Synchronous generator dynamics

Source: BPA

Source: O. Elgerd

Olof Samuelsson
Outline

– Synchronous generator at steady state

– Synchronization

– Swing equation

– Transient angle stability

– The Equal Area Criterion

– Small-signal stability

– Frequency control

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Synchronous machine

– Rotor
g fed with DC current
• One field winding
– Stator
• Three windings 120°
120 apart in space

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 Loaded synchronous generator

• “Armature
Armature reaction”
reaction flux from load current in stator
• Adds to field flux to form air gap flux
St t flux
• Stator fl also
l includes
i l d lleakage
k flflux

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 Equivalent circuit 1

Indices: g generator
a armature
t l lleakage
k
d d-axis q q-axis
f field r resulting
g

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 Equivalent circuit 2

Eq(If) internal voltage (also Ef) Indices:

I stator current a armature
V terminal voltage d d-axis
f field
Xd=Xa+Xl≈Xa l leakage
Eq=V+(Ra+jXd)I q q-axis

I lags V by angle (g)

g (g)
Eq leads V byy angle

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 Load angle 

 is a spatial angle between field and air gap flux

and

a phase angle between Eq and V+(Ra+jXl)I

Note
  is given relative to rotating reference (rotor)
  is a spatial coordinate for a mass – the rotor

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 Steady state operation

Ra neglected Pe
Eq V
Eq  Xd 
jXdI VI
 
 V V2
Qe
Xd
I
Scale by V/Xd

Components of VI:
Vertical EqV/Xdsin=VIcos=Pe
Horizontal EqV/Xdcos-V2/Xd=VIsin=Qe

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 Two control inputs

Pe2

Pe1
Eq
Turbine P  Pe
 
Eq constant
V Qe2 Qe1
P affects Q
Pe
Eq2
Eqq1 Field current If  Eq
  P constant
V Q >0 or <0
Qe2 Qe1

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Synchronous generator rotor types
– Round rotor = ”Turbo”
Turbo rotor
• Two poles q-axis

• High speed - 3000 rpm @ 50Hz d-axis

• Used with steam turbines (e.g. nuclear)

– Salient pole rotor (Swe: utpräglade poler)
• Manyy poles
p q-axis

• Lower speed - e.g. 150 rpm @ 50 Hz

d-axis

• Used with hydro turbines

• Gear ratio with more poles: mechanical=electrical·(2/p)
• IEA lab
l b generators
t h
have ffour-pole
l salient
li t pole
l rotors
t

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 Salient pole rotor

q-axis q-axis
d- and q-axis different
•Geometry
Geometry
d-axis d-axis
•Flux
•Inductance
•Currents and voltages
Iq Vq Eq
q-axis


Vd 
jXq Iq
Eq=V+jXdId +jXqIq
V
Id jXd Id

d-axis

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 P and Q for salient pole rotor
Pe+j Qe=(Vd+jVq)(Id+jIq)* Pe

Vd+jV
jVq=V(sin+jcos)
V(sin jcos)
Id=(Eq-Vq)/Xd
Iq=V
Vd/Xq


EqV V 2  1 1 

Pe  sin   

   sin 2  Pfield  Preluctance

Xd 2 Xq Xd 
Try Xd=X
Xq!
 
2 sin  cos  
EqV 2 2
Qe  cos  V  
Xd  Xq Xd 


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 Synchronization

– Connect to an energized network (think Thévenin equiv.)

1. Control prime mover to reach correct speed  right el
2. Magnetize field (and armature) winding
3. Make V close to Vsystem (magnitude and angle!)
4 Connect!
4.
– Aim
• St d t t no-load
Steady-state l d situation
it ti
– Careless synchronization
• High currents and high mechanical stress
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 Synchronization conditions
– V close to Vsystem if the voltages have
• Same phase order (= wiring correct)
• Same frequency (= speed correct)
• Same magnitude (= right magnetization)
• Same phase (= right timing of connection)
– Think generator Eq and network V as rotating
three-phase phasors:

 
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 The swing equation
d m
Torque balance for rotor J  Tm  Te
dt

2
p magnetic rotor poles  m mech. rad/s   e elec. rad/s
p

Multiply
p y torque y m
q balance by
Use e as state and e≈s,e 2H d e
 Pm  p.u.  Pe  p.u.
Divide by Sbase to get p u
p.u.  s,e dt

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 The inertia constant H

1 2
Kinetic energy of rotating masses J m
H= 2
g
Generator MVA rating Sbase

Unit: Ws/VA=s

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 H on different MVA bases
– Machine base
• Steam turbines 4-9 s
• Gas turbines 3-4 s
• Hydro turbines 2-4
2 4s
• Synchronous compensator 1-1.5 s
– Common
C b
base
Narrow
• H ~ generator size (kW-GW) range!
• Infinite bus has infinite H

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Single Machine Infinite Bus
E’q
E V0
Pm X

X
H, X’d
”Classical
Classical model”:
model : ”Infinite
Infinite bus”
bus generator:
•Fixed E’q behind X’d •Infinite H
•Constant Pm •Zero impedance
•No damping •Fixed voltage V0
•No saliency
Xeq=Xline+X’d

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 ”Classical” dynamic generator model
Synchronous generator connected to infinite bus:
2H d e
 Pm  Pe  
Pe omega

 dt
 s,e wnom/2/H
1 1
delta

 d Pm s s

  e   s,e

 dt Pmax sin

•  in rad,, e in rad/s,, s,e

s etypically
yp y 100 rad/s
•E’q and X’d in Pe () for slow transients
•Second
Second order ssystem
stem with
ith poor damping
•Electro-mechanical or “swing” dynamics

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 Two equilibrium points
E 'q V
Pm  Pe    sin 
X eq
Two solutions for : Pe
  Pm X eq 
 0  arcsin 

   E ' q V  Pm
 180   0


• Synchronizing torque dPe/d
•dPe/d>0 for <90° - stable equilibrium
q
•dPe/d<0 for >90° - unstable equilibrium

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Dynamic response

* Temporary short-circuit Pe
near generator, Pe zero
during fault
Pm
Response?
1. Second order system
2 No damping
2.

3. Oscillator!  and  oscillate
(roughly sinusoidally)
Demo
4. (t) will lag (t) sm.mdl
tcl=0 05
tcl=0.05

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Second order response
Pe zero at short-circuit near gen
Pe
Step in Pm-Pe
Mechanical states slow
Pm
Start at 0 and Pe((0)
Acceleration during fault
d att =
F lt removed
Fault  1

Overshoot to 2 and Pe(2)
0 2
Oscillate around equilibrium 0 so Pe(0)=Pm
1
Si l ti tcl=0.05,
Simulation t l 0 05 0.1
01
PW Example 11.5
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Angle stability
0 must be less than steady state limit 90º
2 also has limit – transient angle stability limit

Questions:
How large can 2 be?
What happens when it becomes too large?
What is the largest disturbance that is OK?

Simulation
tcl=0.15,
0 1505 0
0.1505, 151
0.151

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The Equal Area Criterion

Pe DA
Short-circuit: Pe=zero
AA Mark areas between Pe() and
Pm Pm in interval 0 to 2
Accelerating Area: Below Pm
Decelerating Area : Above Pm
 For stable system AA=DA

0 2

1

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Transient stability limit

Pe DA
More severe disturbance:
AA
AA larger
Pm
Greater 2 makes DA larger
g
Maximum DA at 2=180º-0
For larger 2 only AA grows
grows…


0 1 2

Simulation

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Beyond stability limit

• d/dt never becomes zero

• Rotor accelerates even more
• Machine transiently unstable = loses synchronism
• Must disconnect and resynchronise

Demo

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Equal Area Criterion

• Stability check for known disturbance

Use EAC for 2 and check 2<UEP
• Max disturbance from stability limit
Determine disturbance for 2=UEP
• Typical disturbances
Loss of line
line, generator or load
Short-circuit

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Stability analysis tools
Analytical – the Equal Area Criterion
• Simple, can be done by hand, but approximate
• Formulated before 1930 by Ivar Herlitz, KTH (First
Swedish PhD in engineering)
Time simulation
• Computer application since the beginning
• Voltages and currents as phasors or waveforms
• Multi-machine model with Differential Algebraic Equations
• Set of Differential equations for each generator
• Power flow for Algebraic network equations
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Small-signal angle stability

• Linearize at steady state (0, 0, Pm0)

• State space: dx/dt=Ax+Bu
• Compute eigenvalues i of A
• Compute right eigenvectors i of A
• Applies also to multi-machine
multi machine models
• Popular application of control theory

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Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
• Eigenvalue i:
Im(i)=resonance oscillation frequency (e.g. 0.35 Hz)
Re(i)=resonance oscillation damping
0 for all i system is small-signal stable
>00 ffor any i system
t is
i small-signal
ll i l unstable
t bl
• Right eigenvector i:
Which generators participate in mode (resonance) i
g Generators in FI against
E.g. g those in NO and DK

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Small-signal damping
• Low >0 for
f uncontrolled system
• Negative damping from controllers
• Automatic Voltage Regulators
• HVDC controllers
• Damping added by dedicated controls
• P
Power System
S t Stabilizers
St bili (PSS) on generator
t
• Power Oscillation Damper (POD) on HVDC or FACTS

FACTS=MW size p
power electronic devices

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System frequency
One eigenvector shows all generator speeds vary together
The rigid body mode – the dynamics of system frequency
All generators synchronize to same , but which one?
H  i i
 system  i

H i
i

Large generators dominate

Infinite bus is extreme case
H= so that system=infbus
frequency like center or gravity!
Also center of inertia frequency,

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System frequency dynamics

All generators modeled as one with:

=system
H   Hi
i
system
Pm nom
fsystem
+
2H
 1
2
–

Pe,tot
D

This is single machine, but no infinite bus (to relate  to)

Electrical load is frequency dependent
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Frequency event without control
G
Generator is suddenly disconnected...
system
• Step reduction of Pm fsystem
Pm nom
+  1
• Unbalance: Pm<Pe – 2H 2

Pe,tot
• decreases D

• Decrease stops when Pe is reduced to Pm

• Error in 

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Turbine governor
Proportional frequency
f control law:
Pm= Pref+f/R
f=fnom–fsystem
R is speed droop, Hz/MW or p.u./p.u.

fnom
f
+ Pm
+
–
+
K 

fsystem P –
1/R
R
+ Pref

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R on machine base
All generators usually have the same R given in p.u. on machine
base
A disturbance
di t b gives
i same f everywhere
h
All generators do same p.u. contribution
Typical R value is 5%
f=0.05 p gives Pm=1 p
p.u. g p.u.

PW Example 12.4
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R on common base

R for entire system on common base:

1 1

Rtotal i
Ri

More generators give greater 1/Rtotal

In Nordel 1/Rtotal≈6000 MW/Hz

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Frequency error tolerance

Instantaneous value of f:

± 0.01
0 01 Hz in US
± 0.1 Hz in Nordel
± 0.2 Hz in Ireland
Time integral of :
Time error on clocks <10s in Nordel

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600 MW step excites f and angle dynamics

Deviation from
50 Hz at LTH

Phase angle
differences
(degrees)
LTU=Luleå

13:39 13/11: 600 MW generator in Denmark disconnected

F
Frequency dip
di and
dNNorth-South
th S th angle
l oscillations
ill ti

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Conclusions
• S
Steady state
– P and Q for round and salient pole rotor
• Transient
T i t anglel stability
t bilit
– Equal Area Criterion and simulations
• Small-signal
Small signal stability
– Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
• Frequency dynamics
– All generators like one
– Fair sharing: All generators respond equally in p.u. on
machine base if same p.u. R

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