedom = n-1
+
.80 * " #
, &G/ 1/ 6D 10 1 '> T'
. E

.800 1 1/ 6 $- 2 1P, 80 * " #
, &G/ 1/
.9 K 1P, 6D , 10 ? 1% , 6D 9 M
t Q2 < )
. n $ 6 7A t 4G .1

.M $ + */ 1 / M R < 4G < R * t 4G .2
.0 K ; < t 4G .3
.1 1 / O < $ 6 7A t 4G K 7 .4
.K 4G 1 t 4G 6; $ G .5
.11 * 2 * */ 1 t 4G 4G $ () * -9
K 4G

0.4
0.3 n=12 */ t 4G
0.2 n=3 */ t 4G
0.1
-4 -2 0 2 4
tα / 2 (0 (
(Critical value tα / 2 ) tα / 2 •

# .(N / * 9/) t 4G 0 - 0 α / 2 & *' & tα / 2 (0
.
5 / * / $A */ 1 tα / 2
:;D 6 &
degrees of freedom = n-1
α /2
z=0
tα / 2
+
.105 95% * 3 , tα / 2 /

: α ; 1 0.95 / 95% * 3
α = 1 − 0.95 = 0.05
: tα / 2 ; 1/ 5 Mintab 5 $A . α / 2 = 0.025
tα / 2 = 1.984
(, S σ ) µ &
+ ( )0(
: A 4 3 ., µ 3 *
:1/ . .1
Q & b
Q 30 1 / $ / * 2G b
.0 3 , tσ / 2 / .2
. E = zα / 2 ⋅ s :;D 1 FA d & / .3
n
: 3 * x E FA d & $A .4
. ' $ ;/ 3 0 $ 6; .5
+
x = 98.20 F 6 $ .$- * $
R ; $ @A ( n = 106 ) 106 1 A/

*/ 1 . 1

1/ T' .(, S σ ) s = 0.62 F K 7
:/ 95% 3
.FA d & .1
. µ 3 * .2

s = 0.62 F , K ; 30 1 / n = 106 1/ 1
1/

. +

tα / 2 = 1.984 : -; . 1 , - $ tα / 2 ; .1
:FA d & 1

E = tα / 2 ⋅ s
n
0.62
= 1.984 = 0.119457
106
:3 * .2
1P, x = 98.20 F 1/
98.20 − 0.119457 ≤ µ ≤ 98.20 + 0.119457
98.08 ≤ µ ≤ 98.32
&
0 (
+ ( %0 * P& X "
: FA d & 1 3 * ,
x=
( upper confidence limit ) + ( lower confidence limit )
.1
2
E=
( upper confidence limit ) - ( lower confidence limit ) FA d & .2
2
+
6 . 95% * 3 [24.056, 27.218] * 1) 4 @ A% 1 1/ T'
.FA d & ;

& .1
x=
( upper confidence limit ) + ( lower confidence limit )
2
27.218+24.065
= = 25.6 year
2
P& X " .2
E=
( upper confidence limit ) - ( lower confidence limit )
2
27.218 - 24.065
= = 1.6 year
2
' 0
:1 1F d; 7

' N& ,
. σ 2 / K 7 ; 1 + .1

.K 7 ; $GD $ .2
•
. 1
.1
.('
1 0) 4G 1
4G .2
•
. σ *),% *3 s
2 2
. σ K 7D $A O S s K 7
.
) * , A K 7 ; U 1 3 1/ + 1
Q;0 J Q2
(Chi – Square Distribution) Q;0 J Q2 •

6 n - * $ * A . σ 2
< 4G 1/ T'
: & . s 2 N& 1 *
2
χ =
( n − 1) s 2
2
σ
.4 K 4G <
: $ * $A *' +& , . 4 K 4G
degree of freedom = n-1

Q;0 J Q2 )
.9 1 6; G .9 S 4 K 4G .1

. 1 1/ 1 4 K 4G $; .2
4 K 4G () * 1 . 1 6; G . df 6 4 K 4G 7A .3
. df =20 df =10 */ 1
0.10
0.05 df=10
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
df =10 */ 1 4 K 4G
0.07
0.06
0.05 df=20
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
df =20 */ 1 4 K 4G

Q;0 J Q2 (0 ,
.* * 1/ 6 19 ; ; 1 3 */ 1
+
.9 K 1/ T,/ .- * , 0.025 & 4 K 4G /

*/ 1 χ = 19.023
2
R χ = 2.700 1
2
R Minitab 5 $A
. $ < 4 K 4G * -9 . n = 9
0.025
0.025
χ L2 = 2.700 χ R2 = 19.023
6 3 * 1F, 4 K 4G 9 $ 6 .4 K 4G $A 6 3 * 6
; 1 3 */ 1 .* * FA 6 $ 1/ 6 * . s 2 ± E *
.* * 1/ 6 19 ;
' 0 * + (
:;D 1 3 * •
( n − 1) s 2 ≤ σ 2 ≤ ( n − 1) s 2
2 2
χR χL
:;D 1 K 7 3 * •
( n − 1) s 2 ≤ σ ≤ ( n − 1) s 2
2 2
χR χL
.0 3 , $ χ L2 χ R2 :
" $ F N+& * */ 1 . &

0 > K/ 1) -/ σ 2 *),/ & s 2 ; 1/ 1 $S 0
.0 3 ., 3 *
' 0 * + ( )0(
: A 4 3 ., µ 3 *
:1/ . .1
Q & b
. * 2G b
.., * , ( n − 1) 0 3 , χ L2 χ R2 $ .2
: 3 * s 2 χ L2 χ R2 $A .3
( n − 1) s 2 ≤ σ 2 ≤ ( n − 1) s 2
2 2
χR χL
. ' $ ;/ 3 0 $ 6; .4
.;D K 7D 3 * .5
( n − 1) s 2 ≤ σ ≤ ( n − 1) s 2
2 2
χR χL
+
7 x = 98.20 F 6 $ .$- * $
R ; $ @A ( n = 106 ) 106 1 A/

4G 1
1) 4G 1 1
1/ T' s = 0.62 F K
:/ 95% 3 1
. σ 3 * .1
2

& 1) *),/ 4G 1
4G 1
1/
. s 1)
105 K */ 1 Minitab *3 A 5 $A 4 K 4G 1 - $ $
: 0 3 * χ R2 = 74.222 χ R2 = 129.561 1/ 5 . α / 2 = 0.025
(16 − 1) ( 0.622 ) 2
(16 − 1) ( 0.622 )
≤σ ≤
129.561 74.222
2
0.31 ≤ σ ≤ 0.54
.K 7D 3 * 7 * G P

0.56 F ≤ σ ≤ 0.74 F
α /2 α /2
χ L2 χ R2
: 0' $*+ 0' J
40 0;
:

*+ + A 1+ + A &% A # ), -, ), ),
. *+ + A K
:

GA *' W . * )' A *' +& , $-
. - * $A 1 * * )' A
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
. * )' A •
. )' A GA •
40 0;
)' A . *' - $ & " Y 1 % 1/G
- )' A */ 1 *' +& , - $ # .*' +& , - $-
.*' +& , $& ' () N+& , *A *; . 1 3 , 1 A
40 •
. @A 1 A * " / & )'
40 0 •
. A * " A */ 1 & )' A
+
:*' +& , O & . & A 1 + ), 1 1/ (
."
1 . 1 1 6S/ 1/ 0 1 / .1
. 98.6o F H " % @ A% $ /
1/ * , 13 0 .2
0* 7 C
. :
; & O - < $ %
G 1/ 6 *' +- " *;
0* 7 C •

. 1 ; ),# E 1/ 5 P, O *; <; $ K+ : * ), 1) 1 +
O *; R <3 * K+ : 1 G * * . 1 " A
N+& 1 5
), 1/ / 4; ; : 1/ * P, O *; < : 2; .O *; <3 * K+ :
. S & ),
+
+ 0 * ,
G G UG ( " 6 K+ "2 A" < 5 ;
79 + A */ 1 " ;G 79 , 5 .%80 ( : 03/ 0 * ,
G %85 ( :
$- 1/ T' .: 0 * 1 1+ 1
/ 100 0 / / T' .03% A */ 1 &G
R $A .3/ K/ < R "2 A" UD 1/ T' 7 A */ 1 .&G 79 , "
1 + 3/ K/ < R " 2 A" UD 1/ * K+ " 1 U + K/ $A 1 $
:$- *' 100 $- (/
/ 100?
J03/ 52 .1
J03/ 97 .2

1/ 1 N+& 1/ 5 P, 50 0 O ; 52 1/ ' 50 0 * 4; , .1
. O 3/ K/ < R " 2 A" UD 1/ * K+ " .- :
O O O3 1 * 1/ / N+& $ / ., -3 6 1 :
& ' 97 .2
. O R 3/ K/ < R " 2 A" UD 1/ * K+ " 1/ / 4; ;
40 0; 3 ;0
A # )' (

' ) -, )' :& )' A 9 %
. 3 1 FA *% 1 FA ( P − value ) &% *
)' (
' ) -, )' :& )' A " 3/ A % $- *' +& ,
*% 1 FA ( P − value ) &% * A #
: * d; : . 3 1 FA
. )' -, )' " / + •
. A # ; 6 " / + •
. $ &% 0/ + •
. A # ; / + •
. $A 1 * )' A 5 1 •
." A 1/ 1 3 1 FA *% 1 FA •
40 0; ;0
% 40 •
) ; 1/ 0 @ & ( H 0 G - G ) -, )'
." - @ -' & (B...
. H 0 -), $ / H 0 )' T, 0 - , * -/ T' E+
H 0 )' A $
+
. 98.6 F H " % @ A $ /
1/ * , 13 0
o
: H 0 )'
H 0 : µ = 98.6 F

40 0; ;0

; 40 •
) ; 1/ 0 @ & ( H a / H1 G - G ) )'
.( H 0 )' 1 7A) " - @ 1 7A (B...
+
. 98.6o F H " % @ A $ /
1/ * , 13 0
: )' ( *
H1 : µ > 98.6 F , H1 : µ < 98.6 F , H1 : µ ≠ 98.6 F ,
40 0; ;0

( H1 40 H 0 40 )0(#)
: H1 )' H 0 )' / * @A
/
E‫* ا& ی‬g‫د

ء أو ا‬J‫د ا‬E‫ﺡ‬
.*g
‫ رز ری‬0@A
‫اﺥ
ره‬
&‫ ا‬#‫* ا‬g

‫ رز ری‬0@A ‫د‬E‫ﺡ‬
‫
ی@ن‬E 9*9‫ أن @ن ﺹ‬R‫ی‬
.f*9‫* ﺹ‬Y &P‫د
ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫ا‬
J 7; ; Y # H1 )'

.( ≠, <, > Y ) 0'
C /; J $ M; H 0 )'
.$
3 ; <* 0; 0 0;
1 +
: " 1
."
. 1 S
. H1 40 H 0 )'

3 &

. * 50% 1 G 1/ 1 S : ) * 0 "
. p > 0.5 :K/ "
*+ &
. 1 1/ 6 p ≤ 0.5
1/ 5 A p > 0.5
K/ ( S " 1 +
++ &
K/ H1 )' -

K p > 0.5
1/
H1 : p > 0.5
:% " ,
K ; * )' & -, )' *
H 0 : p = 0.5
2 +
: " 1
.$;/ 7 3% 0 H 1,
*/
. H1 40 H 0 )'

3 &
. µ ≤ 7 : ) * 0 "
*+ &
. 1 1/ 6 µ > 7
1/ 5 A µ ≤ 7
K/ ( S " 1 +
++ &
J# H1 )' -

K µ > 7
1/
H1 : µ > 7
:% " ,
K ; * )' & -, )' *
H0 : µ = 7
40 0; ;0
(0; ))
(test statistic) 0; ) •

. H 0 -, )' T, * + A , $A 1 6 ; 1
A
:& *' +& , -A A #
:;* 40 0; (# / 0; ) .1

p̂ − p
z=
pq
n
:& 40 0; (# / 0; ) .2

x −µ
z=
σ
n
/
x −µ
t=
s
n
:' 40 0; (# / 0; ) .3
χ2 =
( n − 1) s 2
σ2
+
1 $- 56% 1/ 1 %
, O * $& A $
. 880 ,
S 1 0 @ K+ " * A # ; / .( pˆ = 0.56 ) "
.
."
. 1 1%

. N+& 1/ T' 7 1Z , )# 1 . 1/ 6 </ 7 ' ,
: H1 H 0 )' O /
:1/ 5 , 1 1

H1 : p > 0.5
H 0 : p = 0.5
: A # 6 p = 0.5 4 H 0 )' 1/ T'
p̂ − p
z=
pq
n
0.56 − 0.5
z= = 3.56
0.5 ⋅ 0.5
880
S*
0.56 ., - O 6 1 S ; z = 3.56 1/ *' 1 $

. 1 1+ 1 1/ * )' .0.5 1 () *
. S ( H 0 )') 0.5 K "
0; ) •
-, )' T, * + A , $A 1 6 ; 1
A
. H0
/ x *3 1 - $ * & $ A
A . H 0 )' 1/ T, 4 χ 2 / t z *3 G ; s K 7
. H 0 )' R W) E & 1 + , 1 $A 1/ & 1
:& *' +& , -A A #
:;* (# / 0; ) .4
p̂ − p
z=
pq
n
:& (# / 0; ) .5
x −µ
z=
σ
n
/
x −µ
t=
s
n
:& (# / 0; ) .6
χ2 =
( n − 1) s 2
σ2
40 0; ;0
((0 &* )
(critical region) (0 &* •

. H 0 )' T, A $; * &
(significance level) "3 •
)' 1 , A # 4 1/ * *3 ( α G < G) &%
. D, H 0
(critical value) (0 •
. H 0 )' T, : A # $; H 0 )' T, : *' ; K/ &
(critical region) (0 &* •
. H 0 )' T, A $; * &
(significance level) "3 •
)' 1 , A # 4 1/ * *3 ( α G < G) &%
α ; 1 H 0 )' T, P, , A # 4 . D, H 0
. & H 0 )' T, FA 6 *
(critical value) (0 •
$ 0 A # $; H 0 )' T, 0 *' &
. 4G 0 &% 0 H 0 )' 0 . H 0 )' T,
40 0; ;0

($* 8 8 0; =J0 8 8 0; =/
8 8 0;)
A 1 )' T A . $ 4G 0 1 , & G , *+ •
. *+ + -) K *+ + 1 -) 1+ +
.K 1, 0 1 :/
88 0; O
K 7 0 1 :J0 8 8 0; b
. 7 0 1 :$* 8 8 0; b
. - ; * 1 1; 0 α ; $ 1+ + A
: . *+ + / K *+ + 1+ + A 1 + , 4 )' A . 1
, <
# $A .1+ + A 1 )'
, ≠
# $A
+ A 1 )'
, >
# $A .K *+ + A 1 )'
. *+
‫)( * ‪. & A 1 * N / 1‬‬
‫ذی‪ 0‬ی
ري‬
‫ذی‪ 0‬ی*&‬
‫اﺥ
ر ذو ذی‪ ،$*P‬ا‪d‬ﺵ
رة ا ‪ H1 E‬ه& ≠‬
‫اﺥ
ر ذو ذی‪ 0‬ی
ري‪ ،‬ا‪d‬ﺵ
رة ا ‪ H1 E‬ه& <‬
‫اﺥ
ر ذو ذی‪ 0‬ی*&‪ ،‬ا‪d‬ﺵ
رة ا ‪ H1 E‬ه& >‬
‫ ‪: 1 * z / α = 0.05 &/ $A +‬‬
‫‪. p ≠ 0.5 )' .1‬‬
‫‪. p < 0.5 )' .2‬‬
‫‪. p > 0.5 )' .3‬‬
‫)‪.( 4G 6 */ 1 $A 1/ 1 4G 1/ T,/‬‬
‫ ‬
‫‪0 ; K/ 4G , 0 4 + p ≠ 0.5 & )' 1/ .1‬‬
‫‪. 0 ; 7‬‬
‫‪z = 1.96, z = −1.96, : O , $ α / 2 = 0.025 α = 0.05‬‬
‫‪0 ; K/ 4G 0 4 + p < 0.5 & )' 1/ .2‬‬
‫ ‪z = −1.645 :1/ 5 A 5 A * $A # .‬‬
‫‪0 ; K/ 4G 1 0 4 + p > 0.5 & )' 1/ .3‬‬
‫‪z = 1.645 :1/ 5 A 5 A * $A # .1‬‬
‫ ‪40 0; ;0‬‬
‫) (‬
‫ )‪(probability value‬‬ ‫•‬

‫ ‪0 , A Y ; 0 * * & ( P − value ) P O )/ 0‬‬
‫‪. H 0 )' 1/ T, ‘ . 1 - *;%‬‬
‫‪.0.05 D‬‬
‫') ‪O 3
M + -), $ H 0‬‬
‫ ‪40 0; ;0‬‬

‫)(‪( ( )0‬‬
‫)( * ‪. N / 1‬‬
‫‪/‬‬
‫اﺥ*
ر ذو ذی‪ 0‬ی
ري‬ ‫
ﻥع‬ ‫اﺥ*
ر ذو ذی‪ 0‬ی*&‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ر؟‬
‫ه‪ 0‬ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬
‫إ‪ 4‬ا*
ري‬ ‫إ‪ 4‬ا**‪$‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری ‪ 4P‬ی*‪$‬‬
‫أو ی
ر اآ‪%‬؟‬
‫ا‪ *#‬ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪ *#‬ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪ *#‬ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪ *#‬ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬
‫=‬ ‫=‬ ‫=‬ ‫=‬
‫ا
ﺡ إ‪ 4‬ی
ر‬ ‫‪ &,g‬ا
ﺡ إ‪4‬‬ ‫‪ &,g‬ا
ﺡ إ‪4‬‬ ‫ا
ﺡ إ‪ 4‬ی*‪$‬‬
‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
* ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬ ‫ی
ر ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ی*‪ $‬ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
* ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬
‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
*‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
*‬ ‫ا‪d‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺥ
ری‬
‫ا‪*#‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪*#‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬
‫ا‪*#‬‬ ‫ا‪*#‬‬
‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬ ‫ا‪J‬ﺡ
*‬
S* 00
% U 1P, E+ H 0 )' A 6 )' A 6 +& , •
: &
. H 0 )' T, .1
. H 0 )' T, , *, .2
00 0 •
: . $A +A H 0 )' T, $ / T, *
:(Traditional method)
0& .1
. , A ; + H 0 )' T, -
. , A 4 $ + H 0 )' T, , *, -
:(P-value method) 0& .2

.( P − value ≤ α ) & K / M/ + H 0 )' T, -
.( P − value > α ) & 1 / + H 0 )' T, , *, -
S* 00
.^ E &%
; $A :0 0 0& .1
* 1) 4 ; 1/ 0 @ " K/ T, :(P-value method) + ( 0& .2
.3
+
& / $3 1+ + A/ K / *+ + A 5 + ,
. H 0 )' *
; p > 0.25 1/ 0 @ K+ " A */ 1 α = 0.05 &% $A .a
. z = 1.18 A
; p ≠ 0.25 1/ 0 @ K+ " A */ 1 α = 0.05 &% $A .b
. z = 2.34 A

4G *3 . *+ + A 1/ 5 p > 0.25 1/ 0 @ K+ " 4 .a
:1/ 5 " 5 $A / * 1 . A ; 1 0 K
for z = 1.18
P − value = 0.1190
O
. H 0 )' T, 4 E+ P − value > α &% 1 / 1/
., -
4G ') *3 .1+ + A 1/ 5 p ≠ 0.25 1/ 0 @ K+ " 4 .b
:1/ 5 " 5 $A / * 1 . A ; 1 0 K
for z = 2.34
P − value = 2 × 0.0096 = 0.0192
O
M . H 0 )' T, 4 E+ P − value < α &% 1 *;/ 1/
., -
$)<* S* G
1 . $A 1 ) < $ 1/ 6 -, )' T, $ / T, * - U
: - U S ., A
‫أ‬E‫ا‬
$)<* S* G
Z,‫ﻥ‬ Z,‫ﻥ‬ ‫ ا[د‬$ &@‫

ی‬E‫یﺝ‬
& ‫ا‬EJ‫د
ء ا‬J‫ ا‬0‫ه‬ 0‫ه‬ ‫د
ء‬J‫ ا‬p'‫
ن ر‬o $
‫ ﺵوط‬4P ‫ي‬9‫ی‬ no'‫ر‬
"&P‫د
ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫" ا‬ R%0 <%
‫ا
واة‬ H0
$

J $ &@‫ یجد
ی‬J
p'‫
ن ر‬o ‫ح‬g‫ا‬
J ‫د
ء‬J‫ا‬
"&P‫د
ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫" ا‬
Z,‫ﻥ‬ *,‫*
ت ا‬+,
no'‫ ر‬0‫ه‬ ‫د
ء‬J‫ ا‬ZE *
‫ﺡ‬d‫ا‬ $
H0 "&P‫د
ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫" ا‬ P <%
$

J
$t J *,‫*
ت ا‬+,
ZE &'
‫ح آ‬g‫و‬
‫د
ء‬J‫ا‬
"&P‫د
ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫" ا‬
9D . $ A 1 ) < $ 1/ 6 -, )' T, $ / T, * - U
* " $ 1/ + E+ . " D
O , $ 1/ 0 @
</ A 1
. H 0 )' T, $ + E> $ & ), ( : <S
$)<* S* G
.R%0 '%/ ;C •

*," / "*;" ( $A " $- ." H 0 )' T, *," * ." H 0 )' *;" $A 4 T
. H 0 )' 1 & $ <F G 1/ 6 "T,
*," / "*;" ( $A " $- ." H 0 )' T, *," * ." H 0 )' *;" $A 4 T
. H 0 )' T, , * 1) 1/ * , 1 . H 0 )' 1& F G 1/ 6 "T,
.$- # % 1 ' </ , 1' & * < +&
* W) 1 ' "
.& ; H 0 )' 1/ ; <% O / R 6 "*;" (
. -A *)' ; 3/ " H 0 )' T, , *, "
. -A 6 R 6 " H 0 )'
$)<* S* G
;
0; •
-, 1
0 * 1/ 1 $A 1 ) - U 1
6 1 ) ( : -S
1 E+ .$-, " 0 K> 1/ 1 N+& *3 .

.0 M $ 1 ) N
+
. , 1 0.5 1 ., </ 0 @ K+ " T, 1 ) % 1 '
: H $A 1
. 0.5 K , 1/ @ K+ " T, , *, b
. 0.5 K , 1/ T' ' ; / , 0 b
$)<* S* G
+
."
1 2 1 1% "7 1 3" 1/ 0/ * 1/ T'
T' . p = 0.5 1/ 0 @ H 0 )' T' . p > 0.5 1 0 @ K+ " & )' 1/ T'
. K - U D S . H 0 )' T, 1/ O)/

1/ 1/
1) % " 1/ LO_14 , A $A
: - U +. H 0 )' T,
1 2 1 1% "7 1 3" 1/ 1 0 @ K+ " $
"

$*+ & * / &3 & / &3
(Type I errors) & / &3 •

* 1 " A% * . -), $ H 0 1 6 " A% & * 1 " A%
. α G - G
$*+ & * / &3 •
1 " A% * . -), , *' S H 0 1 6 " A% & 3 1 " A%
. β G - G 3
.6 1/ 1 " A% / * ()
H 0 )'

S H 0 H 0

( U 1 " A% H 0 T,
I
U
1 " A% ( U T, *,
II H0
$*+ & * / &3 & / &3;
13 E+ . - n $ β 3 1 " A% * α * 1 " A% * •
. 3 3 1P, -
•
A $ $3 - ( 1 α ? ; / A O / $ : . β ; 1P, n α A $ O
: , ' 1 n α A . n ? 09
. β ; 1 0 K> n ;

G α ? 3 ; */ 1 .1
. β ;
G 0 K> α ; 1 n ? 3 ; */ 1 .2
. β α ; 1 0 K> n ;
G .3
+
: 1 , H1 )' H 0 )' 1/ P > 0.5 @ K+ " # 1/ T'
H 0 : p = 0.5
H1 : p > 0.5
. 3 1 FA *% 1 FA 1

" A & .D, & H 0 )' T, 6 " A% & * 1 " A% b
. p = 0.5 , p ≠ 0.5 1 $ % 1 ' , 6
. S 4; , & H 0 )' T, , *' 6 " A% & 3 1 " A% b
. p > 0.5 , p = 0.5 T, , *' 6 " A &
40 0;
' 20

0& •
: $A )' A GA A 1
‫أ‬E‫ا‬
.*g
‫ رز ری‬0@A
‫ اﺥ
ره‬E‫* ا& ی‬g‫د
.f*9‫* ﺹ‬Y &P‫د

ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫
ی@ن ا‬E 9*9‫ أن @ن ﺹ‬R‫ ا& ی‬#‫* ا‬g
.( ≠, <, > # )

K : H F H1 )'
.% " - ; 1 K M H 0 )'
+
M α +A .*% 1 FA 0 O α &% A
$; 0.01 0.05 $ . O ; * H 0 )' T, 1 1/
4G *3 ) 6 4G A +- #
( ... 4 K 4G t 4G
< $/ . A # /
. A #
+ H 0 T, *' . , A # + H 0 T,

, 4 A #
.% " () * + . $ A 1 ) . U S /
‫ا(
ی‬
40 0;
' 20
0& •
: ( P − value ) $A )' A GA A 1
‫أ‬E‫ا‬
.*g
‫ رز ری‬0@A
‫ اﺥ
.f*9‫* ﺹ‬Y &P‫د

ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫
ی@ن ا‬E 9*9‫ أن @ن ﺹ‬R‫ ا& ی‬#‫* ا‬g
.( ≠, <, > H )

K : H F H1 )'
.% " - ; 1 K M H 0 )'
+
M α +A .*% 1 FA 0 O α &% A
$; 0.01 0.05 $ . O ; * H 0 )' T, 1 1/
4G *3 ) 6 4G A +- #
( ... 4 K 4G t 4G
# < $/ . A # /
. A
*' . A # K / *;/ + H 0 T,
. A # 1 / + H 0 T,
.% " () * + . $ A 1 ) . U S /
‫ا(
ی‬
40 0;
' 20
+ ( 0& •
.3 * $A )' A GA A 1
‫أ‬E‫ا‬
.*g
‫ رز ری‬0@A
‫ اﺥ
.f*9‫* ﺹ‬Y &P‫د

ء ا[ﺹ‬J‫
ی@ن ا‬E 9*9‫ أن @ن ﺹ‬R‫ ا& ی‬#‫* ا‬g
.( ≠, <, > H )

K : H F H1 )'
.% " - ; 1 K M H 0 )'
+
M α +A .*% 1 FA 0 O α &% A
$; 0.01 0.05 $ . O ; H 0 )' T, 1 1/
A 1 + : 3 ; O α 0 &% 3 * /
. 1 − 2α = 3 1 *+ + A 1 + . 1 − α = 3 1 1+ +
.3 * 1) 4 ; 1/ 0 @ K+ " T,
.% " () * + . $ A 1 ) . U S /
‫ا(
ی‬

' ( / ;* 0;
. )' A (LO_20-LO_22) () . . 1 * " A
:& * )' -, A
. 1
.1
- * * R' - 6 1 3 ) 4G 1
4G .2
.("*," "W " & 1
: 4G ( nq > 5 np > 5 ) 4G 0 4G 6 1/ 1 .3
. µ = np, σ = npq
: 1 A
P̂ − P
z=
pq
n
:7
.6 / $ O n
x
.( pˆ = ) 1 b P̂
n
. 1 b p
. q = 1− p

' ( / ;* 0; $%
0&
+

1 2 ;56%
,
. 880 1 * A
1 2 1/ 0 , 1 1 * " :1 / 6 ."
.E+ *; $-' 1 3/ 1 f "
: $ " D @A

. p > 0.5 /# J# =0 00 0' / * 10' 0;
% /0 /) I :
. pˆ = 0.56 n = 880 * (
.D; XC*
0& ;

:
, G 1/ 1 . .1
.T' , + 1
•
* R' - ( n = 880 ) 6 1 3 : 4G 1
4G •
""
1 2 *;" & 1 - * ( p = 0.5, q = 0.5 )
.(""
1 2 T,"
4G ( nq = 880 ⋅ 0.5 > 5 np = 880 ⋅ 0.5 > 5 ) 4G 0 4G 6 1/ 1 •
. µ = 440, σ = 220 = 14.83 :
:( ) GA . .2

. p > 0.5 ) G * % " H :1 &
. p ≤ 0.5 & " D )' :2 &
)' & E+
K p > 0.5 )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: p = 0.5 )' & -, )'
H 0 : p = 0.5
H1 : p > 0.5
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
4G - # & p̂ 1 1P, p 1 * ), A / :5 &
. 4G O ' & p̂ ?
(# / , 0; ) :6 &
n = 880, pˆ = 0.56, p = 0.5, q = 0.5
Pˆ − P
z=
pq
n
0.56 − 0.5
= = 3.56
0.5 ⋅ 0.5
880
4G 1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A . *+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1
( A N / * 1) . z = 1.645 K α = 0.05 , 1/ K
‫ﺝ‬9‫ ا‬#+‫ا‬
z = 1.645
. H 0 )' T, P, E+ , 4 # 1/ :7 &
/) I /#
* J8 * <& 3 / $ ( " - U :8 &
."0 00 0' / * 10' 0;
% /0
$% 0&
+

' ( / ;* 0;

1 2 ;56%
,
. 880 1 * A
1 2 1/ 0 , 1 1 * " :1 / 6 ."
.E+ *; $-' 1 3/ 1 f "
: $ " D @A
. p > 0.5 /# J# =0 00 0' / * 10' 0;
; /0 /) I :
. pˆ = 0.56 n = 880 * (
.D; XC* 0& ;

:
, G 1/ 1 . .1
.T' , + 1
•
* R' - ( n = 880 ) 6 1 3 : 4G 1
4G •
""
1 2 *;" & 1 - * ( p = 0.5, q = 0.5 )
.(""
1 2 T,"
4G ( nq = 880 ⋅ 0.5 > 5 np = 880 ⋅ 0.5 > 5 ) 4G 0 4G 6 1/ 1 •
. µ = 440, σ = 220 = 14.83 :
:( ) GA . .2

. p > 0.5 ) G * % " H :1 &
. p ≤ 0.5 & " D )' :2 &
)' & E+
K p > 0.5 )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: p = 0.5 )' & -, )'
H 0 : p = 0.5
H1 : p > 0.5
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
- # & p̂ 1 1P, p 1 * ), A / :5 &
. 4G O ' & p̂ ? 4G
(# / , 0; ) :6 &
n = 880, pˆ = 0.56, p = 0.5, q = 0.5
Pˆ − P
z=
pq
n
0.56 − 0.5
= = 3.56
0.5 ⋅ 0.5
880
1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A . *+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1
1 0 4G & ( P − value ) 1/ K 4G
.( A N / * 1) . P − value = 0.0001 . #
*
‫ﺡ‬J‫* ا‬#‫ا‬
P − value = 0.0001
z = 1.645
. H 0 )' T, P, E+ P − value < α :&% 1 M/ 1/ :7 &
/) I /#
* J8 * <& 3 / $ ( " - U :8 &
."0 00 0' / * 10' 0;
; /0
$% + ( 0&
+

' ( / ;* 40 0;

1 2 ;56%
,
. 880 1 * A
1 2 1/ 0 , 1 1 * " :1 / 6 ."
.E+ *; $-' 1 3/ 1 f "
: $ " D @A T'
. p > 0.5 /# J# =0 00 0' / * 10' 0;
; /0 /) I :
. pˆ = 0.56 n = 880 * (
.D; XC* + ( 0& ;

:
, G 1/ 1 . .1
.T' , + 1
•
* R' - ( n = 880 ) 6 1 3 : 4G 1
4G •
""
1 2 *;" & 1 - * ( p = 0.5, q = 0.5 )
.(""
1 2 T,"
4G ( nq = 880 ⋅ 0.5 > 5 np = 880 ⋅ 0.5 > 5 ) 4G 0 4G 6 1/ 1 •
. µ = 440, σ = 220 = 14.83 :
:( ) GA . .2
. p > 0.5 ) G * % " H :1 &
. p ≤ 0.5 & " D )' :2 &
)' & E+
K p > 0.5 )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: p = 0.5 )' & -, )'
H 0 : p = 0.5
H1 : p > 0.5
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
- # & p̂ 1 1P, p 1 * ), A / :5 &
. 4G O ' & p̂ ? 4G
K 3 . *+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1 :6 &
. 1 − 2*0.05 = 0.9 = 90%
n = 880, pˆ = 0.56, */ 1 3 * 1/ 5 3 * " # O . $A :7 &
0.533 < p < 0.588 : 90% K 3
/ $ ( " - U :$; <4%0* **L% 3 * 1) 4 H 0 := 0.5 )' 1/ $ :8 &
/ * 10' 0;
; /0 /) I /#
* J8 * <& 3
."0 00 0'

' (
& 40 0;
(!0 J0 !0*)
&0' •
. 1
.1
. σ , K 7 ; .2
. 4G 1
0 4G / 30 1 / $ .3
* " A */ 1 A #
:(, K 7 ;)
x −µ
z=
σ
n
+
x = 98.20 F 6 $ .$- * $
R ; $ @A ( n = 106 ) 106 1 A/
$A . 1
1/ T' . σ = 0.62 F , K 7# ; 1/ T'
. 98.6 F * 1M @ A% $ /
1/ * 4 " A α = 0.05 * &/
. $A

:
, G 1/ 1 . .1
.T' , + 1
•
. σ , K 7 ; •
. n = 106 > 30 1 / $ •
:( ) GA . .2
. µ = 98.6 F ) G * % " H :1 &
. µ ≠ 98.6 F & " D )' :2 &
)' & E+
K µ ≠ 98.6 F )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: µ = 98.6 F )' & -, )'
H1 : µ ≠ 98.6 F
H 0 : µ = 98.6 F
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
# & x 1P, µ * ), A / :5 &
. 4G O' & x ? 4G -
(# / , 0; ) :6 &
n = 106, x = 98.2, µ = 98.6, σ = 0.62
x −µ
z=
σ
n
98.2 − 98.6
= = −6.64
0.62
106
1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A .1+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1
0 4G 7) & ( P − value ) 1/ K 4G
.( A N / * 1) . P − value = 0.0002 . A # ;
. H 0 )' T, P, E+ P − value < α :&% 1 M/ 1/ :7 &
1/ /#
* J8 R%0 / 4 * <& 3 / $ ( " - U :8 &
. 98.6 F * 1M @ A% $ /

*
‫ﺡ‬J‫* ا‬#‫ا‬ *
‫ﺡ‬d‫ا‬
= ‫ﺥ
ری‬J‫ا‬
4‫& ا
ﺡ إ‬,g
*
‫ﺡ‬d‫ی
ر ا‬
‫ﺥ
ری‬J‫ا‬

' (
& 40 0;
(!0 0G J0 !0*)
&0' •
. 1
.1
., S σ K 7 ; .2
. 4G 1
0 4G / 30 1 / $ .3
. * " A */ 1 A #
:(, S K 7 ;)
x −µ
z=
s
n
+
@ A $ /
1/ 0 @ K+ " 1 F */ 1 6 , /
$- /
; H @A 12 1'> +AF, . 98.6 F 1 *;/ 1M " %
: * 0
98.0 97.5 98.6 98.8 98.0 98.5 986 98.4 98.4 98.7 98.6 98.6
*- 0 5 E 1/ 0 @ K+ " # A */ 1 α = 0.05 & ; $A
.F * 2G 1M @ A
1/ O = 98.6 F 1 *;/ ;

:
, G 1/ 1 . .1
.T' , + 1
•
., S K 7 ; •
. 4G & 0 4G •
:( ) GA . .2

. µ < 98.6 F ) G * % " H :1 &
. µ ≥ 98.2 F & " D )' :2 &

)' & E+

K µ < 98.6 F )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: µ = 98.6 F )' & -, )'
H1 : µ < 98.6 F
H 0 : µ = 98.6 F
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
# & x 1P, µ * ), A / :5 &
., S K 7 ; 1 6 E+ t 4G O ' & x ? 4G -
(# / , 0; ) :6 &
n = 12, x = 98.39, µ = 98.6, s = 0.535
x −µ
t=
s
n
98.39 − 98.6
= = −1.36
0.535
12
1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A .K *+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1
:K , df = n − 1 = 12 − 1 = 11 α = 0.05 */ 1 t 4G
. t = −1.796
. H 0 )' T, , *' P, E+ A # 1 M/ 1/ :7 &
1/ 1/ 0 @ K+ H 0 " T, 1 ) - % 1 ' - U :8 &
<& 3 / $ ( " . 98.6 F * 1M @ A% $ /

/ C# /M; '3 # 00 & /# /#

* J8 / 4 *
." 98.6 F
(t- t 4G 1 ' tα / 2 ; $A (, S σ ) < O
$A P, (, S σ ) 1/ . zα / 2 4G 1 1 distribution)
. σ 1 1) ;

' (
' 40 0;
•
. 1
.1
.('
1 0) 4G 1
4G .2
:0;
2
(n − 1) s
χ2 =
σ2
+
K K 7 ; 100 * * 1M 1 " + * 2G
/ K+ R' $ @A . s = 7.2 K 7 6 $ " #
+ / 13 1 +A/ .15
R $ 1 1 /
+ % 1 1 '> 1/ O 3 1 #
$A .15 K K 7 ; 1/ T, E+ *;/ 1 1/ 6 K 7 ; 1/ $ <
+ / $) K 7 ; * - U S */ 1 α = 0.05 &/
." #

:
, G 1/ 1 . .1
.T' , + 1
•
. 4G & 0 4G •
:( ) GA . .2
. σ < 15 ) G * % " H :1 &

. σ ≠ 15 & " D )' :2 &
)' & E+
K σ < 15 )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: σ = 15 )' & -, )'
H1 : σ < 15
H 0 : σ = 15
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
K 7 ; 1P, σ K 7 ; * ), A / :5 &
.4 K 4G O ' & s ? 4G - # & s
(# / , 0; ) :6 &

n = 13, s = 7.2, σ = 15,
(n − 1) s 2
χ2 =
σ2
(13 − 1)7.22
= = 2.765
152
1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A .1+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1
1 1; df = n − 1 = 13 − 1 = 12 α = 0.05 */ 1 4 K 4G
. χ 22 = 23.337 χ12 = 4.404
. H 0 )' T, P, E+ , 4 A # 1/ :7 &
; 1/ 0 @ K+ H 0 " T, 1 ) - % 1 ' - U :8 &
.15 K " #
+ / $) K 7
σ = 15 p'‫ر‬ σ = 15 p'‫ ر‬0A' σ = 15 p'‫ر‬
0.025
0.025
1 3 ,
&/ + 2) & K 7 ; * )' A 0
' N+& , G
.
) 4) , A
:0' 7+
/* /
:

. ; E *
:

0 1 1 ; / 1 1; / 1 K * * . *' +& , $-
S 1 / 1 1 -, 1 1 , 1 1 1 & 1 1+AF 1 &,
.1
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
Q1 1 1 1 K A . •
Q1 1 , 1 1; K A . •
Q1 1 , ; K A . •

*

* •
$ * # 1 * KF S / 1
A $; + 1 -/ 1 1 *
.A% 1
A
.1 S 1 1 A% $; 1 1 ; 1 : ;D 1 +
1 +
" / 0% .@ A% 1 ( O 1 , ) 1 'A 1 T'
. - 3/
1/ 3 * T'A
.1 ,/ 1 ;D 1 * K/ <% 1 1 1 &
2 +
. *; @A * 1G R E+ - 1 2 A $ @ A% 1 A
@ A% 1G/ 1 7F *; @ A% 1G/ 1 7F 1
.1 $; 1 ;D <% 1 S 1.(@A R' 1G / *; 1G)
/
' / ( / /;*
R 7 1 % 1 3 ,) 1 1 1 1 * \ 1/ 1 )'
' N+& , $- 7
1 </ 1 6 * )' 0 G 1 $S 0 .(1 1 1/ 0 @ K+ "
. 6 0 R' .
: . 4G . 1 * )' A
&0' •
.1 1 1 1 .1
np ≥ 5
:1 1 . 1 D */ 1 .2
nq ≥ 5
. O )/ 5 1 / *' 5 1 / 1/ K/
: G $A
A G •
:0% */ 1
Q 1 = p1
Q $ = n1
Q , = x1
x
Q( 1 ) pˆ1 = 1
n1
ˆ1
.q = 1 − pˆ1
/;*
(/;* J 0;)
$A p1 = p2 1/ 0 @ )' A */ 1 p2 p1 1'A 1 1 1 1 T'
:E
/;* ?0' 0 •
:;D 0 p G < G p2 p1 1 E
x +x
p= 1 2
n1 + n2
. q = 1 − p K/ q G p $ G
. p E & 1 1 T,/ 1P, p1 = p2 )' 1) </ 7 1/ $- 1
: A $A E+
:( H 0 : p1 = p2 *) /;* J 0; * 0; ) 0; ) •
( pˆ − pˆ 2 ) − ( p1 − p2 )
z= 1
pq pq
+
n1 n2
$A 1 A # ; 0 1 E ; 0
. p1 = p2 )' A */ 1 / ( p − value )
/;*
(/;* J 0; 0&
+ )
$ 1+ 1 6 $ .. 1600 1 '> %
, 1 +A/
$A .., * , 1 E+ " )
+ *; 1 $-';
*; 1 $-'; $ 1+ 1/ 0 @ K+ " A */ 1 0.05 &% * ,
.T 1 /
S 1 1 *

3# R
1 - S 1 T 1 - S 1
147 24 $-'; $ 1+ 1
1400 200 $ 1+ 1
$-;
%10.5 %12 $ 1+ 1
$-';

: 1 @A 1
T 1 1

n2 = 1400 n1 = 200
x2 = 147 x1 = 24
x2 147 x1 24
pˆ 2 = = = 0.105 pˆ1 = = = 0.120
n2 1400 n1 200
. $A
: G 1/ 1 . .1

.T' , + 1
1 1 * •
.1 1 1/ ( nq > 5 np > 5 ) 4G 0 4G 6 1/ 1 •
:( ) GA . .2

. pˆ1 > pˆ 2 ) G * % " H :1 &
. pˆ1 ≤ pˆ 2 & " D )' :2 &
)' & E+
K pˆ1 > pˆ 2 )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: pˆ1 = pˆ 2 )' & -, )'
H 0 : pˆ1 = pˆ 2
H1 : pˆ1 > pˆ 2
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
.- # & p 1 E 1P, 1 K * ), A / :5 &
x +x
p= 1 2
n1 + n2
24 + 147
p= = 0.106875
200 + 1400
q = 1 − 0.106875 = 0.893125
: nq > 5 np > 5 /# / D /
: *

n1 ⋅ p = 200 ⋅ 0.106875 = 21.375 > 5
n1 ⋅ q = 200 ⋅ 0.893125 = 178.625 > 5
:*+ *

n2 ⋅ p = 1400 ⋅ 0.106875 = 149.625 > 5
n2 ⋅ q = 1400 ⋅ 0.893125 = 1250.375 > 5
: 0; ) :6 &
z=
( pˆ1 − pˆ 2 ) − ( p1 − p2 )
pq pq
+
n1 n2
=
( 0.120 − 0.105 ) − ( 0 ) = 0.64
(0.106875) ⋅ (0.893125) (0.106875) ⋅ (0.893125)
+
200 1400
1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A . *+ + A 1
A 1/ )' 1
# 1 0 4G & ( P − value ) 1/ K 4G
.( A N / * 1) . P − value = 0.2611 .
*
‫ﺡ‬J‫* ا‬#‫ا‬
P − value = 0.2611
z = 0.64
)' T, , *' P, E+ P − value > α :&% 1 / 1/ :7 &
. H0
1/ 0 @ K+ " T, 1 - % 1 ' " - U :8 &
.T 1 / *; 1 $-'; $ 1+
/;* /; D0 0 * + (
+ ( •
( pˆ1 − pˆ 2 ) − E < ( p1 − p2 ) < ( pˆ1 − pˆ 2 ) + E :;D 0 1 1 .' 3 *
:;D 0 FA d & E :
pˆ1qˆ1 pˆ 2 qˆ2
E = zα / 2 +
n1 n2
+ : .1 p1 , p2 1 1/ 1 . */ 1 p1 − p2 3 * $A 1
K ), T, 3 * 0 + 1 K ), T, 3 * 0
p1 , p2 1 1/ 1 . */ 1 p1 − p2 3 * $A $ ( 1 .1
K 7 ; 1 7A 3 * " */ 1 $A K 7 ; 1% E+ 1
1 7A ; 3 * $A - * 5 1P, E+ . / , $A
. / $A - * 5
+
1+ 1 6 $ .. 1600 1 '> %
, 1 +A/
$A .N / 1 * , 1 E+ " )
+ *; 1 $-'; $
.%90 * 3 ., 3 * " */ 1 * ,

S 1 1 *

3# R
S 1 T 1 - S 1
1 -
147 24 $-'; $ 1+ 1
1400 200 $ 1+ 1
$-;
%10.5 %12 $ 1+ 1
$-';

: 1 @A 1
T 1 1
n2 = 1400 n1 = 200
x2 = 147 x1 = 24
x2 147 x1 24
pˆ 2 = = = 0.105 pˆ1 = = = 0.120
n2 1400 n1 200
. zα / 2 = 1.645 ; f, %90 * 3
:FA R &
pˆ1qˆ1 pˆ 2 qˆ2
E = zα / 2 +
n1 n2
 24   176   147   1253 
 ⋅   ⋅ 
=  200   200   1400   1400 
+
200 1400
= 0.040
:3 * (
( pˆ1 − pˆ 2 ) − E < ( p1 − p2 ) < ( pˆ1 − pˆ 2 ) + E
( 0.120 − 0.105) − 0.040 < ( p1 − p2 ) < ( 0.120 − 0.105) + 0.040
−0.025 < ( p1 − p2 ) < 0.055
A & 7- 1 + 1 . p1 , p2 1 1 ., </ 5 E+ 3 * 0 1/ 9D
. / $A P, 1 K 0 @ )'
/& / C

(0; ))
.1 1; 1 .' * \ 1/ 1 )'

' N+& , $- 7
: . 1'A 1 1 1 1; * )' A •
. * 1 A .1
.1 1 .2
. 4G - 1 & A $ 1 1 * / ( n1 > 30, n2 > 30 ) $A) 1 1 * $ .3
:1 1; * )' A */ 1 0; ) •
t=
( x1 − x2 ) − ( µ1 − µ2 )
s12 s22
+
n1 n2
/& / C
(0 (0)
: . F t 4G $A / •
df = min(n1 − 1, n2 − 1) : & 0% o
df =
( A + B) :; 3% & 3 o
A2 B2
+
n1 − 1 n2 − 1
s12 s22
A= ,B= ::
n1 n2
6 * 3F $ N+& . */ 1 t 4G $A 6 <P, O
: 1 . 0 N 6 E+ t 4G
df = min(n1 − 1, n2 − 1) : & 0% .1
df =
( A + B) :; 3% & 3 .2
A2 B2
+
n1 − 1 n2 − 1
s12 s2
A= , B = 2 ::
n1 n2
/& / C

( µ1 − µ2 3 * )
( x1 − x2 ) − E ≤ ( µ1 − µ2 ) ≤ ( x1 − x2 ) + E : ( µ1 − µ2 ) 3 * •

s12 s22
E = tα / 2 + :
n1 n2
( x1 − x2 ) − E ≤ ( µ1 − µ2 ) ≤ ( x1 − x2 ) + E : µ1 − µ2 3 * •

s12 s22
E = tα / 2 + :
n1 n2
, $A K 7 ; 1 7A 3 * " */ 1 $A K 7 ; 1/
. */ 1 µ1 − µ2 3 * $A 1 E+ /
+ 1 K ), T, 3 * 0 + : .1 µ1 , µ2 1 1/ 1
.1 K ), T, 3 * 0
/& / C

0; (# /
0&
+ )
(/& / C
1 1+AF 1 1/ 0 @ K+ " A 6 .1'A 1 1 N / 1 * -9
.'A $; - 1 1
3 0%

420 360
417 370
440 370
410 430
390 420
417 340
420 460
410 410
380 440
430 410
370 380
420 360
400 350
360 527
410 380
420 550
391 478
416 420
440 390
410 420
415 425
436 370
430 480
410 390
400 430
390 388
420 423
410 410
420 360
410 410
410 450
450 350
320 450
430 430
380 461
375 430
375 470
347 440
380 400
429 390
320 510
360 430
375 450
370 452
440 420
400 380
405 470
430 398
350 409
396 385
410 369
380 460
430 390
415 510
380 500
375 450
400 470
435 430
420 458
420 380
488 430
361 341
394 385
410 410
411 420
365 380
360 400
440 440
435 377
454 370
442
404
385

:1 1 * K 7 6

3 0%
73 70 n $
403.3 418.5 x
30.6 45.5 s K 7
/ - * $ 1 1 1/ . 4G 1 6; 4G 1/ 1 1 * $S- $ * -9
. A 1P, 30 1
15 15
15 25
25
13
20
10 9
Frequency
Frequency
15
13
7 12
11
10
5 4 6
3 3
5
2 2
1 1 1
0 0
0 0
340 365 390 415 440 465 490 515 540 565 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
4‫* ا[و‬,P ‫ام‬Y(‫ا‬ *‫

ﻥ‬T‫* ا‬,P ‫ام‬Y(‫ا‬
: 4 'A $; - 1 1 1 1+AF 1 1/ 0 @ K+ " A
. µ1 ≠ µ2 :) G * % " H :1 &
. O 1 µ1 = µ2 )' 1P, S % )' + :2 &
)' & E+

K µ1 ≠ µ2 )' 1 9D 1 1)' 1 :3 &
: µ1 = µ2 )' & -, )'
H 0 : µ1 = µ2
H1 : µ1 ≠ µ2
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
4 t 4G $A P, 1 1; * ), A 1 1 </ :5 &
.(LO_6) ,
A
:$
, 0; ) :6 &
t=
( x1 − x2 ) − ( µ1 − µ2 )
s12 s22
+
n1 n2
=
( 418.5 − 403.7 ) − ( 0 ) = 2.273
45.52 30.62
+
70 73
:;D 1 6

df = min(n1 − 1, n2 − 1)
= min(70 − 1, 73) = 69
. t = ±1.994 K α = 0.05 , 1/ t 4G 1 (Minitab) # 5 / $A
( A N / * 1)
. H 0 )' T, P, E+ , 4 # 1/ :7 &
1 1+AF 1 1/ 0 @ K+ " $ - % 1 ' " - U :8 &
.'A $; - 1 1
µ1 = µ2 p'‫ر‬ µ1 = µ2 p'‫ ر‬0A' µ1 = µ2 p'‫ر‬
t = −1.994 t = 1.994
/& / C

0; (# / + (
+ )
(/& / C
1/ 0 @ K+ " A */ 1 3 * 95% " 6 .( LO_9) . * 3 $A
.'A $; - 1 1 1 1+AF 1

:1 1 * K 7 . * 3 1 $A

3 0%
73 70 n $
403.3 418.5
x
30.6 45.5 7
s K
:FA d & 6 / $
s12 s22
E = tα / 2 +
n1 n2
45.52 30.62
E = 1.994 + = 13.0
70 73
.69 K %95 * 3 , & tα / 2 = 1.994 ; $A $ :
:6 3 *
( x1 − x2 ) − E ≤ ( µ1 − µ2 ) ≤ ( x1 − x2 ) + E
( 418.5 − 403.7 ) − 13.0 ≤ ( µ1 − µ2 ) ≤ ( 418.5 − 403.7 ) + 13.0
1.8 ≤ ( µ1 − µ 2 ) ≤ 2.7
(*
* 1/ 9D .27.8 1.8 * , 4 1 1 1 1 1 .' 1/ %95 13 1
.1 S 1 1/ $ E+ 0 K
/
0G /* /
/
0G /* •
1 / 1 ; * 1/ : ;D 1 1 (1, 1) 1 S - 1 1 *
.A% 1
* 3
*; E+ $- 1+ @ A% 1G/ 1 '> +AF 1 2 A */ 1 "
1G *; @A * 1G 1 1 , 1 . @ A% E/ 1G/ 1 '> -
. @A E+
N+& , .1 1 $ * )' A ' W $ : 1 1 1 * $ .
1 1; K 0 @ )' A ' R E+ S 7 1 1
.(1, ) 1 S 1
/
0G /* /
1 & 1 1+AF 1 S 1 0 O 1 1 1 1; * )' A •
: . 1 1
•
. 1
1 D .1
.(1 ,) 1 S 1 .2
. * 2G $ 1 .' / ( n > 30 ) 1 1 $ UG/ .3
: G $A E+
Q1 1; 1 .' b d

Q UG% * $) d .' b µd
Q1 1 UG% * d .' b d
.1 1 UG% * d .' K 7 b sd
:1 S 1 1 A # •
d − µd
t=
sd
n
df = n − 1 : :
d − E < µ d < d + E :1 S 1 1 3 * •
sd
E = tα / 2 :
n
/
0G /* /
+
5 *;
, - > $ .
E+ $ / 5 0
* 1

$ 1 ., </ 0 @ K+ " A */ 1 0.05 * 3 $A .$ /
.RA $ % 0 - > $

9 23 -5 -5 1

15 22 20 16 16 , - > $

-6 1 -25 -21 -15
1 d .'
- > $

0 - > $

$ 1 ., </ 0 @ K+ " :1 &
µd ≠ 0 : < RA $ %
. µd = 0 : 1 ( S % " 1 + :2 &
H 0 : µd = 0
: -, 1)' 1 1;D 1 :3 &
H1 : µ d ≠ 0
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4 &
1 .' 1 1 1 1 ) 4 1, 1 * ), A / :5 &
.t 4G A P, ( O * 2G
: d , sd $; A *; :6 &
d = −13.2
sd = 10.7
: A
d − µd
t=
sd
n
−13.2 − 0
t= = −2.759
10.7
5
1/ 4 * α = 0.05 */ 1 O # 5 $A & 1
. t = ±2.776 *
. H 0 )' T, , *' *+ (N / 1 * 9) 1) 4 A # 1/ :7
A
$ 1 ., </ 0 @ K+ " $ % 1 ' 1 : - U 1
.$ % 0 - > $

/* $% ' *0
: . 1 ,

•
.1 1 1 .1
: 4G & 1 - +A/ 1 1 , 4G .2
: G $A E+
.% & s 2
1 1/ T' : 1 , – s12 , s22
.% + $ b n1
.% + - A b σ 12
.% + $ b n2
.% + - A b σ 22
s12
F= :1 */ 1 A 0; ) •
s22
1 1 1 1+AF 1 $A ( T N+& , $ &% , @ A 1/
</ A - $ # 1/ 1 $S 0 .1 1 E , */ 1 1'A
.K 7 */ 1 M 1 -A 1
µd = 0 p'‫ر‬ µd = 0 p'‫ ر‬0A' µd = 0 p'‫ر‬
t = −2.776 t = 2.776
‫ﺥ
ری‬J‫ﺡ
* ا‬d‫ا‬
−2.759
F Q2
s12
.F 4G 6 2G . 1F,.( σ 12 = σ 22 ) R' - 4G - * 1 1 */ 1
s22
.F4G N / 1 * -9
: 0 F 4G
Numerator degrees of fredom = n1 -1 :
Denominator degrees of fredom = n 2 -1 :$
.F 4G

. O <; 1 9 S 4G +& 1/ * 1 -9
' 40 0;
+
2G 0 1G/ 1/ T' .0 1
36 1 A/ 1
36 1 +A/
: * , 1 K 7 E+ * . *
0
36 36
n
0.82410 0.81682
x
0.005701 0.007507
s
.1 0 1G% K 7 1/ 0 @ K+ " A 6

1/ 0 @ K+ " f, 1 0 1G% K 7 0 @ K+ " :1
A
: < < +& 1 0 1G/
σ 12 = σ 22
. σ 12 ≠ σ 22 : 1 ( S % " 1 + :2

A
: -, 1)' 1 1;D 1 :3
A
H 0 : σ 12 = σ 22
H1 : σ 12 ≠ σ 22
. α = 0.05 &% ; A :4

A
.F4G A P, 1 * ), A / :5
A
: A :6
A
s12
F=
s12
0.007507 2
= = 1.7339
0.0057012
* 1G + A α = 0.05 */ 1 O # 5 $A & 1
( s12 > s22 ) 1 / $ ; 1/ T' / 1.9611 * 0 1/ 35 * $ 35
.0 6 ' E+
. H 0 )' T, , *' *+ (N / 1 * 9) 1) 4 A # 1/ :7
A
0 1G% K 7 1/ 0 @ K+ " T, % 1 ' : - U 1
.1
σ 12 = σ 12 p'‫ر‬ p'‫ ر‬0A' σ 12 = σ 12 p'‫ر‬

σ 12 = σ 12
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3
F = 19611
‫ﺥ
ری‬J‫ﺡ
* ا‬d‫ا‬
1.7339
:0' Q;0
1(0 &;0
:

.K FA - M > 2 2 A *
:

7 E+ .1 1 A ;D </ 1 + , UG/ 1 * & *' +- R 7-
> */ 1 N+& $A A/ ;D N+& 1 K+ $ A / 1 1 ;D
.A% ; , 1 1+& / M * 1
:
!"#
:0 *' +& , 6 7
QA * 6 $-' •
Q2 2 $-' •
.> */ 1 2 $A •
&;0
* * . . *' , . $ : 1 UG/ 1 * */ 1 & . *' +& , R
N+& 1 1 ;D 1 + , 0 G $ ., 3 $) 1 1 1 1; 1 .'
:1 1
0 ;D
&;0 •
.1 1+& 1 ;D - / 1 -/ 1 1 *
<, $ K+ (Scatter diagram) 3 A $A - 1 + , , 7 1 •
. - 1 + , , 1 ;D
&;0
(4
+ #)
1 +
.$ A *3 1 1+& 1 ;D 1/ : y x 1 1 $ 6 A ( /) * ()
.$ A *3 1 1+& 1 ;D 1/ : y x 1 1 $ 6 A (6) * ()
. y x 1 1 $ S 6 A (U) * ()
. y x 1 1 $ () * ()
(‫ )أ‬0@A‫ا‬ (‫ )ب‬0@A‫ا‬
R‫
م ﺝ‬u‫ا‬ R
‫
م ﺱ‬u‫ا‬
y
x
x
(‫ )د‬0@A‫ا‬
(‫ )ج‬0@A‫ا‬ u‫ ا‬E‫ یﺝ‬J
R‫*
م(ﺝ‬Y) *‫ آ‬u‫ا‬
$& &;0
$& &;0 •
. , y x 1 $; 1 A ;D
R * 1
r A *
:;D A * 0
n ∑ xy − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
n ( ∑ x2 ) − ( ∑ x ) n (∑ y2 ) − (∑ y )
2 2
. UG/ n 1/ :
+
. y x 1 1 * $; 1 K+ * $A * ; /
x 1 1 3 5
y 2 8 6 4
*
n = 4
n ∑ xy − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
n ( ∑ x2 ) − ( ∑ x ) n (∑ y2 ) − ( ∑ y )
2 2
4 ∑ 48 − (10 )( 20 )
r=
2 2
4 ( 36 ) − (10 ) 4 (120 ) − ( 20 )
−8
r= = −1.35
44 80
$& &;0 •
. , y x 1 $; 1 A ;D
R * 1
r A *
G ( 6 , * $A $A < $ r *
. ρ G <
: * 6
. 1
( x, y ) UG/ 1 '> .1
. 3 4G - ( x, y ) UG/ .2
:;D A * 0 +
n ∑ xy − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
n ( ∑ x2 ) − ( ∑ x ) n (∑ y2 ) − ( ∑ y )
2 2
IB
.7) 0? 1 ; * ; .1 K / M/ 1b / / * ;
$& &;0 0
.7) 0? 1 ; * ; .1 K / M/ 1b / / * ;
$A S / 1 + , $ . 1 1 / 1b ? 1 ; * ;
:

() < * () * N / 1 * ,
A * ; G +
:1 1
() K+ $ *

n α = 0.05 α = 0.01
4 .950 .999
5 .878 .959
6 .811 .917
7 .754 .875
8 .707 .834
9 .666 .798
10 .632 .765
11 .602 .735
12 .576 .708
13 .553 .684
14 .532 .661
15 .514 .641
16 .497 .623
17 .482 .606
18 .468 .590
19 .456 .575
20 .444 .561
25 .396 .505
30 .361 .463
35 .335 .430
40 .312 .402
45 .294 .378
50 .279 .361
60 .254 .330
70 .236 .305
80 .220 .286
90 .207 .269
100 .196 .256
+
-, d / 6 3F * %
, , , /
0 6 1 K+ * 0 * $ . E 0 - R,
: Ol - R,
$ , 7 / 6 1 *
2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991
$
84 83 81 76 73 71 70 67 68 68 b x
6

4
78 82 67 54 60 42 49 35 38 53 b y

- R,

$ ,
- R, 0 6 1 () E & 1 + , 5 A * 6
. O

1/ n = 10 */ 1 * , 9 . r = 0.922 1/ 5 ,
GA $A
$ * , </ 5 $ N+& 1 α = 0.05 */ 1 0.632 α = 0.01 */ 1 0.765 &
1/ . r > 0.765 ; 1 1/ %1 1 *;/ , E & r > 0.632 ; 1 1/ %5 1 *;/ , E &
0 6 1 () E & 1/ 5 E+ (0.6321 / r ? ) r = 0.922
. O - R,
$& &;0 0

' 00;
1 &/ , : 1 1 A ;D 1 y x 1 1 * ; ,
/ * ; , *% * , 1
3> A/ * 6 O; O 1 4; +& 1 .AZ 4;
:
6 A% * * 1
. y x / /; & CB "00; $ y
' ;* + r 2 C
+
R, -, d / 6 3F * %
, , , /
- R, 0 6 1 K+ * 0 * $ . E 0 -
: Ol
$ , 7 / 6 1 *
2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991
$
84 83 81 76 73 71 70 67 68 68 b x
6

4
78 82 67 54 60 42 49 35 38 53 b y

- R,

$ ,
. O - R, 6 1 A ;D & 6/
. r 2 = 0.850 r = 0.922 :A * . 1 1
6 1 A ;D & 1/ 1 - R, 1 %85 1/ 5
. O - R,
$& &;0 )
:A * @ A

:K/ 1 ? 1b 1 4 r A * ; .1
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.A/ R 0 D $; 4 * $ + 3F A * ; .2
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1 1 ;D
R A & 1 1 A ;D
R A * ; .4
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: H1 H 0 )' T' .1
H0 : ρ = 0
H1 : ρ ≠ 0
: A # 6 .2

r − µt
t=
1− r2
n−2
*/ 1 ) r ? G *3 µt 1/ :

.( µt = 0 1 H 0 : ρ = 0
0 3 */ 1 E+ ( / ) . *' - $ . / 4 .3
.2 K t 4G $A
(*
K / M/ t ? + . H 0 T, 1 / t ? +
. H 0 T, , *'
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H1 : ρ ≠ 0
: r K A # T' .2

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. H 0 T, , *'
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+
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+
R, -, d / 6 3F * %
, , , /
- R, 0 6 1 K+ * 0 * $ . E 0 -
: Ol
$ , 7 / 6 1 *
2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991
$
84 83 81 76 73 71 70 67 68 68 b x
6

4
78 82 67 54 60 42 49 35 38 53 b y

- R,

$ ,
. Ol - R, 6 1 </ 0 @ K+ " A/

H0 : ρ = 0
: H1 H 0 )' T' .1
H1 : ρ ≠ 0
3 0& 1;L;
r − µt
t= : A #
1− r2
n−2
r = 0.922 1/ O
0.922 − 0
t= = 6.735
1 − 0.9222
10 − 2
. t = ±2.306 , 1/ t 4G 1 1+ + A n = 10 α = 0.05 */ 1
(*
</ K/ H 0 : ρ = 0 )' T, : 1 ( (/) * 9/) 1 / A # 1/
. Ol - R, 6 1 </ U D % 1 '
ρ = 0 p'‫ر‬ ρ = 0 p'‫ ر‬0A' ρ = 0 p'‫ر‬
t = −2.306 t = 2.306
‫ﺥ
ری‬J‫ﺡ
* ا‬d‫ا‬
t = 6.735
(/) * 9/
*+ 0& 1;L;
r = 0.922 : A #
. r = ±0.632 n = 10 α = 0.05 */ 1 LO_4 , () * 1
(*
</ K/ H 0 : ρ = 0 )' T, : 1 ((6)* 9/) 1 / A # 1/
. Ol - R, 6 1 </ U D % 1 '
ρ = 0 p'‫ر‬ ρ = 0 p'‫ ر‬0A' ρ = 0 p'‫ر‬
r = −0.632 r=0 r = 0.632
(6)*
‫ﺥ
ری‬J‫ﺡ
* ا‬d‫ا‬
r = 0.922
1(0
1(0 •
- * $ A 0 . - 1 ;D 1
2
.2 $ 5 $ 2
&0' •
QA 1
1 .1
. 3 4G - ( x, y ) 3 .2
:* 1 2 1 & ( x, y ) 3 1 / +
yˆ = b 0 + b1x
:
n ( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
b1 =
n (∑ x ) − (∑ x)
2 2
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1(0 (
+
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1 1 3 5
x
y 2 8 6 4
2 / 6

;D $A
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:
n ( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
b1 =
n (∑ x ) − (∑ x)
2 2
b0 = y − b1 x
∑ x 2 = 36 ∑ y = 20 ∑ x = 10 n = 4 */ 1
:1/ ∑ xy = 48 ∑ y 2
= 120
4 ( 48 ) − (10 )( 20 )
b1 = 2
= −0.18182
4 ( 36 ) − (10 )
:1P, E+
x=
∑ x = 10 = 2.5
n 4
y=
∑ y = 20 = 5
n 4
b0 = y − b1 x
b0 = 5 − 0.181818 × 2.5 = 5.45
:2 (
yˆ = 5.45 − 0.182 x
N;* ( / 1(0
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ρ = 0 *g‫اﺥ ا‬
0‫ه‬ ‫ر
ع‬J‫
د ا‬, ‫م‬E ‫اﺱ‬
Z,‫ﻥ‬ *# t‫ ا‬0‫ أﺝ‬$
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$@‫
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[ي‬t‫ا‬
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+
R, -, d / 6 3F * %
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- R, 0 6 1 K+ * 0 * $ . E 0 -
: Ol
$ , 7 / 6 1 *

2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991
$
84 83 81 76 73 71 70 67 68 68 b x
6

4
78 82 67 54 60 42 49 35 38 53 b y

- R,

$ ,
6
Q2 / .1
1/ 1 - R, 3 / 6 850000 E & 1 2001 $ , < T,/ .2
.$ E+ ,

D
O 3, # 5 $A / , $A 1 2 # .1
: 5
Minitab 5
Minitab
The regression equation is

y = - 113 + 2.27 x
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P

Constant -112.71 25.19 -4.47 0.002
x 2.2741 0.3388 6.71 0.000
S = 6.612 R-Sq = 84.9% R-Sq(adj) = 83.0%

Regression Plot
y = -112.710 + 2.27409 x
S = 6.61235 R-Sq = 84.9 % R-Sq(adj) = 83.0 %
80
70
60
y
50
40
30
70 75 80 85
. * , 6 1/ 850, 000 * 2001 $ , 6 1 .2
y x 1 1 A </ . 1 , . x = 85 1 7%
.2 $A y > *),/ #
yˆ = −113 + 2.27(85) = 80
558
yˆ = y = = 55.8 : y ? 3 1 1 1 </ ),
10
$' < 0M ( / 1(0
$' < 0M •

.1 A% * M 0 : K+ M & - M
. b1 * y * - M 1 ŷ = b0 + b1 x 2 1
+
yˆ = −113 + 2.27 x : 2 Lo_13 , . * 3 1
- R, G 6 10,000 * 1/ K/ 2.27 * y * - M 1 1/
.2.27
1 .
M A% * 0 : / 0 M */ 1 2 $A 1
: - M 7 M N+& */
$' < 0M •
.1 A% * M 0 : K+ M & - M
. b1 * y * - M 1 ŷ = b0 + b1 x 2 1
N;* ( '
N+& , . y x * $; 1 1 + , A */ 1 ( x, y ) UG/ 1 $ ( ,
: 4) $-
. y x 1 1 & y * .1
.> * 0 K+ y $; K+ * " .2
:7 & ( x, y ) UG/ 1 T'
0
J0 P& •
:;D K FA 7
∑ ( y − yˆ )
2
se =
n−2
.2 - $ 1 $; M R K FA 1/ 9D
: , ;D /
se =
∑y 2
− b0 ∑ y − b1 ∑ xy
n−2
:
Q UG/ b n
Q* b y
. y *
b ŷ
+
LO_13 , 1 * 3 K FA 6/

: S G < G Minitab D
O 3,
K FA ; 6 - " # 5 $9 1/ N
:
The regression equation is
y = - 113 + 2.27 x
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P

Constant -112.71 25.19 -4.47 0.002
x 2.2741 0.3388 6.71 0.000
S = 6.612 R-Sq = 84.9% R-Sq(adj) = 83.0%
.6.612 * K FA ; 1/ K/

:1 1;D / 1
< 1
se =
∑y 2
− b0 ∑ y − b1 ∑ xy
n−2
: :
. ∑ xy = 42, 214 ∑ y = 558 ∑ y = 33, 456 n = 10 b1 = 2.274087687 b0 = −112.798976
2
:1/
T
se = 6.6123487
N;* ( '
N;* ( •
: y > * 1F, x0 3 ; */ 1
yˆ − E ≤ y ≤ yˆ + E
:;D 0 FA d & E :
2
1 n ( x0 − x )
E = tα / 2 se 1 + +
n n ( ∑ x 2 ) − ( ∑ x )2
:
. α * 3 */ 1 2 K t 4G 1 6 b tα / 2
+
3 * " 6 yˆ = 80.6 - F x = 85 * 1 </ LO_13 , 1 * 3 ,
.0.05 * 3 */ 1

. se = 6.6123487 1/ yˆ = −113 + 2.27 x 1/
. x = 74.1 ∑ x = 741 ∑ x 2 = 55, 289 n = 10 */ 1
tα / 2 = 2.306 1/ 2 K */ 1 t 4G 1 E+
:1/
T
E = 18.1

80.6 − 18.1 ≤ y ≤ 80.6 + 18.1
62.5 ≤ y ≤ 98.7
:0' 5
0;
:

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α = 0.05 &% A : ;0 &

A $A P, $9 4G ., A% $; 4G 1/ 0 @ K+ " A / : &
2
χ2 = ∑
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n 73
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% 7 $A *% * .1 ., -, 1 * & N 3 *
.(
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27 29 318 332 1
18 35 104 1360 0
B 0;
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B 0; (# / 0; ) •
2
χ2 = ∑
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. *
A .1
* , * * 1 K/ </ 0 @ )' & H 0 )' .2
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B 0; (# / 0; ) •
2
χ2 = ∑
(O − E )
E
: 4 K 4G 1 / $
df = ( r − 1)( k − 1)
.
% b c % b r :
* , * * 1 K/ 1 + , A - 1 ( χ 2 A #
. O 9D $ 4 E ; $; . A ( E+ .N 3
>( $)*+ 00 ( $% QC 00 (
E=
( row total )( column total ) : ;D . N 3 * , 4; #
( grand total )
::
Q 9D 2 b row total
Q 9D 2 b column total
Q* 9D 2 b grand total
+
*3 *% 1 * , : .1912 1 15 , ;S E ' 6 ; N / 1 * *3
* +& 1P, .03/ *' / + *'
/ * @A 1 + , *3 3 *; $/ +/ @A 1 + ,
.N 3 * *3
E ' $; 6 ; *3 *
' *'
/ *
27 29 318 332 1
18 35 104 1360 0
4; * 6/ 6

(* ) A 4; ; 6
E=
( row total )( column total )
( grand total )
E=
( 332+318+29+27 )( 332+1360 ) =
( 332+318+29+27+1360+104+35+18)
=
( 706 )(1692 ) = 537.360
( 2223)
: * 5, DA 6 *3
4; 4 E ' $; 6 ; *3 *

' *'
/ *
27 29 318 332 1
(14.291) (20326) (134.022) (537.360)
18 35 104 1360 0
(30.709) (43.674) (287.978) (1154.640)
( $% B 0;

+
>( )*+ 00
+
A α = 0.05 * &/ $A E ' 3 1 , * 3 0

.
/ $/ *' $/ * < 1 * ' 1 @A + 1/ 0 @ K+ "

: H1 )' H 0 )'
.
/ $/ *' $/ * < 1 * ' 1 @A + b H 0
.
/ $/ *' $/ * < 1 * S ' 1 @A + b H1
: A # 4 K 4G $A N 3 * 1
1/
2
χ =∑ 2 (O − E )
E
2 2 2
2
χ =
( 332 − 537.360 ) +
( 318 − 134.022 ) +
( 29 − 20.326 )
537.60 134.0220 20.3260
2 2 2
+
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(104 − 287.978)
14.291 1154.640 287.978
2 2
+
( 35 − 43.674 ) +
(18 − 30.709 )
43.674 30.709
= 507.084
: α = 0.05 ? , & χ 2 = 7.815 :

df = (r − 1)(c − 1) = (2 − 1)(4 − 1) = 3
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.
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(ANOVA) '
•
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+
:@ A% 3 +A/ +
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(One-way ANOVA) 0 1 % 1 3 , (Single factor ANOVA) * * •
., * 0 , 7 * * 1
(two-way ANOVA) 0 1 % 1 3 , ( Two factor ANOVA) * 3 * •
.1 0 , 7 * 3 * 1
+
: 6 1 6 * 1 * ' 12 +A/
Tom Clancy’s the bear and the dragon,

J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s,
Leo tolstoy’s War and Peace.
1 *.6 * 1) ' 1 ' *
" - * 6 $
: 5

" - * 5 1 *
tolstoy Rowling Clancy
7>
12 12 12 ( ' ) n
66.15 80.75 70.73
* ) x
(*-
7.86 4.68 11.33
(*- * ) s
7> $ * E+ .7> $ A% 1 * G 1/ 1 ,
.*
'
* 0; )
: '
* 0; ) •
variance between samples

F=
variance within samples
F 1 . 0 , $ $ 0 , F
. $ 1 4 E+ 1
M F 1 $ 1 R E+ 1
$ σ 2 K K 4 1/ T' 1) :
' 0 *
:1 +&
1 0 σ 2
E 0 (variance between samples) 1 .1
. $
. 0 σ 2 E 0 (variance within samples) *A .2
: A # *3 & F 4G 6 2G & F G - G 1 1
'

( 0; ) /; CB )
; H 0 : µ1 = µ2 = µ3 ... )' T, 0 * * +&
M ; ., A Y
;
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.
A # .
A #

M
M
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وي ا‬p'‫ر‬
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ت ا‬P +‫اﺱ‬ P
A‫
ت ا‬P
'

: A 1) H 0 : µ0 = µ1 = µ2 = .... )' A •
. * 0 * */ 1 (Minitab, STATDISK, …) A 5 / $A .1
.
α ; 4 1 ; .2
: 6 @DA $ .3
H 0 )' T, P − value ≤ α 1 + •
H 0 )' T, , *' P − value > α 1 + •
# 5 $A F, H 0 : µ0 = µ1 = µ2 = .... )' A < K+ 6 O9
.# . , A
H 0 : µ0 = µ1 = µ2 = .... 40 0; &0' •
Q 4G - - .1

Q R' O - .2
Q 1
- .3
. / 1 '> 'A .4
(# / Minitab H *0;
+
'

: 6 1 6 * 1 * ' 12 +A/

1 *.6 * 1) ' 1 ' *
" - * 6 $
:3D3 1 ' *
" - *
1 ' *
" - 1 *
.3D3 6 1
+AF '
CLANCY ROWLING TOLSTOY
58.2 85.3 69.4
73.4 84.3 64.2
73.1 79.5 71.4
64.4 82.5 71.6
72.7 80.2 68.5
89.2 84.6 51.9
43.9 79.2 72.2
76.3 70.9 74.4
76.4 78.6 52.8
78.9 86.2 58.4
69.4 74.0 65.4
72.9 83.7 73.6
. R' - 3 1 +A/ (6 1 ' 12) 3D3 1/ 0 @ )' A 6
α = 0.05 ; $A

:1
A
: 7 H 1 )' H 0 )'
H 0 : µ1 = µ2 = µ3
H 1 : at least one of the means is different from the others
.( A% 1 'A 3D3 $ 1 *;% 0
b H 1 )')
:2
A
: $ 0
* Minitab 5 $A
Analysis of Variance
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 2 1338.0 669.0 9.47 0.001
Error 33 2331.4 70.6
Total 35 3669.4
Individual 95% CIs For Mean
Based on Pooled StDev
Level N Mean StDev ---+---------+---------+---------+---
CLANCY 12 70.733 11.326 (------*------)
ROWLING 12 80.750 4.681 (------*------)
TOLSTOY 12 66.150 7.858 (------*-------)
---+---------+---------+---------+---
Pooled StDev = 8.405 63.0 70.0 77.0 84.0
p _ value = 0.001 1/ K/

:3
A
$ 0 @ H 0 : µ1 = µ2 = µ3 )' T, α = 0.05 &% 1 M/ 1/
.3D3
(*
:3D3 6
" - * $ $ 0 @ K+ " $ % 1 '

'

($ R' - 4)
$ n : nsx2 6 . 1 1 1 + .O *; 6 " 1 $ R' 1
s 2p E 1 6 1) / . $ sx2 E
. * 3 ,
+
B N / 1 * , sample1, sample2, sample3 3 $) A 1
E+ A $ K 0 @ K+ " A 6 .sample1 $ 10 , )P A 1 5
.B $ K 0 @ K+ "

: 1 , H1 )' H 0 )'
H 0 : µ1 = µ2 = µ3
H 1 : at least one of the means is different from the others
.( A% 1 'A 3D3 $ 1 *;% 0
b H 1 )')
.* , $ 5, 1 $ 6
1 s = 0.0833 5 3D3 $ 1
6 A $
2
x
: 1
ns = 4 ⋅ ( 0.083) = 0.332
2
x
: s 2p E 1 6 1)
3.0 + 3.0 + 2.0

s 2p = = 2.3333
2
A # ;

variance between samples
F=
variance within samples
nsx2 0.3332
F= = = 0.1428
s 2p 2.333
: 6 : F 4G 1 *+ + A 1 1 & 1
numerator degrees of freedom = k -1
denominator degrees of freedom = k (n -1)
2 n = 4, k = 3 A 1 . n - * $ k :
.4.2564 1 α = 0.05 */ 1 .9 $
% 1 ' , </ K/ . H 0 : µ1 = µ2 = µ3 )' T, , *' E+ 1 M/ # 1/
.A $ K 0 @ K+ " T,
1 .N / * , & / 6 1/ 1 A R' 4 B
.H0 )' T,
.B $ K 0 @ K+ " T, % 1 ' </ K/
B A & $ ( 0'; , S* /; (
A B
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample1 Sample 2 Sample 3
7 6 4 17 6 4
3 5 7 13 5 7
6 5 6 16 5 6
6 8 7 16 8 7
n1 = 4 n2 = 4 n3 = 4 n1 = 4 n2 = 4 n3 = 4
x1 = 5.5 x2 = 6.0 x3 = 6.0 x1 = 15.5 x2 = 6.0 x3 = 6.0
2 2
s = 3.0
1 s = 2.0
2 s32 = 2.0
2 2 2
s = 3.0 s = 2.0 s = 2.0
1 2 3
nsx2 = 4 ⋅ ( 30.083) = 0.332
ns = 4 ⋅ ( 0.083) = 0.332
2
x
3.0 + 3.0 + 2.0
3.0 + 3.0 + 2.0 s 2p = = 2.3333
2
s =
p = 2.3333 2
2 nsx2 120.3332
ns 2 0.3332 F= 2 = = 51.5721 p − value = 0.0000118
F = 2x = = 0.1428 sp 2.333
sp 2.333
H 0 : µ1 = µ2 = µ3 R%0
p − value = 0.8688
'

(
( < * )
:0; )
 ∑ n ( x − x )2 
 i i

variance between samples   k − 1 
F= =
variance within samples  ∑ ( ni − 1) si2 
 
 ∑ ( ni − 1) 
:
Q * b x
Q - K $ b k
Q i $ b ni
Q i b x i
. i b si2
.3 3/ 6 ( $ R' 1 / * 6 1 $ R' 1
: 6 A # N+& ,
:0; )
 ∑ n ( x − x )2 
 i i

variance between samples   k − 1 
F= =
variance within samples  ∑ ( ni − 1) si2 
 
 ∑ ( ni − 1) 
:
Q * b x

Q - K $ b k
Q i $ b ni
Q i b x i
. i b si2
, 1 'A # 5 $A $ FA 6 ; N+- # 6 1/
.1 1 , # 6
'

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