Bacterial Cell Structure and

Function
 The Three Domains of Life
Microbiological focus
• Archaea – The Extremophiles
• Bacteria- Cyanobacteria and eubacteria
• Eukarya – Protozoans, fungi, and worms
Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells
 The Structure of the Prokaryote Cell
• Small size ( 0.5 to 2um)
• Large surface area to volume ratio
• A variety of shapes
• Outer cell wall- very thick made of specialized molecules
• Cell membranes may have a different constituency of
molecules from eukaryote cells
• Ribosomes smaller
• No organelles, no nuclear membrane
•1 ds circular loop of DNA
 Shapes of the Bacteria

• Bacillus
• Coccus
• Vibrio
• Spirillum
• Spirochete
• Pleiomorphism- Some bacterial shapes vary within a
culture. This can occur when the nutrients are used and
wastes have built up
Bacterial Shapes
 Bacillus- E. coli

Fluorescent stain

Freeze fracture
Public enemy # 1- Anthrax
Streptococcus pyogenes- strep throat
Staphylococcus
 Arrangement of bacteria

• Groups of two- diplo

• Chains- strepto
• Large groups- like grape clusters- staphylo
• Division on 3 planes- sarcinae- 8 cells
arranged in a cube
• Division on two planes produces tetrads
Cell Morphology
Staphylococcus
Diplococcus
Bacterial Cell Structure and
Function
 The Three Domains of Life
Microbiological focus
• Archaea – The Extremophiles
• Bacteria- Cyanobacteria and eubacteria
• Eukarya – Protozoans, fungi, and worms
Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells
 The Structure of the Prokaryote Cell
• Small size ( 0.5 to 2um)
• Large surface area to volume ratio
• A variety of shapes
• Outer cell wall- very thick made of specialized molecules
• Cell membranes may have a different constituency of
molecules from eukaryote cells
• Ribosomes smaller
• No organelles, no nuclear membrane
•1 ds circular loop of DNA
 Shapes of the Bacteria

• Bacillus
• Coccus
• Vibrio
• Spirillum
• Spirochete
• Pleiomorphism- Some bacterial shapes vary within a
culture. This can occur when the nutrients are used and
wastes have built up
Bacterial Shapes
 Bacillus- E. coli

Fluorescent stain

Freeze fracture
Public enemy # 1- Anthrax
Streptococcus pyogenes- strep throat
Staphylococcus
 Arrangement of bacteria

• Groups of two- diplo

• Chains- strepto
• Large groups- like grape clusters- staphylo
• Division on 3 planes- sarcinae- 8 cells
arranged in a cube
• Division on two planes produces tetrads
Cell Morphology
Staphylococcus
Diplococcus
Streptobacilli
Spirillum
Spriochetes
• Peptidoglycan
•the single most important molecule in
the cell walls of bacteria
•One immense- covalently linked
molecule
• The molecule forms a chain- the
constituents are sugar-amino molecules(
glucosamines)
Peptidoglycans - Cell Wall
Gram Positive Bacteria- Cell walls
• The cell wall is made of Teichoic acid- glycerol+
phosphates+ribotol which an alcohol sugar. These
polymers extend beyond the cell even beyond the
capsule

Gram Negative Bacteria- Cell Walls

The outer membrane found primarily in Gram-
negative bacteria is a bilayer that forms the
outermost layer of the cell wall and is attached to the
peptidoglycan by lipoproteins molecules.
 The Cell Membrane
•LPS- this is actually a part of the outer cell
membrane and can b be used to help to
identiry Gram- bacteria. It is also important to
the cell wall and is usually not released until a
bacterium is dead. It consists of
polysaccharides and lipid A

The toxins gram negative bacteria release are from this portion of the
cell membrane. Gram negative bacteria release endotoxin and the
result is fever, the dilation of blood vessels, so the blood pressure
drops and causes other related effects.
 Gram-Positive Bacteria

•The cell wall has a thick layer of peptidoglycan 20

to 80um thick
• 60-90% of the cell wall is peptidoglycan
•Except for the strptococci most gram positive
bacterial cell walls contain very little protein
 Gram-negative Bacteria

•The wall of a Gram-negative bacterium is

thinner but more complex than a Gram-
positive bacterium

Only10 to 20 % of the cell wall is

peptidoglycan- the remainder consists of
various polysaccharides, protein, lipids.
The cell wall contains an outer membrane-
the LPS
 The Periplasmic Space

•The periplasmic space is between the

outer surface of the cell wallo and the cell
membrane
•Enzymes and toxins remain in the
periplasmic space in sufficient
concentrations to help destroy substances
that might harm the bacterium.
 The Cell Membrane

•The cell membrane consists of molecules called

phospholipids.
•Phospholipids have two long tails consisting of
hydrocarbon chains ( HYDROPHOBIC)
• Phospholipids have a phosphate head (HYDROPHILIC)
•The membrane is formed by a double layer of these
molecules
• The membrane also contains PROTEINS
 Internal Structure

Ribosomes- consist of ribonucleic acid (

RNA) and protein. They are abundant in
the cytoplasm as
POLYRIBOSOMES
 Nucleoid Region- Central

•The nucleoid region contains 1 ds ciruclar loop

of DNA.
• The DNA may be attached to the cell
membrane as well at some point
•There may be RNA associated with the DNA
Chromatophores- photosynthetic bacteria

+ Molecules of life

•Chromatophores are derived from the cell

membrane. They contain pigments used to
capture light energy for the synthesis of sugars.
Nitrifying bacteria also may have these internal
membranes.
•They contain the enzymes necessary for the
energy transformation process of photosynthesis
The Nucleoid Region
 Mesosomes- Bacteria

Bacterial cells have large infoldings

in their membranes.
 Mesosomes

Mesosomes provide the surface area

for all of the chemical reactions in the
cell
• respiration
• metabolic processes

Freeze fracture
 Inclusions

•Small bodies in the cytoplasm- some are called

granules

Glycogen
pyrrophosphate granules- volutin
Metachromatic granules
Variable colors
• Vegetative cells of bacteria like Bacillus or Clostrium produce
resting stages
•These spores are designed for survival and not reproduction.
• These are formed within cells
•They are resistant to heat, drying,acids,bases,disinfectants, and
radiation
 Spore formation

•Spores form when nutrients are depleged form

a culture
• Few spores are formed when nutrients are
plentiful and environmental conditions are
favorable.
 Spore Structure

• An endospore consists of a core,

surrounded by a cortex, a spore coat and in
some species a thin layer called the
exosporium
spore
 How do spores survive ?

• They contain dipicolinic acid and a large number of

calium ions.
• These materials contribute to heat resistance
• The lose water content enables them to survive.
• Endospores have survived over 10,000
years
• Special methods may be used to skill
them during sterilization
• When conditions are favorable they can
still germinate
 Flagella

• Bacteria that are motile have appendages

called flagella
• A bacteria can have one or many flagella
•monotrichous
•amphitrichous
•lophotrichous
•peritrichous
What is this type of bacteria ?
• The diameter of a prokaryote’s flagellum is about one-tenth of
that of a eukaryote
•It is made of flagellin
•The basal region has a hook like structure and a complex basal
body
• The basal body consists of a central rod or shaft surrounded by a
set of rings
• Gram negative bacteria have a pair of rings embedded in the cell
membrane and another pair of rings associated with the
peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide layer of the cell wall. Gram
positive have one ring.
 Turns like a mixer

Flagellar motion
Flagella rotate like twirling L- shaped
hooks such as a dough hook on a
kitchen rotor- or a mixer
 Twiddling ? HHMM!

•When flagella bundle together they rotate

counterclockwise and the bacteria run
• When the flgella rotate clockwise the
flagellar bundle comes apart and the bacteria
twiddle- tumble randomly
 Chemotaxis

• Sometimes bacteria move toward or away from

substances in their environment. This is called chemotaxis
• Concentrations of most molecules in the environment
form a gradient.
• When a bacteria is running a long an increasing gradient
if reduces the frequency of its twiddles
 PILI

Attachment pili-
•These are structures on the surface of the bacteria that
aid the bacterium in atttching to surfaces
• These acid the bacterium by allowing colonization of the
mucus membranes of organisms.
• Some bacteria adhere to red blood cells by attachment
pil and cause red blood cells to clum- this is
hemagglutination
 SEX PILI- Conjugation

• Conjugation pili or sex pili are found only in certain

groups of bacteria.
•This structure exists exclusively for the transfer of DNA
between bacteria
•The DNA passes between bacteria tend to develop
antibiotic resistance
Bacterial Slime Layer or Capsule
Structure of Bacteria
 Size of Bacteria
• Average bacteria 0.5 - 2.0 um in diam.
– RBC is 7.5 um in diam.
• Surface Area ~12 um^2
• Volume is ~4 um
• Surface Area to Volume is 3:1
• Typical Eukaryote Cell SA/Vol is 0.3:1
• Food enters through SA, quickly reaches all parts
of bacteria
• Eukaroytes need structures & organelles
 Shapes of Bacteria
• Coccus
– Chain = Streptoccus
– Cluster = Staphylococcus
• Bacillus
– Chain = Streptobacillus
• Coccobacillus
• Vibrio = curved
• Spirillum
• Spirochete
• Square
• Star
 Bacterial Structures
• Flagella
• Pili
• Capsule
• Plasma Membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Cell Wall
• Lipopolysaccharides
• Teichoic Acids
• Inclusions
• Spores
 Flagella
• Motility - movement
• Swarming occurs with some bacteria
– Spread across Petri Dish
– Proteus species most evident
• Arrangement basis for classification
– Monotrichous; 1 flagella
– Lophotrichous; tuft at one end
– Amphitrichous; both ends
– Peritrichous; all around bacteria
• Observe Picture in Micro Lab.
Mono- or Lophotrichorus
 Pili
• Short protein appendages
– smaller than flagella
• Adhere bacteria to surfaces
– E. coli has numerous types
• K88, K99, F41, etc.
– Antibodies to will block adherance
• F-pilus; used in conjugation
– Exchange of genetic information
• Flotation; increase boyancy
– Pellicle (scum on water)
– More oxygen on surface
F-Pilus for Conjugation
 Capsule or Slime Layer
• Glycocalyx - Polysaccharide on external
surface
• Adhere bacteria to surface
– S. mutans and enamel of teeth
• Prevents Phagocytosis
– Complement can’t penetrate sugars
 Cytoplasm
• 80% Water {20% Salts-Proteins)
– Osmotic Shock important
• DNA is circular, Haploid
– Advantages of 1N DNA over 2N DNA
– More efficient; grows quicker
– Mutations allow adaptation to environment quicker
• Plasmids; extra circular DNA
– Antibiotic Resistance
• No organelles (Mitochondria, Golgi, etc.)
 Cell Membrane
• Bilayer Phospholipid
• Water can penetrate
• Flexible
• Not strong, ruptures easily
– Osmotic Pressure created by cytoplasm
 Cell Wall
• Peptido-glycan Polymer (amino acids + sugars)
• Unique to bacteria
• Sugars; NAG & NAM
– N-acetylglucosamine
– N-acetymuramic acid
• D form of Amino acids used not L form
– Hard to break down D form
• Amino acids cross link NAG & NAM
 Cell Wall Summary
• Determine shape of bacteria
• Strength prevents osmotic rupture
• 20-40% of bacteria
• Unique to bacteria
• Some antibiotics effect directly
– Penicillin
Video Clip on Cell Wall
 Teichoic Acids
• Gram + only
• Glycerol, Phosphates, & Ribitol
• Attachment for Phages
 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
• Endotoxin or Pyrogen
– Fever causing
– Toxin nomenclature
• Endo- part of bacteria
• Exo- excreted into environment
• Structure
– Lipid A
– Polysaccharide
• O Antigen of E. coli, Salmonella
• G- bacteria only
– Alcohol/Acetone removes
 LPS (cont’d)
• Functions
– Toxic; kills mice, pigs, humans
• G- septicemia; death due to LPS
– Pyrogen; causes fever
• DPT vaccination always causes fevers
– Adjuvant; stimulates immunity
• Heat Resistant; hard to remove
• Detection (all topical & IV products)
– Rabbits (measure fever)
– Horse shoe crab (Amoebocytes Lyse in presence of
LPS)
 LPS (cont’d.)
• Appearance of Colonies
– Mucoid = Smooth (lots of LPS or capsule)
– Dry = Rough (little LPS or capsule)
• O Antigen of Salmonella and E. coli
– 2,000 different O Ags of Salmonella
– 100’s different O Ags of E. coli
• E. coli O157
• O Ags differ in Sugars, not Lipid A
 Endospores
• Resistant structure
– Heat, irradiation, cold
– Boiling >1 hr still viable
• Takes time and energy to make spores
• Location important in classification
– Central, Subterminal, Terminal
• Bacillus stearothermophilus -spores
– Used for quality control of heat sterilization equipment
• Bacillus anthracis - spores
– Used in biological warfare
 G+ vs. G-
• G+
– Thicker cell wall
– Teichoic Acids

• G-
– Endotoxin - LPS

• Which are more sensitive to Penicllin?

• Alcohol/Acetone affects which more?
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
• Cell Wall
• Teichoic Acids
• LPS
• Endospores
• Circular DNA
• Plasmids
Eukaryote Cell Structure
Bacteria Cell
 Prokaryotes
• Cells that do not have a nucleus
• Exist almost every where on earth
• Grow in numbers so great you
can see them with the unaided
eye
• Are placed in either the
Eubacteria or the Archebacteria
Kingdoms
• Make up the smaller of the two
kingdoms
 Eubacteria
• Make up the larger of
the two prokaryote
kingdoms
• Generally are
surrounded by a cell
wall composed of
complex carbohydrates
 Cyanobacteria
• Photosynthetic
bacterium
• Bluish-greenish color
• Contain membranes that
carry out the process of
photosynthesis
• Do not contain the same
type of chloroplasts as
plants do
• This bluish-greenish
algae can be found
nearly everywhere on
earth.
• Can survive in extremely
hot environments and
even extremely cold
environment
 Archaebacteria
• Lack important
carbohydrate found in
cell walls
• Have different lipids in
their cell membrane
• Different types of
ribosomes
• Very different gene
sequences
• Archaebacteria can live
in extremely harsh
environments
• They do not require
oxygen and can live in
extremely salty
environments as well
as extremely hot
environments.
 Identifying Prokaryotes
• Cell Shape
• Cell Wall
• Movement
 Bacterium Shapes
• Cocci~ Sphere shaped bacteria
• Bacillus~ Rod shaped bacteria
• Spirrillium ~ Spiral shaped
bacteria
• Flagella~ Leg-like structures that
help to propel the bacterium.
Gram + and Gram – Bacterium Cell
Walls
 Cellular Walls
• Chemical nature of a cell wall can be determined by
Gram Staining
• By finding out what color the cell produces when it is
gram stained you can figure out the type of
carbohydrates in the cell wall
 Movement
• Flagella ~ Tail like structure the whips around
to propel the bacterium
• Cillia ~ Miniature flagella surround the cell
that help to “swim”
• Non motile ~ Sticky cillia like structures that
keep the bacterium from moving
Flagella
 Bacteria and their energy
• Autotrophs
• Chemotrophs
• Heterotrophs
 Autotrophs
• Make their own energy
• Using Solar energy
• Eg. Cyanobacteria
 Chemotrophs
• Make own Energy
• Using Chemical energy
• Eg. Archaebacteria
 Heterotrophs
• Obtain food
• By eating
• Eg. E-coli
 Bacteria Respiration
• Obligate Anaerobes • Live without Oxygen
• Facultative Anaerobes • Can live with or without
oxygen
• Obligate Aerobes • Cannot live without
oxygen.
 Bacteria Reproduction
• Binary Fission
• Conjugation
• Spore Formation
Cellular organism copies it’s genetic information then splits into
two identical daughter cells
Conjugation
• A type of Bacteria Sex
• Two organism swap
genetic information,
that contains the
information such as a
resistance to penicillin
 Spore Formation: Endospore
• A type of dormant cell
• Exhibit no signs of life
• Highly resistant to environmental
stresses such as:
-High temperatures
-Irradiation
-Strong acids
-Disinfectants
• Endospores are formed by
vegetative cells in response to
environmental signals that
indicate a limiting factor for
vegetative growth, such as
exhaustion of an essential
nutrient.
 Symbiosis
• Close relationship
between to species in
which at least one
species benefits from
the other
• Live together for LIFE
 Parasitism
• Bacteria exploit the
host cell, injuring them
• Eg. Mychobacterium
tuberculosis
 Mutualism
• Symbiosis in which two
of the species live
together in such a way
that both benefit from
the relationship
• Eg. E-coli
 Nitrogen Fixations
• Process by which nitrogen in the atmosphere
is converted into a form that can be used by
living things