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from any inadvertent omission or inaccuracy in the book.
Edition : 2015
Price : ` 110/-
ISBN : 9789351720188
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Contents:– ii
SYNTHETIC FABRICS DRY TO QUICKLY ........................................................................................ 123
SOAP FORM LATHER IN HARD WATER ........................................................................................ 123
FLUORESCENT TUBES CONSUME LESS POWER ........................................................................... 123
ICE MELTS WHEN SUBJECTED TO PRESSURE ............................................................................... 123
THERE A DISTURBANCE ON TV WHEN WE OPERATE AN ELECTRICAL SWITCH........................ 123
COLOURED SOAPS PRODUCE WHITE BUBBLES ........................................................................... 123
THINGS BURN ................................................................................................................................. 124
A DRIED PIECE OF COTTON APPEAR DARKER WHEN WET ......................................................... 124
WATER AND OIL MIX .................................................................................................................... 124
ACID RAIN ...................................................................................................................................... 124
AIDS ............................................................................................................................................... 124
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS .................................................... 125-146
Contents:– iii
1 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
be a strong attractive force of a totally carbon atoms go out to the mall one
different kind. It must be strong enough night. Carbon dating is when scientists
to overcome the repulsion between the try to measure the age of very old
(positively charged) protons and to substances. There are very small
bind both protons and neutrons into amounts of C-14 in the atmosphere.
the tiny nuclear volume. This force is Every living thing has some C-14 in it.
called Nuclear Force. Scientists measure the amount of C-14
• The nuclear force is much stronger than in the things they dig up to estimate
the Coulomb force acting between how old they are. They rely on the
charges or the gravitational forces half-life of 5730 years to date the object.
between masses. The nuclear force • Fission is the splitting of an atom. Not
between neutron-neutron, proton- all atoms will go through fission; as a
neutron and proton-proton is matter of fact, very few do under
approximately the same. The nuclear normal circumstances.
force does not depend on the electric • In a nuclear reaction, scientists shoot a
charge. whole bunch of neutrons at uranium-
• Radioactivity occurs when an atomic 235 atoms. When one neutron hits the
nucleus breaks down into smaller nucleus, the uranium becomes U-236.
particles. There are three types of When it becomes 236, the uranium
nuclear radiation: alpha, beta, and atom wants to split apart. After it splits,
gamma. Alpha particles are positively it gives off three neutrons and a lot of
charged, beta particles are negatively energy. Those neutrons hit three other
charged, and gamma particles have no U atoms in the area and cause them to
charge. The radiations also have become U-236. Each cycle, the reaction
increasing levels of energy, first Alpha, gets three times bigger. A reaction that,
then Beta, and finally Gamma, which once started, continues by itself, is
is the most energetic of all these. Alpha called a chain reaction.
and Beta are particles, but Gamma is a • Fusion is the process of two small
wave. atomic nuclei coming together to make
• When a radioactive nucleus changes, a larger nucleus which is stable. The
the remaining nucleus (and atom) is not simplest nuclei to use are deuterium
the same as it was. It changes its and tritium (isotopes of hydrogen).
identity. The term half-life describes
HEAT
the time it takes for half of the atoms
in a sample to change, and half to • Temperature is a relative measure, or
remain the same. indication of hotness or coldness.
• There is even a radioactive isotope of • Heat is the form of energy transferred
carbon, carbon-14. Normal carbon is between two (or more) systems or a
carbon-12. C-14 has two extra neutrons system and its surroundings by virtue
and a half-life of 5730 years. Scientists of temperature difference. The SI unit
use C-14 in a process called carbon of heat energy transferred is expressed
dating. This process is not when two in joule (J) while SI unit of temperature
3 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
• The amount of heat energy required vice versa). These changes can occur
to raise the temperature of 1g of a when the exchange of heat takes place
substancethrough 1° is called specific between the substance and its
heat capacity of the substance. The S.I. surroundings.
Unit of specific heat capacity is( J/kg) • The change of state from solid to liquid
K. Water has the highest specific heat is called melting and from liquid to
capacity which is equal to 4200 (J/kg solid is called fusion. It is observed that
)K. the temperature remains constant until
• The specific heat capacity is the the entire amount of the solid substance
property of the substance which melts. That is, both the solid and liquid
determines the change in the states of the substance coexist in
temperature of the substance thermal equilibrium during the change
(undergoing no phase change) when a of states from solid to liquid.
given quantity of heat is absorbed (or • The temperature at which the solid and
rejected) by it. It is defined as the the liquid states of the substance in
amount of heat per unit mass absorbed thermal equilibrium with each other is
or rejected by the substance to change called its melting point. It is
its temperature by one unit. It depends characteristic of the substance. It also
on the nature of the substance and its depends on pressure. The melting
temperature. point of a substance at standard
• The amount of heat energy required atomspheric pressure is called its
to raise the temperature of a given normal melting point.
mass of substancethrough 1° is • The change of state from liquid to
callede heat capacity or thermal vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation.
capacity of the substance. It’s S.I. Unit It is observed that the temperature
is (J/K). remains constant until the entire
• Calorimetry means measurement of amount of the liquid is converted into
heat. When a body at higher vapour. That is, both the liquid and
temperature is brought in contact with vapour states of the substance coexist
another body at lower temperature, in thermal equilibrium, during the
the heat lost by the hot body is equal change of state from liquid to vapour.
to the heat gained by the colder body, • The temperature at which the liquid and
provided no heat is allowed to escape the vapour states of the substance
to the surroundings. A device in which coexist is called its boiling point. At
heat measurement can be made is called high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is
a calorimeter. lower, reducing the boiling point of
• CHANGE OF STATE: Matter normally water as compared to that at sea level.
exists in three states: solid, liquid, and On the other hand, boiling point is
gas. A transition from one of these increased inside a pressure cooker by
states to another is called a change of increasing the pressure. Hence cooking
state. Two common changes of states is faster.
are solid to liquid and liquid to gas (and • The boiling point of a substance at
5 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
standard atmospheric pressure is called can see light from the ultraviolet part
its normal boiling point. of the spectrum.
• However, all substances do not pass • As far as we know, all types of light
through the three states: solid-liquid- move at one speed when in a
gas. There are certain substances which vacuum. The speed of light in a vacuum
normally pass from the solid to the is 299,792,458 meters per second.
vapour state directly and vice versa. • Any medium through which light can
The change from solid state to vapour travel is an optical medium. If this
state without passing through the liquid medium is such that light travels with
state is called sublimation, and the equal speed in all directions, then the
substance is said to sublime. Dry ice medium is called a homogeneous
(solid CO2) sublimes, so also iodine. medium. The homogeneous media
During the sublimation process both through which light can pass easily, are
the solid and vapour states of a called transperant media. The media
substance coexist in thermal through which light cannot pass, are
equilibrium. called opaque media. Again the media
• Certain amount of heat energy is through which light can pass partly, are
transferred between a substance and called translucent media.
its surroundings when it undergoes a • LIGHT TRAVELS ALONG A
change of state. The amount of heat per STRAIGHT LINE.
unit mass transferred during change of • Light is reflected from all surfaces.
state of the substance is called latent Regular reflection takes place when
heat of the substance for the process. light is incident on smooth, polished
• The amount of heat energy supplied to and regular surfaces.
a solid at its melting point, such that it • After striking the surface, the ray of
changes into liquid state without any light is reflected in another direction.
rise in temperature is called latent heat The light ray, which strikes any
of fusion and that for a liquid-gas state surface,is called the incident ray. The
change is called the latent heat of ray that comes back from the surface
vaporisation. after reflection is known as the
• Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the reflected ray.
rate of cooling of a body is proportional • The angle between the normal and
to the excess temperature of the body incident ray is called the angle of
over the surroundings. incidence . The angle between the
LIGHT normal and the reflected ray is known
as the angle of reflection.
• To understand light you have to know • Two laws of reflection are:
that what we call light is what is visible 1. The angle of incidence is equal to the
to us.Visible light is the light that angle of reflection.
humans can see. Other animals can see 2. Incident ray, reflected ray and the
different types of light. Dogs can see normal drawn at the point of
only shades of gray and some insects incidence to the reflecting surface,
6 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
• Lenses are widely used in spectacles, centre and the focus of the lens.
telescopes and microscopes.Those • The power of a lens is a measure of the
lenses which feel thicker in the middle degree of convergence( in the case of a
than at the edges are convex lenses. convex lens) or divergence ( in the case
Those which feel thinner in the middle of a concave lens). It is defined as the
than at the edges are concave lenses. reciprocal of its focal length expressed
Notice that the lenses are transparent in meters. The S.I. Unit of power of a
and light can pass through them. lens is dioptre, the symbol being D.
• A convex lens converges (bends Thus, 1 dioptre is the power of a lens
inward) the light generally falling on whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m–
it. Therefore, it is called a converging 1. You may note that the power of a
lens. On the other hand, a concave lens convex lens is positive and that of a
diverges (bends outward) the light and concave lens is negative.
is called a diverging lens. • The phenomenon due to which a ray
• A convex lens can forms real and of light deviates from its path , at the
inverted image. When the object is surface of seperation of two media,
placed very close to the lens, the image when the ray of light is travelling from
formed is virtual, erect and magnified. one optical medium to another optical
When used to see objects magnified, medium is called refraction of light.
the convex lens is called a magnifying When a ray of light travels from an
glass. optically rare medium to an optically
• A concave lens always forms erect, denser medium.
virtual and smaller image than the • When a ray of light travels from an
object. optically denser medium to an optically
• The two surfaces of the lens are parts rare medium, it bends away from the
of two spheres. The straight line joining normal at the surface of seperation of
obtained by joining two centres of the two media.
spheres is called Principal axis. • When a ray of light strikes the surface
Generally we use lenses whose surfaces of seperation of two media normally,
have equal curvature. In such lenses, if it does not deviate from its original
we take a point on theprincipal path. Some indexes of refraction are
axis inside the lens equidistant from diamond (2.419), glass (1.523), and
the two surfaces, the point is called the water (1.33).
optical centre of the lens. • Total internal reflection is the
• If a beam of parallel rays, travelling phenomenon which involves the
parallel to the principal axis of a convex reflection of all the incident light off
lens, are refracted by the lens, the rays the boundary. Total internal reflection
become converging and intersect each only takes place when both of the
other at a particular point of the axis. following two conditions are met: (i)
The point is called the focus of the the light is in the more dense medium
convex lens. The focal length of a lens and approaching the less dense
is the distance between the optical medium., and (ii) the angle of incidence
8 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
is greater than the so-called critical attractive force between the north pole
angle. Total internal reflection will not of one magnet and the south pole of
take place unless the incident light is the other.
traveling within the more optically • The properties of a magnet are
dense medium towards the less i. it attracts small piece of iron towards
optically dense medium. it.
• Dispersion of Light: It is the ii. it always cmes to rest in north-south
phenomenon of splitting of a beam of direction when suspended freely.
white light into its constituent colors iii. like poles repel, unlike poles attracts
on passing through prism. The order each other
of colors from the lower end are violet, iv. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and v. the strength of a magnet is
red. At one end of the band, there is maximum at poles located near the
red and at the other violet. The poends
sequence of colours can be best • The phenomenon due to which an
remembered by the wordVIBGYOR’ unmagnetized magnetic substance
which is formed by taking the initial behaves like a magnet, due to the
letter of each colour. presence of some other magnet, is
• A laser is just a really powerful beam called magnetic induction. Magnetic
of light. Laser isn’t a word but an induction takes place first then
acronym. It stands for LIGHT magnetic attraction.
AMPLIFICATION by STIMULATED • Magnetic induction depends upon the
EMISSION of RADIATION. nature of magnetic substance. Magnetic
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY induction is inversely propotional to
the distance between inducing magnet
A. Magnetism and the magnetic substance. More
• The word magnet is derived from the powerful the inducing magnet, the
name of an island in Greece more strong will be the magnetism in
calledMagnesia where magnetic ore magnetic substance.
deposits were found, as early as 600 • The space around the magnet where
BC. Magnetite, an iron ore, is a natural its influence can be detected is called
magnet. It is called lodstone. themagnetic field.
• When a bar magnet is freely • A curve in a magnetic field, along with
suspended, it points in the north- a free north magnetic pole will move,
south direction. The tip which points is called magnetic line of force. The
to the geographic north is called the direction of magnetic lines of force is
north pole and the tip which points to the direction in which free north pole
the geographic south is called the south will move in a magnetic field.
pole of the magnet. There is a repulsive o They travel from north to south pole
force when north poles ( or south poles outside the magnet and from south
) of two magnets are brought close to north pole inside the magnet.
together. Conversely, there is an o They mutually repel each other
9 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
o They never intersect with each other process is called charging by induction.
• The earth behaves as a magnet with the • When a negatively charged object
magnetic field pointing approximately touches a neutral body, electrons will
from the geographic south to the north. spread on both objects and make both
At a particular place on earth, the objects negatively charged. This
magnetic north is not usually in the process is called charging by
direction of the geographic north. The conduction. The other case, positively
angle between the two directions charged object touching the neutral
called declination. body, is just the same in principle.
B. Electricity • Substances can be classified into three
• The phenomenon due to which a types — insulators, conductors, and
suitable combination of bodies on semiconductors
rubbing, get electrified is • Conductors are materials which
called electricity. If a charge on a body electrical charges and heat energy can
is not allowed to flow, it is called the be transmitted very easily. Almost all
static electricity. metals such as gold, silver, copper, iron,
• Matters are made of atoms. An atom is and lead are good conductors.
basically composed of three different i. Insulators are materials which allow
components — electrons, protons, and very little electrical charges and heat
neutrons. An electron can be removed energy to flow. Plastics, glass, dry
easily from an atom. When two objects air and wood are examples of
are rubbed together, some electrons insulators.
from one object move to another object. ii. Semiconductors are materials which
For example, when a plastic bar is allow the electrical charges to flow
rubbed with fur, electrons will move better than insulators, but less than
from the fur to the plastic stick. conductors. Examples are silicon and
Therefore, plastic bar will be germanium.
negatively charged and the fur will be • There are two different types of electric
positively charged. charges namely the positive and
• When two objects are rubbed together, negative charges. Like charges repel
some electrons from one object move and unlike charges attract each other.
to another object. For example, when • Electric current always flows from the
a plastic bar is rubbed with fur, electrons point of high potential. The potential
will move from the fur to the plastic difference between two conductors is
stick. Therefore, plastic bar will be equal to the work done in conducting
negatively charged and the fur will be a unit positive charges from one
positively charged. conductor to the other conductor
• When you bring a negatively charged through a metalic wire.
object close to another object, electrons • The flow of charge is called
in the second object will be repelled the current and it is the rate at which
from the first object. Therefore, that electric charges pass though a
end will have a negative charge. This conductor. The charged particle can be
10 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
either positive or negative. In order for that describes how potential difference
a charge to flow, it needs a push (a (voltage difference) is created and how
force) and it is supplied by voltage, or much is created. It’s a huge concept to
potential difference. The charge flows understand that the changing of a
from high potential energy to low magnetic field can create voltage.
potential energy. • He discovered that the changes in the
• A closed loop of current, is called magnetic field and the size of the field
an electric circuit. The current [I] were related to the amount of current
measures the amount of charge that created. Scientists also use the term
passes a given point every second. The magnetic flux. Magnetic flux is a value
unit for current is Ampere [A]. 1 A that is the strength of the magnetic
means that 1 C of charge passes every field multiplied by the surface area of
second. the device.
• When current flows through a • Coulomb’s Law is one of the basic ideas
conductor it offers some obstruction to of electricity in physics. The law looks
the flow of current The obstruction at the forces created between two
offered to flow of current by the charged objects. As distance increases,
conducting wire is called its resistance the forces and electric fields decrease.
in passege of electricity. This simple idea was converted into a
• The unit of resistance is ohm. The relatively simple formula. The force
resistance varies in different materials. between the objects can be positive or
For example, gold, silver, and copper negative depending on whether the
have low resistance, which means that objects are attracted to each other or
current can flow easily through these repelled.
materials. Glass, plastics, and wood • Coulomb’s Law: When you have two
have very high resistance, which means charged particles, an electric force is
that current can not pass throught these created. If you have larger charges, the
materials easily. forces will be larger. If you use those
• Electromagnetism: The branch of two ideas, and add the fact that
physics which deals with the charges can attract and repel each other
relationship between electricity and you will understand Coulomb’s Law.
magnetism is called electomagnetism. It’s a formula that measures the
• Whenever current is passed through a electrical forces between two
straight conductor it behaves like a objects. F=kq1q2/r2. Where ”F” is the
magnet. The magnitude of magnetic resulting force between the two
effect increases with the increase in the charges. The distance between the two
strength of current. charges is ”r”. The “r” actually stands
• Faraday’s law of induction is one of the for “radius of separation” but you just
important concepts of electricity. It need to know it is a distance.
looks at the way changing magnetic The”q 2 " and ”q 2 " are values for the
fields can cause current to flow in amount of charge in each of the
wires. Basically, it is a formula/concept particles. Scientists use Coulombs as
11 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
• Centripetal Force: For a body to move weigh only one-sixth its weight on
in a circle there must be a force on it earth.
directed towards the centre. This is • Newton’s Laws of Motion:
called the centripetal force and is 1. Newtons First Law of Motion:
necessary to produce continuous
• Newton’s first law of motion states that
change of direction in a circular motion.
“An object at rest tends to stay at rest
• The magnitude of the centripetal force
and an object in motion tends to stay
on an object of mass m moving at a
in motion with the same speed and in
speed v along a path with radius of
the same direction unless acted upon
curvature r is given by the relation F = by an unbalanced force.” . Every object
mv2/r The direction of the force is
in a state of uniform motion tends to
toward the center of the circle in which
remain in that state of motion unless
the object is moving. Centrifugal force
an external force is applied to it.
is equal and opposite to centripetal
• In fact, it is the natural tendency of
force, i.e it acts outwards.
objects to resist changes in their state
• WEIGHT: the weight of a body is the of motion. This tendency to resist
force with which the earth attracts the
changes in their state of motion is
body towards its centre. The weight
described as inertia.
of a body should not be confused with
• Inertia: Inertia is the tendency of an
its mass, which is a measure of the
object to resist changes in its state of
quantity of matter contained in it. Mass
motion. But what is meant by the
shows the quantity, and weight shows
phrase state of motion? The state of
the size of gravity. The weight of a body
motion of an object is defined by its
is maximum at the poles and minimum
velocity - the speed with a direction.
at equator.
Thus, inertia could be redefined as
• If you know your mass, you can easily
follows:Inertia: tendency of an object
find your weight because W = mg
to resist changes in its velocity.
where:
• There are many more applications of
• W is weight in Newton (N),
Newton’s first law of motion.
• m is mass in kg, and
• Blood rushes from your head to your
• g is the acceleration of gravity in m/ feet while quickly stopping when
s2. riding on a descending elevator.
• Weight is measured by Newton (N). • The head of a hammer can be tightened
• It is now obvious that the value of g is onto the wooden handle by banging
maximum at poles and minimum at the bottom of the handle against a hard
equator. At the centre of earth, g would surface.
be zero. • While riding a skateboard (or wagon
• It should be noted here that on the or bicycle), you fly forward off the
surface of the moon the value of the board when hitting a curb or rock or
acceleration due to gravity is neraly other object which abruptly halts the
one-sixth of that on earth, and motion of the skateboard.
therefore, an object on the moon would
13 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
kinetic energy which increases with of putty or mud, they have no gross
the gain of heat energy or rise in tendency to regain their previous shape,
temperature, and they get permanently deformed.
ii. the molecules always attract each Such substances are called plastic and
other, this property is called plasticity. Putty
iii. the force of attraction between the and mud are close to ideal plastics.
molecules decreases with the • When a force is applied on body, it is
increase in intermolecular spaces deformed to a small or large extent
• The molecules always attract each other. depending upon the nature of the
The force of attraction between the material of the body and the magnitude
similar kind of molecules is called force of the deforming force. The
of cohesion whereas the force of deformation may not be noticeable
attraction between different kinds of visually in many materials but it is
molecules is called force of adhesion. there. When a body is subjected to a
• In case of solids, the intermolecular deforming force, a restoring force is
space being very small, so developed in the body. This restoring
intermolecular forces are very large force is equal in magnitude but
and hence solids have definite size and opposite in direction to the applied
shape. force. The restoring force per unit area
• In case of liquids, the intermolecular is known as stress. If F is the force
space being large, so intermolecular applied and A is the area of cross
forces are small and hence liquids have section of the body, Magnitude of the
definite volume but no definite shape. stress = F/A. The SI unit of stress is N
m–2 or pascal (Pa). Stress is the
• In case of gases, the intermolecular
restoring force per unit area and strain
space being very large, so
is the fractional change in dimension.
intermolecular forces are extremely
small and hence gases have neither a • HOOKE’S LAW: Robert Hooke, an
definite volume and nor definite shape. English physicist (1635 - 1703 A.D)
performed experiments on springs and
• A solid has definite shape and size. In
found that the elongation (change in
order to change (or deform) the shape
the length) produced in a body is
or size of a body, a force is required.If
proportional to the applied force or
you stretch a helical spring by gently
load. In 1676, he presented his law of
pulling its ends, the length of the spring
elasticity, now called Hooke’s law. For
increases slightly. When you leave the
small deformations the stress and strain
ends of the spring, it regains its original
are proportional to each other. This is
size and shape. The property of a body,
known as Hooke’s law. Thus, stress ””
by virtue of which it tends to regain
strain or stress = k X strain , where k is
its original size and shape when the
the proportionality constant and is
applied force is removed, is known as
known as modulus of elasticity.
elasticity and the deformation caused
is known as elastic deformation. • The basic property of a fluid is that it
can flow. The fluid does not have any
• However, if you apply force to a lump
15 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
resistance to change of its shape. Thus, fine tip when taken out of it. All these
the shape of a fluid is governed by the and many more such experiences are
shape of its container. A liquid is related with the free surfaces of
incompressible and has a free surface liquids. As liquids have no definite
of its own. A gas is compressible and it shape but have a definite volume, they
expands to occupy all the space acquire a free surface when poured in
available to it. a container. These surfaces possess
• Pascal’s Law: The French scientist some additional energy. This
Blaise Pascal observed that the phenomenon is known as surface
pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at tension and it is concerned with only
all points if they are at the same liquid as gases do not have free
height.distributed uniformly surfaces. Mathematically, surface
throughout. We can say whenever tension is defined as the force acting
external pressure is applied on any part per unit length of an imaginary line
of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is drawn on the free surface of the liquid.
transmitted undiminished and equally The surface tension is expressed in
in all directions. This is the Pascal’s law newton/meter.
for transmission of fluid pressure and • Most of the fluids are not ideal ones
has many applications in daily life. A and offer some resistance to motion.
number of devices such as hydraulic lift This resistance to fluid motion is like
and hydraulic brakes are based on the an internal friction analogous to friction
Pascal’s law. when a solid moves on a surface. It is
• The flow of the fluid is said to be steady called viscosity.
if at any given point, the velocity of SOUND
each passing fluid particle remains
constant in time.The path taken by a • Sound is a form of energy and like all
fluid particle under a steady flow is a other energies, sound is not visible to
streamline. us. It produces a sensation of hearing
• Bernoulli’s principle states when a fluid when it reaches our ears. Sound can not
flows from one place to another travel through vacuum.
without friction, its total energy ( • Sound is produced due to vibration of
kinetic + potential + pressure) remains different objects.The matter or
constant. substance through which sound is
• You must have noticed that, oil and transmitted is called a medium. It can
water do not mix; water wets you and be solid, liquid or gas. Sound moves
me but not ducks; mercury does not through a medium from the point of
wet glass but water sticks to it, oil rises generation to the listener.
up a cotton wick, inspite of gravity, Sap • In longitudinal wave the individual
and water rise up to the top of the particles of the medium move in a
leaves of the tree, hairs of a paint brush direction parallel to the direction of
do not cling together when dry and propagation of the disturbance. The
even when dipped in water but form a particles do not move from one place
16 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
to another but they simply oscillate • The time taken by the wave for one
back and forth about their position of complete oscillation of the density or
rest. This is exactly how a sound wave pressure of the medium is called
propagates, hence sound waves are the time period, T.
longitudinal waves. Sound travels as • The number of complete oscillations
successive compressions and per unit time is called
rarefactions in the medium. In sound the frequency (í), í =(1/T). The
propagation, it is the energy of the frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz).
sound that travels and not the particles • Larger the amplitude of vibration,
of the medium. louder is the sound. Higher the
• There is also another type of wave, frequency of vibration, the higher is
called a transverse wave. In a the pitch, and shriller is the sound.
transverse wave particles do not • The frequency determines the
oscillate along the line of wave shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the
propagation but oscillate up and down frequency of vibration is higher, we
about their mean position as the wave say that the sound is shrill and has a
travels. Thus a transverse wave is the higher pitch. If the frequency of
one in which the individual particles vibration is lower, we say that the
of the medium move about their mean sound has a lower pitch.
positions in a direction perpendicular • A sound of single frequency is called
to the direction of wave propagation. a tone whereas a sound of multiple
Light is a transverse wave but for light, frequencies is called a note. Of the
the oscillations are not of the medium several frequencies present in a note,
particles or their pressure or density – the sound of the lowest frequency is
it is not a mechanical wave. called the fundamental tone. Besides
• To and fro motion of an object is known the fundamental, other tones present
as vibration. This motion is also in a note are known as overtones. Of
calledoscillatory motion. the overtones, those which have their
• Amplitude and frequency are two frequencies simple multiple of
important properties of any sound. fundamental frequency, are known
• The loudness or softness of a sound is as harmonics. All harmonics are
determined basically by its amplitude. overtone but all overtones are not
harmonics.
The amplitude of the sound wave
depends upon the force with which an • Sound propagates through a medium
object is made to vibrate. at a finite speed. The speed of sound
depends on the properties of the
• The change in density from one
medium through which it travels. The
maximum value to the minimum value
speed of sound in a medium depends
and again to the maximum value makes
also on temperature and pressure of
one complete oscillation.
the medium. The speed of sound
• The distance between two consecutive
decreases when we go from solid to
compressions or two consecutive
gaseous state. In any medium as we
rarefaction is calledthe wavelength, ë.
increase the temperature the speed of
17 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
of units, both fundamental and is the unit of choice. A light year is the
derived, is called a system of units. distance light would travel in a vacuum
iv. The International System of Units (SI) after one year. It is equal to some nine
based on seven base units is at present quadrillion meters (six trillion miles).
internationally accepted unit system 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015m.
and is widely used throughout the vii. Unit of Mass: The SI Unit of mass is
world. The SI units are used in all kilogram(kg). Various other metric
physical measurements, for both the units used for measuring mass are
base quantities and the derived related to the kilogram by either
quantities obtained from them. Certain multiples or submultiples of 10. Thus,
derived units are expressed by means • 1 tonne(t) = 1000 ( or 103) kg
of SI units with special names (such as • 1 gram(g) = 1/1000 ( or 0-32) kg
joule, newton, watt, etc). • 1 miligram(mg) = 10-6Kg
v. The SI units have well defined and viii. Unit of Time: The SI unit of time is the
internationally accepted unit symbols second (s).
(such as m for metre, kg for kilogram, SI Base Quantities and Units:
s for second, A for ampere, N for
Base Quantity SI Units
newton etc.). Physical measurements Name Symbol
are usually expressed for small and Length metre m
large quantities in scientific notation, Mass kilogram kg
with powers of 10. Scientific notation Time second s
and the prefixes are used to simplify Electric current ampere A
measurement notation and numerical Thermo dynamic kelvin K
Temperature
computation, giving indication to the
Amount of substance mole mole
precision of the numbers.
Luminous candela cd
vi. Unit of Length: The SI Unit of length
Important Units of Measurement:
is metre(m). Various other metric units
used for measuring length are related Used to Measure Name of the Unit
to the metre by either multiples or Electric Current Ampere
submultiples of 10. Thus, Wave length of light Angstrom
• 1 kilometre = 1000 ( or 103) m Electric charge Faraday
• 1 centimetre= 1/100 ( or 0-2) m Magnetic induction Gauss
• 1 milimetre=1/1000 ( or 10-3) m Magnetic Flux Maxwell
Very small distance are measured in Electric Charge Coulomb
micrometre or microns (µm), Electric Resistance Ohm
angstroms(Å), nanometre (nm) and Electric Tension Volt
femtometre(fm).
Power Watt
• 1m = 106 µm
Intensity of Sound Bel
• 1m = 109 nm
Temperature Celcius, Kelvin,
• 1m =1010 Å Farenheit
• 1m = 1015fm Atmospheric Pressure Bar
For really large distances, the light year
20 Gist of Physics from NCERT Books
colour when added to a solution hydrogen ion of the acid combines with
containing an acidic or a basic the negatively charged hydroxyl ion of
substance. Turmeric, litmus, china rose the base to form a molecule of water.
petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the Hence, the water molecule formed
naturally occurring indicators. does not have any charge because the
• The most commonly used natural positive and negative charges of the
indicator is litmus. It is extracted from hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions get
lichens . It has a mauve (purple) colour neutralized.
in distilled water. When added to an • The strength of a base depends on the
acidic solution, it turns red and when concentration of the hydroxyl ions
added to a basic solution, it turns blue. when it is dissolved in water.
It is available in the form of a solution, 1. Strong Base: A base that dissociates
or in the form of strips of paper, known completely or almost completely in
as litmus paper. Generally, it is available water is classified as a strong base.
as red and blue litmus paper. The greater the number of hydroxyl
• The solutions which do not change the ions the base produces, the stronger
colour of either red or blue litmus are is the base. Examples: Sodium
known as neutral solutions. These hydroxide: NaOH, Potassium
substances are neither acidic nor basic. hydroxide: KOH, Calcium
• Acids are corrosive and can burn flesh hydroxide: Ca(OH)2 .
and dissolve metal. 2. Weak Base: A base that dissociates
2. Bases and Alkalis in water only partially is known as
a weak base. Examples: Magnesium
• A Base is a substance that gives OH-
hydroxide: Mg(OH)2, Ammonium
ions when dissolved in water. Bases
hydroxide: NH4OH.
are usually metal hydroxides (MOH).
• Bases are bitter to taste. They are soapy
Examples include Sodium Hydroxide,
and slippery to touch. Strong alkalis
NaOH, Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
like sodium hydroxide and potassium
The solution of a base in water is called
hydroxide are highly corrosive or
an alkali.
caustic in nature. Sodium hydroxide
• Bases and acids neutralize each other,
and potassium hydroxide are
therefore another way to define a base
commonly called caustic soda and
is ‘a compound which reacts with an
caustic potash respectively. Organic
acid to give salt and water only’. Like
tissues like skin, etc. get completely
acids, alkalis can be strong or weak.
corroded by these two alkalis.
The more hydroxide ions they produce,
However, the other alkalis are only
the stronger the alkali.
mildly corrosive.
• The acidic property of an acid is due
3. pH
to the presence of hydrogen ions (H+)
while that of a base or alkali, is due to • A scale for measuring hydrogen ion
the presence of hydroxyl (OH–) ions in concentration in a solution, called pH
them. When an acid and base (alkali) scale has been developed. The p in pH
combine, the positively charged stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning
25 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
power. On the pH scale we can measure base are neutral with pH value of 7.
pH from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very On the other hand, salts of a strong
alkaline). pH should be thought of acid and weak base are acidic with
simply as a number which indicates the pH value less than 7 and those of a
acidic or basic nature of a solution. strong base and weak acid are basic
Higher the hydronium ion in nature, with pH value more than
concentration, lower is the pH value. 7.
The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values ATOMIC STRUCTURE
less than 7 on the pH scale represent
an acidic solution. As the pH value • An atom is the smallest particle of the
increases from 7 to 14, it represents an element that can exist independently
increase in OH– ion concentration in and retain all its chemical properties.
the solution, that is, increase in the Atoms are made up of fundamental
strength of alkali. Generally paper particles: electrons, protons and
impregnated with the universal neutrons.
indicator is used for measuring pH. • Dalton’s Atomic Theory: John
One such paper is shown in . Dalton provided a simple theory of
• There are chemicals that change colour matter to provide theoretical
at different pH values. These are called justification to the laws of chemical
indicators. One of the most famous is combinations in 1805. The basic
Litmus. This substance turns red when postulates of the theory are:
the pH is less than 7 (acidic) and turns • All substances are made up of tiny,
blue when the pH is greater than 7 indivisible particles called atoms.
(basic). • Atoms of the same element are
4. Salts identical in shape, size, mass and other
• A Salt results when an acid reacts with properties.
a base. Both are neutralised. The H+ • Each element is composed of its own
and OH- ions combine to form water. kind of atoms. Atoms of different
The non metalic ions of the acid and elements are different in all respects.
the metal ions of the base form the salt. • Atom is the smallest unit that takes part
• Important salts used in everyday life in chemical combinations.
and industrial applications are Sodium • Atoms combine with each other in
chloride (NaCl), Sodium carbonate, simple whole number ratios to form
(Na 2 CO3), Sodium Bicarbonate, compound atoms called molecules.
(NaHCO3), Sodium Hydroxide • Atoms cannot be created, divided or
(NaOH) destroyed during any chemical or
• The salt ions normally stay in solution. physical change.
The salt crystalizes out when the water • Representation of an Atom by a
is removed. Some salts are insoluble. Symbol: Dalton was the first scientist
They will precipitate out when the acid to use the symbols for elements in a
and base are added together. very specific sense. When he used a
• Salts of a strong acid and a strong symbol for an element he also meant a
26 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
definite quantity of that element, that assigned an atomic mass equal to one
is, one atom of that element. A symbol atomic mass unit (a.m.u). The number
signifies a shorthand representation of does not signify the mass of an atom
an atom of an element. The symbol of in grams. It is just a pure number. The
any element is based on the English masses of atoms of other elements were
name or Latin name (written in English compared to that of hydrogen, in order
alphabets) and many of the symbols are to find their atomic mass relative to it.
the first one or two letters of the If one atom of sulphur weighs as much
element’s name in English. The first as 32 atoms of hydrogen, then the
letter of a symbol is always written as relative atomic mass of sulphur is 32
a capital letter (uppercase) and the a.m.u. This way of defining the mass
second letter as a small letter of one atom of hydrogen has its
(lowercase). Examples are: (i) difficulties. While the mass of one atom
hydrogen- H (ii) aluminium- Al and not of hydrogen is considered as 1 atomic
AL (iii) cobalt- Co and not CO. Symbols mass unit, hydrogen gas in its natural
of some elements are formed from the state has 3 isotopes of atomic mass 1, 2
first letter of the name and a letter, and 3 respectively. Thus average mass
appearing later in the name. Examples works out to be 1.00 a.m.u rather than
are: (i) chlorine, Cl, (ii) zinc, Zn etc. 1 a.m.u. This in turn complicates the
• Other symbols have been taken from atomic masses of all other elements.
the names of elements in Latin, German Later on, an atom of oxygen was
or Greek. For example, the symbol of preferred as standard by taking its
iron is Fe from its Latin name ferrum, mass as 16 units. However, in 1961 for
sodium is Na from natrium, potassium a universally accepted atomic mass
is K from kalium. Therefore, each unit, carbon-12 isotope was chosen as
element has a name and a unique the standard reference for measuring
chemical symbol. atomic masses. One atomic mass unit
• Size of the Atom/ Elements: Atoms is a mass unit equal to exactly
are very small, they are smaller than onetwelfth (1/12th) the mass of one
anything that we can imagine or atom of carbon-12. The relative atomic
compare with. One hydrogen atom, masses of all elements have been found
the smallest atom known, is with respect to an atom of carbon-12.
approximately 5 x 10 mm in diameter. It is equal to 1.66 × 10-24 g.
Atomic radius is measured in • Molecule: A molecule is in general a
nanometres. 1 m = 109 nm. group of two or more atoms that are
• Atomic Mass: The mass of a particular chemically bonded together, that is,
atom is taken as a standard unit and tightly held together by attractive
the masses of other atoms are related forces. A molecule can be defined as
to this standard. Hydrogen being the the smallest particle of an element or a
lightest element and being the smallest compound that is capable of an
atom was chosen and assumed to have independent existence and shows all
a mass of 1. An atom of hydrogen was the properties of that substance. Atoms
27 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
• Mole Concept: Since it is not possible atom are: (i) electrons, (ii) protons and
to calculate the weight of particles (iii) neutrons. Electrons are negatively
individually, a collection of such charged, protons are positively charged
particles called mole is taken for all and neutrons have no charges.
practical purposes. It was discovered • The discovery of the electron, proton
that the number of atoms present in 12g and neutron was the starting point of
of carbon of 12C isotope is 6.023 × new avenues of research in science,
1023atoms. This is referred to as which gave physicists an insight into
Avogadro number after the discoverer the structure and nature of the atoms
Avogadro. A mole of a gas is the of matter. An atom is made up of three
amount of a substance containing 6.023 elementary particles, namely electrons,
× 1023 particles. It is a basic unit of the protons and neutrons. Electrons have
amount or quantity of a substance. The a negative charge, protons have a
substance may be atoms, molecules, positive charge and neutrons have no
ions or group of ions. charge. Neutrons are neutral. Due to
• Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called the presence of equal number of
its molar mass. One mole of any gas at negative electrons and positive protons
STP will have a volume of 22.4 L. This the atom as a whole is electrically
is called molar volume. neutral. Based on the above findings,
• Credit for the discovery of electron one can say that the atom has two major
and proton goes to J.J. Thomson and divisions.
E.Goldstein, respectively. J.J. Thomson • The first is the centre of an atom, called
proposed that electrons are embedded its nucleus. The protons and neutrons
in a positive sphere. are located in the small nucleus at the
• Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering centre of the atom. Due to the presence
experiment led to the discovery of the of protons the nucleus is positively
atomic nucleus. Rutherford’s model of charged.
the atom proposed that a very tiny • The second are electrons, which
nucleus is present inside the atom and revolve around the nucleus in different
electrons revolve around this nucleus. shells (or orbits). Shells of an atom are
The stability of the atom could not be designated as K,L,M,N,….The space
explained by this model. around the nucleus in which the
• Neils Bohr’s model of the atom was electrons revolve, determines the size
more successful. He proposed that of the atom.
electrons are distributed in different • The maximum number of electrons
shells with discrete energy around the present in a shell is given by the
nucleus. If the atomic shells are formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit
complete, then the atom will be stable number or energy level index, 1,2,3,…
and less reactive. Hence the maximum number of
• J. Chadwick discovered presence of electrons in different shells are as
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. So, follows: first orbit or K-shell will be =
the three sub-atomic particles of an 2.12 = 2, second orbit or L-shell will be
29 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
full shell are more reactive than those do not conduct Electricity. These
that are two short. compounds have high B.P. than
• Chemical bonds are what hold atoms Covalent Compounds but less than
together to form the more complicated Electrovalent Compounds.
aggregates that we know as molecules
CHEMICAL
and extended solids. The forces that
hold bonded atoms together are
REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
basically just the same kinds of • Atoms and Molecules, Elements and
electrostatic attractions that bind the Compounds: There are about a
electrons of an atom to its positively- hundred different types of atoms in the
charged nucleus. chemical bonding Universe. Substances made up of a
occurs when one or more electrons are single type of atom are called Elements.
simultaneously attracted to two Some elements are made up of single
nuclei. atoms: Carbon©, Helium(He),
• Mainly 3 Types of bonds can be present Sodium(Na), Iron(Fe) etc. He, Fe, and
in Chemical Compounds. Na are the Chemical Symbols of the
1. Electrovalent or Ionic Bond: It is elements.
formed by Transferring of Electrons • Some elements are made up of groups
between 2 Atoms. These types of of atoms: Oxygen(O 2 ), Ozone(O 3 ),
bonds are mainly formed between Chlorine(C l3 ) etc. These groups of
Metals and Non - Metals. These atoms are called molecules.
compounds exist in solid form. These • Molecules can also be made up of
compounds have high boiling Point, combinations of different types of
Melting Point and thermal stability. atoms. These substances are called
2. Covalent Bond: It is formed by compounds: Common Salt(NaCl),
equal sharing of Electrons between Methane(CH 4 ), Ammonia(NH 3 ) etc.
2 Atoms. This type of bond is mainly O 2 , CH 4 , NH 3 are the Chemical
formed between non - metals. These Formulas of Oxygen, Methane and
compounds may be solid, liquid or Ammonia respectively. CH4 means that
gas. These compounds have low a single molecule of methane contains
boiling Point, Melting Point and one atom of Carbon and four atoms of
thermal stability in comparison to Hydrogen. This chemical formula could
Ionic Bond. have been written but the C 1 H 4 is
3. Co - Ordinate or Dative Bond: It is never written. Similarly, a molecule of
formed by unequal sharing of Ammonia (NH3) contains one atom of
Electrons between 2 Atoms. This Nitrogen and three atoms of
bond is also called as Semi - Polar Hydrogen.
bond since; it involves • A change in which one or more new
Electrovalency and Covalency both. substances are formed is called
These compounds may be solid, a chemical change. A chemical change
liquid or gas. These compounds are is also called a chemical reaction. The
insoluble in H2O. These compounds change may conveniently be
32 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
• The total mass of the elements present and is itself reduced is termed as
in the products of a chemical reaction oxidizing agent and the substance that
has to be equal to the total mass of the brings about reduction and is itself
elements present in the reactants. In oxidized is referred to as reducing
other words, the number of atoms of agent.There are a number of oxidation-
each element remains the same, before reduction reactions that are of
and after a chemical reaction. industrial use. The production of metals
• During a chemical reaction atoms of from their ores invariably involves
one element do not change into those these two processes.
of another element. Nor do atoms MATTER AND ITS NATURE
disappear from the mixture or appear
from elsewhere. Actually, chemical A. Matter and Its Nature
reactions involve the breaking and • Anything that possesses mass,
making of bonds between atoms to occupies space, offers resistance and
produce new substances. can be perceived through one or more
• In a combination reaction two or more of our sense is called matter.
substances combine to form a new • Matter is made up of particles.
single substance. Particles of matter have space
• Decomposition reactions are opposite between them and are continuously
to combination reactions. In a moving and attract each other.
decomposition reaction, a single • Matter can exist in three states-
substance decomposes to give two or I. Solid
more substances. II. Liquid
• Reactions in which heat is given out III. Gas.
along with the products are • Solid has a definite shape, distinct
called exothermic reactions. boundaries and fixed volumes, Solids
• Reactions in which energy is absorbed have a tendency to maintain their
are known as endothermic reactions. shape when subjected to outside
• When an element displaces another force. Solids may break under force
element from its compound, a but it is difficult to change their
displacement reaction occurs. shape, so they are rigid.
• Two different atoms or groups of • Liquids have no fixed shape but have
atoms (ions) are exchanged in double a fixed volume. They take up the shape
displacement reactions. of the container in which they are kept.
• Precipitation reactions produce Liquids flow and change shape, so they
insoluble salts. are not rigid but can be called fluid.
• Reactions also involve the gain or loss • A gas has no definite volume or shape.
of oxygen or hydrogen by substances. gases are highly compressible as
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss compared to solids and liquids. The
of hydrogen. Reduction is the loss of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder
oxygen or gain of hydrogen. The that we get in our home for cooking or
substance that brings about oxidation the oxygen supplied to hospitals in
34 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
are written side by side and the number • Non-homogeneous systems, in which
of atoms of each is indicated by putting solids are dispersed in liquids, are
numerals to the lower right of the called suspensions. A suspension is a
symbols. But the subscript one is not heterogeneous mixture in which the
written in formula. solute particles do not dissolve but
C. Solution remain suspended throughout the
bulk of the medium. Particles of a
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture
suspension are visible to the naked
of two or more substances. The major
eye.
component of a solution is called the
• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures
solvent, and the minor, the solute.
in which the particle size is too small
Lemonade, soda water etc. are all
to be seen with the naked eye, but is
examples of solutions. We can also have
big enough to scatter light. Colloids
solid solutions (alloys) and gaseous
are useful in industry and daily life.
solutions (air).
The particles are called the dispersed
• The particles of a solution are smaller phase and the medium in which they
than 1 nm (10-9 metre) in diameter. So, are distributed is called the
they cannot be seen by naked eyes. The dispersion medium.
solute particles cannot be separated E. Metals and Non-Metals
from the mixture by the process of
Elements can be normally divided
filtration. The solute particles do not
into metals, non-metals and metalloids. Metals
settle down when left undisturbed,
usually show some or all of the following
that is, a solution is stable.
properties:
• The concentration of a solution is the
• They have a lustre (shine).Exception:
amount of solute present per unit
Mercury, though a metal is liquid.
volume or per unit mass of the solution/
solvent. • They have silvery-grey or golden-
yellow colour.
• Materials that are insoluble in a solvent
and have particles that are visible to • They conduct heat and electricity.
naked eyes, form a suspension. A Silver is the best while copper stands
suspension is a heterogeneous mixture. second.
D. Alloys • They are ductile (can be drawn into
wires).Gold is the most ductile metal.
• Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of
• They are malleable (can be hammered
metals and cannot be separated into
into thin sheets). Exception: Metals like
their components by physical
antimony and bismuth are brittle.
methods. But still, an alloy is
considered as a mixture because it • They are sonorous (make a ringing
shows the properties of its sound when hit).
constituents and can have variable • Metals have high melting points.
composition. For example, brass is a Exception:Gallium and Caesium have
mixture of approximately 30% zinc very low melting points.
and 70% copper. • Metals can form positive ions by losing
38 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
C2H5OH, Phenol(carbolic acid - used which has two fatty acid groups) or
as disinfectant) C6H5OH. different (as in Hydroxymethanoic Acid
2. Ethers (Ethers have an O atom attached - which has a hydroxyl group and a
to two hydrocarbon chains) fatty acid group): Oxalic Acid-
(CnH2n+1)2O. Examples: Dimethyl (COOH)2, Hydroxymethanoic Acid-
Ether(a gas) (CH3)2O, Diethyl Ether (a CH2OHCOOH.
liquid used as an anaesthetic) • The most famous compounds
(C2H5)2O containing Carbon, Hydrogen and
3. Ketones (Ketones have a CO group Oxygen are the Carbohydrates. An
attached to two hydrocarbon chains) . example is the common sugar, Sucrose
These have a general formula: (C12H22O11).
(CnH2n+1)2CO.Example: Dimethyl • Isomerism: An interesting
Ketone (Also known as acetone: nail- phenomenon with organic molecules is
varnish remover), CH3COC H3 called isomerism. Let us look at two
4. Aldehydes (Aldehydes have a CHO compounds introduced earlier.
group attached to a hydrocarbon Dimethyl Ether: (CH3)2O and Ethanol:
chain). These have a general formula: C2H5OH. The first is a gas which will
CnH2n+1CHO. Example: Formal- knock you out if inhaled. The second
dehyde (preservative in labs) HCHO, is common alcohol drunk in spirits.
Acetaldehyde- CH3CHO. Both compounds contain 2 Carbon
5. Fatty Acids (Fatty Acids contain the atoms, 6 Hydrogen atoms and 1
CO2H (or COOH) group attached to a Oxygen atom. Even though the atoms
hydrocarbon chain or ring). These have are the same, they are arranged
a general formula: CnH2n + 1CO2H. differently. This yields two different
Example: Formic Acid(in ant bites and compounds with the same number of
stinging nettles)- HCO2H, Acetic Acid( atoms. These compounds are isomers
vinegar)- CH3CO2H, Butyric Acid( the and the phenomenon is called
rancid butter smell)- C2H5CO2H. Isomerism. Isomerism increases the
6. Esters (Esters are similar to Fatty Acids number of Organic compounds. The
except that the H in the COOH group more Carbon atoms in a compound,
is another hydrocarbon chain. They are the more ways of arranging the atoms
usually very sweet smelling liquids and the larger number of isomers.
used in perfumes). These have a • Adding Nitrogen: Many very
general formula: RCO2R’( R and R’ are important organic compounds contain
Hydrocarbon chain or rings). Nitrogen. This produces more series of
Examples: Methyl Methoate (essence of compounds.
pear drops) - CH3CO2CH3. 1. Amines (Amines have one or more of
• It is possible to have two or more the Hydrogen atoms in Ammonia
functional groups on a molecule. These (NH3) replaced by a Hydrocarbon
can be the same group (as in Oxalic Acid chain or ring). These have a general
- a poison found in rhubarb leaves - formula: CnH2n+1NH2. Examples:
Methylamine (a pungent, water soluble
41 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
problem was that the atomic masses do definite volume or shape; a gas will fill
not increase in a regular manner in whatever volume is available to it.
going from one element to the next. So Contrast this to the behavior of a liquid,
it was not possible to predict how which always has a distinct upper
many elements could be discovered surface when its volume is less than
between two elements — especially that of the space it occupies.
when we consider the heavier • The other outstanding characteristic of
elements. gases is their low densities, compared
• In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that with those of liquids and solids. The
the atomic number of an element is a most remarkable property of gases,
more fundamental property than its however, is that to a very good
atomic mass. Accordingly, Mendeléev’s approximation, they all behave the
Periodic Law was modified and atomic same way in response to changes in
number was adopted as the basis of temperature and pressure, expanding
Modern Periodic Table and the Modern or contracting by predictable amounts.
Periodic Law. This is very different from the
• The vertical columns are called groups, behavior of liquids or solids, in which
while the horizontal rows are the properties of each particular
called periods. The noble gases are on substance must be determined
the extreme right of the table and on individually.
the table’s extreme left, are the alkali • All gases expand equally due to equally
metals. Transition elements are placed due to equal temperature difference.
in the B subgroups in the middle of the • Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon
table. The inner transition elements - in which a substance mixes with
lanthanides and actinides, are placed another because of molecular motion,
in two separate series at the bottom of even against gravity- is called
the periodic table. Group number is diffusion.
number of electrons in the valence • The pressure of a gas: The molecules
shell. Elements having the same of a gas, being in continuous motion,
valence number, are grouped together. frequently strike the inner walls of
The number of shells present in the their container. As they do so, they
atom gives period number. immediately bounce off without loss of
• Atomic size: The term atomic size kinetic energy, but the reversal of
refers to the radius of an atom. The direction (acceleration) imparts a force
atomic size may be visualised as the to the container walls. This force,
distance between the centre of the divided by the total surface area on
nucleus and the outermost shell of an which it acts, is the pressure of the gas.
isolated atom. • The unit of pressure in the SI system is
PROPERTIES OF GASES the pascal (Pa), defined as a force of
one newton per square metre (1 Nm–
1. Properties of Gases 2 = 1 kg m–1 s–2.)
• First, we know that a gas has no
43 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
“hydro” which means water. Scientists of carbon, which is very soft and
use the letter “H” to represent slippery. Graphite has a mobile cloud
hydrogen in all chemical equations and of electrons on the horizontal planes,
descriptions. which makes it a good conductor of
• Hydrogen atom has one electron in electricity.
its valence shell like alkali metals. • Apart from diamond and graphite,
• Hydrogen generally shows + 1 which are crystalline forms of
valency like alkali metals. carbon, all other forms of carbon are
• Hydrogen is a good reducing agent amorphous allotropes of carbon.
like other alkali metals. Destructive distillation of coal gives
• The isotopes of hydrogen: Protium products like coal gas, gas carbon,
has an atomic number 1, and mass coal tar and ammonical liquor.
number 1, Deuterium, has an atomic • Lamp Black is also known as Soot.
number 1, and mass number 2 and Soot is obtained by the incomplete
Tritium has an atomic number 1, and combustion of carbonaceous, fuels,
mass number 3. especially oil fuels, in limited supply
• It has a vapour density of 1, which of air. The soot settles on the cooler
is 14.4 times lighter than air. parts of the chamber, and can be
2. Carbon: The sixth element in the collected by scrapping it.
periodic table. It is a very stable • Wood charcoal is obtained by the
element. Because it is stable, it can be destructive distillation of wood. The
found in many naturally occurring chief products formed are wood
compounds and by itself. Scientists charcoal, wood tar, pyroligneous
describe the three states of carbon as acid and wood gas .
diamond, amorphous, and graphite. • Sugar charcoal can be obtained by
• Carbon exhibits allotropy and shows dehydrating cane sugar, either by
maximum catenation. treating it with concentrated
• Normal valency of carbon is four sulphuric acid or by heating it in the
due to the presence of four valence absence of air.
electrons. Thus all four bonds are • Bone charcoal is a black powder
generally covalent. called as ‘ivory black’. It is porous
• Carbon occurs both in free state as and can adsorb colouring matter. It
diamond, coal etc. and also in the is mostly used in sugar industry to
combined form as CO2. decolourise sugar.
• Diamond is one of the allotropic 3. Nitrogen: It is the seventh element of
forms of carbon and is the purest the periodic table located between
form of natural carbon. It is the carbon and oxygen. Almost eighty
hardest natural substance. Diamond percent of Earth’s atmosphere is made
is a giant framework that forms a of nitrogen gas. Nitrogen is a clear gas
rigid structure with no free electrons that has no smell when it is in its pure
to conduct electricity. form. It is not very reactive when it is
• Graphite is also an allotropic form in a pure molecule, but it can create
47 Gist of Chemistry from NCERT Books
KALINJAR PUBLICATIONS
GENERAL
SCIENCE
MCQ Series
52 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
envelope is a membrane similar to the activity of the cell. Neurons cell have a
cell membranes around the whole cell. comparatively larger nucleate than
(b) Chromatin : When the cell is in resting those cell have no synthetic activity. The
state there is something called nucleolus stores proteins.
chromatin in the nucleus. Chromatin Cell Division
is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus Organisms grow and reduce through cell
protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus division. Plants continue to grow by cell division
acids inside the cell. When the cell is all their lives. But in most animals cells divide
going to divide, the chromatin become more slowly once the body taken shape. There are
very compact. It condenses when the two methods of replication mitosis and meiosis.
chromatin comes together we can see (a) Mitosis: The main theme of this
the chromosomes. replication is that mitosis is the simple
(c) Chromosomes: Chromosomes make duplication of a cell and all of its parts.
organisms what they are. They carry It duplicates its DNA and the two new
all the information used to help a cell cells (daughter cells) have the same
grow, thrive and reproduce. pieces and generic code. Beyond the
8 Chromosomes are made up of DNA. idea that two identical cells are created,
8 Segments of DNA in specific patterns there are five steps in this process. You
are called genes. should remember the term PMATI. It
8 In prolaryotes, DNA floats in the breaks down to :
cytoplasm in an area called the 1. Prophase
nucleoid. 2. Metaphase
8 Chromosomes are not always 3. Anaphase
visible. They usually sit around 4. Telophase
uncoiled and as loose shards called 5. Interphase.
The phases:
chromation.
(i) Prophase: a cell gets the idea that it
8 When it is time for all cells to
is time to divide. First it has to get
reproduce, they condense and wrap
everything ready. Cell need -to
up very tightly. The tightly round
duplicate DNA, get certain pieces in
DNA in the chromosome.
the right position (centrioles) and
8 Chromosomes are usually found in
generally prepare the cell for the
pairs.
process of mitotic division.
8 Human Beings probably have 46
(ii) Metaphase: The DNA lines up along
chromosomes (23 pairs).
a central axis and then DNA
8 Peas only have 12, a dog has 78
condensed into chromosomes.
chromosomes.
(iii) Anaphase: Here the separation
8 The number of chromosomes is not
begins. Half of the chromosomes are
related to the intelligence or
pulled to one side of the cell half to
complexity of the creature.
go the other way.
(d) Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical
(iv) Telophase: Now the division is
granule contained within the nucleus,
finishing up. We have now two
its size is related to the synthetic
55 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
separate cells each with half of the of the cell and then pulled to each side.
original DNA. Meiosis is a bit different because there
(v) Interphase: This is the normal state are some thing called crossing-over
of the cell. happens with the DNA. This crossing
(b) Meiosis: It’s for sexual reproduction. over is an exchange of genes. The genes
The main theme of meiosis is that there are mixed up not resulting in a perfect
are two cell division. Mitosis has one duplicate like mitosis. The cell divides,
division and meiosis has two divisions having two new cells with a pair of
in this process four cells are created chromosomes each. Since this is
where there was originally one. meiosis. There is a very short
Meiosis happens when its time to reproduce interphase and division begins again.
an organisms. The steps of meiosis are very 8 Meiosis II : In this division the DNA
simple. When we break it down its just two that remains in the cell begins to
PMATI’s in a row. The interphase that happens condense and form short chromosomes
between the two proce-sses is very short and the and the centre of the cell and the
DNA is not duplicated. Meiosis is the great process centrioles are in position for the
that shuffles the cell’s gene-sis around. Instead of
duplication. Each one splits into two
creating two new cells with equal number of
chromosomes (like mitosis).
pieces. They don’t divide up the DNA
between the cells. They split the DNA
that exits. Each daughter cell will get
Parent cell
one half of the DNA needed to make a
functioning cell. When it’s all over we
left with four haploid cells (means half
the regular number) that are called
DNA replicates gametes. The eventual purpose of the
gametes will be to find other gametes
with which they can combine.
Some important facts regarding cells :
8 Nerve cells in animals are the longest
2 daughter cells
cells.
8 Smallest human cell is red blood cell.
8 Largest human cell is female ovum.
4 daughter cells 8 The single largest cell in the world is
of an ostrich.
8 The smallest cells are those of the
The cell does a second divi-sion soon after mycoplasma.
the first. This second divi-sion divides the number 8 Every minute about 3 millions cells in
of chromo-somes in half. Scien-tists call, this our body die.
process as meiosis I and II, but its just two 8 Sieve tube in plants and the mature
PMATI’s. mammalian red blood cells do not have
8 Meiosis I: This is basically live PMATI a nucleus.
of a regular mitosis. Pairs of 8 The red blood cell carries respiratory
chromosomes are lined up at the centre gases.
56 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Rough endoplasmic
into frog. The embryonic tissues like Tonoplast
reticulum
lysosome. Nucleus
Smooth
capable of replication. endoplasmic reticulum
Goign apparatus
8 Matrix is a transparent, homogenous
semi-fluid substance. In its active state. Mitochondrion
Dissimilarities :
Cell part Plant Animals
Cell wall present absent
Lysosomes absent present
Centrioles absent present
Plastids present absent
vacuoles present absent
TISSUE
Epithetical Tissue
It is a tissue that is made up of tightly packed cells. Without much materials with in these cells.
The reasons for the tightly packed cells are to act as a barrier against mechanical injury, invading micro-
organisms and fluid loss. We can define epithetical tissue by considering two points in mind one is the
number of cells layers and two the shape of the cells.
(i) On the basis of cell layers
(a) When an epithelium has a single layer of cells it is called a simple epithelium.
(b) Where as a multiple tier of cells are known as stratified epithelium.
(ii) On the basis of simple shape of cells:
8 Cuboidal : its occurrence is in kidney tubules, salivery glands, inner lining of the
cheek. Its main function is to give mechanical strength.
8 Columnar : its occurrence is in sweat gland, tear gland, salivary gland its main
function is to gives mechanical strength concerned with secretions.
Protein fibers
Soft
extracellular
matrix
Cells
Connective Losses connective Bone Cartilage Blood is a connective
tissues acts as Bone and cartilage are connective tissues made up tissue made up of
tissues: padding under cells in a hard of stiff extracellular matrix. cells in a liquid matrix.
skin and elsewhere.
Connective Tissue
A. Areolar tissue : It fills spaces inside one end of a muscle cell, a wave of excitation is
organs found around muscles, blood conducted through the entire cell so that all parts
vessels and nerves. Its main function is contract in harmony. There were three types of
to joins skin to muscles, support muscle cells: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
internal organs, help in the repair of muscles.
tissues. Where as tendon’s main Muscular tissue:
function is to connect muscles to bones 8 skeletal
and ligament is connects bones to each 8 cardiac
other. 8 Smooth muscle tissue.
A. Skeletal muscle : It attached primarily
B. Adipose tissue : its occurrence is below to bones. Its main function is to provide
skin, between internal organs and in the force for locomotion and all other
the yellow bone Marrow. Its main voluntary movements of the body.
function is to storage of fat and to B. Cardiac muscle : It occurs only in the
conserve heat. heart. The contraction and relaxation
C. Skeletal tissue : Bone & Courtilage of the heart muscles help to pump the
cartilage occurrences is in nose pic, blood and distribute it to the various
epigotis and in intervertebral disc of parts of the body.
mammals. Its main function is to C. Smooth muscles : It can be found in
provide support and flexibility to body stomach, intestines, and blood vessels
part. Where as bone protects internal these muscles cause slow and
delicate organs provides attachments prolonged contractions which are
for muscles, bone marrow makes blood involuntary.
cells. D. Nervous tissue : This tissue is
D. Fluid tissue : Blood & Lymph blood specialized with a capability to
transport O2 nutrients, hormones to conduct electrical impulses and convey
tissues and organs. Where as leucocytes information from one area of the body
fight diseases and platelets help in to another. Most of the nervous tissue
cloting of blood. (98%) is located in the central nervous
Lymph transport nutrients into the heart and system. The brain and spinal cord.
it also forms the defense system of the body. There are two types of nervous tissue
Muscular Tissue neurons and neuroglia.
It is specialized for an ability to contract Nervous Tissue
muscle cells. These are elongated and referred to 8 neurons
as muscle fibers. When a stimulates is received at 8 neuroglia
59 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
pelvic girdles.
Tibia
8 The human skull, or cranium, has a Fibula
number of individual bones tightly Calcaneus
fitted together at immovable joints. Tarsals
8 At birth many of these joints are not Metatarsals
Phalanges
completely structured together as bone,
leading to a number of “soft spots” or
fontanels, which do not completely join 8 Each hand or foot ends in 5 digits
until the age of 14-18 months. (fingers or toes) composed of
metacarpals (hands) or metatarsals
8 The vertebral column has 33 individual
(feet).
vertebrae separated from each other by
61 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
8 Limbs are connected to the rest of the bone. The spongy bone of the femur,
skeleton by collections of bones known humerus, and sternum contains red
as girdles. The pectoral girdle consists marrow, in which stem cells reproduce
of the clavicle (collar bone) and scapula and form the cellular components of the
(shoulder blade). blood and immune system. Yellow
8 The humerus is joined to the pectoral marrow, at the center of these bones, is
girdle at a joint and is held in place by used to store fats. The outer layer of the
muscles and ligaments. A dislocated bones is known as the periosteum.
shoulder occurs when the end of the 8 The inner layer of the periosteum forms
humerus slips out of the socket of the new bone or modifies existing bone to
scapula, stretching ligaments and meet new conditions. It is rich in nerve
muscles. The pelvic girdle consists of endings and blood and lymphatic
two hipbones that form a hollow cavity, vessels. When fractures occur, the pain
the pelvis. is carried to the brain by nerves running
8 The vertebral column attaches to the through the periosteum.
top of the pelvis; the femur of each leg Skeletal Muscle Systems
attaches to the bottom. The pelvic girdle
in land animals transfers the weight of Skeleton Muscles
(FRONT)
the body to the legs and feet. Pelvic Skull (FRONT) (BACK)
reversal of this polarity, causing the muscle to regeneration of ADP into ATP.
contract (the mechanical characteristic) producing 8 Calcium ions are required for each cycle
a twitch or movement. of myosin-actin interaction. Calcium is
Skeletal Muscle Structure released into the sarcomere when a
8 Muscle fibers are multinucleated, with muscle is stimulated to contract. This
the nuclei located just under the plasma calcium uncovers the actin binding
membrane. Most of the cell is occupied sites. When the muscle no longer needs
by striated, thread-like myofibrils. to contract, the calcium ions are
Within each myofibril there are dense Z pumped from the sarcomere and back
lines. A sarcomere (or muscle functional into storage.
unit) extends from Z line to Z line. Each Contraction of Nonmuscular Cells
sarcomere has thick and thin filaments. 8 Actin and myosin, whose interaction
The thick filaments are made of myosin causes muscle contraction, occur in
and occupy the center of each many other cells. Actin is attached to
sarcomere. Thin filaments are made of the inner surface of the plasma
action and anchor to the Z line. membrane. The interaction of
8 Muscles contract by shortening each cytoplasmic myosin and this actin
sarcomere. The sliding filament model causes contraction of the cell, such a the
of muscle contraction has thin filaments coordinated contractions of intestinal
on each side of the sarcomere sliding cells to absorb nutrients.
past each other until they meet in the 8 Some fish have modified muscles that
middle. Myosin filaments have club- discharge electricity. These fish have
shaped heads that project toward the electric organs consisting of modified
actin filaments. muscles known as electroplates. The
8 Myosin heads attach to binding sites South American electric eel has more
on the actin filaments. The myosin than 6000 plates arranged into 70
heads swivel toward the center of the columns. Maximum discharge is 100
sarcomere, detach and then reattach to watts.
the nearest active site of the actin Interaction of the Two Systems
filament. Each cycle of attachment,
swiveling, and detachment shortens the 8 Vertebrates move by application of the
sarcomere 1%. Hundreds of such cycles principles of the lever. Levers amplify
occur each second during muscle or increase the force or velocity of
contraction. motion.
8 Energy for this comes from ATP, the 8 The amount of amplification depends
energy coin of the cell. ATP binds to the on the length of the lever. There are three
cross bridges between myosin heads types of skeletal system, all interact with
and actin filaments. The release of muscles using the lever.
energy powers the swiveling of the THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
myosin head. Muscles store little ATP
and so must recycle the ADP into ATP Divisions of the Nervous System
rapidly. Creatine phosphate is a muscle 8 The nervous system monitors and
storage product involved in the rapid controls almost every organ system
through a series of positive and
63 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. Humans have about 100 billion neurons
in their brain alone! While variable in size and shape,
a. Parts of Neuron:
All neurons have three parts.
Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body.
The cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic cells.
64 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
The axon conducts messages away from the of the membrane, propagating the message along
cell body. the length of the cell membrane. After passage of
b. Types of Neuron: the action potential, there is a brief period, the
Three types of neurons occur. Sensory refractory period, during which the membrane
neurons typically have a long dendrite and short cannot be stimulated. This prevents the message
axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors from being transmitted backward along the
to the central nervous system. membrane.
Motor neurons have a long axon and short STEPS IN AN ACTION POTENTIAL
dendrites and transmit messages from the central
nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). 1. At rest the outside of the membrane is
Interneurons are found only in the central more positive than the inside.
nervous system where they connect neuron to 2. Sodium moves inside the cell causing
neuron. Some axons are wrapped in a myelin an action potential, the influx of
sheath formed from the plasma membranes of positive sodium ions makes the inside
specialized glial cells known as Schwann cells.
of the membrane more positive than the
Schwann cells serve as supportive, nutritive, and
outside.
service facilities for neurons. The gap between
Schwann cells is known as the node of Ranvier, 3. Potassium ions flow out of the cell,
and serves as points along the neuron for restoring the resting potential net
generating a signal. Signals jumping from node charges.
to node travel hundreds of times faster than 4. Sodium ions are pumped out of the cell
signals traveling along the surface of the axon. and potassium ions are pumped into
This allows our brain to communicate with our the cell, restoring the original
toes in a few thousandths of a second. distribution of ions.
THE NERVE MESSAGE SYNAPSES
The plasma membrane of neurons, like all The junction between a nerve cell and
other cells, has an unequal distribution of ions another cell is called a synapse. Messages travel
and electrical charges between the two sides of the within the neuron as an electrical action potential.
membrane. The outside of the membrane has a The space between two cells is known as the
positive charge, inside has a negative charge. synaptic cleft. To cross the synaptic cleft requires
Resting potential results from differences the actions of neurotransmitters.
between sodium and potassium positively Neurotransmitters are stored in small synaptic
charged ions and negatively charged ions in the vessicles clustered at the tip of the axon.
cytoplasm. Neurotransmitters tend to be small molecules,
Sodium ions are more concentrated outside some are even hormones. The neurotransmitters
the membrane, while potassium ions are more cross the cleft, binding to receptor molecules on
concentrated inside the membrane. This the next cell, prompting transmission of the
imbalance is maintained by the active transport message along that cell’s membrane. Diseases that
of ions to reset the membrane known as the affect the function of signal transmission can have
sodium potassium pump. serious consequences. Parkinson’s disease has a
The sodium-potassium pump maintains deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
this unequal concentration by actively Progressive death of brain cells increases this
transporting ions against their concentration deficit, causing tremors, rigidity and unstable
gradients. . The action potential begins at one spot posture.
on the membrane, but spreads to adjacent areas
65 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Evolution of Endocrine Systems bind only to one type of hormone. More than fifty
Most animals with well-developed nervous human hormones have been identified; all act by
and circulatory systems have an endocrine binding to receptor molecules. The binding
system. Most of the similarities among the hormone changes the shape of the receptor
endocrine systems of crustaceans, arthropods, causing the response to the hormone. There are
and vertebrates are examples of convergent two mechanisms of hormone action on all target
evolution. The vertebrate endocrine system cells.
consists of glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), iii. Nonsteroid Hormones
and diffuse cell groups secreted in epithelial Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do not
tissues. More than fifty different hormones are enter the cell but bind to plasma membrane
secreted. Endocrine glands arise during receptors, generating a chemical signal (second
development for all three embryologic tissue layers messenger) inside the target cell. Five different
(endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm). The type of second messenger chemicals, including cyclic
endocrine product is determined by which tissue AMP have been identified. Second messengers
layer a gland originated in. Glands of ectodermal activate other intracellular chemicals to produce
and endodermal origin produce peptide and the target cell response.
amine hormones; mesodermal-origin glands iv. Steroid Hormones
secrete hormones based on lipids. The second mechanism involves steroid
i. Endocrine Systems and Feedback hormones, which pass through the plasma
Cycles membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid
The endocrine system uses cycles and hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the nuclear
negative feedback to regulate physiological membrane receptors, producing an activated
functions. Negative feedback regulates the hormone-receptor complex. The activated
secretion of almost every hormone. Cycles of hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and
secretion maintain physiological and activates specific genes, increasing production of
homeostatic control. These cycles can range from proteins.
hours to months in duration. The Nervous and Endocrine Systems
The pituitary gland (often called the master
Pineal
gland) is located in a small bony cavity at the base
Pituitary
of the brain. A stalk links the pituitary to the
Thyroid hypothalamus, which controls release of pituitary
Parathyroid hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes: the
Thymus
anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary
Adrenal
is glandular. The hypothalamus contains neurons
Pancreas
that control releases from the anterior pituitary.
Seven hypothalamic hormones are released into
Ovary
a portal system connecting the hypothalamus and
Testis pituitary, and cause targets in the pituitary to
release eight hormones.
Male body Female body I. ANTERIOL PITUITOLY
ii. Mechanisms of Hormone Action Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior
The endocrine system acts by releasing pituitary hormone essential for growth. GH-
hormones that in turn trigger actions in specific releasing hormone stimulates release of GH. GH-
target cells. Receptors on target cell membranes inhibiting hormone suppresses the release of GH.
67 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
The hypothalamus maintains homeostatic levels ACTH-cortisol, TSH, and GH show circadian
of GH. Cells under the action of GH increase in rhythms.
size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia). GH Thyroid secretion is usually higher in winter
also causes increase in bone length and thickness than in summer. Childbirth is hormonally
by deposition of cartilage at the ends of bones. controlled, and is highest between 2 and 7 AM.
During adolescence, sex hormones cause Internal cycles of hormone production are
replacement of cartilage by bone, halting further controlled by the hypothalamus, specifically the
bone growth even though GH is still present. Too suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN). According to one
little or two much GH can cause dwarfism or model, the SCN is signaled by messages from the
gigantism, respectively. Hypothalamus receptors light-detecting retina of the eyes. The SCN signals
monitor blood levels of thyroid hormones. Low the pineal gland in the brain to signal the
blood levels of Thyroid-stimulating hormone hypothalamus, etc.
(TSH) cause the release of TSH-releasing hormone Endocrines: The Postal System of
from the hypothalamus, which in turn causes the Communication and Co-Ordination
release of TSH from the anterior pituitary. TSH
travels to the thyroid where it promotes 8 Hormones are chemical substances
production of thyroid hormones, which in turn manufactured by organs called
regulate metabolic rates and body temperatures. endocrine glands or ductless glands.
Gonadotropins and prolactin are also secreted by Ductless glands are also sometimes
the anterior pituitary. Gonadotropins (which called ‘exocrine glands’.
include follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and ENDOCRINE GLAND OF THE BODY
luteinizing hormone, LH) affect the gonads by
stimulating gamete formation and production of 8 Thyroid is situated in the neck in front
sex hormones. Prolactin is secreted near the end of the wind pipe. It manufactures two
of pregnancy and prepares the breasts for milk hormones: triodothyro (T 3 ) and
production. tetraiodothysonine (T 4), are called
II. THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY tyrosine. Both these hormones contain
iodine.
The posterior pituitary stores and releases
8 Hypothyroidism (hypo, ‘under’)–
hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic hormone
diminished thyroid activity.
(ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the
Hypothyroi-dism in childhood gives
hypothalamus and transported by axons to the
posterior pituitary where they are dumped into the rise to a conditions called cretinism.
blood. ADH controls water balance in the body Goiter– is called enlargement of the thyroid
and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a small peptide gland. It manifests itself as a swelling in the neck.
hormone that stimulates uterine contractions A goiter may be associated with increased, normal
during childbirth. or descreased activity of the thyroid gland.
Biological Cycles 8 Government of India launched the
Universal salt iodisation programme in
Biological cycles ranging from minutes to
1986.
years occur throughout the animal kingdom.
Pancreas— the endocrine department of the
Cycles involve hibernation, mating behavior, body
pancreas is scattered throughout its substance in
temperature and many other physiological
the form of tiny islands. The islands have been
processes.
named as ‘islets of Langerhans’. The islets have
Rhythms or cycles that show cyclic changes
two major type of cells called A and B. The A cells
on a daily (or even a few hours) basis are known
secrete the hormone ‘glucagon’ while the B cells
as circadian rhythms. Many hormones, such as
68 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
cells and B memory cells. Plasma cells organs, and lymph vessels make up the system.
make and release between 2000 and The immune system is able to distinguish self from
20,000 antibody molecules per second non-self. Antigens are chemicals on the surface of
into the blood for the next four or five a cell. All cells have these. The immune system
days. B memory cells live for months or checks cells and identifies them as “self” or “non-
years, and are part of the immune self”. Antibodies are proteins produced by certain
memory system. lymphocytes in response to a specific antigen. B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes produce the
8 Antibodies : Antibodies bind to specific
antibodies. B-lymphocytes become plasma cells
antigens in a lock-and-key fashion,
which then generate antibodies. T-lymphocytes
forming an antigen-antibody complex. attack cells which bear antigens they recognize.
Antibodies are a type of protein They also mediate the immune response.
molecule known as immunoglobulins.
Blood Types, Rh, and Antibodies
There are five classes of
immunoglobulins: IgG, IgA, IgD, IgE, There are 30 or more known antigens on the
and IgM. surface of blood cells. These form the blood groups
Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules or blood types. In a transfusion, the blood groups
composed of two identical long polypeptide of the recipient and donor should match.
(Heavy or H chains) and two identical short If improperly matched, the recipient’s
polypeptides (Light or L chains). Function of immune system will produce antibodies causing
antibodies includes: clotting of the transfused cells, blocking
circulation through capillaries and producing
(i) Recognition and binding to antigens serious or even fatal results. Individuals with
(ii) Inactivation of the antigen blood type ‘A’ have the A antigen on the surface
A unique antigenic determinant recognizes of their red blood cells, and antibodies to type B
and binds to a site on the antigen, leading to the blood in their plasma. People with blood type ‘B’
destruction of the antigen in several ways. The have the B antigen on their blood cells and
ends of the Y are the antigen-combining site that antibodies against type A in their plasma.
is different for each antigen. Individuals with type ‘AB’ blood produce
Helper T cells activate B cells that produce have antigens for A and B on their cell surfaces
antibodies. Supressor T cells slow down and stop and no antibodies for either blood type A or B in
the immune response of B and T cells, serving as their plasma. Type O individuals have no antigens
an off switch for the immune system. Cytotoxic (or on their red blood cells but antigens of both A and
killer) T cells destroy body cells infected with a B are in their plasma. People with type AB blood
virus or bacteria. Memory T cells remain in the can receive blood of any type, So it is called as
body awaiting the reintroduction of the antigen. Universal Receptar.
A cell infected with a virus will display viral Those with type O blood can donate to
antigens on its plasma membrane. Killer T cells anyone. So it is called as Universal Donor.
recognize the viral antigens and attach to that Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) results
cell’s plasma membrane. The T cells secrete from Rh incompatibility between an Rh- mother
proteins that punch holes in the infected cell’s and Rh+ fetus. Rh+ blood from the fetus enters the
plasma membrane. The infected cell’s cytoplasm mother’s system during birth, causing her to
leaks out, the cell dies, and is removed by produce Rh antibodies. The first child is usually
phagocytes. Killer T cells may also bind to cells of not affected, however subsequent Rh+ fetuses will
transplanted organs. cause a massive secondary reaction of the
The immune system is the major component maternal immune system.
of this defense. Lymphocytes, monocytes, lymph To prevent HDN, Rh- mothers are given an
73 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Pulmonary
Artery
The vertebrate cardiovascular system
Aleveolus Blood Suply tolungs
Pulmonary Vein
includes a heart, which is a muscular pump that
Bronchioles
Right Lung
Left Lung contracts to propel blood out to the body through
Ribs
Heart
arteries, and a series of blood vessels.
The upper chamber of the heart, the atrium
Diaphragm
(pl. atria), is where the blood enters the heart.
Passing through a valve, blood enters the lower
2. Diffusion of oxygen from the medium
chamber, the ventricle.
into the blood.
Contraction of the ventricle forces blood
3. Transport of oxygen to the tissues and from the heart through an artery.
cells of the body. The heart muscle is composed of cardiac
4. Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into muscle cells.
cells. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood
5. Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path. away from heart. Arterial walls are able to expand
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM and contract. Arteries have three layers of thick
walls. Smooth muscle fibers contract, another
Circulatory Systems in layer of connective tissue is quite elastic, allowing
Single-celled Organisms the arteries to carry blood under high pressure
Single-celled organisms use their cell The aorta is the main artery leaving the
surface as a point of exchange with the outside heart.
environment. Sponges are the simplest animals, The pulmonary artery is the only artery that
yet even they have a transport system. Seawater carries oxygen-poor blood. The pulmonary artery
is the medium of transport and is propelled in and carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the
out of the sponge by ciliary action. Simple lungs, gas exchange occurs, carbon dioxide
animals, such as the hydra and planaria lack diffuses out, oxygen diffuses in
specialized organs such as hearts and blood Arterioles are small arteries that connect
vessels, instead using their skin as an exchange larger arteries with capillaries. Small arterioles
point for materials. This, however, limits the size branch into collections of capillaries known as
an animal can attain. To become larger, they need capillary beds.
specialized organs and organ systems. Capillaries, are thin-walled blood vessels in
Circulatory Systems in which gas exchange occurs.
Multicellular Organisms In the capillary, the wall is only one cell layer
thick.
Multicellular animals do not have most of Capillaries are concentrated into capillary
their cells in contact with the external beds. Some capillaries have small pores between
environment and so have developed circulatory the cells of the capillary wall, allowing materials
systems to transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon to flow in and out of capillaries as well as the
dioxide and metabolic wastes. Components of the passage of white blood cells.
circulatory system include Changes in blood pressure also occur in the
i. Blood: a connective tissue of liquid various vessels of the circulatory system.
plasma and cells Nutrients, wastes, and hormones are
76 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
exchanged across the thin walls of capillaries. messages from these sensors communicate
Capillaries are microscopic in size, although conditions to the medulla in the brain. Signals
blushing is one manifestation of blood flow into from the medulla regulate blood pressure.
capillaries. Control of blood flow into capillary Diseases of the
beds is done by nerve-controlled sphincters. Heart and Cardiovascular System
The circulatory system functions in the
Heart Attack
delivery of oxygen, nutrient molecules, and
hormones and the removal of carbon dioxide, Cardiac muscle cells are serviced by a
ammonia and other metabolic wastes. Capillaries system of coronary arteries. During exercise the
are the points of exchange between the blood and flow through these arteries is up to five times
surrounding tissues. Materials cross in and out normal flow. Blocked flow in coronary arteries can
of the capillaries by passing through or between result in death of heart muscle, leading to a heart
the cells that line the capillary. The extensive attack. Blockage of coronary arteries. is usually
network of capillaries in the human body is the result of gradual buildup of lipids and
estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000 miles cholesterol in the inner wall of the coronary artery.
long.Thoroughfare channels allow blood to Occasional chest pain, angina pectoralis, can
bypass a capillary bed. These channels can open result during periods of stress or physical
and close by the action of muscles that control exertion. Angina indicates oxygen demands are
blood flow through the channels. greater than capacity to deliver it and that a heart
Blood leaving the capillary beds flows into attack may occur in the future. Heart muscle cells
a progressively larger series of venules that in turn that die are not replaced since heart muscle cells
join to form veins.Veins carry blood from do not divide. Heart disease and coronary artery
capillaries to the heart.With the exception of the disease are the leading causes of death tody.
pulmonary veins, blood in veins is oxygen-poor. Hypertension, high blood pressure (the
The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood silent killer), occurs when blood pressure is
from lungs back to the heart.Venules are smaller consistently above 140/90. Causes in most cases
veins that gather blood from capillary beds into are unknown, although stress, obesity, high salt
veins.Pressure in veins is low, so veins depend on intake, and smoking can add to a genetic
nearby muscular contractions to move blood predisposition. Luckily, when diagnosed, the
along. The veins have valves that prevent back- condition is usually treatable with medicines and
flow of blood Blood pressure: diet/exercise.
Ventricular contraction propels blood into The Vascular System
arteries under great pressure. Blood pressure is Two main routes for circulation are the
measured in mm of mercury; healthy young adults pulmonary (to and from the lungs) and the
should have pressure of ventricular systole of systemic (to and from the body). Pulmonary
120mm, and 80 mm at ventricular diastole. arteries carry blood from the heart to the lungs. In
Higher pressures (human 120/80 as the lungs gas exchange occurs. Pulmonary veins
compared to a 12/1 in lobsters) mean the volume carry blood from lungs to heart. The aorta is the
of blood circulates faster (20 seconds in humans, main artery of systemic circuit. The vena cavae are
8 minutes in lobsters). the main veins of the systemic circuit. Coronary
As blood gets farther from the heart, the arteries deliver oxygenated blood, food, etc. to the
pressure likewise decreases. Each contraction of heart.
the ventricles sends pressure through the arteries. Animals often have a portal system, which
Elasticity of lungs helps keep pulmonary begins and ends in capillaries, such as between
pressures low. Systemic pressure is sensed by the digestive tract and the liver. Fish pump blood
receptors in the arteries and atria. Nerve from the heart to their gills, where gas exchange
77 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
occurs, and then on to the rest of the body. concave cells about 7 µm in diameter
Mammals pump blood to the lungs for gas that carry oxygen associated in the cell’s
exchange, then back to the heart for pumping out hemoglobin.
to the systemic circulation. Blood flows in only 8 Mature erythrocytes lack a nucleus.
one direction. They are small, 4 to 6 million cells per
Blood cubic millimeter of blood, and have 200
million hemoglobin molecules per cell.
8 Humans have a total of 25 trillion red
blood cells (about 1/3 of all the cells in
Surface view Side view the body).
A. Red blood cells
W.B.C.
C. Platelets 8 Red blood cells are continuously
manufactured in red marrow of long
Granulocytes Agranulocytes bones, ribs, skull, and vertebrae.
Granules Nucleus 8 Life-span of an erythrocyte is only 120
Nucleus Cytoplasm
days, after which they are destroyed in
Basophil Neurrophil
Lymphocyte Monocyte liver and spleen.
Eosinophil
B. White blood corpuseles
8 Iron from hemoglobin is recovered and
Cellular components of human blood reused by red marrow. The liver
degrades the heme units and secretes
Blood is a bright red viscous fluid which them as pigment in the bile, responsible
flows through all the vessels except the lymph for the color of feces.
vessels. It constitutes 8% of the total body weight.
8 Each second two million red blood cells
Blood is composed of two portions: formed
are produced to replace the dead red
elements(cell and cell like structures) ad plasma
blood cells.
(liquid containing dissolved substances).
(b) White Blood Cells
Plasma:
White blood cells, also known as leukocytes,
8 Plasma is the liquid component of the
are larger than erythrocytes, have a nucleus, and
blood. Mammalian blood consists of a
lack hemoglobin. They function in the cellular
liquid (plasma) and a number of immune response. White blood cells (leukocytes)
cellular and cell fragment components. are less than 1% of the blood’s volume. They are
8 Plasma is about 60 % of a volume of made from stem cells in bone marrow.
blood; cells and fragments are 40%. There are five types of leukocytes, which are
Plasma has 90% water and 10% important components of the immune system.
dissolved materials including proteins, (a) Neutrophils enter the tissue fluid by
glucose, ions, hormones, and gases. squeezing through capillary walls and
8 It acts as a buffer, maintaining pH near phagocytozing foreign substances
7.4. Plasma contains nutrients, wastes, (b) Macrophages release white blood cell
salts, proteins, etc. Proteins in the blood growth factors, causing a population
aid in transport of large molecules such increase for white blood cells.
as cholesterol. (c) Lymphocytes fight infection.
8 Formed elements: (d) T-cells attack cells containing viruses.
(a) Red blood cells (e) B-cells produce antibodies. Antigen-
8 Red blood cells, also known as antibody complexes are phagocytized
erythrocytes, are flattened, doubly by a macrophage.
78 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
White blood cells can squeeze through pores finding a mate, and mating.
in the capillaries and fight infectious diseases in 8 Fission, budding, fragmentation, and
intestinal areas the formation of rhizomes and stolons
(c) Platelets are some of the mechanisms that allow
8 Platelets result from cell fragmentation organisms to reproduce asexually.
and are involved with clotting. 8 The hydra produces buds;
8 Platelets are cell fragments that bud off 8 starfish can regenerate an entire body
megakaryocytes in bone marrow. They from a fragment of the original body.
carry chemicals essential to blood
8 The lack of genetic variability in
clotting.
asexually reproducing populations can
8 Platelets survive for 10 days before
be detrimental when environmental
being removed by the liver and spleen.
conditions change quickly.
8 There are 150,000 to 300,000 platelets
Sexual Reproduction
in each milliliter of blood.
8 Platelets stick and adhere to tears in 8 In sexual reproduction new individuals
blood vessels; they also release clotting are produced by the fusion of haploid
factors. A hemophiliac’s blood cannot gametes to form a diploid zygote.
clot. Providing correct proteins (clotting 8 Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum
factors) has been a common method of singular) are female gametes.
treating hemophiliacs. It has also led to 8 Meiosis produces cells that are
HIV transmission due to the use of genetically distinct from each other.
transfusions and use of contaminated 8 fertilization is the fusion of two such
blood products. distinctive cells.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 8 Rotifers will reproduce asexually when
conditions are favorable by having
Asexual reproduction females produce eggs by mitosis. When
conditions deteriorate, rotifers will
Developing
Bud
reproduce sexually and encase their
Nucleus Bud
Vacuole zygotes inside a resistant shell. Once
Mother cell
conditions improve, these eggs hatch
into diploid individuals. Rotifers thus
Vacuole
use sexual reproduction as way to
Nucleus
Dividing cell Divided cell survive a deteriorating environment.
Central Sclerotium
8 Sexual reproduction offers the benefit
cavity
of generating genetic variation among
Hyphal offspring, which enhances the chances
core
of the population’s survival.
Loose hyphase
8 Costs of this process include the need
for two individuals to mate, courtship
8 Asexual reproduction allows an rituals, as well as a number of basic
organism to rapidly produce many mechanisms described later.
offspring without the time and Human Reproduction and Development
resources committed to courtship, 8 Human reproduction employs internal
79 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
stimulate sensory receptors in the penis, legal grounds for the uses of such technologies.
vaginal walls, and clitoris. The sperm The separation of intercourse from
leave the epididymis and secretions of pregnancy uses methods blocking one of the three
glands form the semen. Orgasm stages of reproduction”
involves contractions of muscles of the 8 release and transport of gametes
penis (male) or vagina (female) and 8 fertilization
waves of pleasurable sensations. 8 implantation
8 Resolution reverses the previous Effectiveness
phases: muscles relax, breathing slows,
Various contraceptive methods have been
the penis returns to its normal size.
developed; none of which is 100% successful at
Sexually Transmitted Diseases preventing pregnancy or the transmission of
STDs can affect the sex partners, fetus, and STDs. Abstinence is the only completely effective
newborn infants. STDs are grouped into three method.
categories. Methods
Category One Physical prevention (most effective) include
STDs that produce inflammation of the vasectomy and tubal ligation.
urethra, epididymis, cervix, or oviducts. (a) Vasectomy: the vas deferens connecting
Gonorrhea and chlamydia are the most common the testes with the urethra is cut and
STDs in this category. Both diseases can be treated sealed to prevent the transport of sperm.
and cured with antibiotics, once diagnosed.
(b) Tubal ligation: the oviduct is cut and
Category Two
ends tied off to prevent eggs from
STDs that produce sores on the external reaching the uterus.
genitals. Genital herpes is the most common
(c) Oral contraceptives: (birth control pills)
disease in this class. Symptoms of herpes can be
It usually contain a combination of
treated by antiviral drugs, but the infection cannot
hormones that prevent release of FSH
be cured. Syphilis is a bacterially caused infection,
and can, if left untreated, cause serious symptoms and LH, inhibiting development of the
and death. However, the disease is curable with follicle so that no oocytes are released.
antibiotics. Time-release capsules (Norplant) can be
Category Three implanted under the skin and offer
long-term suppression of ovulation.
This class of STDs includes viral diseases
that affect organ systems other than those of the RU-486, the so-called morning after pill,
reproductive system. AIDS and hepatitis B are in interferes with implantation of the
this category. Both can be spread by sexual contact blastula into the uterine wall. Its use as
or blood. Infectious individuals may appear a contraceptive is very controversial.
symptom-free for years after infection. (d) Barrier methods : It employ physical
Reproduction: (condom, diaphragm) or chemical
Various contraceptive methods (spermacides) means to separate the
New techniques have been developed to sperm from the egg. Male condoms are
enhance or reduce the chances of conception. fitted over the erect penis; female
Social conventions and governing laws have condoms are placed inside the vagina.
developed far slower than this new technology, Only latex condoms prevent the spread
leading to controversy about moral, ethical, and of STDs.
82 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Diaphragms cap the cervix and block filled cavity (the blastocoel). The decreasing size
passage of the sperm into the uterus. of cells increases their surface to volume ratio,
Spermicidal jellies or foams kill sperm allowing for more efficient oxygen exchange
on contact and must be placed in the between cells and their environment. RNA and
vagina prior to intercourse. information carrying molecules are distributed to
Infertility various parts of the blastula, and this molecular
differentiation sets the stage for the layering of the
About 1 in 6 couples is infertile due to body in the next phases of development.
physical or physiological conditions preventing
Gastrulation
gamete production, implantation, or fertilization
Cause of Infertility Gastrulation involves a series of cell
migrations to positions where they will form the
Blocked oviducts (often from untreated three primary cell layers.
STDs) are the leading cause of infertility in
females. Low sperm count, low motility, or blocked 8 Ectoderm forms the outer layer.
ducts are common causes of male infertility. 8 Endoderm forms the inner layer.
Hormone therapy can cause increased egg 8 Mesoderm forms the middle layer.
production. Surgery can open blocked ducts. (a) Mesoderm:Ectoderm forms tissues
About 40 of the cases are due to male problems, associated with outer layers: skin, hair,
40 due to female problems and the remaining 20% sweat glands, epithelium. The brain
are caused by some unknown agent(s). In vitro and nervous system also develop from
fertilization (test-tube babies) is a widely used the ectoderm.
technique to aid infertile couples.
(b) Mesoder: The mesod erm forms
Fertilization and Cleavage
structures associated with movement
(A) Fertilization has Three Functions and support: body muscles, cartilage,
1. transmission of genes from both parents bone, blood, and all other connective
to offspring tissues. Reproductive system organs
and kidneys from mesoderm.
2. restoration of the diploid number of
chromosomes reduced during meiosis (c) Endoderm:The endod erm forms
tissues and organs associated with the
3. initiation of development in offspring
digestive and respiratory systems.
Steps in Fertilization
Many endocrine structures, such as the
8 Contact between sperm and egg thyroid and parathyroid glands, are
8 Entry of sperm into the egg formed by the endoderm. The liver,
8 Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei pancreas, and gall bladder arise from
endoderm.
8 Activation of development
Invagination
(B) Cleavage
Immediately after gastrulation, the body axis
Cleavage is the first step in development of
of the embryo begins to appear. Chordates have
all multicelled organisms. Cleavage converts a
the cells that will form the nervous system fold
single-celled zygote into a multicelled embryo by
into a neural tube (which will eventually form the
mitosis. Usually, the zygotic cytoplasm is divided
spinal cord). The mesoderm forms the notochord
among the newly formed cells. Frog embryos
(which will eventually form the vertebrae). The
divide to produce 37,000 cells in a little over 40
mesoderm at this time forms somites, which form
hours. The blastula is produced by mitosis of the
segmented body parts, such as the muscles of the
zygote, and is a ball of cells surrounding a fluid-
body wall.
83 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Pattern Formation and Induction affects the developmental fate of another cell or
Blastulation and gastrulation establish the tissue. As a cell begins to form certain structures,
main body axis. Organ formation occurs in the certain genes are turned on, others are turned off.
next stage of the development of the embryo. Induction affects patterns of gene expression
During organ formation, cell division is through physical contact or chemical signals.
accomplished by migration and aggregation. Formation of the vertebrate eye is a well known
Pattern formation is the result of cells “sensing” example.
their position in the embryo relative to other cells Various Stages of Fertilization
and to form structures appropriate to that Fertilization, the fusion of the sperm and
position. egg, usually occurs in the upper third of the
Gradients of informational molecules oviduct. Thirty minutes after ejaculation, sperm
within the embryo have been suggested to provide are present in the oviduct, having traveled from
the positional information to cells. Homeobox the vagina through the uterus and into the
genes are pattern genes; they coordinate with oviduct. Sperm traverse this distance by the
gradients of information molecules to establish the beating of their flagellum. Of the several hundred
body plan and development of organs. Induction million sperm released in the ejaculation, only a
is the process in which one cell or tissue type few thousand reach the egg.
Only one sperm will fertilize the egg. One sperm fuses with receptors on the surface of the
secondary oocyte, triggering a series of chemical changes in the outer oocyte membrane that prevent
any other sperm from entering the oocyte. The entry of the sperm initiates Meiosis II in the oocyte.
Fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei forms the diploid zygote.
by the chorion, and prolongs the life of the corpus having very short internodes. Sterile parts of
luteum until the placenta begins to secrete flowers are the sepals and petals. When these are
estrogen and progesterone. similar in size and shape, they are termed tepals.
Home pregnancy tests work by detecting Reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen
elevated hCG levels in the woman’s urine. (male, collectively termed the androecium) and
Placenta carpel (often the carpel is referred to as the pistil,
Maternal and embryonic structures the female parts collectively termed the
interlock to form the placenta, the nourishing gynoecium).
boundary between the mother’s and embryo’s Pollen
systems. Pollen grains (from the greek palynos for
The umbilical cord extends from the dust or pollen) contain the male gametophyte
placenta to the embryo, and transports food to and (microgametophyte) phase of the plant. Pollen
wastes from the embryo. grains are produced by meiosis of microspore
mother cells that are located along the inner edge
PLANT REPRODUCTION of the anther sacs (microsporangia). The outer part
Flowering plants of the pollen is the exine, which is composed of a
complex polysaccharide, sporopollenin. Inside
Flowering plants, the angiosperms, were the
the pollen are two (or, at most, three) cells that
last of the seed plant groups to evolve, appearing
comprise the male gametophyte. The tube cell (also
over 100 million years ago during the middle of
referred to as the tube nucleus) develops into the
the Age of Dinosaurs (late Jurassic). All flowering
pollen tube. The germ cell divides by mitosis to
plants produce flowers and if they are sexually
produce two sperm cells. Division of the germ cell
reproductive, they produce a diploid zygote and
can occur before or after pollination.
triploid endosperm.
Pollination
Anther The transfer of pollen from the anther to the
Stigma female stigma is termed pollination. This is
accomplished by a variety of methods. Entomo-
Filament phyly is the transfer of pollen by an insect.
Anemophyly is the transfer of pollen by wind.
Style
Other pollinators include birds, bats, water, and
Male cell humans. Some flowers (for example garden peas)
develop in such a way as to pollinate themselves.
Others have mechanisms to ensure pollination
with another flower. Flower color is thought to
Female cell indicate the nature of pollinator: red petals are
thought to attract birds, yellow for bees, and white
Ovary
for moths. Wind pollinated flowers have reduced
Ovule petals, such as oaks and grasses.
Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of the stigma, style,
Receptacle
and ovary containing one or more ovules. These
three structures are often termed a pistil or carpel.
Flowers In many plants, the pistils will fuse for all or part
of their length.
Flowers are collections of reproductive and
sterile tissue arranged in a tight whorled array
85 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
The Stigma and Style removed from direct contact with the outside
The stigma functions as a receptive surface environment, have developed specialized
on which pollen lands and germinates its pollen structures for obtaining and breaking down their
tube. Corn silk is part stigma, part style. The style food.
serves to move the stigma some distance from the Animals Depend on Two Processes:
ovary. This distance is species specific. Feeding and Digestion
The Ovary 8 Animals are heterotrophs, they must
The ovary contains one or more ovules, absorb nutrients or ingest food sources.
which in turn contain one female gametophyte, 8 Ingestive eaters, majority of animals,
also referred to in angiosperms as the embryo sac. use a mouth to ingest food.
Some plants, such as cherry, have only a single
8 Absorptive feeders, such as tapeworms,
ovary which produces two ovules. Only one ovule
live in a digestive system of another
will develop into a seed.
animal and absorb nutrients from that
Double Fertilization
animal directly through their body
The process of pollination being wall.
accomplished, the pollen tube grows through the
8 Filter feeders, such as oysters and
stigma and style toward the ovules in the ovary.
mussels, collect small organisms and
The germ cell in the pollen grain divides and
particles from the surrounding water
releases two sperm cells which move down the
pollen tube. Once the tip of the tube reaches the 8 Substrate feeders, such as earthworms
micropyle end of the embryo sac, the tube grows and termites, eat the material (dirt or
through into the embryo sac through one of the wood) they burrow through.
synergids which flank the egg. One sperm cell 8 Fluid feeders, such as aphids, pierce the
fuses with the egg, producing the zygote which body of a plant or animal and withdraw
will later develope into the next-generation fluids.
sporophyte. The second sperm fuses with the two Stages in the Digestive Process
polar bodies located in the center of the sac,
Food for the most part consists of various
producing the nutritive triploid endosperm tissue
organic macromolecules such as starch, proteins,
that will provide energy for the embryo’s growth
and fats. These molecules are polymers made of
and development.
individual monomer units Breaking these large
Fruit molecules into smaller components involves:
The ovary wall, after fertilization has 1. movement: propels food through the
occurred, develops into a fruit. Fruits may be digestive system
fleshy, hard, multiple or single.
2. secretion: release of digestive juices in
Note:- View the Seeds of Life site for
illustrations and information about fruits and response to a specific stimulus
seeds. Seeds germinate, and the embryo grows 3. digestion: breakdown of food into
into the next generation sporophyte. molecular components small enough to
cross the plasma membrane
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
4. absorption: passage of the molecules
Digestive System in Various Organism into the body’s interior and their
Single-celled organisms can directly take in passage throughout the body
nutrients from their outside environment. 5. elimination: removal of undigested food
Multicellular animals, with most of their cells and wastes
86 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Salivary Glands
Secretion of lubricating fluid
containing enzymes that
break down carbohydrates
(A) The Mouth and Pharynx Most vertebrates, except birds (who have lost
Mechanical breakdown begins in the mouth their teeth to a hardened bill), have teeth for
by chewing (teeth) and actions of the tongue. tearing, grinding and chewing food. The tongue
Chemical breakdown of starch by production of manipulates food during chewing and
salivary amylase from the salivary glands. This swallowing; mammals have tastebuds clustered
mixture of food and saliva is then pushed into the on their tongues.
pharynx and esophagus. The esophagus is a Salivary glands secrete salivary amylase, an
muscular tube whose muscular contractions enzyme that begins the breakdown of starch into
(peristalsis) propel food to the stomach. glucose.
In the mouth, teeth, jaws and the tongue Mucus moistens food and lubricates the
begin the mechanical breakdown of food into esophagus. Bicarbonate ions in saliva neutralize
smaller particles. the acids in foods.
87 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Swallowing moves food from the mouth Epithelial cells secrete mucus that forms a
through the pharynx into the esophagus and then protective barrier between the cells and the
to the stomach. stomach acids. Pepsin is inactivated when it
(b) The Stomach comes into contact with the mucus.
Bicarbonate ions reduce acidity near the
During a meal, the stomach gradually fills
cells lining the stomach. Tight junctions link the
to a capacity of 1 liter, from an empty capacity of
epithelial stomach-lining cells together, further
50-100 milliliters. At a price of discomfort, the
reducing or preventing stomach acids from
stomach can distend to hold 2 liters or more. passing.
Epithelial cells line inner surface of the Ulcers
stomach, and secrete about 2 liters of gastric juices Peptic ulcers result when these protective
per day. mechanisms fail. Bleeding ulcers result when
Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid, tissue damage is so severe that bleeding occurs
pepsinogen, and mucus; ingredients important in into the stomach.
digestion. Perforated ulcers are life-threatening
Secretions are controlled by nervous (smells, situations where a hole has formed in the stomach
thoughts, and caffeine) and endocrine signals. wall.
The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid and At least 90% of all peptic ulcers are caused
pepsin. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) lowers pH of the by Helicobacter pylori. Other factors, including
stomach so pepsin is activated. Pepsin is an stress and aspirin, can also produce ulcers.
enzyme that controls the hydrolysis of proteins (C) The Small Intestine
into peptides.
The small intestine, is where final digestion
The stomach also mechanically churns the
and absorption occur.
food. Chyme, the mix of acid and food in the
The small intestine is a coiled tube over 3
stomach, leaves the stomach and enters the small
meters long. Coils and folding plus villi give this
intestine.
3m tube the surface area of a 500-600m long tube.
Hydrochloric acid does not directly function
Final digestion of proteins and
in digestion: it kills microorganisms, lowers the
carbohydrates must occur, and fats have not yet
stomach pH to between 1.5 and 2.5; and activates
been digested.
pepsinogen.
Villi have cells that produce intestinal
Pepsinogen is an enzyme that starts protein
enzymes which complete the digestion of
digestion. Pepsinogen is produced in cells that
peptides and sugars.
line the gastric pits. It is activated by cleaving off
The absorption process also occurs in the
a portion of the molecule, producing the enzyme
small intestine. Food has been broken down into
pepsin that splits off fragments of peptides from
particles small enough to pass into the small
a protein molecule during digestion in the
intestine.
stomach.
Sugars and amino acids go into the
Carbohydrate digestion, begun by salivary
bloodstream via capillaries in each villus.
amylase in the mouth, continues in the bolus as it
Glycerol and fatty acids go into the lymphatic
passes to the stomach. The bolus is broken down
system.
into acid chyme in the lower third of the stomach,
Absorption is an active transport, requiring
allowing the stomach’s acidity to inhibit further
cellular energy.
carbohydrate breakdown. Protein digestion by
Food is mixed in the lower part of the
pepsin begins.
stomach by peristaltic waves that also propel the
Note:
acid-chyme mixture against the pyloric sphincter.
(Alcohol and aspirin are absorbed through
Increased contractions of the stomach push
the stomach lining into the blood.)
88 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
the food through the sphincter and into the small known as a brush border.
intestine as the stomach eempties over a 1 to 2 Each villus has a capillary network supplied
hour period. by a small arteriole. Absorbed substances pass
High fat diets significantly increase this time through the brush border into the capillary,
period. usually by passive transport.
The small intestine is the major site for Maltose, sucrose, and lactose are the main
digestion and absorption of nutrients. The small carbohydrates present in the small intestine; they
intestine is up to 6 meters long and is 2-3 are absorbed by the microvilli. Starch is broken
centimeters wide. down into two-glucose units (maltose) elsewhere.
The upper part, the duodenum, is the most Enzymes in the cells convert these disaccharides
active in digestion. Secretions from the liver and into monosaccharides that then leave the cell and
pancreas are used for digestion in the duodenum. enter the capillary. Lactose intolerance results
Epithelial cells of the duodenum secrete a watery from the genetic lack of the enzyme lactase
mucus. produced by the intestinal cells.
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes Peptide fragments and amino acids cross the
and stomach acid-neutralizing bicarbonate. epithelial cell membranes by active transport.
The liver produces bile, which is stored in Inside the cell they are broken into amino acids
the gall bladder before entering the bile duct into that then enter the capillary. Gluten enteropathy
the duodenum. is the inability to absorb gluten, a protein found
Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and in wheat.
fats continues in the small intestine. Starch and Digested fats are not very soluble. Bile salts
glycogen are broken down into maltose by small surround fats to form micelles, that can pass into
intestine enzymes. the epithelial cells. The bile salts return to the
Proteases are enzymes secreted by the lumen to repeat the process. Fat digestion is
pancreas that continue the breakdown of protein usually completed by the time the food reaches the
into small peptide fragments and amino acids. ileum (lower third) of the small intestine. Bile salts
Bile emulsifies fats, facilitating their are in turn absorbed in the ileum and are recycled
breakdown into progressively smaller fat by the liver and gall bladder. Fats pass from the
globules until they can be acted upon by lipases. epithelial cells to the small lymph vessel that also
Bile contains cholesterol, phospholipids, runs through the villus.
bilirubin, and a mix of salts. 8 The Liver:
Fats are completely digested in the small
intestine, unlike carbohydrates and proteins. Liver
Most absorption occurs in the duodenum
and jejeunum (second third of the small intestine).
The inner surface of the intestine has circular folds
that more than triple the surface area for
absorption. Hepatic ducts
Villi covered with epithelial cells increase Cystic duct
the surface area by another factor of 10. The
epithelial cells are lined with microvilli that Gallbladder
further increase the surface area; a 6 meter long Pancreas
tube has a surface area of 300 square meters. Duodenum Common bile duct
Each villus has a surface that is adjacent to Pancreatic duct
the inside of the small intestinal opening covered
in microvilli that form on top of an epithelial cell
The liver produces and sends bile to the
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small intestine via the hepatic duct. Bile contains functioning. Jaundice may occur when liver
bile salts, which emulsify fats, making them function has been impaired by obstruction of the
susceptible to enzymatic breakdown. bile duct and by damage caused by hepatitis.
In addition to digestive functions, the liver (B) Hepatitis A, B, and C are all viral
plays several other roles: diseases that can cause liver damage.
(1) detoxification of blood; Like any viral disease, the major
(2) synthesis of blood proteins; treatment efforts focus on treatment of
(3) destruction of old erythrocytes and symptoms, not removal of the viral
conversion of hemoglobin into a cause.
component of bile; 8 Hepatitis A is usually mild malady
(4) production of bile; indicated by a sudden fever, malaise,
nausea, anorexia, and abdominal
(5) storage of glucose as glycogen, and its
release when blood sugar levels drop; discomfort.
and 8 The virus causing Hepatitis A is
primarilly transmitted by fecal
(6) production of urea from amino groups
and ammonia.
contamination, although
contaminated food and water also
8 Gall Bladder
can promote transmission.
The gall bladder stores excess bile for release
at a later time. We can live without our gall 8 Hepatitis B may be transmitted by
bladders, in fact many people have had theirs blood and blood products as well as
removed. The drawback, however, is a need to be sexual contact. The risk of HBV
aware of the amount of fats in the food they eat infection is high among promiscuous
since the stored bile of the gall bladder is no longer homosexual men although it is also
available. transmitted hetereosexually. Correct
Glycogen is a polysaccharide made of use of condoms is thought to reduce
chains of glucose molecules. In plants starch is the or eliminate the risk of transmission.
storage form of glucose, while animals use
8 Individuals with chronic hepatitis B
glycogen for the same purpose. Low glucose levels
are at an increased risk of
in the blood cause the release of hormones, such
as glucagon, that travel to the liver and stimulate developing primary liver cancer.
the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is 8 Hepatitis C affects approximately
then released into the blood(raising blood glucose 170 million people worldwide. The
levels). When no glucose or glycogen is available, virus is transmitted primarily by
amino acids are converted into glucose in the liver. blood and blood products.
The process of deamination removes the amino Sexual transmission can occur between
groups from amino acids. Urea is formed and monogamous couples (rare) but infection is far
passed through the blood to the kidney for export more common in those who are promiscuous.
from the body. Conversely, the hormone insulin In rare cases, Hepatitis C causes acute
promotes the take-up of glusose into liver cells disease and even liver failure. with cirrhosis from
and its formation into glycogen. Hepatitis C also bear increased chances of
(A) Liver Diseases Jaundice occurs when developing primary liver cancer.
the characteristic yellow tint to the skin is caused (C) Cirrhosis: Cirrhosis of the liver
by excess hemoglobin breakdown products in the commonly occurs in alcoholics, who place the liver
blood, a sign that the liver is not properly in a stress situation due to the amount of alcohol
90 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
to be broken down. Cirrhosis can cause the liver The large intestine performs three basic
to become unable to perform its biochemical functions in vertebrates:
functions. Chemicals responsible for blood (1) recovery of water and electrolytes from
clotting are synthesized in the liver, as is albumin, digested food;
the major protein in blood. The liver also makes
(2) formation and storage of feces; and
or modifies bile components.
Blood from the circulatory system passes (3) microbial fermentation:
through the liver, so many of the body’s metabolic The large intestine supports an amazing
functions occur primarily there including the flora of microbes. Those microbes produce
metabolism of cholesterol and the conversion of enzymes that can digest many of molecules
proteins and fats into glucose. Cirrhosis is a indigestible by vertebrates. Secretions in the large
disease resulting from damage to liver cells due intestine are an alkaline mucus that protects
to toxins, inflammation, and other causes. epithelial tissues and neutralizes acids produced
Liver cells regenerate in an abnormal pattern by bacterial metabolism.
primarily forming nodules that are surrounded by Water, salts, and vitamins are absorbed, the
fibrous tissue. Changes in the structure of the liver remaining contents in the lumen form feces
can decrease blood flow, leading to secondary (mostly cellulose, bacteria, bilirubin). Bacteria in
complications. the large intestine, such as E. coli, produce
Cirrhosis has many cuses, including alcoholic vitamins (including vitamin K) that are absorbed.
liver disease, severe forms of some viral hepatitis, Nutrition
congestive heart failure, parasitic infections (for Nutrition deals with the composition of
example schistosomiasis), and long term food, its energy content, and slowly (or not at all)
exposure to toxins or drugs. synthesized organic molecules. Chemotrophs are
8 The Pancreas the organisms (mostly bacteria) that derive their
The pancreas sends pancreatic juice, which energy from inorganic chemical reactions.
neutralizes the chyme, to the small intestive Phototrophs convert sunlight energy into sugar
through the pancreatic duct. In addition to this or other organic molecules. Heterotrophs eat to
digestive function, the pancrease is the site of obtain energy from the breakdown of organic
production of several hormones, such as glucagon molecules in their food. Macronutrients are foods
and insulin. An recently recognized condition required on a large scale each day. These include
which is known as prediabetes, in which the body carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids. Water is
gradually loses its sensitivity to insulin, leading essential, correct water balance is a must for proper
eventually to Type II diabetes medications, diet functioning of the body.
and behavior (in other words EXERCISE!!!) Carbohydrate : The diet should contain at
changes are thought to delay if not outright least 100 grams of carbohydrate every day.
postpone the onset of diabetes if corrected soon Recently, however, new recommendations have
enough. been developed that suggest a lowering of the
(D) The Large Intestine amount of carbohydrate.
Protein: Proteins are polymers composed of
The large intestine is made up by the colon,
amino acids. Proteins are found in meat, milk,
cecum, appendix, and rectum. Material in the large
poultry, fish, cereal grains and beans. They are
intestine is mostly indigestible residue and liquid.
needed for cellular growth and repair. Twenty
Movements are due to involuntary
amino acids are found in proteins, of which
contractions that shuffle contents back and forth
humans can make eleven. The remaining nine are
and propulsive contractions that move material
the essential amino acids which must be supplied
through the large intestine.
in the diet.
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Normally proteins are not used for energy, carbohydrates get broken down into
however during starvation (or a low-carb diet) simple sugars such as glucose. Fats into
muscle proteins are broken down for energy. fatty acid and glycerol. Proteins into
Excess protein can be used for energy or converted amino acid.
to fats. 8 Grass eating animals chewing
Lipids and fats: Lipids and fats generate the continuously even when they are not
greatest energy yield, so a large number of plants eating because they quickly swallow the
and animals store excess food energy as fats. grass and store it in a separate part of
Lipids and fats are present in oils, meats,
the stomach called rumen. Here the food
butter, and plants (such as avocado and peanuts).
get partially digested and is called cud,
Some fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are essential
and must be included in the diet. When present later the cud returns to the mouth in
in the intestine, lipids promote the uptake of small lumps and the animal chews it.
vitamins A, D, E, and K. This process is called rumination and
Vitamins:Vitamins are organic molecules these animals are called ruminants.
required for metabolic reactions. They usually 8 The grass is rich in cellulose a type of
cannot be made by the body and are needed in carbohydrates human cannot digest
trace amounts. Vitamins may act as enzyme cellulose.
cofactors or coenzymes. Some vitamins are 8 Amoeba is a microscopic single celled
soluble in fats, some in water.
organism found in pond water. When
Minerals: Minerals are trace elements
it sense food, it pushes out one or more
required for normal metabolism, as components
of cells and tissues, and for nerve conduction and finger like projection (pseudopodia)
muscle contraction. around the food particles and engulf it
They can only be obtained from the diet. Iron and then the food becomes trapped in a
(for hemoglobin), iodine (for thyroxin), calcium (for food vacuole.
bones), and sodium (nerve message transmission)
are examples of minerals. There is a quantitative
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
relationship between nutrients and health. Excretory Systems in Various Animals
Imbalances can cause disease. Many studies have
Excretory systems regulate the chemical
concluded nutrition is a major factor in
composition of body fluids by removing metabolic
cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and cancer.
wastes and retaining the proper amounts of water,
Digestion in Animals Facts from NCERT salts, and nutrients. Components of this system
8 Starfish feeds on animals covered by in vertebrates include the kidneys, liver, lungs,
half shells of calcium carbonate. After and skin.
opening the shell, the starfish pops out Not all animals use the same routes or
its stomach through its mouth to eat the excrete their wastes the same way as humans do.
soft animals inside the shell. The Excretion applies to metabolic waste products that
stomach the goes back into the body and cross a plasma membrane. Elimination is the
the food is slowly digested. removal of feces.
A. Nitrogen Wastes
8 The saliva breakdown the starch into
sugar. Nitrogen wastes are by product of protein
8 Liver situated in the upper part of the metabolism. Amino groups are removed from
abdomen on the right side. It is the amino acids prior to energy conversion. The NH2
largest gland in the body. (amino group) combines with a hydrogen ion
(proton) to form ammonia (NH3).
8 In the process of digestion
92 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Ammonia is very toxic and usually is Water loss can be considerable: a person in a 100
excreted directly by marine animals. Terrestrial degree F temperature loses 1 liter of water per hour.
animals usually need to conserve water. Excretory System Functions
Ammonia is converted to urea, a compound the
1. Collect water and filter body fluids.
body can tolerate at higher concentrations than
2. Remove and concentrate waste
ammonia. Birds and insects secrete uric acid that
products from body fluids and return
they make through large energy expenditure but
little water loss. other substances to body fluids as
Amphibians and mammals secrete urea that necessary for homeostasis.
they form in their liver. Amino groups are turned 3. Eliminate excretory products from the
into ammonia, which in turn is converted to urea, body.
dumped into the blood and concentrated by the Invertebrate Excretory Organs
kidneys. Many invertebrates such as flatworms use
(B) Water and Salt Balance a nephridium as their excretory organ. At the end
The excretory system is responsible for of each blind tubule of the nephridium is a ciliated
regulating water balance in various body fluids. flame cell. As fluid passes down the tubule,
Osmoregulation refers to the state aquatic solutes are reabsorbed and returned to the body
animals are in: they are surrounded by freshwater fluids.
and must constantly deal with the influx of water. Body fluids are drawn into the Malphigian
Animals, such as crabs, have an internal salt tubules by osmosis due to large concentrations of
concentration very similar to that of the potassium inside the tubule. Body fluids pass
surrounding ocean. Such animals are known as back into the body, nitrogenous wastes empty into
osmocon-formers, as there is little water transport the insect’s gut. Water is reabsorbed and waste is
between the inside of the animal and the isotonic expelled from the insect.
outside environment. Marincompositione The Human Excretory System
vertebrates, however, have internal concentrations The urinary system is made-up of the
of salt that are about one-third of the surrounding kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The
seawater. They are said to be osmoregulators. nephron, an evolutionary modification of the
Osmoregu-lators face two problems: prevention of nephridium, is the kidney’s functional unit. Waste
water loss from the body and prevention of salts is filtered from the blood and collected as urine in
diffusing into the body. Fish deal with this by each kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters,
passing water out of their tissues through their and collects in the bladder. The bladder can
gills by osmosis and salt through their gills by distend to store urine that eventually leaves
active transport. through the urethra.
Cartilaginous fish have a greater salt (a) The Nephron
concentration than seawater, causing water to
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped
move into the shark by osmosis; this water is used
capsule containing capillaries and the
for excretion. Freshwater fish must prevent water
glomerulus, and a long renal tube. Blood flows
gain and salt loss. They do not drink water, and
into the kidney through the renal artery, which
have their skin covered by a thin mucus. Water
branches into capillaries associated with the
enters and leaves through the gills and the fish
glomerulus. Arterial pressure causes water and
excretory system produces large amounts of
solutes from the blood to filter into the capsule.
dilute urine. Terrestrial animals use a variety of
Fluid flows through the proximal tubule, which
methods to reduce water loss: living in moist
include the loop of Henle, and then into the distal
environments, developing impermeable body
tubule. The distal tubule empties into a collecting
coverings, production of more concentrated urine.
93 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
duct. Fluids and solutes are returned to the exchange, which maintains the
capillaries that surround the nephron tubule. concentration gradient
The nephron has three functions: 8 Distal Convoluted Tubule: Tubular
1. Glomerular filtration of water and secretion of H ions, potassium, and
solutes from the blood. certain drugs.
2. Tubular reabsorption of water and (D) Kidney Stones
conserved molecules back into the
blood. In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as
kidney stones. They grow and can become a
3. Tubular secretion of ions and other
painful irritant that may require surgery or
waste products from surrounding
ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small
capillaries into the distal tubule.
enough to be forced into the urethra, others are the
Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per
size of huge, massive boulders.
minute; filtering the entire body fluid component
(E) Kidney Functions
16 times each day. In a 24 hour period nephrons
produce 180 liters of filtrate, of which 178.5 liters Kidneys perform a number of homeostatic
are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters forms functions:
urine. 1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
(B) Urine Production 2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular
1. Filtration in the glomerulus and fluid
nephron capsule. 3. Maintain pH and osmotic
2. Reabsorption in the proximal tubule. concentration of the extracellular fluid.
3. Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle. 4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products
such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.
Medulla (pyramids) Hormone Control of Water and Salt
Cortex
Water reabsorption is controlled by the
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in negative feedback.
Minor calyce
ADH is released from the pituitary gland in
Papilla of medulla Renal artery
the brain. Dropping levels of fluid in the blood
signal the hypothalamus to cause the pituitary to
Major calyx
Renal vein
release ADH into the blood. ADH acts to increase
water absorption in the kidneys. This puts more
Pelvis water back in the blood, increasing the
Capsule
concentration of the urine. When too much fluid
Ureter is present in the blood, sensors in the heart signal
the hypothalamus to cause a reduction of the
amounts of ADH in the blood. This increases the
(C) COMPONENTS OF THE NEPHRON amount of water absorbed by the kidneys,
producing large quantities of a more dilute urine.
8 Glomerulus: mechanically filters blood Aldosterone, a hormone secreted by the kidneys,
8 Bowman’s Capsule: mechanically filters regulates the transfer of sodium from the nephron
blood to the blood. When sodium levels in the blood fall,
aldosterone is released into the blood, causing
8 Proximal Convoluted Tubule:
more sodium to pass from the nephron to the
Reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts,
blood. This causes water to flow into the blood by
glucose, and amino acids osmosis. Renin is released into the blood to control
8 Loop of Henle: Countercurrent aldosterone.
94 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Chlorophyll absorbs its energy from the 8 The plants in this group are commonly
Violet-Blue and Reddish orange-Red called algae. These plants are
wavelengths, and little from the predominantly aquatic.
intermediate (Green-Yellow-Orange) E.g. : Spirogyra, cladophora and chara.
wavelengths. (ii) Bryophyte
The Carbon Cycle
8 These are called the amphibians of the
8 Plants may be viewed as carbon sinks, plant kingdom. There is no specialized
removing carbon dioxide from the tissue for the
atmosphere and oceans by fixing it into conduction of water and other
organic chemicals. Plants also produce substances from one past of the plant
some carbon dioxide by their body to another.
respiration, but this is quickly used by E.g. : moss (fumaria) and marchantia
photosynthesis. Plants also convert (iii) Pteridopheysta
energy from light into chemical energy 8 In this group plant body is
of C-C covalent bonds. Animals are differentiated into roots, stem and
carbon dioxide producers that derive leaves and has specialized tissue for the
their energy from carbohydrates and conduction of water and other
other chemicals produced by plants by substances from one plant of the plant
the process of photosynthesis. body to another. Eg- marsilea, ferns, and
8 The balance between the plant carbon horse tails.
dioxide removal and animal carbon (iv) Gymnosperms
dioxide generation is equalized also by
the formation of carbonates in the 8 The plant of this group bear naked
oceans. This removes excess carbon seeds and one usually perennial and
dioxide from the air and water (both of evergreen and woody.
which are in equilibrium with regard Eg- pines such as deodar.
to carbon dioxide). Fossil fuels, such as (v) Angiosperms
petroleum and coal, as well as more 8 The seeds develop inside an organ
recent fuels such as peat and wood which is modified to become a fruit.
generate carbon dioxide when burned. These are also called flowering plants.
Fossil fuels are formed ultimately by 8 Plant embryos in seeds have structures
organic processes, and represent also a called cotyledons. Cotyledons are
tremendous carbon sink. Human called seed leaves because in many
activity has greatly increased the instances they emerge and become
concentration of carbon dioxide in air. green the seed germinates.
8 The angiosperms are divided into two
DIVERSITY IN groups on the basis of the number of
LIVING ORGANISMS cotyledons present in the seed.
Differentiation in Plants 8 Plants with seeds having a single
cotyledon are called monocotyledons or
(i) Thallophyta monocots. Eg- paphiopedilum.
8 Plants that do not have well 8 Plants with seeds having two
differentiated body design fall in this cotyledons are called dicots. Eg-
group. ipomoce.
96 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
FACTS FROM HUMAN MACHINE allows them to breathe in air when they
swim near the surface of water. They
8 Camels have long legs which help to can stay inside the water for a long time
keep their bodies away from the heat of without breathing. They come out to the
the Sand. They excrete small amount of surface from time to time, to breathe in
urine, their dung is dry and they do not air.
sweat. Since Camels lose very little 8 When we breathe out, the air moves from
water from their bodies, they can live inside out body to outside. Breathing is
for many days without water. part of a process called respiration. In
8 Fish have slippery scales on their respiration, some of the oxygen of the
bodies. These scales protect the fish and air we breathe, in used by the living
also help in easy movements through body. We breathe out the Carbon dioxide
water. The presence of specific features produced in this process.
of certain habits, which enable a plant
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
or an animal to live in its Surroundings,
is called adaptation. Invertebrates
8 There are some sea animals like squids Of the million or more animal species in the
and octopus, which do not have this world, more than 98% are invertebrates.
streamlined shape. These animals have Invertebrates don’t have an internal skeleton
gills to help them use oxygen dissolved made of bone. Many invertebrates have a fluid-
in water. filled, hydrostatic skeleton, like the jelly fish or
8 There are some sea animals like worm. Others have a hard outer shell, like insects
and crustaceans. There are many types of
dolphins and whales that do not have
invertebrates. The most common invertebrates
gills. They breathe in air through
include the protozoa, annelids, echinoderms,
nostrils or blowholes that are located
mollusks and arthropods. Arthropods include
on the upper parts of their heads. This
insects, crustaceans and arachnids.
100 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
provides fast, forward movement. Also like the forward. The nautilus has as many as 90 small
squid, the octopus can eject a thick cloud of ink to tentacles that it uses to catch food, such as shrimp,
help it escape from predators. fish or small crustaceans. It then uses its powerful
beak to crush the food. The nautilus is considered
(IV) SQUID a living fossil because its form has remained
There are about 300 species of squid. They unchanged for over 400 million years.
are native to most of the world’s oceans. The squid
(VII) ECHINODERMS: STARFISH, SEA URCHIN
has a distinct head, eight arms and two tentacles.
AND FAMILY
The mouth of the squid has a sharp horny beak
used to kill and tear its prey into small pieces. The Echinoderms are marine animals that live
main body of the squid is enclosed in the mantle, in the ocean. Common echinoderms include the
which has a swimming fin along each side. sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar and sea cucumber.
However, the swimming fin is not the squid’s Most echinoderms have arms or spines that
main way of moving through the water. The squid radiate from the center of their body. The central
can suck water into the mantle and expel it out in body contains their organs, and their mouth for
a fast, strong jet. This jet propulsion provides fast, feeding.
forward movement. Although most squid are less Sea stars, commonly known as the starfish,
than 2 feet in length, the giant squid can grow up have 5 or more arms attached to their body.
to 43 feet in length. On the bottom of the Starfish are small tube
feet to help with movement and feeding. The
(V) CUTTLEFISH
starfish’s mouth is underneath, and is capable of
Despite their name, the cuttlefish is not a eating other sea life such as clams and
fish, but a mollusk. The cuttlefish is native to all mussels. Another type of echinoderm is the sea
of the oceans of the world, but are more common urchin. Sea urchins have many spines connected
in shallow coastal temperate and tropical waters. to their body. These spines help to protect them
The cuttlefish has an internal shell or bone, called from predators.
the cuttlebone, that helps them to be buoyant. (a) Starfish
Attached to this body structure is the head with
The starfish or sea star is native to all of the
eight arms and two feeding tentacles. The
world’s oceans. There are about 1,800 different
cuttlefish can easily camouflage itself by changing
species of starfish with the greatest variety living
its skin color and pattern to blend in with its
in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. Most starfish
background. This helps the cuttlefish to hide from
have five arms, although some have fewer or more
predators, and the sneak up on its prey. Like the
arms. Like other enchinoderms, starfish have
squid and octopus, the cuttlefish can eject ink in
small tube feet on their underneath body to help
an effort to escape from predators. This ink, called
with movement and feeding. The starfish’s mouth
sepia, was once used as a dye to create ink used
is underneath, and it has two stomachs in the
by artists.
mouth. The stomach sack can come out through
(VI) NAUTILUS the mouth to engulf and digest food, such as clams
and mussels.
The nautilus is native to deep ocean waters.
(b) Crustaceans
It has a multi-chambered shell. Each chamber is
sealed and contains gas which provides the Crustaceans are a type of Arthropod. The
nautilus with buoyancy to float. Like the octopus, name may not sound familiar, but you probably
squid and cuttlefish, the nautilus uses jet know them. You may even have eaten one.
propulsion to move forward. It sucks in water, then Crustaceans live mostly in the ocean or
expels it in a fast, strong stream to propel itself other waters. Most commonly known crustaceans
102 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
are the crab, lobster and barnacle. Crustaceans pairs of antennae use for taste and smell to find
have a hard, external shell which protects their food. As a crustacean, the shrimp has a thin,
body. Crustaceans have a head and abdomen. The almost transparent, exoskeleton. The shrimp is a
head has antennae which are part of their sensory popular food. In addition to commercial fishing
system. The abdomen includes the heart, digestive for shrimp, shrimp are also grown in shrimp
system and reproductive system. farms. Shrimp are also commonly found in
The abdomen also has appendages, such as aquariums.
legs, for crawling and swimming. Many
crustaceans also have claws that help with
(IX) ARACHNIDS: SPIDERS, TICKS AND
crawling and eating. SCORPIONS
a toxin through their skin that is capable of killing Snakes don’t have limbs. They move by
a predator. Many species are critically endangered slithering along the ground. Some snakes are
(b) Frog poisonous, or venomous, such as the rattle snake,
cobra, and eastern green mamba. They have fangs
There are over 5,000 species of frogs. They
which bite into their prey and inject poison into
are native to most of the world, except Antarctica.
the victim. Other snakes, such as the boa
Generally, we think of frogs as having a short,
constrictor and the python kill their prey by
stout body with long hind legs ideal for jumping.
crushing it.
Most of us can recognize a frog’s call as the familiar
Most snakes can dislocate their jaw,
croaking or ribbit sound. Another common
allowing them to swallow prey much larger than
characteristics is that frogs don’t have tails. The
themselves.
various species also have a wide range of different
characteristics. Some frogs are small, such as the (d) Alligator
Coqui. Other frogs can be quite large. Some frogs The alligator is native to the United States
are even poisonous, such as the Poison Dart Frog. and China. Alligators are covered with scales,
(c) Reptiles: Lizards, Snakes, and Others head to toe. They can grow up to fifteen feet long
Reptiles have been around for 300 million and weigh over one thousand pounds. Based on
years, even during the dinosaur age. The most fossils, the alligator has been on earth for 200
common reptiles include alligators, crocodiles, million years. They have a very strong jaw, capable
lizards, snakes, tortoises and turtles. Reptiles are of crushing their prey. Alligators are cold-blooded.
air-breathing animals, although many live not They lay eggs to produce their young.
only on land but in water. The most noticeable (e) Anaconda Snake
feature of reptiles are the scales that cover their The anaconda is a large, non-venomous
body. The majority of reptiles lay eggs to give birth snake native to tropical South America and
to their young. Although reptiles breathe through Northern Africa. They mostly live in swampy or
lungs, some reptiles can also absorb oxygen in watery areas. The green anaconda is the biggest
water through membranes in their mouth. snake in the world, with the largest measuring up
Reptiles are often called cold-blooded to 37.5 feet in length. The anaconda is related to
because they can’t regulate their own body the boa constrictor snake. They kill their prey by
temperature. Their body temperature depends on constriction or squeezing. They wrap themselves
the external temperature. They will lay in the sun around their prey and squeeze to prevent the prey
to heat their body, or hide in the ground, under a from breathing. They then swallow the animal
rock or in water to cool their body. whole.
Crocodiles and alligators are large reptiles (f) Chameleon
that spend much of their time on land and in water. The chameleon is a member of the lizard
They can walk on land using their webbed feet. family native to Africa, Madagascar, southern
They can also use their long tail to swim in water. Europe, and Asia. There are about 135 different
Crocodiles feed on large animals they catch on species of chameleon. Their habitat includes rain
land or in water. They have powerful jaws and forest, savanna, semi-desert, and steppe land.
teeth to tear apart their prey.Lizards and snakes Chameleons are best known for their ability to
are the largest group of reptiles. Lizards are four change color. However, they don’t really change
legged animals with a long tail. Many lizards can color to match their surroundings, but based on
shed their tail to escape from predators. They can mood, such as fear or anger, and based on
then grow a new tail.Some lizards, such as the temperature and humidity. They are also known
chameleon, can change colors to blend into their for their ability to move each eye separately, and
environment. This camouflage helps to protect for their long, sticky tongue. Their eye can rotate
them from predators.
107 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
360 degrees to view its prey, they its fast, sticky in the dry, hot desert. Like other reptiles, the
tongue can catch its prey. iguana is cold blooded meaning they do not
(g) Cobra Snake produce their own body heat. If an iguana is cold,
The cobra is a venomous snake native to it will lie on warm rocks to soak up the sun’s heat.
Africa and Asia. There are about 30 different Green iguanas are omnivorous meaning they eat
species of cobra, with the King Cobra being the both plants and meat, but they mostly eat plants.
world’s largest venomous snake. The cobra’s (j) Komodo Dragon
habitat ranges from tropical rain forests and The komodo dragon is a lizard native to
swamps to savannas and deserts. The name cobra islands in Indonesia. They are a member of the
is Portuguese for “snake with hood.” Cobra’s are monitor lizard family. They are the largest of the
most famous for this hood, which is created by lizards, growing up to 10 feet in length and weight
elongated ribs that extend the loose skin of the over 200 pounds. It is carnivorous, eating animals
neck behind the snake’s head. Cobras will raise such as pig and deer. It is also cannibalistic, eating
the front part of their bodies and display their other komodo dragons. The komodo dragon has
hood when threatened or disturbed. They will even been known to attack and kill humans. They
also make a hissing sound. are now an endangered species.
(h) Crocodile (k) Lizard
The crocodile is native to tropical areas in There are over 5,000 different types of
Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The lizards in the world. They are native to every
crocodile is an ancient, prehistoric creature, continent, except Antarctica. Most lizards are
believed to have inhabited earth for over 200 small and harmless to humans. But, the large
million years. The name crocodile comes from an Komodo Dragon has been known to attack and
Ancient Greek word meaning “lizard of the river.” kill humans. Lizards have some of the strangest
Crocodiles prefer freshwater habitats like rivers, characteristics. Some lizards can walk on water.
lakes and wetlands. Crocodiles are similar to Others can lose their tail to escape a predator.
alligators and caiman. They are very fast over Others can squirt blood from their eyes. The
short distances, even out of water. They catch their Chameleon can change colors to match its
prey by waiting for fish or land animals to come surroundings. The Chinese Water Dragon can not
close, then rushing out to attack. only swim to escape predators, but it can remain
(i) Coral Snake under water for up to 25 minutes. Some lizards
are small, but others such as the Monitor Lizard
The coral snake is a venomous snake native
can grow up to 6 feet in length. Lizards such as
to southern United States including Arizona and
from Louisiana to North Carolina, including all the Gila Monster are venomous. And, some
of Florida. Coral snakes are small in size, lizards such as the Gecko and the Iguana are
averaging 3 feet in length. They are a very common pets.
beautiful snake with their red, yellow/white, and (l) Mamba Snake
black colored banding. They are the second most The black mamba is native to Africa. Their
venomous snake in the United States, behind the habitat is open grasslands, savannahs and
rattlesnake. woodlands. It is the largest venomous snake in
Iguan Africa and the second largest venomous snake in
the world. They are considered the deadliest snake
The iguana is a family of lizards native to
in Africa. They are also considered fastest land
tropical areas of Central and South America and
snake in the world, able to reach speeds of 12 miles
the Caribbean. The green iguana, which is a
per hour. Although they are called the black
popular pet, lives in tropical rainforest areas near
mamba, they are generally gray, gray brown, or
water, such as rivers or streams. Other iguanas live
108 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
olive green in color. The name black mamba comes (q) Sea Snake
from the black color inside their mouth. Sea snakes are found in warm, tropical,
(m) Viper Snake coastal waters of the Indian Ocean and Pacific
The viper is a family of venomous snakes Ocean. A few species are also found in Oceania.
found all over the world, except in Australia and Sea snakes are venomous snakes, and have fangs.
Madagascar. Vipers range in size from the small Sea snakes are highly adapted to living in the
dwarf viper which is 10 inches in length, to the water. For example, they have a paddle-like tail
large bushmaster at 10 feet in length. Vipers have for swimming. Althought these snakes spend
a pair of fangs that are used to inject venom from most of their time in the water, they must come to
glands in the rear of the upper jaws. These fangs the surface to breathe air
are hinged, and when not in use fold back against (r) Pitviper Snake
the roof of the mouth. The pitviper is a family of venomous snakes
(n) Turtle found in Eastern Europe, Asia and the Americas.
Turtles are a reptile found in most parts of Their habitat ranges from desert to rainforests.
the world. Some turtles live on land, while others Pitvipers have a deep pit between the eye and the
live in the sea. They are easily recognized by their nostril on either side of the head. This is an organ
shell. The turtle’s shell is covered with scales that detects heat from warm-blooded prey.
made keratin, the same material as human Common pitvipers include the bushmaster,
fingernails. Many turtles can retract their head copperhead and rattlesnake
and limbs into their shell for protection. The (s) Python Snake
largest turtle, the leatherback sea turtle, can have The python snake is native to Africa, Asia
a shell length of 80 inches. A small turtle may be and Australia. Burmese pythons were introduce
only 3 inches long. Turtles have a beak, not teeth. to the Florida Everglades National Park in the
Female turtles lay eggs to reproduce their young. 1990s. The python is one of the largest snakes in
(o) Tortoise the world. The reticulated python may grow to
The tortoise is a reptile, closely related to the over 30 feet long and weight over 300 pounds. The
turtle. The tortoise is often described as a land python generally feeds on small reptiles and
turtle. Turtles usually live in water and have large mammals, but has been know to eat deer and
blade-shaped flippers for swimming. Therefore, other large animals. The python kills its prey by
turtles find it hard to walk on land. Whereas, the constriction. It wraps itself, or coils around its prey
tortoise has legs rather than flippers and can walk suffocating the animal by preventing it from
quiet well on land. Like the turtle, the tortoise has breathing.
a large protective shell. Tortoises can have longer (t) Rattlesnake
life span that humans, sometimes living to be over Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes native to
150 years old. North America and a few other parts of the
(p) Sea Turtle Northern Hemisphere. They get their name from
Sea turtles are native to all the world’s the rattle located at the tip of their tails that is used
ocean, except the Arctic Ocean. The largest sea as a warning device when threatened. The rattle
turtles are seven feet in length and five feet in is a set of rings on the tip of their tail. When
width, weighing up to 1300 pounds. Some sea vibrated, the rattle creates a hissing sound that
turtles are believed to live to be 80 to 100 years old. warns off predators. Rattlesnakes use their
Sea turtles spend much of their time under water, venomous bite to catch and kill prey such as mice,
but must return to the surface to breathe air. All rats, small birds and other small animals.
species of sea turtles are listed as threatened or
endangered.
109 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
FACTS ABOUT REPTILES Asia, Africa and Australia. Swans are the largest
of the waterfowl compared to ducks and geese.
There are about 8,000 species of known The largest swan in the world is the trumpeter
reptiles alive today. swan of North America whose wingspan can
The first reptiles appeared reach 10 feet. The habitat of the swan is ponds,
approximately 340 million years ago lakes, coastal bays and rivers. They are easily
during the Carboniferous Period. recognized by their very long necks which are
Reptiles are cold-blooded. often held in a graceful curve. Their long necks
Reptiles have scales. allow them to feed underwater without diving
The Mesozoic Era is the ‘Age of (c) Vulture
Reptiles’.
Vultures are native to the Americas, Africa,
In many reptiles, the sex of the young is Asia, and Europe. They are scavenging birds
determined by the temperature the feeding mostly on carrion, that is carcasses of dead
embryos are exposed to during animals. Vultures have a good sense of smell, and
incubation. can smell a dead animal from great heights. One
Some of the largest reptiles alive today recognizable characteristic of many vultures is
include the leatherback turtle, the their bald head with no feathers
Komodo dragon, and the saltwater (d) Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
crocodile.
The ruby-throated hummingbird is native
(IV) BIRDS to: the Canadian prairies; eastern Canada, United
States and Mexico; Central America; and, parts of
There are over 8,000 species of birds. Birds
South America. Its habitat is deciduous and pine
have 3 major differentiating characteristics: wings
forests and forest edges, orchards, and gardens.
for flight, feathers, and a beak rather than teeth.
The hummingbird has strong flight muscles and
Birds have adapted their vertebrate skeleton for
blade-like wingsallowing it to fly not only forward,
flight. Their bones and skull are very thin, making
but also straight up and down, sideways, and
their bodies extremely light. To support flight also
backwards, and to hover in front of flowers as it
required other changes to their skeleton. Obvious
feeds on nectar and insects.
changes are the addition of wings. Other changes
are less obvious. The claws and muscles of a bird’s (e)Parrot
foot are designed to lock and hold onto a perch Parrots are native to most warm and tropical
even while the bird is sleeping.A bird’s respiratory parts of the world including Australia and the
system is also adapted to make it easier to breathe islands of the Pacific Ocean, India, southeast Asia,
at high elevations, where air is thinner. southern regions of North America, South
More information on birds America and Africa. There are about 372 different
(a) Albatross species of parrot. Parrots are one of the smartest
birds. Not only can they mimic human speech,
The Albatross is a large sea bird found near
studies have shown they can associate words
the Southern Ocean and North Pacific. The
with their meanings and form simple sentences
albatross is among the largest flying birds, and has
the largest wing span. Its large wings are excellent (f) Ostrich
for flying, but can make taking off and landing The ostrich is a large flightless bird native
quite difficult. to Africa. It is easily recognized by its long neck
(b) Swan and legs. The ostrich is a fast runner, capable of
reaching speeds up to 45 miles per hour. A large
Swans are a family of birds native to many
male ostrich can weight up to 350 pounds.
parts of the world including the Americas, Europe,
Matching its size, ostrich eggs are the largest of
110 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
all eggs. Penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless (j) Great Blue Heron
birds mostly living in the Southern Hemisphere, The great blue heron is a large wading bird
particularly the Antarctica. However, the common over most of North and Central America,
Galápagos Penguin prefers a more temperate as well as the West Indies and the Galápagos
climate living near the equator. Penguins are Islands. They live near bodies of water such as
easily recognizable by their black and white fresh and saltwater marshes, mangrove swamps,
coloring, and their unusually upright, waddling flooded meadows, lake edges, or shorelines. They
gait. The penguin looks like it is formally dressed build their nest in trees or bushes near the water.
in a man’s tuxedo. These birds have adapted for They are often seen standing in shallow water or
life in the water. Their wings have become flippers at the water’s edge. They use their long legs to
allowing them to swim fast in the water. wade through the water, and they spear fish or
(g) Peacock frogs with their long, sharp bill.
Peacocks are large colorful pheasants. (k) Golden Eagle
Although most people know this bird by the name The Golden Eagle is a large bird of prey
peacock, this name specifically refers to the male living in North American and other parts of the
bird. The female is called a peahen. Collectively northern hemisphere. It is one of the best known
they are referred to as peafowl. There are three birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. It is
species of peafowl. The blue peacock lives in India powerful and strong with a wingspan of over 7
and Sri Lanka, the green peacock lives in Java and feet.
Myanmar, and the Congo peacock lives in African The golden eagle’s eyesight is about 8 times
rain forests. The peacock is best known for its more powerful than a human, and can spot prey
known and valued for its brilliant tail feathers. from a long distance. Their talons are well
This iridescent blue-green or green colored tail designed for killing and carrying their prey. They
plumage, also called the train, has bright spots on also have a powerful beak for tearing into its food.
it called “eyes” (l) Flamingo
(h) Kiwi
The flamingo can be found in many parts of
The kiwi is a flightless birds native to New the world including Africa, Asia, North America,
Zealand. It is an endangered species. They are an Central America, South America, and Europe.
interesting looking bird with a plump body and a They live near large, shallow lakes or lagoons.
long bill. Kiwi are shy and usually nocturnal. The They are best know for their pink color. They also
kiwi is a national symbol of New Zealand. They have distinctive long legs and neck, and a curved,
are so well known to the world, and representative pink bill colored black on the end.
of New Zealand, that all New Zealanders are (m) Falcon
called “Kiwis”.
(i) Hornbill The falcon is a species of raptor found on
every continent, except Antarctica. They live in a
Hornbills are a family of birds native to wide variety of habitats from tropics, deserts, and
tropical and sub-tropical Africa and Asia. They maritime to the tundra. They have excellent vision
can be found in open country as well as forested allowing them to see prey from high in the sky.
areas. The most distinctive feature of the hornbill Once spotting its prey, the falcon dives down after
is their heavy bill. It is long and down-curved, and it. Falcons have thin tapered wings enabling them
often brightly-colored. Hornbills are omnivorous to fly at high speed and to change direction
birds meaning they will eat fruit, insects and small rapidly. Peregrine Falcons can dive at speeds over
animals. They cannot swallow food from the tip 200 miles per hour (322 km/hr), making them the
of the beak because their tongue is too short. They fastest-moving animal on Earth.
must toss it to the back of their throat.
111 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
FACTS ABOUT BIRDS birth very early and the baby animal climbs from
the mother’s birth canal to her pouch. Here the
The earliest known bird, Archaeopteryx baby marsupial continues to develop for weeks,
lithographica, lived about 150 million or even months, depending on the species.
years ago during the Jurassic Period. At birth, marsupial babies are not fully
Birds are not the only animals that are developed. The baby’s hind legs are just nubs. The
capable of flight. baby lives and continues to develop in the
Flight is not a characteristic restricted mother’s pouch. The pouch, or marsupium, also
to birds. Bats, which are mammals, fly has themother’s mammary glands for feeding the
with great agility and insects, which baby. A baby kangaroo may live in its
are arthropods, were fluttering through mother’spouch for 6 months. Koalas and
wombats are a little different from Kangaroos. The
the air several million years before
kangaroo’s pouch is on the front, while the koala
birds
and wombat pouches are on the back.
Birds do not have teeth.
(b) Kangaroo
The largest of all birds is the ostrich.
The kangaroo is native to Australia. It is the
(V) MAMMALS largest of the marsupials, and a national symbol
Mammals have several unique of Australia. As a marsupial, the kangaroo differs
characteristics that differentiate them from other from other mammals in having a pouch on its
animals. Most mammals have hair, or fur, covering stomach for carrying its young. Early European
their body. They are also capable of regulating explorers in Australia said the kangaroo had a
their body temperature. The mammals metabolism head like a deer (without antlers), stood upright
controls heat production, and the sweat glands like a man, and hopped like a frog. Kangaroos
help cool the body. These allow the mammal to have large, powerful hind legs, and large feet, well
maintain a constant body temperature, regardless adapted for jumping. They can hop along at 25
of the environmental temperature. One other miles per hour, and are capable of reaching
difference is that mammals give birth to fully speeds up to 45 miles per hour for short distances.
formed babies, and the female mammals produce (c) Primates
milk to feed their young. Most mammals walk on Humans are part of the primate family. Other
4 legs, with only the humans walking upright on common primates include the monkey, baboon,
2 legs. Aquatic mammals have flippers, or fins, for orangutan, chimpanzee and gorilla. While
swimming rather than legs. Common mammals humans inhabit much of the world, most other
include: primates, such humans and monkeys; primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of
marsupials; rodents; whales; dolphins; and, seals. the Americas, Africa and Asia.
(a) Marsupials Primates have several distinctive features
Marsupials are best known for the that separate them from other mammals. Primates
Australian members of the family, the kangaroo, have well developed hands and feet, with fingers
wallaby and the koala. The only marsupial native and toes. Their opposable thumb makes it easy for
to North America is the Virginia opossum. There them to grab things.
are also some marsupials native to Central Primate eyes are forward in the head giving
America and South America. them stereoscopic vision. This allows them to judge
Marsupials are members of the mammal distance. Primates also have large, highly
family. However, they are different from other developed brains. Their intelligence allows them
mammals because they have an abdominal pouch to control and manipulate their environment. The
to carry their young. The marsupial female gives highly developed visual center of the brain helps
112 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
primates distinguish colors. Their large brain also garbage.Porcupines differ from other mammals
allows them to develop complex language and because they have long, sharp quills on their
communication skills.Monkeys and apes walk on backs for protection.
all four limbs, but they may run upright using only (e) Whales and Dolphins
their hind legs.
Although they live in the water — whales,
Although primates are born fully formed,
dolphins and porpoises are mammals. Since
they tend to have a long gestation period in their
whales and dolphins are mammals, they cannot
mother’s womb. Parents also care for and educate
breathe under water. They must come to the
their young much longer than other animals. This
surface to breathe air. They breathe through a
results in a strong bond between a baby and the
blowhole, or nostrils, on the top of their head.
mother.Primates are very social animals, and tend
Babies are born under water and must be pushed
to form strong bonds with family and friends.
to the surface, by the mother, so that they can take
While humans are similar to monkeys in
a breath. Whales and dolphins also look different
many ways, there are also several significant
from many other mammals because they don’t
differences. The human brain is more than twice
have fur. Although, they do have a sparse covering
the size of other primates. This makes humans the
of hair. The circulatory and respiratory systems
most intelligent primate, with the most developed
have adapted to living in water. Whales and
communication, language and reasoning skills.
dolphins can dive deep in the water on a single
Humans are able to make and use complex tools
breath.Whales and dolphins also have a highly
to help control their environment. Humans also
developed brain. They are consider to be very
walk upright on two legs. Although primates are
intelligent.Dolphins, and some whales, can use
born fully formed, they tend to have a long
echolocation to find food and identify objects
gestation period in their mother’s womb.
around them. They make loud clicking and
(d) Rodents: Squirrels, Mice, Porcupines squeaking sounds that bounce off objects and
and Others echo back to the dolphin. This echo tells the
The largest family of mammals are the dolphin about the nearby object.
rodents. These mammals are named rodent, (f) Whale
which means “gnawing animal,” because of their
The whale is a marine mammal found many
large incisor teeth and the way they eat. The two
ocean areas from arctic and sub-arctic to warmer
long pairs of incisors are used like chisels to gnaw
waters. Whales are best known for their size,
on hard foods like nuts and wood. These incisors
which can be up to 110 feet long. The Blue Whale
must grow continuously since they are worn
is the largest known mammal to ever live, up to
down by gnawing. There are 3 major types of
110 feet long and weighing 150 tons. The whale
rodents, represented by squirrels, mice and
breathes air into its lungs through a blowhole on
porcupines.
the top if its head.
Squirrel-like rodents such as the squirrel
(g) Orca
and gopher, have bushy long tails and large eyes.
They can live in trees or underground in tunnels. The Orca, also known as the Killer Whale,
They may hibernate during the winter.Mouse-like is the largest of the dolphin family. It can be found
rodents include the mouse, rat and hamster. Some in most of the world’s oceans. Orca’s have very
have a long, thin tail with short legs. Others have distinction coloring with a black back, white chest
a short tail. They mostly live above ground, and sides, and a white patch above and behind
although some burrow under ground. They may the eye. The orca is considered very intelligent and
also hibernate during the winter. Rats and mice trainable. The orca’s playfulness and sheer size
often live near humans, sometimes in their make them a popular exhibit at aquariums and
buildings, so they can live off human food and aquatic theme parks.
113 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
Amphibians (Class Amphibia) placement of the reptilian legs beneath the body
Amphibians were the first vertebrates to (instead of at the side as in amphibians) enabled
venture out into land. Early amphibians retained them greater mobility.
many fish-like characteristics but during the Birds (Class Aves)
Carboniferous period amphibians diversified. Sometime during the early Jurassic, two
They retained close ties to water though, groups of reptiles gained the ability to fly and one
producing fish-like eggs that lacked a hard of these groups later gave rise to the birds. Birds
protective coating and requiring moist developed a range of adaptations that enabled
environments to keep their skin damp. flight such as feathers, hollow bones, and warm-
Additionally, amphibians underwent larval bloodedness.
phases that were entirely aquatic and only the Mammals (Class Mammalia)
adult animals were able to tackle land habitats.
Mammals, like birds, evolved from a
Reptiles (Class Reptilia)
reptilian ancestor. Mammals developed a four-
Reptiles arose during the Carboniferous chambered heart, hair covering, and most do not
period and quickly took over as the dominant lay eggs and instead give birth to live young (the
vertebrate of the land. Reptiles freed themselves exception is the monotremes).
from aquatic habitats where amphibians had not. Progression of Vertebrate Evolution
Reptiles developed hard-shelled eggs that could
The following table shows the progression
be laid on dry land. They had dry skin made of
of vertebrate evolution (organisms listed at the top
scales that served as protection and helped retain
of the table evolved earlier than those lower in the
moisture. Reptiles developed larger and more
table).
powerful legs than those of amphibians. The
Applied
Doctrinal
common ones uses water which has a high heat
Chemistry &
Chemical
Engineering
Engineering
capacity.
Foam type fire extinguishers use foaming
Environmental
Science &
Engineering
Applied Physics
agents that have a smothering and cooling effect
Smart energy & on the wire. A dry chemical extinguisher sprays a
Mechanical Science and Materials & devices
environmental system Engineering Engineering very fine power of sodium bicarbonate or
potassium bicarbonate or monoammonium
The word radar stands for radio detecting phosphorus. These solids coat the fuel and
and ranging. It makes use of very short radio smother the fire. A safe and effective extinguisher
waves called microwaves. Radars work to find for all confined fires uses carbon dioxide (co2)
out how far away an Object is and in case of a which acts as an inert blanket.
moving object in what direction it is moving and LIE DETECTORS WORK
at what speed.
A lie detectors work on the principal that a
COLOR TV PICTURE PRODUCED person who tells a lie is nervous and under stress
The picture on a television screen is under these conditions his body undergoes some
nothing but a pattern of glowing dots, or physiological changes.
pixels. The pixels are made up of fluorescent These includes increases in the blood
chemicals called phosphors that are coated pressure, heart beat rate and perspiration on
on the back on the screen. These glow on hands and soles. These changes are monitored
being hit by a beam of a single phosphorus and detected by a lie – detector.
and are lit up by a single electron beam that STORAGE BATTERIES WORK
rapidly sweeps across the screen. In a color
television how-ever, each pixel contains three Storage batteries are devices which act as a
phosphorus each producing a different col- store house of electrical energy. The electrical
our-green, red and yellow. Three electron energy is stored in the form of a chemical charge
beams produced by three electron guns are which is reversible. The most common storage
used to light up the different phosphorus. battery is the lead acid- accumulator which uses
lead as electrode and sulphuric acid as an
116 Gist of What, Why & How
electrolyte. Initially both the cell electrodes of the helicopter to descend. Similarly , if the pilot holds
battery made of lead are coated with a layer of the rotor pitch in such a way the blades produce
lead dioxide. When the battery is charged for just enough lift to counteract gravity, the
the first time, chemical charges take place. During helicopter remains station ary in mid – air.
discharging when the battery is in use, chemical
changes take place again but in the reverse way. NIGHT VISION GLASSES WORK
Each cell in a lead – acid battery produces two Night vision glasses, used for seeing in the
volts and a typical car battery with six cells gives pitch dark night, use the little light available to
12 volts. Nickel – iron and nickel – cadmium form an image of sufficient brightness to be screen.
batteries are other kind of storage batteries which The image is first focused, as in a camera,
are nickel, and iron or cadmium as electrodes and on to a window which is coated with special
potassium hydroxide as electrolyte. chemicals containing sodium, potassium,
cadmium and oxygen compounds which emit
AEROPLANES FLY
electrons when illuminated.
Aeroplanes fly by a combination of power The electrons so emitted are then accelerated
from the engines and lift provided by the wings. by a series of powerful electric fields and made to
These are shaped in such a way that air flowing fall into another screen coated with a fluorescing
along the upper surface takes a longer path than chemical which glows recreating a much brighter
the air flowing along the lower surface. As a result image of the original scene. Some night vision
when an aircraft moves forward, the air flowing glasses make use of infrared radiation emitted by
above the wings moves faster than the air flowing all objects even in the dark. These radiations are
below the wings, creating a low pressure above amplified in a similar way to make night vision
the wing according to Bernoulli’s law. This possible.
difference in pressure above and below the wings
causes lift. As the speed of the aircraft on the AIR POLLUTION
runway increases, the lift also increases, DETECTORS WORK
eventually overcoming the download force of
Air pollution is coused by substance that is
gravity. The aircraft also uses the thrust created
not normally part of the atmosphere’s
by its engine to climb and after reaching certain
composition. Important air pollutants are sulpher
height cruises along in a horizontal direction.
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon mono oxide
HELICOPTERS REMAIN usually emitted in automobile exhausts and
STATIONARY IN MID AIR power smoke. Pollution detectors work by making
use of the chemical or physical properties of the
Unlike an aeroplane, helicopters have pollutants. For example, the detection of nitrogen
moving wings in the shape of spinning rotor oxides is based on the emission of light as a result
blades. Air currents passing over the upper and of a chemical reaction. This phenomenon is called
lower surface of the spinning blades crates low chemilumine-scences.
pressure above it and generate lift. The lift can be If nitrogen are present, light is emitted which
controlled by varying the pitch (angle) of the rotor can be detected by a photo detected. Sulphur
blades, by increasing the pitch of the main rotor dioxide is detected by introducing it into a flame
blades lift is increased and the craft climbs. and then analyzing the colour produced by an
Lowering the pitch of the blades lift is increased instrument called flame photometer. Carbon
and the craft climbs. Lowering the pitch of the monoxide is detected by emission of infrared
blades reduces lift and gravity causes the radiation of a particular frequency when excited
117 Gist of What, Why & How
This is governed by a law known as Wien’s gave rise to the sun, some five billion years ago.
law. The sun gives off light which is a mixture of As random Collisions and gravitational forces
several colours. When the spectrum of sunlight is compacted the gas and dust particles into the
analyzed by using special instruments called various planets the heat generated brought the
bolometer it is found that the maximum intensity masses into a molten state. Since surface tension
falls in the green part of the sun’s spectrum. From of a liquid tends to make the surface area minimum
this and by using Wien’s law, we obtains a value and the sphere has the minimum surface area for
of 5800 k for the sun’s surface temperature. a given volume, all the plants in the molten state
become spherical and have retained that shape
SPACESUITS PROTECT as they cooled.
A spacesuit is protective gear that protects
an astronaut from the hostile environment of
SEA WATER SALTY
extremely low pressure, low temperature and Sea water is salty because it containts many
radiation in space. It is made up of several layers dissolved salts, mostly sodium chloride with
of strong synthetic materials including Teflon and small proportions of potassium, magnesium,
nylon which shield the astronauts from tiny calcium and carbonates. The salt comes mainly
particles called micrometeoroids. The intense with river water that flows through rocks eroded
solar radiations are reflected by a white plastic by frost and rain. The gradual wearing away of
layer which has a metallic coating. The interior of mountains releases rnemicals which are carried
the suit is pressurized but for which the down by rivers to the ocean comes mainly with
astronaut’s blood would boil off in the vacuum of river water that flows through rocks eroded by
space. A backpack carries water both for drinking frost and rain. The gradual wearing away of
as a well as to keep the astronaut cool. Water flows mountains releases rnemicals which are carried
through piper in the astronaut’s suit and carries down by rivers to the ocean as dissolved salts.
away body heat. Some salt also enters sea water from the
rocks beneath the sea bed; the river water carrying
FIREWORKS DISPLAY COLOURS salts to the sea does not taste salty because the
Fireworks are produced by metals or metal salts are present in extremely small concentration.
salts present in the fireworks. Metals have the Whereas in the case of the oceans, water is
property of emitting light of a particular colour continuously evaporating even as more and more
while they burn. For instance, when sodium or salt continues to be added with river water. This,
its salts burn, yellow light is given out. Similarly, over millions of years has led to the high
on burning, finally divided aluminum gives out concentration of dissolved salts in sea water.
bright white light. Strontium salts gives out red
colour while copper and barium salts produce LIGHTNING
instance blue and green colours respectively. ACCOMPANIED BY THUNDER
Fireworks manufactures make use of this property Lightning occurs when a massive electrical
of metals and their salts and use them in various discharge takes place between two oppositely
combinations in crackers to produce spectacular charged clouds or between a charged cloud and
fireworks display. the ground. The charges Develop in thunder
clouds due to the friction of water droplets with
PLANTEST SPHERE SHAPED
air as the droplets move up and down with the
All the planets of our solar system were rising and descending air currents within the
formed out of the same cloud of gas and dust that cloud. During a bolt of lightening, thousands of
123 Gist of What, Why & How
more or less transperent, the lather or foam looks WATER AND OIL MIX
white because the light striking this large
A phenomenon called polarity prevents oil
collection of bubbles gets scattered. That is why
and water from mixing. All molecules carry
all kinds of foam look white.
electrical charge which is distributed uniformly
THINGS BURN or non-uniformly over the length of the molecule.
In polar compounds, the positive and
Burning is a chemical process in which the
negative charges are concentrated at the two ends
material burns combines with oxygen with the
of the molecule. When such substances are mixed
generation of large amounts of heat. As a result
together, the positive and negative regions of their
the temperature of the burning material rises to
molecules attract each other and as a result a clear
serveral hundred degrees Celsius and it may
solution is obtained. Water is a polar substance
burst into flames. Therefore, any substance that
and mixes freely with other polar substances. Oil
readily combines with oxygen at a few hundred
molecules, on the other hand, are non-polar. When
degrees and produces a lot of heat will burn if
polar and non-polar substances are mixed
ignited. Such substances such as paper, wood,
together, the mutual attraction of polar molecules
cloth, plastics, rubber etc. are usually rich in
separates out the non-plar molecules and the two
carbon and hydrogen. Some volatile liquids such
substances do not mix.
as alcohol, petrol, etc. catch fire easily because
they produce highly combustible vapors. ACID RAIN
A DRIED PIECE OF COTTON Natural rain always contain small amount
APPEAR DARKER WHEN WET of dissolved carbondioxide which makes it
slightly acidic. But large-scale burning of coal or
Cotton is a natural fibre. When woven or oil in industries, power plants and vehicles
knitted into cloth, the fibres are loosely packed
produce large amounts of gases such as sulphur
and contain lot of air spaces. When light falls on
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, etc., which are released
these fibres it is scattered from the boundaries of into the atmosphere. Under favourable conditions
the fibres and the colour of the clot appears lighter. they react with water vapour and oxygen in the
But when the fabric is soaked in water, the air atmosphere to produce sulphuric and nitric acids
pockets of the fibres get filled with water. This which is eventually come down with rain, snow
reduces the amount of Light Scattered from the or fog. The countries wrost affected by acid rains
fibric. Therefore, more light reflected from the are southern Sweden, Northway, parts of central
coloured fabric reaches to the eye and the coloured Europe and Eastern Region of North America.
appear deeper. However, synthetic and silk fibres
are smooth in structuture and leave no air space AIDS
when woven or knitted. So the colour or silk or
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
synthetic fabric is not altered when the fabric is
(AIDS) is the most devastatign and fatal diseases
soaked in water.
of the 21st Century it is a viral disease caused by
the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV).
125 Gist of What, Why & How
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
1. An artificial satellite stays in the orbit collision but not in inelastic collision.
around the earth because (c) Total kinetic energy is not conserved but
(a) the earth’s gravity does not act on the momentum is conserved in inelastic
satellite due to great distance between collision.
them. (d) Kinetic energy is conserved in elastic
(b) the earth’s attraction produces the collision but not in inelastic collision.
necessary centripetal acceleration. 5. What is heat ?
(c) the earth’s attraction is balanced by the (a) Heat is a substance called caloric which
attraction of other planets. flows from heavy body to a light body.
(d) there is an engine in the satellite which (b) Heat is a energy that flows from a high
constantly applies an upward force to temperature body to a low temperature
balance its weight. body.
2. Identify the correct statement about the (c) Heat is a motion that passes from a
definition of work : moving body to a stationary body.
(a) A force always does work on the body (d) Heat is a field passing from high
on which it is acting. potential body to a low potential body.
(b) A force does work only when the body 6. One of the following thermometers, which
is moving. can be used for increasing a rapidly
(c) A force does work only when the body changing temperature is a
moves under the action of force. (a) thermo-couple thermometer
(d) none of these. (b) gas thermometer
3. Choose the correct statement related to the (c) platinum resistance thermometer
mechanical energy (E). (d) vapour pressure thermometer
(a) It is the total energy of a system 7. The thermometer suitable to measure
including all forms of energy. 2000°C is
(b) It is that part of total energy which (a) gas thermometer
always remain conserved. (b) mercury thermometer
(c) It is the sum of microscopic kinetic and (c) vapour pressure thermometer
potential energies. (d) total radiation pyrometer
(d) It is the total sum of all the kinetic and
potential energies. 8. A ring-shaped piece of metal is heated. If
the material expands, the hole will :
4. Which of the following statement is true ? (a) expand
(a) Kinetic energy and momentum both are (b) contract
conserved in all types of motion. (c) expand or contract depending on the
(b) Momentum is conserved in elastic width of the ring
126 Miscellaneous Questions
(d) expand or contract depending on the 13. Big suitcases are provided thicker handles
value of the coefficient of expansion to
9. Which of the following statement(s) is/are (a) decrease the pressure on the hand.
correct? (b) increase the pressure on the hand.
1. The boiling point of a liquid is affected (c) decrease the force on the hand.
by addition of soluble solid. (d) increase the force on the hand.
2. The boiling point of a liquid is affected 14. A piece of metal feels hotter than a piece of
by external vapour pressure. wood in summer because
3. The boiling point is a fixed (a) metal expands more than wood
characteristic of a liquid and does not (b) our body is cooler than metal but
vary. warmer than wood
(a) only (3) is correct (c) metal is a better conductor of heat than
(b) only (1) is correct wood
(c) and (2) are correct (d) metal gets hotter than wood
(d) only (2) is correct
15. Four identical kettles with the same
10. A large ice-berg melts at the base but not at amount of water have bases made of
the top because : different metals of the same thickness. If
(a) the base of the ice-berg remains in these kettles are placed on identical flames
warmer surroundings in an identical manner, water will boil first
(b) ice at base contains impurities in the kettle the base of which is made of:
(c) high pressure ice at the base lowers its (a) brass (b) copper
melting point (c) stainless steel (d) aluminium
(d) ice at the top is of different kind.
16. Why is platinum wire used inside very
11. Two blocks of ice when pressed together narrow glass rods ?
join to form one block because (a) Platinum expands very little compared
(a) of heat produced during pressing
to glass
(b) of cold produced during pressing
(b) Platinum and glass have the same
(c) melting point of ice decreases with the linear coefficients of expansion
increase of pressure (c) Glass is a bad conductor of heat
(d) melting point of ice increases with (d) Platinum does not melt at low
increase in pressure temperature
12. Two persons ordered tea in a road-side 17. Identify the conceptual difference between
restaurant and waited for a friend to arrive. a particle and a wave :
One of them poured tea in his cup and (a) A wave requires material medium while
mixed cold milk and the other poured his a particle does not require medium for
tea and mixed the milk after the friend its propagation.
arrived. (b) A particle transports matter but a wave
Now the temperature of the tea: does not.
(a) of the first person is greater (c) A particle is visible but a wave is not
(b) of the second person is greater visible.
(c) of the two persons is the same (d) All the above.
(d) of the first person is half of the 18. An astronaut can’t hear his companion at
temperature of the tea of the second the surface of the moon because:
person. (a) produced frequencies are above the
audio frequency
127 Miscellaneous Questions
(b) there is no medium for sound (a) the reflected ray and the incident ray
propagation lie in the same plane
(c) temperature is too low during night and (b) the incident ray, reflected ray and the
too high during day. normal are concurrent
(d) there are too many craters on the (c) the angle of incidence is equal to the
surface of the moon. angle of reflection
19. Velocity of sound will be (d) none of these
(a) smaller in moist air than in dry air 25. Choose the correct statement related to the
(b) greater in moist air than in dry air image formed by a plane mirror
(c) same in moist and dry air (a) a plane mirror always forms a virtual
(d) independent of in density image
20. To a stationary man the frequency of a (b) the image formed by a plane mirror may
sound source moving towards the man be magnified or diminished
appears to be (c) the image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) lower than the original frequency always unmagnified and inverted
(b) same as the original frequency (d) the image formed by a plane mirror is
(c) higher than the original frequency always unmagnified and erect
(d) lower as well higher than the original
26. Total internal reflection of light can occur
frequency depending upon the speed
only when light passes
of the source
(a) from denser to a rarer medium
21. The electromagnetic radiations are in (b) from rarer to a denser medium
descending order of wavelength in the (c) from one medium to another of equal
following sequence : refractive index
(a) infrared waves, radio waves, x-rays, (d) from one medium to another of equal
visible light rays absorption coefficient
(b) radio-waves, infrared, visible light, x-
rays 27. Consider the following statements :
(c) radio waves, visible light, infrared Assertion A : The velocity of sound in the
waves, x-rays air increases due to presence of moisture
(d) x-rays, visible light, infrared wave, in it
radio waves Reason R : The presence of moisture in air
22. The inosphere does not allow to pass the lowers the density of air.
waves which are termed as : Of these statements.
(a) microwaves (a) both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(b) visible light waves correct explanation of (A)
(c) (a) and (b) both (b) both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not
(d) amplitude modulated waves the correct explanation of (A)
23. The ionosphere bends the electro-magnetic (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
waves having the frequencies: (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
(a) less than 40 MHZ 28. In stationary waves :
(b) beyond 40 MHZ (a) energy is uniformly distributed
(c) nothing is certain (b) energy is maximum at nodes and
(d) depends on the moisture present minimum at antinodes
24. Choose the incorrect statement related to (c) energy is minimum at nodes and
the laws of reflection : maximum at antinodes
128 Miscellaneous Questions
(d) Mercury has high density and low (c) Short-waves are more energetic than
vapour pressure long-waves
64. One should not connect a number of (d) By convention, short-waves are meant
electrical appliances to the same power for long distances whereas long-waves
sockets because are reserved for short distances
(a) this can damage the appliances 68. On a clean glass plate, a drop of water
(b) this can damage the domestic wiring spreads to form thin layer whereas a drop
due to overheating of mercury remains almost spherical
(c) the appliances will not get full voltage because
(d) the appliances will not get proper (a) mercury is a metal
current (b) density of mercury is greater than that
65. Why does radio reception improve slightly of water
during the night ? (c) cohesion of mercury is greater than its
(a) The outside noise is reduced very much adhesion with glass
at night. (d) cohesion of water is greater than its
(b) Unlike the daytime, only a few radio adhesion with glass
stations broadcast during the night.
69. A train goes past a railway station at a high
(c) Sunlight affects radio broadcasts to
speed. A young boy standing on the edge
some extent during the day.
of the platform is likely to:
(d) The magnetic field of the earth acts with
(a) remain unaffected
reduced intensity during the night,
(b) fall away from the train
thereby reducing its impact on
(c) fall towards the train
broadcasts.
(d) fall away from or towards the train
66. When a bar magnet is immersed in a heap depending on its speed
of iron filings and is then taken out, it is 70. The wire in electric fittings are ‘earthed’ so
observed that iron filings stick to the that
surface of the bar magnet. Then the iron (a) electricity may not leak
filings would be observed to (b) there may be a smooth flow of electricity
(a) stick uniformly throughout the surface (c) current may pass to the earth in the
of the bar- magnet case of a short circuit, without doing
(b) stick randomly on the surface of the bar- any harm
magnet (d) to prevent a short-circuit
(c) have maximum concentration at the
71. The filament of an electric lamp becomes
two ends of the bar-magnet
white hot but the lead-in wires holding the
(d) have maximum concentration slightly
filament are only slightly heated because
away from the two ends of the bar-
they
magnet (a) have smaller current passing through
67. Why are we able to hear short-wave them
broadcasts better than lone-wave (b) have very low resistance
broadcasts ? (c) have higher melting points
(a) Short-wave broadcasts are made by (d) are made of black iron
nearby radio stations 72. Pick out the correct statement
(b) Short-waves are unaffected by (a) A freely suspended bar-magnet points
atmospheric disturbances north
133 Miscellaneous Questions
(b) A freely suspended bar-magnet is difference between the ice-point and the
constantly oscillating steam-point
(c) A freely suspended bar-magnet always (c) the fraction 1/273.16 of the
points south thermodynamic temperature of the
(d) A freely suspended bar-magnet will set triple-point of water
itself at an angle to the horizontal (d) the fraction 1/373.15 of the
73. Lithening is formed when : thermodynamic temperature of the
(a) similar charges of electricity rush steam-point
towards each other and then get 77. Fish can survive inside a frozen lake
repelled because:
(b) clouds strike against impurities in air (a) Fish are cold-blooded animals
and the friction burns up these (b) Fish can breathe when embedded in ice
impurities (c) Fish move to the bottom of the lake
(c) strong opposite charges in different where the water is at 4°C and hence
clouds break down the resistance cannot freeze
offered by the intervening air (d) Fish move to the top of the take where
(d) water vapour produces electricity in the the water is at 4°C and hence cannot
clouds freeze
74. Even when an electric heater is allowed to 78. What happens if water is cooled from 8°C
run for a long time, its temperature does to 0°C?
not increase infinitely. This is because: (a) its volume decreases uniformly,
(a) the resistance of the heating wire becoming minimum at 0°C
increases to such an extent that it takes (b) its volume increases uniformly,
negligible amount of current. becoming maximum at 0°C
(b) the heat generated is dissipited to the (c) its volume decreases upto 4°C and then
surrounding medium. increases
(c) the current ultimately stops flowing (d) its volume increases upto 4°C and then
through the heating wire. decreases
(d) a back e.m.f. is produced minimi-sing
the current to a large extent. 79. When a ship floats on water
(a) it displaces no water
75. While passing over a suspension bridge (b) the mass of water displaced is more
soldiers are not allowed to march in steps than the mass of the ship
(a) to prevent any formation of sharp echo (c) the mass of the water displaced is equal
(b) because there cannot be orderly to the mass of the ship
marching (d) the mass of water displaced is less than
(c) to prevent any occurrence of resonance the ship
with bridge
(d) to prevent the bridge from executing 80. The passengers in a boat are not allowed
forced vibrations to stand because :
(a) this will raise the centre of gravity and
76. The Kelvin, the S.I. unit of thermod-ynamic
the boat be rocked
temperature is defined as :
(b) this will lower centre of gravity and the
(a) one hundred of the temperature
boat will rocked
difference between the triple-point of
(c) the effective weight of system increases
water and the steam-point
(d) of surface tension effects
(b) one hundred of the temperature-
134 Miscellaneous Questions
81. In high mountain regions bleeding 85. A bomb is dropped from an aeroplane
through nose occurs because moving horizontal at constant speed.
(a) the pressure of the blood capillaries is When air resistance is taken into
higher than the outside pressure consideration, then the bomb
(b) the pressure at high altitudes is greater (a) flies with the aeroplane
than that of the plains (b) falls on earth ahead of the aeroplane
(c) the blood pressure increases at high (c) falls on earth behind aeroplane
altitudes (d) falls on earth exactly below the
(d) the blood pressure fluctuates and aeroplane.
causes the blood vessels to break 86. In which of the following example of
82. One litre of cool air weighs heavier then motion, the body can he considered
one litre of hot air because of the approximately, a point object :
(a) increased number of collisions between (a) a railway carriage moving without jerks
the molecules between two stations.
(b) increased number of molecules at high (b) a monkey sitting on top of a man
temperature cycling smoothly on a larger circular
(c) greater energy of molecules at high path.
temperature (c) a spinning cricket hall that turns
(d) lower energy of molecules at high sharply on hitting the ground.
temperature (d) both (a) and (b)
83. Why does a liquid drop assuming a 87. A man carrying load on his back bends
spherical shape ? forwards because of one of the following
(a) because a sphere has the least surface reasons :
for a given volume. (a) to adjust the centre of gravity of the
(b) because a sphere has the largest surface system such that the vertical line
for a given volume surface tension. through the centre of gravity passes
(c) because intermolecular forces are within the base
strong in liquids. (b) the man feels lighter because of greater
(d) because intermolecular force are weak reaction
in liquids. (c) to prevent the load from slipping over
84. It takes much longer to cook on the hills and falling down
than in the plains, because : (d) to keep the centre of gravity of the
(a) due to low atmospheric pressure in the system outside the body
hills, the boiling point of water is raised, 88. Two bullets A and B, are fired from the gun
and therefore water takes longer to boil with the same speed but at angles 30° and
(b) in the hills, the atmospheric pressure is 60° to the horizontal, respectively. Choose
lower than that in the plains and the correct statement from the following:
therefore water boils at lower (a) bullet A will have a longer horizontal
temperature range
(c) in the hills, the atmospheric (b) bullet B will have a longer horizontal
temperature is low and therefore a lot range
of heat is lost to the atmosphere (c) the horizontal range of bullet B will be
(d) in the hills, the humid atmosphere half, that of bullet A
absorbs a lot of heat, leaving very little (d) both bullets have the same horizontal
for the cooking range
135 Miscellaneous Questions
89. While running over a horizontal level road, Reason (R): Objects in circular motion
the man holds the umbrella in the vertical experience centripetal force.
direction. If he stops, then in order to 94. Choose the most appropriate statement for
protect himself from the rain he should a particle body :
hold it : (a) particle is a point size body.
(a) still vertically (b) particle body has no dimensions.
(b) inclined to the front (c) two bodies are considered as particles
(c) inclined to the back it the distance between them is very
(d) at an angle of 45 large compared with their dimensions.
(d) in translatory\ motion, any body of
90. A car and a lorry both are moving with
finite size may be considered as
equal kinetic energies. If equal breaking particle.
force is applied on both, then before coming
to rest : 95. The incorrect statement about
(a) a car will cover a greater distance displacement is :
(a) displacement is the difference between
(b) lorry will cover a greater distance
the final and initial positions of the
(c) both will cover the same distance
particle
(d) the distance covered by them will (b) displacement is a vector quantity
depend only on their respective (c) displacement can be negative, zero or
velocities. positive
Directions: Questions consist of two statements, one (d) the magnitude of displacement is
labelled the Assertion (A) and the other labelled the always equal to distance.
Reason (R). Examine the statements carefully and 96. Identify the incorrect statement about the
decide if the Assertion A and Reason R are centre of mass.
individually true and if so, whether the reason is a (a) At the centre of mass, the entire mass of
correct explanation of assertion. Select your answers the body is concentrated.
to these questions from the codes given below: (b) The centre of mass of a body may lie
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct inside or outside the body.
(c) The centre of mass always lies on the
explanation of A.
axis of symmetry if it exists.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
(d) The centre of mass of a system may
explanation of A.
coincide with one of the particles of the
(c) A is true but R is false.
system.
(d) A is false but R is true.
97. Identify the correct definition of
91. Assertion (A) : A particle moving in a
acceleration due to gravity :
uniform circular motion has uniform
(a) It is defined as the force experienced by
velocity.
a unit mass
Reason (R): The particle also has a uniform (b) It is defined as the acceleration of a free
speed. falling body.
92. Assertion (A): The acceleration due to (c) Both (a) and (b)
gravity decreases with height above the (d) None of these
earth’s surface. 98. Escape velocity of a rocket fired from the
Reason (R): Gravitational force increases earth towards the moon is a velocity to get
with height. rid of the
93. Assertion (A): Objects appear ‘weightless’ (a) Moon’s gravitational pull
inside on orbiting spacecraft. (b) Earth’s gravitational pull
136 Miscellaneous Questions
(c) centripetal force due to the earth’s 104. In radioactive decay, the emitted electrons
rotation come from the:
(d) pressure of the atmosphere (a) innermost shell of the atom
99. When a man cycles round the earth in a (b) K shell of an atom
satellite, than his (c) Outermost shell of an atom
(a) mass becomes zero but weight remains (d) Decay of neutrons in the nucleus
constant 105. Which of the following is true for Thomson
(b) mass remains constant but weight Model of the atom?
becomes zero. (a) The radius of an electron can be
(c) both mass and weight remain constant. calculated using Thomson Model.
(d) both mass and weight become zero. (b) In an undisturbed atom, the electrons
100. An artificial earth satellite is said to be in a will be at their equilibrium positions,
geo-stationary orbit when : where the attraction between the cloud
(a) it is so placed that it does not move. of positive charge and the electrons
(b) it remains stationary in relation to some balances their mutual repulsion.
point on the earth. (c) When the electrons are disturbed by
(c) its course is governed by terrestrial collision, they will vibrate around their
gravity. equilibrium positions and emit
(d) it is made to stay in one place in electromagnetic radiation whose
obedience to commands from a space frequency is of the order of magnitude
centre on the earth. of the frequency of electromagnetic
Directions: The questions given below consist of an radiation of a vibrating electron.
Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Use the following to (d) Both (b) and (c)
mark the appropriate answer. 106. When a gold sheet is bombarded by a beam
of a-particles, only a few of them get
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the
deflected whereas most go straight,
right explanation of (A).
undeflected. This is because:
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not (a) the forces of attraction exerted on the a-
the right explanation of (A). particles by the oppositely charged
(c) (A) is correct. (R) is incorrect. electrons is not sufficient
(d) (A) is incorrect, (R) is correct. (b) a nucleus has a much smaller volume
than that of an atom
101. Assertion (A):The pressure of a fixed
(c) the force of repulsion acting on the fast-
amount of an ideal gas is proportional to
moving a-particles is very small
its temperature at constant volume.
(d) the neutrons in the nucleus do not have
Reason (R): Ideal gas molecules neither any effect on the a-particles
attract nor repel each other.
107. From the a-particle scattering experiment,
102. Assertion (A): Van der Waals equation is Rutherford concluded that
applicable only to non-ideal gases. (a) a-particles can come within a distance
Reason (R): Ideal gases obey the equation of the order of 10–14 m of the nucleus
PV = nRT. (b) the radius of the nucleus is less than
103. Assertion (A): Helium shows only positive 10–14 m
deviations from ideal behaviour (c) scattering follows Coulomb’s law
(d) all of the above
Reason (R): Helium is an inert gas.
137 Miscellaneous Questions
bulb is evacuated and filled with pure (c) through the action of carbon-dioxide
nitrogen or inert gases (d) through the action of heat in the process
(c) it does not burn in closed systems of baking
(d) it is made of non-metallic substance 122. After boiling, rice grains become swollen
118. Match the following: and occupy more space because:
List I List II (a) solids enlarge on absorbing heat
A. Sodium carbonate 1. Photography (b) carbohydrate content becomes more
B. Sodium 2. Washing (c) starch swells in content with water and
bicarbonate heat
C. Sodium peroxide 3. Baking (d) rice has plenty of fat content
D. Sodium 4. Source of 123. There are three forms of iron given below.
thiosulphate Oxygen Arrange them in the descending order of
Code: carbon content and other impurities they
A B C D possess:
(a) 2 3 1 4 I. Pig iron II. Wrought iron
(b) 3 2 4 1 III. Cast iron
(c) 2 3 4 1 (a) I, II, III
(d) 3 2 1 4 (b) I, III, II
119. Which one of the following statements is (c) III, II, I (d) III, I, II
correct? 124. “Fixation of nitrogen” implies:
(a) Nature has no capacity of absorbing (a) the liquefaction of nitrogen
pollutants (b) the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
(b) Nature has infinite capacity of into useful compounds
absorbing pollutants (c) the conversion of nitrogen into amines
(c) Nature has a finite capacity of (d) the solidification of nitrogen gas of the
absorbing pollutants atmosphere
(d) Only very high concentration of
125. Photograhic plates are covered with black
pollutants harm human beings
paper because:
120. Which of the following statement is wrong (a) the cellulose acetate of the paper must
about electrovalent substances? remain fresh.
(a) Electrovalent substances are made up (b) sunlight is easily absorbed by black
of ions held together by strong paper and it helps develop the film.
electrostatic forces (c) the silver bromide present on the plate
(b) The electrovalent substance, have high is very sensitive to light and the black
melting and boiling points. paper prevent contact with light.
(c) Structural units of electrovalent (d) the conversion of silver bromide to
compounds are neutral molecules metallic silver is essential
(d) Aqueous solution of electrovalent
compounds can conduct electricity. 126. Commercially, the production of ammonia
is important because it can be used in the:
121. Rising of dough in the process of (a) manufacture of proteins by
manufacture of bread is: polymerization
(a) because of evaporation of water in (b) preparation of soaps
kneading the dough (c) manufacture of artificial foods
(b) due lo capillary action of water in the (d) production of fertilizers
dough
139 Miscellaneous Questions
127. What are noble metals? 133. Dehydration of fruits is done before tinning
(a) Elements that do not form compounds them for food. This is:
ordinarily. (a) to add nutrients in the fruits
(b) Metals having very light weights (b) to remove bacteria
(c) Metals that do not corrode or tarnish in (c) to prevent microbial growth
air or water. (d) to preserve the essence in full strength
(d) Metals that do not form compounds 134. Match the following:
ordinarily. List-I List-II
128. The main use of salt in the diet is to: A. Sulphuric Acid 1. Silicon
(a) make the taste of food better process
(b) produce in small amounts the B. Ammonia 2. Contact
hydrochloric acid required for the process
digestion of food. C. Sulphur 3. Haeber’s
(c) ease the process of cooking process
(d) increase the solubility of food particles Code:
in water A B C
129. Match the following: (a) 1 2 3
I. Quinine A. Sugarcane (b) 2 1 3
II. Molasses B. Cinchona (c) 3 1 2
III. Iodine C. Hevea (d) 2 3 1
IV. Rubber D. Sea-kelp 135. Match the following:
(a) I-B, II-A, III-D, IV-C List-I List-II
(b) I-D, II-A, II-B, IV-C A. Tin 1. Aunite
(c) I-B, II-C, III-D, IV-A B. Copper 2. Argentite
(d) I-A, II-B, III-C, IV-D C. Silver 3. Starinite
130. The purification of a substance in which it D. Gold 4. Malachite
evaporates without melting can be carried Code:
out by: A B C D
(a) Crystallization (b) Distillation (a) 2 1 3 4
(c) Steam distillation (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) Sublimation (c) 3 4 2 1
(d) 1 4 3 2
131. Carbohydrates are composed of
(a) Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen 136. Match the following:
(b) Nitrogen, carbon and oxygen List I List II
(c) Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen I. Natural rubber (A) Buna-S
(d) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen II. Synthetic rubber (B) Latex
Ill. Natural fibre (C) Wool
132. Which of the following gives the correct IV. Synthetic fibre (D) Nylon
order in which things flow from the interior
of the earth from top to bottom when earth Code:
is drilled? I II III IV
(a) Natural gas, oil, water (a) B A C D
(b) Oil, natural gas, water (b) A B C D
(c) Water, natural gas, oil (c) B A C D
(d) Water, oil, natural gas (d) C D A B
140 Miscellaneous Questions
substance is greater than that of the (b) emission of sulphur oxides and
water vapour in air nitrogen oxides from thermal power
(c) till it melts plants and burning of fossil fuels; these
(d) when all of the above happen oxides dissolve in atmospheric water
147. Which of the following statement(s) is/are vapour and fall back on earth as acid
true about a solution? rain.
(a) It is a homogeneous mixture (c) natural carbon dioxide released during
(b) The components of solution are respiration of living organisms
dissolves in water, forming carbonic
chemically non-reacting
acid which is the chief contributor to
(c) The particle size is of the order of
acidity in rain water.
10–9m.
(d) None of the above
(d) All the above
151. In the manufacture of Safety Matches,
148. Without burning paper, water can be boiled
which of the following materials are used
in a paper cup. This is because: to coat the two sides of the match boxes?
(a) paper is a bad conductor of heat I. Yellow Phosphorous
(b) heat capacity of paper is less than that II. Glass Powder
of water. III. Blue
(c) water is good conductor of heat with IV. Red Phosphorous
high specific heat
Choose the correct answer from the codes
(d) ignition temperature of paper is more given below:
than boiling point of water (a) I, II and III
149. Match the following’? (b) I, II and IV
A. Petroleum 1. Found in small (c) I, III and IV (d) II, III and IV
streaks on sides of the Direction: Questions consist of two statements one
mines labelled the ‘Assertion (A)’ and the other labelled the
B. Natural Gas 2. Found very deep ‘Reason (R)’. Examine the statement carefully and
inside the earth decide if the Assertion A and Reason R are
C. Coal 3. Found along with individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a
Petroleum correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answer
D. Gold 4. Formed due to organic to these questions from the codes given below:
decay and pressure
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
Code: explanation of A.
A B C D
(b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct
(a) 1 2 3 4
explanation of A.
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 3 4 1 (c) A is true but R is false.
(d) 4 2 3 1 (d) A is false but R is true.
150. Acid precipitation is now regarded as a 152. Assertion (A): Oxygen gives reddish-
serious problem in sonic European and brown fumes with nitric oxide.
Asian countries. Its major cause or source Reason (R): Oxygen is a diatomic molecule.
is:
(a) discharge of acidic effluents onto 153. Assertion (A): Water can exist in all the
neutral or slightly alkaline land where three states i.e., solid liquid and gas.
the acidic components precipitate. Reason (R): Water has high boiling point.
142 Miscellaneous Questions