Other SAE books of interest: ‘Lightweight Blectrie/fybrid Vehicle by Ron Hodkinson and John Fe (Order No. R316) For more information orto order a book, contact SAE Customer Service at 400 Commonvealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; Fix: 724-776-0790 Be As The Winning Solar Car eel Ea A Design Guide for Solar Race Car Teams Douglas R. Carroll \ 7 cooseigh* 200) Th 222, CF 2605 Nh SAE International: ‘Warrendale, Pa724-772-4008 ‘734.72-4991 lectronie, mechanical, orothecwise,withou! he prior writen peraission of SAE. 2003052648 ‘Tomy wife Karla, for putting up with me as I spent an awful lot of our time learning about soler cars,Development of this book began in 1997, after the 1997 Suacayee event. 1 ‘had then been involved in designing and building three solar cars that patici- patedin tne 1993, 1995, and advisor fora un car team, Thad the problem of losing some key students with each project. The new students joining the teazn had the same design misconceptions thatthe veteran students bad when they began and would want to make the same design mistakes that had been made on previous ears, Mating the same design mistakes agnin provides a good edi- cational experience for the students but does not further knowledge of solar cat design, To make progress and continually improve our design efforts, I developed a course ot solar car design and wrote notes o support the course. ‘The purpose of the ras to get the new students up to speed, andthe course focused on important in designing 2 competitive solar eax. ‘The notes became a little more formal each time I offered the course, and evolved into this book on solar oar design “The material inthis book is based on my experiences designing end building five solar cars over the last twelve years. Thave tried to Keep the book gen- cal and offer design optioas so that itis not just about how the University of | ‘Missout-Rolla team designs solar cars, but there isa certain amount of bias in our design philosophy. The book was designed to be used in a course that is open to upper-level students majoring in any field of engineering, math- cematics, or science. Solar car design is an interdiseiplinary topic, and the book was written to be suitable for the junior, senior, and graduate students ‘who would be responsible for designing the car. Students entering Sc aro assumed to have a fundsmental understanding of calculus, differential ‘equations, ph \what is provided inthis book to design any of tae systems on the car. Every one on the team needs to heve a fundamental understanding of what is involved in designing, building, and racing the car. Understending the “big picnare” will help team members make design and manufacturing trade-offsThe Winning Solar Car to stay on schedule and allow time to test and practice racing the car. Testing and practice are an important part of being successful in the competition. team must have a good car, good drivers, strategy, and a well-trained support team, on any of these elements will hurt the performance of the team in the race. The main focus ofthis book is on designing the car because that isthe most difficult and time-consuming part of the project, but the team needs to recognize thatthe cari ing, accurate weather forecasting, ra 7 race route make a huge difference in how well the tea competition. ‘The first two chapters in the book are on energy management; end the infor. tation in these chapters is helpful when doing design trade-offs and devel- ‘oping a strategy for racing the cat. Chapter 2 includes information on how to ative the car efficiently and is helpful in driver traning. tion tthe general design process. The remaining chapters are about design- ing the diffrent subsystems of the car. In each chapter, !have referred the reader to books and arcles that Thave found helpful on designing and build- ing solar cars. The goal ofthe book isto provide an introduction wall aspects of designing, building, and racing solar ear. Acknowledgments be ‘When I began working withthe solar car team at the University of Missouri- Rolla, I was e new assistant professor and had litle understanding of ow to design a solar car or how to coach s college cer design team. [have received help ftom many people over the years, and without their help, I could not hhave been successful. Chancellor John T, Paricand Dean O. Rot saw value in the project and helped the team get the suppor, fa funding needed even inthe carly yours when the teama was not very fal. The project would have died at an early date without their support and encouragement, Dean Lee W. Sepersteia, Dr. D. Ronald Fannin, Dr. E. Keith Stanek, Dr. Ashok Midha, Dr. Henry A. Wiebe, and Dr. David A. Summers provided office space, manufacturing facilities, and technical assistance from thoir departmental resources in support of the project. Mr L, John Tyler spent countless volunteet hours developing an efficient process for manufacturing the bods cess for evaluating and testing batteries, and teaching students how to maau- facture many of the mechanical components of the car. He has been & key person in developing the practical knowledge required to manufactur a solar car. Dr. CH, Wu spent many hours explaining to me and the students how solar cells work and how to build a solar aray. Dr. KM. Isaac hours working with me on the aerodynamics of solar cars, D: Cronin spent many hours teaching me about tire end suspension design. Dr, Pan! D. Hirtz was the president and project manager for the team for plying the disi- pline of project management to the solar ear design proj Lowe special thanks to Dr Patrick J. Star for talking with me about how he ‘coacies the design teams at the University of Minnesota, He was my mentor in ‘eaming how to be an engineering design team coach. Dr. Starr also helped me ‘eam about the technical aspects of designing the chassis and suspension of the solar car, In learning to coach and organize a team, Ihave also had help- ful conversations with my colleagues at other universities: Dr. Michael T. ‘Shelton and Ms. Tina Shelton at Califomia Stat Polytechnic University Pomone,* The Winning Solar Car ‘Me. Ast Boyt at Crowder College, Dr. Scott Tolbert at the Univesity of North Dakota, Dr: Joe Ritter and Dr Steve Shedd at Principia Coll ‘Waugaman at Texas A&M University, and Mr. Richard T, Whelove at the. University of Missouri-Columbia, 1 also would like ‘McMullen for his help over the years in developing battery. All solar car teams owe a great deal of thanks to Mr. Dan Eberle, Ms, Kate ‘von Reis, and Ms. Andres Pagee for staffing the solar ear racing headquarters ‘and organizing the races. There would be no solar car races in the United ‘States without their commitment. We also owe many thanks to Mr. Howaed Wilson, Ms, Richard King, General Motors Corporation, Electronic Data Systems, andthe U.S. Department of Energy for their support of solar cat racing. Chapter Chapter Chapter: 1 ape mS 2 wre p OZER ROM OMB O DS Table of Contents Ea Inroduction.. “dentificaton ofthe Probl Solar Cer Racing . ‘Energy Available and Distances Traveled Hilly, More Realistic Te Homework Assignment Extra Credit Homework: Milford Track Homework. (Grady of How Hills Affect Solar Car Efficiency) 46 ‘Extra Credit Homework: Heartland Park Track {Suly of How Starp Comes Afet Solar Cer Et Re Fete 0228 cen Design Methodology Introduction. ‘Time and Resources.The Winning Solar Car BORONOZ EM AEM MOM MOAB s 2 A amb o owe Study History Control Inno Design: Solar Car Desiga Proc References : Solar Array Design... Solar Cell Fundsmentala. Open-Circuit Voltage Matching Amay Voltage with Battery Voltage Power Point Trackers Body Drag Introduction Canopy Dr8g sn ne Chapter RAMMDODRA ONOZErAS Chapter 7 pomp Chapter 8 vos Chapter 9 Table of Contents Other Shapes Protruding into the Airstream san ‘Drag Caused by the Wheels 7 Ventilation. Composite Material Body Structure Body Strength Reat “Attachment Points ‘Body Support Plate Quality of Lay-Up. Box Beam Construction Strength and Sti Core Composit Composites Assigament.. Refeten688 nnn Car Balance and Spring Rates “Wheel Selection.‘The Winning Solar Car . Drivetrain. Brake Design... Homework for Brakes. Hub and Spindle. Suspension and Chassis ring ‘Homework for Front = Supeson Gor References... Rear Suspension, Drive, and Chast Rear Suspension and Drive Design References Electrical Systems Introduction... Wiring Diagram FUSES sn Wire Sizing : Connectors and Swit Electrical Subsystems .. ke About the Author. Table of Contents 1 343 oe 375‘The Winning Solar Car Co Study History cane D. Control Imovation Ez E G References Chapter 4 Solar Array Design.. Shading of the Array Coll Matching .. Angling of Cells in a String, Shingling of Cells, Series-Paralleling of Cells Bypass Diodes som Array Diagnosis and Repair. ‘Matching Array Voltage with Power Point Trackers. Referene95 ou o SAP ROMOZETRMM OM OmD Chapter S Aerodynamics of Solar Cars Fundamentals Car Body Shape . Camber. emmpOwDp Table of Contents AER ASS Chapter HM ReMMDOUPA exo Energy Loss Model for Tice D. References. Chapter 9 Front Suspension Design A. Wheel Selection...‘To my wife Kerla, for putting up with me as I spent an awful lot of our time leaming about solar cars. Pm. * Includes bibliographical references and index. -0 1. Soler cars—Design and construction. I. Te 2.037 2008 2003052648‘The Winning Solar Car Table of Contents Brake Design. Index... ai Homework for Brakes 315 Hub and Spindle About the Author... aa Rammoow Chapter 10 Rear Suspension, Drive, and Chassis Structure Rear Swpenson and Drive Design B. Drivetrain... © D. E Chapter 11 omens Battery Pack Modeling . ‘Wiring of the Battery Bor KP Romo (Chapter 12 Electrical Systems. Connectors and Switches Electrical Subsystems A. Introduction, B. Wiring Diagram . C. Fuses D. Wire si 5 FChapter 1 Introduction. A. Identification of the Problem ‘The fr step inthe design procs fo define the poblen a clesy as possible, There is an iterative process to design, andthe desi ‘understand the problem well enough at first to give a clear definition. In| should be defined as clearly as possible. The definition as the team works through the design process. Desig meth- scusted in more detail in Chapter 3. fesign problem, circle track racing is more faril- Er cconners is limited primarily by the the road, Acceleration is limited by the power the engine can provide, the Fig. 1. Cirele rack racing.The Winning Solar Car efficiency and inertia of the drivetrain, the weight of the car, the aerody- namic drag, and traction between the tires and the road. Braking is limited by the performance of the braking system and traction between the tires and the road. The strategy for circle track racing is as follows: Go around the comieras fast as possible without sliding sideways off the track, 2, Accelerate out ofthe comer as quickly as possible and continue accclerat- ing down the straightaway. At the last possible minut, hit the brakes to slow down just enough to ‘keep ftom sliding off the track in the next commer. From the mace strategy, it appears thatthe most important design aspects for the car are comering, acceleration, and braking, ‘The next step in problem defini determine what aspects of the car contribute most t9 comer- ing, acc and braking, Cornering Performance 1. The tires should be selected so they have a high coefficient of friction between the rubber and the track 2. Adownward aerodynamic force makes a higher normal foree on the tires, ‘which makes a higher friction force between the rubber and track. A. downward aerodynamic force will improve comering, 3. The suspension must keep the tres om the rond and prevent excessive body roll. Acceleration Performance 1, Power atthe wheels is what provides the acceleration. A high-power engine and good driveline efficiency contribute to getting power to the wheels, Introduction 2, Low aerodynamic drag allows the car to accelerate faster and have a higher top speed. 3. The rear tires must have a high coefficient of friction, or they will lose ‘traction and cause the car to spin out of control during acceleration out of the comer, 4. A downward aerodynamic force on the rear tires will help keep rear tires from losing action. This is why many racecars have «spoler onthe i i tional i of 5. ‘Keeping the car light in weight and minimizing the otational insta fheengize and drive system will allow the car to accelerate faster. Braking Performance 1, ‘The brakes must be capable of slowing the ear quickly and smoothly, They must not overheat. 2, The ties must have high coefficient of friction to prevent the car from going out of control when the brakes are applied. toad 3. Proper suspension and balance are necessary to proportion braking font and rear, and to prevent nosedive when braking. Reliability, safety, and ergonomics are also important issues. But from a ‘Recognizing that there are limi divide up the resonrces to build the best overall car B. Solar Car Racing ents, Performance of the car in comeing, accelesa~ 1s important in solar car racing, The primary design 3The Winning Solar Car Dbjectives are to make a reliable and energy-efficient cat [I noring, acceleration, and braking are secondary issues for 5 ‘There ere three different types of solar car races, and there are ‘Yous in the problom statement depending on which type of race the team is ‘preparing for, Tn any solar car ace, a eam must design a cat that can tavel {ast and use very litle exergy. The cars must be large-to accommodate the 8m? solar aray. A typical car is 1.8 m wide and 5 m long, which is approxi- ‘ately the same footprint as a full-sized automobile, To be competitive the very low power consumption for such a large: achieving this level of energy efficiency isthe primary design objective, 3000-ian cross-country race held in Austrae cat race, Itwas frst held in 1987, ands tll regarded asthe world championship event. Teams are allowed to rive fom 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 PM. during the day, and thee is no maximum speed limit for most of the race, The race is run on the Stewart highway from Darwia to Adelaide, This isan excellent route for solar cars because there is not much, traffic. The cars can get up to speed and cruise for hundreds of kilometers without intecruption, The World Solar Challenge is an-open competition. ‘Teams may use the best technology available for solar cells, batteries, and other systents, regardless of cost. Itis very expensive ‘a competi= tivecar for this race, The top teams typically travel at an average speed 0f 90 km/l on the open road. The goal isto drive the 3000 kam distance as quickly as possible and top tear typically travel more than 650 kma/day. Ta the World Solac Challeage teams drive as far as possible during the allotted time each day, and then pull off the road and set up camp forthe evening. ‘The American Solar Challenge is similar othe World Sola Challenge, except that the route, ftom Chicago to Los Angels, is longer and more dificult, ‘There isa lt of trafic and many stoplights on tis route. It typically takes 2h to get out ofthe Chicago area where the race stars, The roads are rough and have lots of potholes, end teams must cross the Rocky Mountains as they go nts to keep the cars from getting legis very short, so that vitually 3 race within & 2-h period on the last day. This allows for a good publicity opportunity atthe finish line. In the World Sotar 4 Challenge there will be several days between the fist ‘hich makes it more dificult for the press to cover the ‘en Solar Challenge teams ae allowed to drive fom 8:00 cach day. Top teams typically travel at 90 kewl ($5 mph) on the open road, but the average spee than inthe World Solar Challenge because of the many stops and| es om the route, The goal is to get to the end of cach segment as quickly as possible and then charge the batteries off the solar array while waiting forthe slower teams to amrive. The race is then restarted oa the next segment. Top teams will have a fll battery pack to start the next segment, while the slower teams will probably have to start with a partial charge in their batteries. The team with the least total time on the tree segments i the Winner. Sunrayce was a cross-country race of 1900-2400 lem (1200-1500 m) held in the United States. The rules for the race were modeled after the Tour de France bicycle race. Tettestrial-grade solar cells were required and there ‘were limits on the battery technology that teams could use. Limiting the ‘technology that can be used for the solar cells and batteries makes it much less expensive to build a competitive car. Sunrayce was a better ‘competition than the World Solar lenge because of the technology I Sunrayce were not competitive in "4 lenge or the American Solar Chal- ‘ut cars that performed well in day of the race, anda typical race day was 250-325 lam (1 Boal was fo drive the distance each day as quickly es logistics of the race, quires more human resources to start and stop the race each day. A Sunrayce-type race is much more expensive to organize ‘than the World Solar Challenge or Ametican Solar Challenge, Sunteyce rules limited the maximum speed to 88 kav (55 mph), even ifthe posted speed limit was higher. The top cars had to be energy-efficient enough to travel at 88 kaw/h oc the speed limit under sunny conditions, The last Sunrayce was ‘run in 1999 and it looks like there may not be any more races like this, primarily because of the expense of conducting such an event. Solar car racing is also conducted on closed tracks. The World Solar Rallye ‘and Dream Cup are probably the best inown events. The United States has & race ofthis type (Formula Sun Grend Prix) wich is held in May each yeat. 5