Outline

1. Introduction
2. Gravity Loads on Buildings
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
4. Load path
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
Dr. Sami W. Tabsh, P.E.
6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems
OTAK International
Abu Dhabi, UAE 7. Summary
Sami.tabsh@otak.com
1 2

1. Introduction 1. Introduction
„ The building design team consists of: (1) „ The important design considerations are:
Owner, (2) Architect, (3) Structural Engineer, 1. Architectural
and (4) Services Engineers (Mechanical, ƒ Internal layout to meet functional requirements
Electrical & Plumbing). ƒ Aesthetic qualities
„ Team should collaborate EARLY to agree on 2. Structural
ƒ Strength (ultimate loads, P-Δ effect, ductility)
a form of structure to satisfy the conflicting
ƒ Serviceability (excessive cracking, deflections,
requirements. vibrations)
„ The structural system of the building 3. Services
depends on the architectural requirements. ƒ Plumbing, lift, ventilation & power
3 4

1. Introduction 1. Introduction
„ For a safe and economical design, the design „ Loads on buildings are specified
process should give an optimum solution. by the ASCE 7-05 Standard:
„ The criteria for design can be: Minimum Design Loads for
- Minimum cost Buildings and Other Structures,
- Minimum weight which is the basis behind the
2006 IBC code.
- Minimum construction time
„ This standard addresses dead
- Minimum labor
load, live load, flood, snow,
„ Best solution is probably a combination of wind, rain, ice, earthquakes and
the above.
5 load combinations. 6

1
 2. Gravity Loads on Buildings 2. Gravity Loads on Buildings
„ The major gravity loads on building „ Basic volumetric weights:
structures are dead and live loads. Concrete 24 kN/m3
A. Dead loads are fixed-position gravity Sand/cement screed 20 kN/m3
loads (i.e. long-term stationary forces). Steel 77 kN/m3
„ They consist of the weight of all materials Glass 25 kN/m3
Sand/cement screed
of construction incorporated into the Wood 5-6 kN/m3
building including architectural, structural, soil 12-19 kN/m3
and MEP items. Dead load also includes Asphalt 20 kN/m3
the weight of any fixed equipments.
7 8

2. Gravity Loads on Buildings 2. Gravity Loads on Buildings

„ Basic area weights: „ Typical calculation of superimposed dead
Hollow block (CMU) walls load on floor (without partition loads):
(including plaster):
150 mm thick 2.7 kN/m2 Screed (75mm-thick) 1.5 kN/m2
200 mm thick 3.2 kN/m2
Hollow block walls
Finishes (tiling + grout) 1.0 kN/m2
300 mm thick 4.2 kN/m2
False ceiling & services 0.5 kN/m2
Equiv. unif. weight of partitions:
Light 1.5 kN/m2 Total 3.0 kN/m2
Average 2.5 kN/m2
9 10

2. Gravity Loads on Buildings 2. Gravity Loads on Buildings

„ Live load has two components:
B. Live loads are short duration forces
which change in location and magnitude (1) Sustained, which is less uncertain and
during the life of the structure. acts over a long period (e.g. furniture)
(2) Transient, which is more uncertain and
ƒ They include the weight of people, acts over a short period (e.g. people)
furniture and movable partitions.
ƒ They are based upon intended use or
occupancy of the building (e.g.
residential versus office).
11 12

2
 2. Gravity Loads on Buildings 2. Gravity Loads on Buildings
Occupancy/Use Uniform Load (kN/m2)
Residential (1 and 2 family dwellings) 2
Hotels and multi-family residential housing
- Public rooms & corridors 5 for ground floor (4 for other)
- Private rooms 2
Office buildings
- Lobbies 5
- Offices 2.5
Assembly areas
- Fixed seating 3
- Moveable seats 5
Flat Roofs 1
13 14

2. Gravity Loads on Buildings 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings

„ Live loads include adequate allowance „ The major lateral loads on building structures
are wind and earthquake loads.
for ordinary impact conditions.
„ Wind load on structures
„ Weight of machinery and moving
is affected by:
loads shall be increased for impact by:
„ Wind speed and gust effect
1. Elevator machinery 100%
„ Height and stiffness of building
2. Light machinery (motor-driven) 20%
„ Cross-sectional shape of building
3. Power-driven units 50%
„ Surrounding topography and terrain
4. Hangers for floors or balconies 33%
15
„ Presence of openings in the building envelope 16

3. Lateral Loads on Buildings 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings

„ In open structures, internal pressure can
combine with external pressure on the roof,
side and leeward walls, causing larger forces
on the members.
17
„ ASCE7-05 specifies the wind
velocity pressure qz (N/m2) at
height z (m) as:
qz = 0.613 Kz Kzt Kd V 2 I
where Kz = exposure coefficient
Kzt = topographic factor
Kd = directionality factor
V = Basic wind velocity (m/s)
I = importance factor 18

3
 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ The Basic Wind Speed, V, is associated
with an annual probability of 0.02, adjusted
for equivalence to a 3-s gust wind speed at
10 m above ground in exposure Category C.
19
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ The Importance Factor, I, accounts for
the use of the facility and its design life.
21
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ A Velocity Pressure Exposure coefficient
Kz or Kh, is determined based on the
exposure category.
23
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ The Wind Directionality Factor, Kd,
accounts for uncertainties in the direction of
the wind on the structure.
20
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ The Exposure Category is based on
ground surface roughness that is found from
topography, vegetation, and construction.
22
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ Wind speed-up effects at abrupt changes in
the topography are accounted for in the
Topographic Factor, Kzt.
24
4
 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ The Gust Effect Factor, G or Gf, accounts
for the turbulence effect of the wind on the
structure and is affected by the stiffness of
the structure (rigid versus flexible).
25
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ External pressure coefficients, Cp, define
the distribution of the wind load around the
envelope. They depend on the building’s
surface location and plan dimension.
where
27
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
Earthquake load on structures is affected
„
by several factors:
„ Earthquake intensity
„ Geotechnical data at
building site
„ Mass of the building
„ Stiffness of the building
„ Cross-sectional shape of building
„ Height of the building
29
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ Internal pressure coefficients, GCpi ,
shall be determined from Fig. 6-5 based on
the building enclosure classifications
(enclosed, partially enclosed, or open).
26
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ Finally, the design wind pressures, p, for
buildings are determined by:
p = q G Cp - qi (GCpi)
28
3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
„ Analysis of buildings subjected to
earthquakes in ASCE7-05 requires:
1. Determine building occupancy category and
corresponding importance factor (I)
2. Determine basic ground motion parameters
(SS & S1)
3. Obtain the site classification (A to F) and
site coefficient adjustment factors (Fa & Fv)
30
5
 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings
4. Get design ground motion parameters (SDS „ The Importance Factor, I, accounts for
& SD1) and seismic design category (A to the use of the facility and its design life.
D)
5. Select structural system and system
parameters (R, Cd & Ωo)
6. Examine the system for configuration
irregularities
7. Determine the lateral force analysis
procedure 31 32

3. Lateral Loads on Buildings 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings

• Use seismic hazard maps to get design „ Evaluate Seismic Design Category (SDC)
ground motions (IBC 2006) based on soil data:

Equivalent to:
UBC 97, Zone=I (Z=0.075)
33 34

3. Lateral Loads on Buildings 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings

„ Determine whether the building has „ Determine structural system parameters
Response modification (R), system over-strength (Ωo) and
horizontal or vertical structural irregularities. deflection amplification (Cd) factors.

35 36

6
 3. Lateral Loads on Buildings 4. Load Path
Roof
Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure Fn i=n
wn „ Loads acting on a building follow
Determine Base Shear: V = CSW i=n-1
wn-1 a path through the structure and
must be resisted by the ground.
Fx wx
i=x 2nd Floor
where i=3 w3
F2 i=2
w2 hx „ Loads accumulate as they are
F1 i=1
w1
routed through key connections
in a building. 1st Floor
„ Member connections are critical
links in a load path. Failed
connections may cause collapse. Footing
37 38

4. Load Path 4. Load Path

„ Load path is a chain. It is
only as strong as its weakest
link.
„ The roof/floors, beams,
girders, columns, shear
walls, bracing members,
foundation and connections
are links in the chain.
39 40

4. Load Path 5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems

„ The load path must be continuous and „ Structural behavior of gravity load resisting
complete for all possible loads on the systems can be mainly classified as either 1-
structure. way or 2-way slab.

41 1-way slab 2-way slab 42

7
 5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ One-way systems are floor or roof panels in
which the load spans in one direction only,
between parallel supports.
43
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ Examples of gravity load resisting floor
systems include:
1. Flat plate
2. Flat slab (with drop panels and/or
column capitals)
3. Two-way slab
4. One-way slab on beams
5. One-way ribbed system
6. Two-way waffle system
45
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ Flat slab with drop panels. This system
consists of a flat plate with column capitals to
provide shear resistance around the columns.
47
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ Two-way slabs are floor panels supported
along all four sides. Significant bending
occurs in both span directions, hence 1-
dimensional flexure theory does not apply.
44
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ Flat plate system. There are no beams
between the columns. Instead, the floor is
heavily reinforced in both directions. Edge
beams may be used on the perimeter.
46
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ Two-way slabs are floor panels supported
along all four sides by drop beams.
48
8
 5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ One-way slab on beams. The floor loads
are transferred to parallel beams, which are
then transferred to the columns.
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ One-way ribbed slab. The ribs act like
small beams between a thin slab. They are
created with removable forms or with
permanent hollow concrete masonry units.

49 50

5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems 5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems

„ Two-way joist (or waffle) slab. This floor
has joists in both directions. It is the
strongest and will have the least deflection.

Flat Plate Flat Slab

51 1-way Slab 52

5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems 5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems

Minimum Thickness (in)

Ribbed slab (void) Ribbed slab (Hourdi) Waffle Slab Longer Clear Span (ft)

Minimum thickness requirements for 2-way slabs (ACI 318-08)

53 54

9
 5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
„ Several factors affect the selection of one
structural floor system for gravity loads over
another:
I- Economy of construction
II- Serviceability
III- Load carrying ability
IV- Economy of material
V- Architectural considerations
55
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
II- Serviceability:
1. Deflections are most difficult to control in
beamless slabs.
2. Deflections can be controlled somewhat by
adding capitals and/or beams.
3. Two-way slabs with beams are most
suitable for minimizing deflections.
4. Negative moment cracking may be a
problem in flat plates (near columns).
57
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
IV- Economy of material:
1. Ribbed slabs and waffle slabs require less
steel than other systems.
2. Voids in ribbed and waffle slabs decrease
the amount of concrete required and
significantly reduce the weight.
59
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
I- Economy of construction:
1. Flat plates generally have the simplest
formwork and least labor costs.
2. Two-way slabs require forming drop beams;
which is labor intensive.
3. May be governed by local customs of
builders.
4. Waffle slabs use standardized prefab forms.
56
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
III- Load carrying ability:
1. Flat plates: spans < 6 m (residential & light
commercial)
2. Flat slabs: spans 6-8 m
3. Two-way slabs: spans 6-9 m
4. Waffle slabs: spans > 9 m
5. Beamless slabs are at a disadvantage if
lateral loads are being carried by frames.
58
5. Gravity Load Resisting Systems
V- Architectural considerations:
1. Presence of capitals and beams may be
objectionable to the architect.
2. Flat plate construction can minimize story
height in areas with height restrictions.
3. Beamless slabs provide flexible column
arrangements and partition locations
60
10
 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems
„ In buildings, lateral load (say wind) is
transferred to the foundation in 3 stages:
1. Primary collection (load transfers from
walls/cladding to diaphragms) 2 1
2. Horizontal distribution (load transfers from
diaphragms to vertical members), and
3. Vertical transportation (load transfers from
vertical members to foundations) 3
61
Wind 62

6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems

„ There are three main lateral load resisting 1. Braced Frames:
structural systems for low and medium rise Such structures consist
buildings. They are: of a frame strengthened
1. Braced frames, with diagonal bracing
2. Shear walls, and
members. The columns
and beams carry the
3. Rigid frames
gravity load, while the
„ A combination of the above 3 systems may bracing carries the
also be used in medium rise buildings. lateral load.
63 64

6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems

„ Braced frames are 2. Shear Walls:
mostly used in steel They were first used in
buildings since the 1940. They act like deep
diagonal bracing has to cantilevered beams
resist tension. supported at the ground.
„ Bracing generally takes They can resist both
the form of steel rolled gravity (load bearing) and
sections, circular bar lateral loads, transmitted
to them by the floors.
sections, or tubes.
65 66

11
 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems
3. Rigid Frames:
„ Shear wall
buildings are very Sometimes referred to
stiff structures as moment-resisting
against lateral frames. They are
loads. composed of
reinforced concrete
„ They are often
used on up to 30-
portal frames, with
40 stories.
Vertical analogy as cantilever beams the lateral load mainly
resisted by flexure.
67 68

6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems

„ Rigid frames resist lateral „ For high-rise buildings, the lateral load
resisting system is complex, and may
loads through beams and consist of one of the followings:
columns. 1. Framed tube
„ They tend to have large 2. Trussed tube
drift (lateral deflection). 3. Tube-in-tube

„ They are mainly used in 4. Bundled tube

low/medium-rise buildings ƒ These systems were first introduced by

(up to 20 stories). Fazlur Khan in the 1960s while he was with
69
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill in Chicago. 70

6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems 6. Lateral Load Resisting Systems

Framed Tube Trussed Tube Tube-in-Tube Bundled Tube

71 72

12
 7. Summary
1. The structural engineer and architect should
collaborate early to satisfy the conflicting
requirements of selecting a structural system.
2. The factors that affect the selection of a floor
system for gravity loads are economy of
construction, serviceability, load carrying ability,
and architectural considerations.
3. Rigid frames, shear walls and braced frames are
effective lateral load resisting systems for
medium rise buildings. For high-rise buildings,
the lateral load resisting system may consist of a
framed tube or its derivations. 73 74

13