J Sci Educ Technol (2012) 21:487–493
DOI 10.1007/s10956-011-9340-1
Parenting Style as a Moderator for Students’ Academic
Achievement
Zahari Ishak • Suet Fin Low • Poh Li Lau
Published online: 1 October 2011
Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
Abstract Parenting styles have always been a crucial
factor in influencing all aspects of a person’s development.
The purpose of this study is to test the structural equation
model of academic achievement among the students using
parenting styles as a moderator. The sample comprised 493
students from eight schools. Parenting styles are deter-
mined using the Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri in
J Pers Assess 57:110–119, 1991). Academic achievement
is measured based on the students’ performance in the
Lower Secondary Assessment. Data were analyzed using
structural equation modelling. Results demonstrated that
model of authoritative and model of authoritarian fit the
data of this study well. Both authoritative and authoritarian
parenting styles are the most common practice of the par-
ents. Parenting styles have been found to be a moderator of
this study. The results indicated that parenting styles
moderated the effect of academic self-concept on academic
achievement. The impact of academic self-concept on
academic achievement is found to be greater for the
authoritative than the authoritarian parenting style.
Keywords Parenting styles
Academic achievement

Self-concept
Z. Ishak (&)
S. F. Low
P. L. Lau
Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling,
Faculty of Education, University Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
e-mail: irahaz@um.edu.my
S. F. Low
e-mail: mlowsf@gmail.com
P. L. Lau
e-mail: janicepolly@um.edu.my
Introduction
Psychologists have long held an interest in parents and
their impacts on the socialization and the development of
their children. Parenting style is one of their focuses. Par-
enting style is defined as a constellation of attitudes toward
the child that are communicated to the child and that, taken
together, create an emotional climate in which the parents’
behaviours are expressed (Darling and Steinberg 1993).
Parenting style captured two important elements of par-
enting: parental responsiveness and parental demanding-
ness (Maccoby and Martin 1983). Parental responsiveness
which is similar to parental warmth or supportiveness
refers to ‘‘the extent to which parents intentionally foster
individuality, self-regulation and self-assertion by being
attuned, supportive and acquiescent to children’s special
needs and demands’’ (Baumrind 1991, p. 62). Parental
demandingness which emphasized behavioural control
refers to ‘‘the claims parents make on children to become
integrated into the family as a whole, by their maturity
demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness
to confront the child who disobeys’’ (Baumrind 1991,
p. 61). Parenting styles are categorized into authoritative,
authoritarian and permissive based on the Baumrind’s
typology of parenting (1967, 1971). Authoritative parents
are high in responsiveness and demandingness. They
monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s
conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restric-
tive. Authoritarian parents are high in demandingness but
low in responsiveness. These parents provide a well-
ordered and structured environment with clearly stated
rules (Darling 1999). They expect the children to obey the
rules without explanation. Permissive parents are high in
responsiveness but low in demandingness. They are leni-
ent, non-directive and do not require mature behavior.
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488
Literature suggested that parenting styles have affected
academic achievement, academic self-concept and self-
concept. Research findings have shown parenting styles
can produce direct and indirect effect on children’s aca-
demic achievement. The authoritative parenting style has
been regarded as the most suitable style in bringing up a
child (Chao 2001). Turner and Heffer (2005) found that
parenting styles are the most significant predictor for aca-
demic achievement of college students. Students whose
parents show high involvement, are very encouraging and
give high autonomy produced high academic performance
children. Weiss and Schwarz (1996) confirmed the
important role of parenting styles and reported that
authoritative, democratic and nondirective parenting styles
encouraged the development of positive attitudes among
adolescents. According to Darling (1999), authoritative
parenting style is one of the consistent predictors for cog-
nitive competency among adolescents. Pong et al. (2005)
found that the correlation between authoritarian and per-
missive parenting styles and grade point average is lower
compared to authoritative parenting style. The findings of
Tiller et al. (2003) revealed that authoritarian and permis-
sive parenting styles associate negatively with cognitive
achievement of a child. Ruzina (2005) and Matnizam
(2004) have proven that authoritative parenting styles
related to academic achievement positively but no rela-
tionship was found between authoritarian and permissive
with academic achievement.
The findings of Aunola et al. (2000)indicate that ado-
lescents with authoritative parents tend to apply more
adaptive achievement strategies, such as self-enhancing
attributions. The authoritative parenting style may
encourage adolescents’ control belief, which may then
enhance an adolescent’s motivation to succeed in school.
Juang and Silbereisen (2002) reported that there is a sig-
nificant, positive relationship between an adolescent’s
academic capability beliefs with variables of authoritative
parenting such as parental warmth, parental interest
involvement in schooling and discussion of academic
intellectual matters with parents. This resulted in better
achievement in school as there is a significant association
between the adolescent’s academic capability beliefs and
school grades.
Parenting styles are also found to affect the development
of self-concept. Self-concept is the set of attributes, abili-
ties, attitudes and values that an individual believes define
who he or she is (Berk 2000). These perceptions are formed
through one’s experience with and interpretations of one’s
environment (Shavelson et al. 1976). Self-concept is cate-
gorized into academic self-concept and non academic self-
concept (Shavelson et al. 1976). Academic self-concept is
defined as the individual’s assessment of his or her ability
to learn in the school context in comparison to relevant
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J Sci Educ Technol (2012) 21:487–493
others in the school (Brookover 1959). The non-academic
self-concept encompasses social, physical, moral and ethic,
personal and family self. Literature review suggests that
parenting styles can influence self-concept. Nasrin (1999)
found a significant relationship between parenting styles
and self-concept from his study on university students. This
agrees with the findings obtained by Ainol (2000) in a
study using secondary school students. Sallay and Munnich
(1999) reported that authoritarian parenting style correlate
negatively with self-concept but the authoritative style has
a positive relationship. Their findings further confirmed the
indirect effect of parenting styles on academic achievement
because authoritative parenting style is an important factor
in developing positive self-concept which later enhances
academic achievement. This is because a positive percep-
tion of oneself can instil confidence, thus motivating a
person to strive for success.
The major goal of this study is to test the full model of
academic achievement empirically using the structural
equation modeling (SEM) approach based on the data of
authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles. It is aimed
at understanding in greater depth the role of parenting
styles in self-concept and academic achievement at the
secondary school level. The model is hypothesized to fit
the data of authoritative and authoritarian well. Besides
that, this study is aimed at confirming the role of the par-
enting styles as a moderator in the relationship between
self-concept and academic achievement.
Methodology
Respondents for this study were tenth grade 16-year-old
students of public secondary schools in the Klang District
in Selangor, Malaysia. From the total of 493 respondents,
218 are male and 275 female. The respondents are 227
Malay, 184 Chinese, 75 Indians and 7 others. A total of 70
respondents obtained 4A-6A, 151 respondents obtained
1A-3A and 272 respondents did not have any A for their
Lower Secondary Assessment examination result. How-
ever, 399 of the respondents have achieved the level of
competency which means they passed all the six subjects.
Most of the respondents come from the middle socioeco-
nomic status family with the father’s monthly income
ranging from RM500 to RM 2499; most fathers are not
degree holders. Some 284 respondents were from urban
schools and 209 respondents from rural schools. As for
perception of parenting style, 308 of the respondents per-
ceived their parents as authoritative, 175 as authoritarian
and 10 as permissive.
Two stages of random sampling procedure were applied
to obtain the sample. In the first stage, four rural secondary
schools and four urban secondary schools were selected
J Sci Educ Technol (2012) 21:487–493
randomly based on the list provided by the Selangor State
Education Department, Malaysia. The second stage
involved randomly selecting three tenth grade classes from
each school. All the students in each class were considered
as the sample. A survey was carried out to obtain the data
using a self-administrated questionnaire. Parents were not
contacted as the questionnaire answered by students only.
The questionnaire consisted of four parts which are the
respondents’ background information, Parental Authority
Questionnaire (Buri 1991) to measure the parenting styles,
Tennessee Self-concept Scale (Fitts 1965) to evaluate the
aspect of non academic self-concept and Brookover Self-
concept of Ability Scale (Brookover et al. 1964) to collect
the data on academic self-concept. The academic
achievement aspect was measured based the result of the
PMR which comprised of English Language, Malay Lan-
guage, Mathematics, Science, Geography and History. All
the instruments were translated from English to Malay
language for all samples.
Result of Research
The reliability of the instruments was assessed using esti-
mates of internal consistency (Cronbach alpha). The cut-off
point for Cronbach alpha is 0.70 and above (Hinton et al.
2004). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to
test the full model of academic achievement built in this
study. SEM was performed using AMOS 16 (Analysis of
Moment Structure). As suggested by Kline (1998) at least
three types of goodness-of-fit indices should be used in
testing the goodness of fit of the model. Four goodness-of-
fit indexes used in the study to determine the fit of all
models were Jorskog Sorbom goodness of fit index (GFI),
Bentler comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index
(TLI) and Root mean-square error of approximation
(RMSEA). The cut-off for acceptable model fit based on
GFI, CFI and TLI is 0.9, with values greater than 0.9
denoting adequate model fit whereas for RMSEA a value
smaller than 0.06 is a indication of good fit (Bentler and
Bonett 1980; Hair et al. 1998; Hu and Bentler 1999; Kline
2005).
Table 1 revealed that all the instruments used in this
study have reached acceptable reliability. The role of par-
enting styles as a moderator was determined using the full
Table 1 Internal consistency of the instrument (Cronbach alpha)
Instrument Cronbach alpha value
Tennessee self-concept scale 0.90
Brook over self-concept of ability Scale 0.73
Parental Authority Questionnaire 0.62
489
model of academic achievement based on the data of
authoritarian and authoritative parents. Permissive parent-
ing styles ware not included in the analysis as the sample
size was too small. From Table 2, it is stated that the
p value of 0.000 is less than 0.005 which means that there
is a significant difference among the authoritarian and
authoritative models. Thus parenting style is a moderator
for this study.
Figures 1 and 2 presented the full model of academic
achievement for authoritarian and authoritative parenting
styles respectively. As reported by Table 3, both the
models have reached acceptable fit. The fit for model of
authoritative [GFI = 0.892, CFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.927,
RMSEA = 0.043] is slightly better compared to the model
of authoritarian [GFI = 0.854, CFI = 0.930, TLI = 0.922,
RMSEA = 0.041]. This means the model of authoritative
fit the data of this study better.
Table 4 shows that the regression weights for ASC ?
AC and SES ? AC are significant for the authoritative and
authoritarian model but NASC ? AC is significant for the
authoritative model only. There are more significant
regression weights in the authoritative model compared to
the authoritarian model. Socioeconomic status is the most
important predictor for academic achievement for the
authoritarian model whereas for the authoritative model,
academic self-concept is the most important predictor
for academic achievement. The regression weight for
ASC ? AC in the authoritative model is almost two times
higher than the value of regression weight in the
authoritarian model. At the same time, as it is reported in
Table 4, the regression weight of ASC ? AC, 0.259 for
the authoritarian model does not fall in the 95% CI (con-
fidence interval) of ASC ? AC [0.410, 0.773] in the
authoritative model. This finding indicates that there
are significant differences for ASC ? AC between the
authoritative model and authoritarian model. The regres-
sion weight for ASC ? AC in the authoritative model is
higher. Thus it confirmed the role of parenting style as a
moderator for ASC ? AC.
Discussion
Analysis suggests that both the authoritarian and authori-
tative parenting styles but not permissive parenting style
are still practised by parents in the process of bringing up
their children. This is due to the fact that both model of
authoritative and authoritarian fit the data of the study well.
Authoritative parenting style is practiced by most of the
parents as it can result positive impacts in the domains of
social competence, academic performance and psychoso-
cial development of an individual. On the other hand,
authoritarian parenting style is also commonly being
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490 J Sci Educ Technol (2012) 21:487–493

Table 2 Chi-square value and

Model Chi square Degrees D Chi D Degree p value
degrees of freedom for the
of freedom square of freedom
constrained and unconstrained
model Constrained 1,006. 047 686 23.26 6 0.00
Unconstrained 982.792 680

e37
.27
e15 IN1 .57 .52 .65
.76
e14 IN2 .30 .55 e66 .33
.12 .34
PHYSICAL
e13 IN3 BSAA1 e62
e12 IN4 .58 .24
.28
.49 BSAA2 e63
.41
ASC .64
e38 BSAA3
.42 .72 e64
.52
e20 IN5 .41 .65 .78 .80 BSAA4 e65
.64
e19 IN6 .56
.75
e18 .74 MORAL
IN7 .55 .49 .24
e17 IN8
.88 e61
e60 .34
e39 .01 .00.59 PDT e58
.39 .26
-.07 .46
.68
e25 IN9 .51 .62 .99 NASC SES
.72 1.00 LU e59
e24 IN10 .47.68
.52.72
PERSONAL
e23 IN11
e22 IN12
-.17
e57 .36
.87

.40 e40 .23

e30 IN13 .38 .63

.62 .75 .90 AC
e29 IN14 .62
.79
e28 IN15 .13.37 FAMILY .74 1.09
.55 1.18
e27 IN16
P1 P2 CHI=441.794
DF=340
e36
.29 P=.000
e35 IN17 .07 e53 RATIO=1.299
.54 .82 e54
.26 GFI=.854
e34 IN18 .31.56
SOCIAL CFI=.930
e33 IN19 .06.24
TLI=.922
e32 IN20 RMSEA=.041

Fig. 1 Full model of academic achievement for authoritarian represents non academic self-concept, ASC represents academic self-
parenting style (IN1–IN20, P1–P2, BSAA1–BSAA4, PDT and LU concept, AC represents academic achievement and SES represents
represent observed variables, e1–e66 represent error variances, NASC socioeconomic status)

practiced especially among the Chinese parents (Leung
et al. 1998). According to Profitt (2002), parental obedi-
ence and strictness, the characteristics of authoritarian are
often interpreted to include the values of concern, caring,
and involvement for the purpose of keeping harmony in the
family structure by the Chinese parents. Authoritative
parenting style is being the choice of most parents is
because it can produced children that are more socially and
instrumentally competent (Darling 2003), high self-esteem
and curiosity (Horner 2003), responsible, confidence and
creative which will resulted in good academic achievement
(Steinberg 2003). Permissive parenting style is seldom
being practiced because children of permissive parents are
more likely to be involved in problem behaviour and per-
form less well in school.
In this study, the impact of socioeconomic status on
academic achievement is significant in both the models.
This implied the importance of socioeconomic status in
influencing the academic outcomes which has been sup-
ported by many research findings (Croli 2004; Kahlenberg
2006; Marzano 2003; Thomas and Stockton 2003). Aca-
demic self-concept has a significant effect on academic
achievement in both authoritarian and authoritative mod-
els. The role of academic self-concept in improving aca-
demic achievement is further highlighted. This finding is in
line with that of many other reports (Akubuiro and Joshua
2004; Nasim et al. 2005; Mendez 2005; Wondimu and
Marjon 2006).
The effect of non academic self-concept on academic
achievement is significant in authoritative data only. This
may be due to the characteristics of authoritative parenting
style which will enhance the development of non academic
self-concept such as the personal self, family self, moral
and ethical self, physical self and social self. On the other

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J Sci Educ Technol (2012) 21:487–493 491

e37
.28
e15 IN1 .27 .53 .65
.52
e14 IN2 .43 .66 e66 .27
.14 .37
PHYSICAL
e13 IN3 BSAA1 e62
e12 IN4 .52 .50
.46
.71 BSAA2 e63
.36
ASC .60
e38 BSAA3
.39 .70 e64
.49
e20 IN5 .53 .63 .78 .80 BSAA4 e65
.73
e19 IN6 .51
.71
e18 .73 MORAL
IN7 .53 .54 .31
e17 IN8
.88 e61
e60 .50
e39 .04 .00.70 PDT e58
.48 .58
.20 .47
.69
e25 IN9 .61 .69 .99 NASC SES
.78 1.00 LU e59
e24 IN10 .50.71
.59.77
PERSONAL
e23 IN11
e22 IN12
-.16
e57 .34
.88

.36 e40 .50

e30 IN13 .29 .60

.54 .78 .77 AC
e29 IN14 .47
.68
e28 IN15 .13.36 FAMILY .88 .98
.77 .95
e27 IN16
P1 P2 CHI=531.831
e36 DF=340
.32 P=.000
e35 IN17 .22 .57 .60 e54 e53 RATIO=1.564
.47
e34 IN18 .37.61 GFI=.892
.38 SOCIAL CFI=.934
e33 IN19 .14
TLI=.927
e32 IN20
RMSEA=.043

Fig. 2 Full model of academic achievement for authoritative parent- represents non academic self-concept, ASC represents academic self
ing style (IN1–IN20, P1–P2, BSAA1–BSAA4, PDT and LU represent concept, AC represents academic achievement and SES represents
observed variables, e1–e66 represent error variances, NASC socioeconomic status)

Table 3 Measure of goodness-

Index Cut-off value* Model of Model of
of-fit full model of academic
authoritarian authoritative
achievement for authoritarian
and authoritative parenting Chi square (v2) 441.794 531.831
styles
Degree of freedom (df) 340.000 340.000
p value 0.000 0.000
Goodness of fit index (GFI) C0.900 0.854 0.892
Comparative fit Index (CFI) C0.900 0.930 0.934
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) C0.900 0.922 0.927
* Bentler and Bonett (1980),
Root mean-square error B0.060 0.041 0.043
Hair et al. (1998), Hu and
of approximation (RMSEA)
Bentler (1999), Kline (2005)

Table 4 Regression weights

Model of authoritarian Model of authoritative
Parameter Estimate 95%CI* Estimate 95%CI*
Lower Upper Lower Upper

NASC?AC -0.168 -0.449 0.060 -0.162 -0.344 -0.010

ASC?AC 0.259 0.016 0.534 0.576 0.410 0.773
SES?AC 0.357 0.105 0.590 0.340 0.171 0.494
Based on 1,000 bootstrap sample

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492
hand, it is found that authoritative parenting style has
moderated the effect of academic self-concept on academic
achievement. The impact of academic self-concept on
academic achievement is greater for authoritative data.
This may be attributed to the fact that authoritative parents
tend to accept an individual’s uniqueness, provide love,
respect and provide feelings of equality in the child. Beside
that, authoritative parents also encourage a child to correct
mistakes and develop capabilities and guide the child to
find significance in contribution. In this manner, authori-
tative parents can make a child feel confident and have a
positive self-concept about himself or herself including the
academic aspect.
The findings of this study have revealed that both the
authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles are still
practised by parents in our society nowadays. The results
realized the parents of their roles in influencing the holistic
development of the children. The type of parenting style
applied by the parents can bring about impacts on their
children particularly in the area of academic and self-
concept even at the secondary schooling level. On the other
hand, this study also provides input for teachers and school
administrators in their efforts to upgrade student academic
achievement as they should know that there are other non
school factors which might affect student achievement.
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