Be Finite Element Method with Applications in Engineering = eae oY BY essr-] T. |. Eldho A. H. ShahAssistant Acquisitions Editor: Gaurayjeet Singh Associate Production Editor: Ruchi Sachdev Composition: Glyph Intemational Lid. Printer: India Binding House, Noida Copyright © 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re- sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording of otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book. Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. ISBN: 978-81-317-2464-4 First Impression Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A-8(A), Sector-62, Noida-201309, India Registered Office: 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110017, IndiaPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv ” Profi a 1 __Introduction 1 1.1 Introductory Remarks 1 1.2 Mathematical Modelling of Engineering Problems. 1 1.3__ Type of Governing Equations 4 1.3.1 Initial and Boundary Conditions 5 1.4 Solution Methodologies 6 7 7 7 7 14.) Analytical Method 1.4.2 Physical Method 1.4.3 Computational Method 1.5 Numerical Modelling 1.6 _ Pre-Processing and Post-Processing 8 1.7__Scope of the Book 10 L8__ Highlights of the Book 10 L9__How to Use the Book? u 1.10 Closing Remarks u References and Further Readin, 12 2__ Approximate Methods of Analysis 13 21__Introduction 2.2 Aproximating Methods 14 2.3. Method of Weighted Residuals 14 2.3.1 _ Method of Point Collocation : 1S 2.3.2 _ Method of Collocation by Sub-Regions 1S 2.3.3 Method of Least Squares 16 2.3.4 Galerkin’s Method 2.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method 18 2.4.1 — Relation Between FEM and Rayleigh-Ritz Method 20 2.5 Further Numerical Examples 20 2.6 Closing Remarks 25 Exercise Problems 8 References and Further Readin; 26 3__ Finite Element Method—An Introduc 27viii | Contents, RRERE How Does FEM Work? A Brief History of FEM FEM Applications Closing Remarks Exercise Problems References and Further Reading 4 Different Approaches in FEM Al 42 43 44 Introduction General Steps of FEM Different Approaches Used in FEM 43.1 Direct Approach 4.3.2 Variational Approach 4.3.3 Energy Approach 43.4 Weighted Residual Approach Closing Remarks ertise: " References and Further Reading 5 _ Finite Elements and Interpolation Functions Sl 52 53 Introduction Interpolation Functions 5.2.1 __ One-Independent Spatial Variable Two-Independent Spatial Variables Three-Independent Spatial Variables One-Dimensional Elements 5.3.1 Line Element: Linear Imerpolation Function 5.3.2 Quadratic Interpolation Function 5.3.3 Cubic Inierpolation Function 5.34 Lagrangian Form of Interpolation Function 5.3.3 Further Higher Order Elements in One-Dimension ‘Two-Dimensional Elements 5.4.1 Triangular Element: Linear Interpolation Function in Cartesian Co-ordinates 5.42 Triangular Element—Area Co-ordinates 5.43 Integration Formula for Triangular Elements 5.4.4 Triangular Element—Quadratic Function 5.45 Triangular Element—Cubic Interpolation Function 5.4.6 Two-Dimensional Rectangular Elements 5.4.7 Rectangular Elements—Lagrangian Form in Natural and Cartesian Co-ordinates 5.48 __Isoparametric Elements eekR BIB EBRERBSREBBIE BEBBEBRBDedication To my parents (late) Lilyben and Mangubhai My wife Nilima and daughter Adveta ¥. M. Desai To my parents (late) Iype and Marium My wife Dr: Manjush and sons Iype and Basil T. I. Bldho To my wife Ranjan and daughiers Ketki and Seema A. H, Shahpal gyn conyes bees iaContents xi 9___Computer Implementation of FEM 271 9.1 General 271 9.2 Use of Symmetry and Anti-Symmetry Conditions in Reducing a Problem am 9.3 Static Condensation 273 9.3.1 Applications of Static Condensation 275 9.3.2. Static Condensation Procedure 275 9.4 Computer Implementation of FEM-sfeap 277 9.5 Storage Schemes for Global Structural Stiffness Matrix 27 9.6 Application of Boundary Conditions 280 9.7 Closing Remarks 283 Exercise Problems 283 References and Further Reading 286 10__ Further Applications of Finite Element Method 287 10.1 Introduction 287 10.2 Finite Element Analysis of Plates 287 10.2.1 Introduction 287 10.22 Review of Plate Theories 288 10.23 Finite Element Formulations 204 10.3 Dynamics with Finite Element Method 305 10.3.1 Introduction 305 10.3.2 Governing Equations 306 10.3.3 Mode Superposition Method 308 10.34 Direct Time Integration Method 310 10.4 Non-Linear Analysis 313 10.4.1 Finite Element Formulation for Non-Linear Analysis 33 10.42 Solution of Non-Linear Equations 314 10.43 Ilustrative Examples 315 10.5 Groundwater Flow and Contaminant Transport Modelling 321 10.5.1 Introduction 321 10.5.2 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions 322 10.53. Finite Element Formulation 323 10.5.4 FEM Formulation for Groundwater Flow in Unconfined Aquifer 327 10.5.5 Velocity Computation within Elements 328 10.5.6 FEM Formulation for Contaminant Transport 328 10.5.7 Case Study 330 10.6 Hysottymernics Simulation of Shallow Water Flow 332 Introduction 332 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions 333 Finite Element Formulation 334 Case Study 338xii | Contents 10.7 FEM-Software and Web Resources 340 10.7.1 Introduction 340 10.7.2. FEM in Structural Engineering 340 10.7.3 FEM in Geotechnical Engineering 341 10.7.4 FEM in Fluid Mechanics 342 10.7.5 FEM in Thermal and Automobile Engineering 343 10.7.6 FEM in Physics 343 10.7.7 Multi-Field FEM Software 344 10.7.8 FEM in Other Fields 344 10.8 Concluding Remarks 345 References and Further Reading 345 Appendix A Review of Matrix Algebra and Matrix Calculus 349 Appendix B Elements of Calculus of Variations 360 Appendix C Example Illustrating Use of Galerkin’s Method 367 Appendix D Review of Gauss Quadrature Procedure for Numerical Integration 372 ‘Appendix E User’s Manual For the Simplified Finite Element Analysis Program (sfeap) 378 Appendix F Graphical Interface For the Simplified Finite Element Analysis Program (sfeap) 436 Appendix G Computer Programs for One-Dimensional and Two-Dimensional Problems 447 461 IndexContents 5.49 Lagrangian Interpolation Functions for Two-Dimensional Elements 10 _ Two-Dimensional Serendipity Elements ix 82 bt 4.4_Three-Dimensional Elements Tetrahedral Elements 39 Tetrahedal Elemenis: Quadratic Interpolation Function 93 Tetrahedral Elements: Cubic Interpolation Function 93 Three-Dimensional Elements—Prismatic Elements 93 Three-Dimensional Elements in Local Co-ordinates 95 Three-Dimensional Serendipity Elements 96 5.6 Closing Remarks 97 Exercise Problems 97 References and Further Reading 98 6 One-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis 99 6.1 Introduction 99 6.2. Linear Spring 99 6.2.1 Expressions for Equivalent Spring Constant and Nodal Forces 109 6.3 Truss Element J 63.1 Plane Te UL 6.3.2 Element Equations by Minimizing Potential Energy 14 6.3.3 Local and Global Element Equations jor a Bar in the X-Y Plane 9 6.3.4 Computation of Stress for a Bar in the X-Y Plane. 122 6.4 Space Truss 125 pies ‘anal Tors Se a 6.6 One-Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 133 6.7 One-Dimensional Flow Through Porous Media 136 6.8 One-Dimensional Ideal Fluid Flow Through Pipes Unviscid Fluid Flow) 139 69__Beam Elemen 39 6.91 Review of Beam Theory 140 6.9.2 Finite Element Formulation ofa Beam Element 142 6.9.3 Illustrative Examples 147 6.10 Analyses of Plane Frames and Grids 156 6.10.1 Plane Frame Analysis 156 6.10.2 Grid Analysis 166 6.11 | Further One-Dimensional Applications 171 6.1.1 Flow Network Analysis: q71 6.11.2 Electrical Network Analysis 178 6.12 Summary of Element Matrices for One-Dimensional Finite Elements 181x | Contents 6.13 Closing Remarks 184 Exercise Problems 185 References and Further Reading 187 7___ Two-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis 189 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Two-Dimensional Flow Through Porous Media (Scepage Flow) 189 7.2.1 Step-by-step Formulation for the CST Element for Two-dimensional Confined Seepage Analysis 191 7.3 Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis 197 7.3.1 Review of Theory of Elasticity 197 7.3.2 Application of Three-Dimensional Equations for Two-Dimensional Analysis 198 7.3.3 CST Element for Plane Stress and Plane Strain Analyses 201 7.3.4 Triangular Element for Axi-symmetric Analysis 207 7.35 Some Remarks on Triangular Elements 209 7.3.6 Four-Node Rectangular Element for Plane Problems 209 7.4 1so-Parametric Formulation 212 7.4.1 Two-Node Iso-Parametric Line Element (Bar Element) 213 7.4.2 Four-Node lso-Parametric Element for Plane Problems (Quadrilateral Element) 215 7.5 Finite Element Solution of Partial Differential Equations by Method of Weighted Residual 224 7.5.1 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions 225 7.5.2. FEM Formulation 226 7.6 FEM Formulation Based on Variational Principle 227 7.7 Finite Element Solution of Stokes Flow Equations 229 7.7.1 Problem Statement 229 7.1.2. FEM Solution 230 7.8 Illustrative Examples 235 7.9 Closing Remarks 243 Exercise Problems 243 References and Further Reading 245 8 __Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis 247 8.1 Introduction 247 8.2 Axi-Symmetric Solids 247 8.2.1 Determination of the Fourier Coefficients 247 8.2.2 Isoparametric Finite Element Formulations 249 8.3 Bight-Node Isoparametric Element for Three-Dimensional Stress Analysis 260 8.4 Closing Remarks 266 Exercise Problems 267 References and Further Reading 268ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors have gained immensely through the works of several researchers in the field of FEM and are grateful to all of them. They have lectured FEM-based courses for over a period of thirty years to under-graduate and post-graduate students at IIT Bombay in India and at the University of Manitoba in Canada. In addition, they have given many FEM-based Master’s level and Ph.D. level projects. Also Drs Desai and Eldho have offered FEM-based short-term courses several times to College Teachers and Engineers at IIT Bombay, India. These activities have helped the authors to refine many ideas and applications of FEM for teaching. The authors are thankful to all their students, teachers and colleagues as well as participants of the FEM courses. Special thanks are extended to all Master’s and Ph.D. Scholars whose project-related works have been extensively referred in the book by the authors. Specifically, the first two authors wish to express their thanks to former and present students: Dr. G. S. Ramtekkar, M. Arpita, S. Sharique, Dr. S. M. V. Sharief, M. Meenal and A. Kulkarni and their colleagues Professor Tarun Kant and Professor E.P. Rao. They are thankful to LIT Bombay authorities and Quality Improvement Programme (QIP) of IIT Bombay for the partial financial support received for writing this book. Dr. Desai acknowledges the help and support received from his former colleagues Dr. R. Paskara- moorthy and Dr. W. M. Karunasena during initial draft version of the book and development of sim- plified finite element analysis program (sfeap). Dr. Eldho wishes to express his sincere gratitude to the late Professor B. Vasudeva Rao, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay, with whom he had a long-term association as a student and later as a colleague. Some of the text materials presented in this book (especially some parts of chapters 2, 4 and 5 and MATLAB programs) have been developed by him in collaboration with Professor Rao, Dr. Shah would like to acknowledge his former graduate students for making this book a reality, his colleague Dr. J. Frye for assistance with figures, his current doctoral student Professor D. Stoyko for his help with the manual, and computer programmers for development of the Graphical User Interface for sfeap. A book project like this could not have been completed without the full support and cooperation of the author’s family members. Authors are especially grateful to their family members (Dr. Desai to his wife Nilima and daughter Adveta; Dr. Eldho to his wife and sons: Dr. Manjush, [ype and Basil; Dr. Shah to his wife Ranjan and daughters: Ketki and Seema) for their patience and understanding while enduring the “book syndrome”, Authors wish to express sincere gratitude to the editorial team of Pearson Education, especially, Thomas Rajesh Mathew, Anita Yadav, Ruchi Sachdev and Gauravjeet Singh. Finally, the authors wish to thank all those who helped dircetly or indirectly and made this book possible.PREFACE The revolution in computer technology has led to the development of numerous computational tech- niques. The closed form solutions are either extremely difficult to obtain or not available for many engineering problems, Hence one has to resort to numerical methods. The Finite Difference Method (EDM), Finite Element Method (FEM), Boundary Element Method (BEM) and MeshFree Method are few examples of important numerical techniques, which are available in the field of computational mechanics. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits. The choice of an appropriate method for the solution of any particular problem depends on investigator’s familiarity of the method and nature of the problem. The aim of this book is to introduce FEM as a general numerical technique for the solution of various engineering problems. The main emphasis in this book is given to important applications in engineering and science. Since majority of the applications of FEM are in the realm of mechanics including solids, fluids and structural systems, descriptions are primarily in terms of these fields of study. This book is written in a simple structured way starting with the basics of various FEM approaches, a description of finite cle~ ment interpolation functions, FEM formulations and applications in one-, two- and three-dimensional domains and further advanced applications for a few complex problems. Further, some of the com- monly used FEM software and web resources available for the solution of various engineering and ience-related problems are described briefly. Anillustrative and simple computer program, sfeap, with a sophisticated Graphical User Interface for pre-processing and post-processing has been provided for structural and solid mechanics related problems. A few simple MATLAB and FORTRAN. based programs for fluid mechanics related prob- lems in one- and two-dimensional domains are also given. In addition, source codes of the programs are provided so that a reader can easily understand the computer implementation of the method and modify the codes to integrate their own elements and routines. One may take a physical or intuitive approach to learning FEM. On the other hand, one may develop a rigorous mathematical interpretation of the method. A middle path has been adopted in this book with more importance to the physical approach. Efforts have been made to keep the mathematics simple. We feel that the book will be useful for a basic understanding of FEM by beginners, further understanding by FEM practitioners, and to a certain extent for the advanced level understanding by researchers. We encourage readers to convey feedback and suggestions for the improvement of the contents of the book, and point out any necessary corrections in it. Y. M, Desai T. 1 Eldho A.H. ShahAUTHORS' PROFILE Dr. Yogesh M Desai is presently working as Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, at Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay). He completed his Ph.D. from the University of Manitoba, Canada in 1991 and worked as a Session Lecturer and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Manitoba until 1995. In 1995, he retumed to India and joined as a Faculty at IIT Bombay. In the last 15 years, he has supervised more than 10 Ph.D. theses and 35 Masters Projects. He has carried out a large number of sponsored and consultancy projects for various agen- cies and Industries. He has more than 150 research papers to his credit in Journals and Conferences. He is also a reviewer for several international Journals. His research areas include: Computational Mechanics with a focus on Finite Element analysis; Analysis and control of wind induced vibrations; and Structural Dynamics. Readers can contact him at desai@civil -iitb.ac.in and can visit his Website: http:/www.civil itb.ac.in/~desai Dr. Til, Eldho is presently working as Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, at Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay), He completed his Ph.D. from IIT Bombay in 1995 and worked as a Post-doctoral Scientist at University of Karlsruhe, Germany during 1995-1998. During 1998-1999, he worked as a Consultantat Cambridge UK. Further Dr. Eldho worked as a Senior Research Fellow at National Taiwan University, Taipei during 1999-2000. In 2000, he retumed to India and joined as a Faculty in the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur and then at IIT Bombay in 2001. In the last 10 years of his career at IIT Bombay, he has supervised more than 10 Ph.D. theses and 30 Masters Projects. He has carried out large number of sponsored and consultancy projects for various agencies and industries. He has more than 200 research papers to his credit in Journals and Conferences. He is also a reviewer for a large number of International Journals. His research areas include: Applications of Numerical Methods in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Areas; Computational Fluid Dynamics; Coastal Hydrodynamics; Watershed Management: Ground- water Flow and Pollution Studies and Hydroinformatics. Readers can contact him at eldho@eivil.iitb .ac.in and can visit his Website hitp://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~eldhoxviii | Authors Profile Dr. Arvind H. Shah graduated with an M.S. (Stanford, 1959) in Struc- tural Engineering and Ph.D. (University of California, Berkeley, 1965) in Structural Engineering and Mechanics. During 1965-1969 he taught at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India. Since 1969 he has been in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Manitoba. He has published over more than three hundred papers in Intemational Journals and Conferences. He has guided over two dozen Ph.D. students and a large number of students at the Masters’ level programmes. He has provided services to advisory boards of several International Conferences and has been reviewer for several journals of international repute. He has been a prominent member of the Department of Civil Engineering for 40 years. He remains very active in research and scholarship in his field. He recently published a book in the area of elastic wave propagation and is curently working on two other books. His major research areas are in the field of elastic wave scattering, quantitative non-destructive evaluation, galloping of transmission lines and dynamics. At present he is investigating ultrasonic scattering and quantita tive non-destructive evaluation (QNDE) and quantitative non-destructive testing (QNDT) of flaws in plates and cylinders. Readers can contact him at shah@cc.umanitoba.ca.Introduction 1.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Most practical engineering problems are complex in nature. A model is often needed to solve a sys- tem consisting of any domain of interest and various phenomena that take place in it. A model may be defined from the engineering point of view as the selected simplified version of an engineering system that approximately simulates the system's excitation response relations, which are of interest to the user. Information obtained from the model can be used to understand the system, to provide information for design purposes, to provide information to comply with regulations and to, finally, take appropriate management decisions to solve particular problem concerned. Modelling can be done through physical means with laboratory and field experiments or through mathematical means. Physical modelling in laboratory or field can be cumbersome, expensive and time consuming, Due to these difficulties in physical modelling in laboratories or in the real world, use of mathematics in solving the engineering problems has become widespread in the recent times. Use of systems approach, increasing power of digital computers and the development of numerous computational methodologies have made the mathematical modelling inevitable for all branches of Teaming. 1.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS Mathematical modelling of an engineering problem is a process by which the problem is represented as it appears in the real world and interpreted in an abstract form. Depending on the modelling approa different mathematical models are possible for tackling the same problem. Also, identical mathemati- cal model may be used to tackle quite different physical situations. Generally, basic elements of modelling can be represented by five components: state variables, external variables, mathematical equations, coefficients or parameters and universal constants. State variables describe the state of the system that is to be modelled. External variables, or the forcing functions, on the other hand, are variables external in nature that can influence the system. Math- ematical equations are relations between the external variables and the state variables. Mathematical representation of process in any system contains coefficients or parameters and universal constants. Calibration is often required in modelling to find the best parameters in accordance with the computed and the observed state variables by variation of number of parameters.2 | Finite Element Methods Modelling procedure and methodology depends on the nature of the problem, aims and objectives of the modelling, Different workable modelling procedures are possible. A typical modelling procedure is shown in Figure 1.1. Following steps are involved in a typical mathematical modelling procedure. Step 1 - Problem Definition: As the first step, it is essential to define the problem clearly with aims and objectives. Sources of facts and data should be known, Step 2 - Problem Simplification: As the real world problems are very complex to any model, various assumptions may be used to make the problem solvable with sufficient accuracy. Step 3 - Problem Solution in Space, Time and Subsystems: Once the simplified form of the prob- Jem is available, decision can be made for a three-dimensional, two-dimensional or one-dimensional modelling to obtain the required solution. Need for timé-dependent (dynamic) or time-independent (static) modelling should also be ascertained. Step 4 - Data Requirement: Data collection and handling may be simple or complex, depending on the problem to be solved. Availability and quality of the available data should be checked before proceeding further with modelling. Accuracy of the model prediction depends on the quality of the available data. Step 5 - Conceptual Model: Finally. a conceptual model for the problem should be evolved from the above steps. The conceptual model would tend to reduce the real problem and the real domain to sim- plified versions, which are satisfactory in view of the objectives of the modelling, available resources and management of the problem. Step 6 - Mathematical Model: Conceptual model can be expressed in the form of a mathematical model. Mathematical model, generally, consists of the definition of domain, the goveming equa- tions (algebraic, ordinary differential equations, partial differential equations or integral equations), initial conditions (known state of the system at some initial time) and boundary conditions. For most engineering problems, mathematical representations are possible in terms of equations, depending on varying conditions Step 7 - Solution Methodology: Solution methodology should be decided once the mathematical model is ready. Depending on the problem and its complexity, solution methodology can be analyti- eal, numerical or physical in nature. Analytical solution is generally possible only for simple problems with regular domain and simple boundary conditions. Physical solution can be obtained through labo- ratory modelling or field simulations. Generally, physical solutions are time consuming and expen- sive. Ifan analytical or easier physical solution is not plausible, numerical process is required. Step 8 - Model Development: A reasonable model to solve the given problem may generally be available as a public domain or commercial model. However, if the model is not available, it should be developed, depending on the objectives of the modelling. If the solution methodology is physical, laboratory or field level investigation would be required. On the other hand, analytical or numerical solution can be developed with the help of a computer, Step 9 - Modet Validation: The model cannot be used effectively for the considered problem unless the numerical values of all the coefficients appearing in the model are known, Once a model has been developed or proposed for a particular problem domain, it must be validated for the given conditions. Through model validation, it is ensured that the model includes and describes all the relevant pro- cesses, which affect the excitation and model responses of interest to the acceptable degree of accu- racy. Further, the solution obtained may be cross checked for few parameters/conditions for which analytical or other standard results are available. Step 10 - Model Sensitivity Analysis: The model sensitivity analysis involves investigations on model behaviour for the important model variables. Generally, sensitivity analysis is performed by varying each variable to its upper and lower extremes, while keeping other variables as constant. Sen- sitivity analysis indicates over all model behaviour for extreme conditions of the problem.Introduction Problem Definition -—>| Problem Simplification Assumptions + Problem Solution in Time, Space and Subsystems ¥ Date Requirement for Solution Data Availability Y Conceptual Model + Mathematical Model - Governing Equations, Boundary and Initial Conditions t Solution Methodology (Analytical, Numerical, Physical) ¥ Model Development ¥ Model Revisions ¢ Model Validation ‘ +} Sensitivity Analysis ‘ Model Prediction , Results Interpretation t ‘Summary and Conclusions ¥ Model Reporting Figure 1.1 A typical mathematical modelling procedure4 | Finite Element Methods Step 11 - Model Predictions: Once the model is calibrated and validated for the considered problem, the model is ready for use, Model runs are made to provide required results for the given problem conditions and data, Step 12 - Results and Interpretations: Results obtained from the model should be presented in a tabular or graphical form, This includes various post-processing techniques. Results should be inter- preted appropriately by considering sensible behaviour of the model variables. Step 13- Summary and Conclusions: At the end, information that the model was expected to provide, including accuracy, uncertainty, suggested follow-up works or other activities should be concluded. Step 14 - Model Reporting; Model reporting should be done in such a way that the important fea- tures of the model are clear and the results and interpretations are presented appropriately. Suggested contents of'a model report include: abstract. introduction, problem definition, assumptions, simplifica- tions, data, details of the conceptual model, details of the mathematical model, solution methodology, code (program) selection or development, details of model sensitivity analysis, verification, calibra- tion and validation, details of the model runs and predictions, resuits, discussions, conclusions and references. 1.3 TYPE OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS It is possible to derive mathematical equations governing the problem for most physical problems in nature, Generally, the governing equations can be classified into algebraic equations, ordinary differ- ential equations (ODE), partial differential equations (PDE) and integral equations. Many problems can be represented in the algebraic equation form, which can be generally expressed as glx, y.8) =0 Cl) where g is a function, x and y are state variables and @ is a set of parameters. The equation is said to be linear ifx and y appear linear in g, otherwise the equation is non-linear. Many engineering problems can be represented by sysiems of linear or non-linear algebraic equations and generally a set of values are sought as solution that satisfy the system. Large systems of algebraic equations are generated, for example, in the analysis of structures, electric circuits and fluid networks. Most fundamental laws of mechanics, physics, thermodynamics and electricity are based on empirical observations, which explain variations in physical properties and states of the system in terms of spatial and temporal changes. As many physical laws are expressed in terms of the rate of change of a quantity rather than the magnitude itself, the ODE are of great importance in engineer- ing practice. By using ODE, generally two types of problems, ic., the initial-value and the bound- ary value problems are addressed. Differential equations are classified according to their order. An equation is said to be of order n if the highest derivative of the dependent variable is of order n. For example, the deflection y of a mass spring system with damping can be expressed with a second order differential equation as DO epee artes, th=0 (1.2) where m is the mass, ¢ is the damping coefficient, k is the spring coefficient and 1 is the time. Dependent physical quantities vary with two or more independent variables and hence PDE Formulations are used in many practical situations, If the dependent variable and its partial deriva tives appear linearly with coefficients, depending only on the independent variable, the equation is said to be linear, otherwise it is termed as a non-linear equation. The order of a PDE is that of theIntoduction | 5 highest-order partial derivative that appears in the equation. For example, consider a second order PDE with two independent variables as given below. oh ah z ab 4c a=0 (13) ae aray ay ah oh Here a,b and care functions of randy and a isa funetion of x, /4, 5 and 5. Such a linear second 7 y order PDE can be further classified as elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic, depending on the values of the coefficients of the second derivative terms a, band ¢, An equation is called elliptic if the quantity (? ~ dac) < 0, For example, the Laplace equation used in many engineering problems, given below is elliptic. Yh oh 0 ca) Elfiptic equations are generally used to represent steady-state problems. Steady-state heat conduc- tion problem or groundwater flow in homogeneous isotropic porous media without any pumping and recharge are typical examples where elliptic equations are used. An equation is said to be parabolic if the quantity (6° ~ 4ac) = 0, For example, the diffusion equa- tion in one dimension, used in many engineering problems, given below is parabolic. oh _, ah ax? or Parabolic equations typically determine how a dependent quantity varies in space and time. Time- dependent heat conduction problem is an example where parabolic type equations can be used. In the third category, an equation is said to be hyperbolic if the quantity (2 — 4ac) > 0. For example, the wave equation in one dimension, given below is hyperbolic. oh 1oh ax ar Hyperbolic equations are used to deal with propagation problems and characterized by a second order time derivative as in the case of wave propagation. Sometimes, physical laws are expressed in terms of the summation or integrals of one or more variables over the entire domain or a range, and hence, integral equations are of great importance in * engineering practice. Generally, the integral equations can be expressed as follows. O(x) = falar) flat + fix) ma) (1.3) (1.6) F(x) = fexu)du + 000) (1.8) Analytical solutions can be derived only for a small class of formulations involving ODE, PDE or integral equations. Generally, approximate methods such as numerical methods are used to obiain solution. 1.3.1 Initial and Boundary Conditions Solution of ODE, PDE or integral equations arc altempted in conjunction with initial and boundary conditions.6 | _ Finite Element Methods Generally, initial conditions describe values of dependent variable throughout the domain at the given point in time. For example, temperature distribution at the beginning of the calculations should be stated to get appropriate solution in the further time steps, in the transient analysis of heat-conduction problem. Boundary conditions, on the other hand, are described on the boundary of the domain throughout the simulation time, based on which the solution is obtained for the concerned problem. Generally, three types of boundary conditions are used in engineering problems, which are called as essential, natural and the mixed boundary condition The essential boundary condition, which is also known as fixed, forced, geometric or Dirichlet boundary condition, describes variation of the state variable (unknown function) concerned on the boundary of the problem domain. For example, / in Eq. (1.3) is the state variable, which can be tem- perature or potential or any other quantity, depending on the problem. The natura! boundary condition, also known as the Neumann boundary condition, describes varia- tion of derivative of the state variable concerned on the boundary of the problem domain, For example, specification of the heat flux rather than the temperature on the boundary is the natural boundary condition for the heated rod problem. Both the state variable and its derivative together are described as the boundary condition in the case of mixed boundary conditions. For example, consider the partial differential Eq. (1.3) in a two- dimensional domain 0 and satisfy the homogeneous conditions on the boundary I, the above boundary conditions can be described as the following: Essential or Dirichlet boundary condition Aes, 9) Natural or Neumann boundary condition ah = 1.10) an (1.10) Mixed boundary condition kre s, (11) on where f,, f, and f, are known values on the boundary, s is the arc-length along I, measured from some fixed point on and a represents the differentiation along the outward normal n to I In In the mathematical modelling, accurate and appropriate representation of the initial and boundary conditions are essential to obtain accurate results. 1.4 SOLUTION METHODOLOGIES It is necessary to decide analysis and solution methodology for the problem concemed, once the mathematical formulation is ready. Analysis of mathematical formulation can be either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative aspects of the mathematical formulation are explored without explicitly solving it in qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis, on the other hand, can be divided into analyti- cal, physical and computational methods. These methodologies are described briefly in the following sections.Introduction 7 1.4.1 Analytical Method An analytical expression involving parameters and the independent variables are obtained in an analytical method using various mathematical procedures. Solution can be exact or approximate depending on how the solution satisfies the formulation. Generally, approximate solutions are sought when it is either impossible or extremely difficult to get an exact solution, Unfortunately, analytical solutions can be obtained only for a small class of mathematical formulations with simplified govern- ing equations, boundary conditions and geometry. 1.4.2 Physical Method A mathematical model represents a real physical system, albeit, on the basis of idealized assumptions, variables and parameters. Thus, such a model can be considered as having physical dimensions and can be analyzed sometimes in the laboratory or in the field itself. Scaling is often required for such models and accuracy depends on scale and simulation of the actual field conditions. Presently, the physical mod- els are used less frequently since they are expensive, cumbersome and difficult to employ. 1.4.3 Computational Method Solution is obtained with help of some approximate methods using @ computer in computational method, Solution, thus, obtained would be approximate. Generally, numerical methods are used to obtain solution in computational method. Computational methods of analyses are applicable to a much wider class of mathematical formulations and hence most engineering problems can be solved. With the advent of fast computers, computational models have become very widely used valuable tool for solving engineering problems, 1.5 NUMERICAL MODELLING Variety of numerical methods such as method of characteristics, Finite Difference Method (FDM). Finite Volume Method (FVM), Finite Element Method (FEM), Boundary Element Method (BEM) and so on have been developed by engineers and scientists for solution of engineering problems. Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method largely depends upon the complexity of the problem and investigator's familiarity with the method. Out of many available numerical methods, FDM, FEM and BEM are the most popular techniques among engineers and scientists. ‘Continuous variation of the function concerned is represented by a set of values at points on a grid of intersecting lines in the FDM, Gradients of the function are then represented by differences in the values at neighbouring points and a finite difference version of the equation is formed. This equation is used at points in the interior of the grid to form a set of simultaneous equations, which yield value of the function at a point in terms of values at nearby points. At the edges of the grid, value of the function is fixed, or a special form of finite difference equation is used to provide the required gradient of the function. In FEM, the region of interest is divided in a much more flexible way than what is possible with the FDM. Nodes at which value of the function is found do not have to lie on a grid system but can be on a flexible mesh. Boundary conditions are handled in a more convenient manner so that a standard programme can deal very easily with most conditions. The result is a programme, which can be used for problems involving many shapes of domain and types of boundaries. Direct approach, variational principle or weighted residual methods are used to approximate the governing equations.8 | Finite Element Methods Partial differential equation describing the domain is transformed into an integral equation relat- ing only to boundary values in the BEM. The method is based on Green's integral theorem. Here, the boundary is discretized instead of the domain, Hence, the computational dimension of the problem is reduced by one in BEM. For examples, a three-dimensional problem reduces to a two-dimensional problem and two-dimensional problem reduces to a one-dimensional problem. Thus. BEM is ideally suited for solution of many two- and three-dimensional problems in elasticity and potential theory for which other methods are inefficient. However, the method requires explicit expression of Green’s functions as kernels appearing in the integrat equation, From the above discussion, it is observed that FDM is simple and easy to implement, but dif ficult to implement for irregular geometry problems. FEM is more versatile and can be applied to most problems compared to the FDM and BEM. BEM has some specific advantages over FEM, such as reduction in computational dimension and ease in handling of data. FDM is confined to the grid system and is not versatile compared to FEM or BEM. Hence, the best choice in many cases is the combination of these three methods in one or other form like FEM-BEM combination or BEM-FDM combination or FEM-FDM combination to suit any particular problem to the benefit, accuracy, efficiency and economy. Diseretization of an earthen dam problem using FDM, FEM and BEM is shown in Figure 1.2. Differences in diseretization between the FOM, FEM and BEM can be clearly seen from the figure. As discussed earlier. FDM, FEM and BEM have got their own merits and demerits. Choice of the method is largely govemed by the complexity of the problem, geometry, investigator’s familiarity of the method and other factors such as availability of particular packages, computational facilities and so on. This book deals with the theory and practice of the well established FEM. 1.6 PRE-PROCESSING AND POST-PROCESSING When numerical methods like FDM, FEM or BEM are used in mathematical modelling, the ensu- ing computer model generally consists of pre-processing, processing and post-processing. In the pre-processing part of the model, input required to solve the problem are generated or read in. Input data required include domain geometry, initial and boundary conditions, coefficients and constants for the particular problem, value of universal constants, the grid information (finite difference grid, finite element mesh or boundary element mesh) and various options for the con- cerned problem such as one-, two- or three-dimensional analysis; steady state or transient analysis. In the processing part, real simulation of the problem with the concerned numerical model is done. For example, processing in the context of FEM includes generation of element matrices, assembly of element equations, imposition of boundary conditions and solution of system of equations. In the post-processing part, results obtained are processed in terms of tables, charts, graphs, contours, bar chart and so on. Mesh generation is an important task of pre-processing. Mesh or grid generation includes dis- cretization of the concemed domain into elements or cells and determining grid points or nodal positions. Subsequently, nodes and elements are numbered and nodal positions and connectivity between elements are specified such that the processor can identify the problem domain, discretiza- tion and nodal position. Mesh or grid generation depends on the type of numerical model used and dimension of the model. Mesh generation is a complex process when numerical methods such as FEM or FVM are used. On the other hand, such process is easier when BEM is used, Mesh or grid can be generated manually or through computer models. For automatic mesh generation, computer programs can be written and incorporated in the model itself or separate mesh generating packages can be utilizedIntroduction 9 y [ xX (A) FDM DISCRETIZATION HY }¥ oN] [> in y | | \ (8) FEM DISCRETIZATION v4 + (C) BEM DISCRETIZATION Figure 1.2. Flow through an earth dam—discretization using FOM, FEM and BEM Results from a problem analysis consist of numbers pertaining to various unknown variables such as potential, displacements, stresses and so on. It is thus better to present such details either graphi- cally or in tabular forms. Graphical display may include deformed shape of mesh, vectors, charts, contours, and so on. The post-processing can be done manually or through computer models. For post-processing, computer program can be written such that results are displayed graphically or sepa- rate post-processing packages can be used.10 | Finite Element Methods 1.7 SCOPE OF THE BOOK Purpose of the present book is to introduce FEM as a general numerical technique for the solution of various engineering problems. The main emphasis is given to important applications in engineering and science. An effort has been made to keep the mathematics simple. Since majority of applications of FEM are in the realm of mechanics including solid, fluids, structural and soil, descriptions in this book are primarily in terms of these fields of study. To effectively use the book, necessary pre-requisites are relatively moderate such as understand- ing of basic mechanics and physics, basic courses in advanced calculus and linear algebra and basic concepts of various engineering theories. For effective study and application of FEM, the reader must have working capability in several fundamental areas such as matrices, algebra, calculus and basic computer skills. The reader is assumed to have these backgrounds. However, to make the text as self contained as possible, a brief description of these topics are given in appendices. An overview of various approximate methods of analyses has been presented in Chapter 2 wherein the basics of FEM have been evolved, An introduction to FEM with history, applications, merits and demerits are detailed in Chapter 3. Important approaches in FEM have been described in Chapter 4. Interpolation fimetions used in FEM are explained in Chapter 5. Detailed formulation and applications of FEM in one- dimensional for various engineering problems are presented in Chapter 6. Formulation, implementation and applications of FEM in two-dimensional are elaborated in Chapter 7, Three-dimensional formulations of some engineering problems are presented in Chapter 8, Details of the computer implementation of FEM with details of intuitive, teaching purpose program are given in Chapter 9. Further advanced level of FEM formulation and applications are described in Chapter 10. Various FEM software and web resources avail- able are also discussed in this chapter. Brief review of matrix algebra and calculus, elements of calculus of variation, illustration on use of Galerkin’s method, review of Gauss quadrature procedure for numerical integration, user’s manual for the simplified finite element analysis program (SFEAP), further illustrative one- and two-dimensional computer programs are detailed in various appendices. One may take a physical or intuitive approach to leaming of FEM. On the other hand, one may develop 4 rigorous mathematical interpretation of the method. A middle path has been adopted in this book giving more importance to the physical approach, with essential mathematical basis. The book can be used for basic understanding of FEM by beginners, further understanding by FEM practitioners and to certain extent for the advanced level understanding of researchers. For the benefit of beginners, explanation of FEM with basic theories and fundamental applications in structural, geo- and fluid-mechanics are presented in one-, ‘wo and three-dimensional domains. Once the basic concepts of FEM ate understood with illustrative ‘examples, one can study advanced topics and apply the method to complex problems and to other areas. 1.8 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE BOOK This book is written to introduce the FEM as a numerical method that employs the philosophy of virtual work/equilibrium approach, variational principle and method of weighted residual for solution of vari- ‘ous engineering problems. The book is written in a simple structured way starting with the basics of various FEM approaches, description of finite element interpolation functions, FEM formulations and applications in one-, two- and three-dimesnsional domains and further advanced applications for more complex problems. The book is intended as an introduction to FEM as well as oriented towards various applications in engineering and science. It is envisaged that several practical applications and examples presented in the book will enable an engineer to assess the potential of FEM and its applicability to specific engincering problems. Various exercise problems are also proposed in the book. Further, the important FEM software and Web resources available for solution of various engineering and science related problems are briefly discussed.Introduction | 11 Emphasis of the book is on development of FEM formulation and implementation of the method to various problems. A very illustrative and simple computer program SFEAP with sophisticated graphical user interface for pre-processing and post-processing are given for structural and solid mechanics related problems. Few simple MATLAB and FORTRAN based programs for the fluid- mechanics related problems in one- and two-dimensional domains are also given. These programs can be operated on desktop PCs. Source codes of these programs are also given so that the reader can easily understand the computer implementation of the method. These codes not only demonstrate the implementation of the methods described in the book, but also help readers who are contemplating in preparing their own computer codes. 1.9 HOW TO USE THE BOOK? A large number of books are available on FEM. Thus, it may be rather difficult for a user (student, teacher or practitioner) to effectively follow-up a plan-of-study. Of course, the plan-of-study may depend on the time available and the objectives of the study such as (1) To study the FEM systematically for the solution of complex problems (students and teachers). (2) To have an in-depth understanding of FEM so as to further pursue research on FEM topics (researchers). (3) To study FEM for minimum understanding to use software for practical design and analysis problems (practitioners). This book has been written primarily to serve the first objective. However, it addresses the other two objectives also. To meet the first objective for students and teachers, the FEM has been presented systematically from the basics to one-, two- and three-dimensional applications, Users may study all chapters sys- tematically from Chapters 2 through 10. For researchers or advanced learners, in addition to the systematic approach, some advanced level topics have been presented in Chapter 10. For FEM practi: tioners, in addition to understanding of basics of FEM, the book is presented with software with pre- and post-processing graphical user interface, which can be used in practical application of problems and get training. Depending on the interest, to meet the third objective, users may concentrate on Chapters 3, 6, 7, 8 and 9. This book has not been written to provide a broad survey of FEM as it may require much more comprehensive volumes. The book has concentrated on more commonly used and effective FEM. techniques that can be applied to engineering problems. As shown in this book, FEM can be sys- tematically programmed to accommodate complex and difficult problems such as linear/non-linear stress-strain behaviour, fluid-flow problems, non-homogencous materials problems and complicated boundary conditions. It is important, however, that good judgement be developed and exercised con- cerning the solution of any complex engineering problem to achieve the desired results using FEM. To achieve this, the analyst must be sufficiently familiar with possible available finite element procedure and models. In this direction, the SFEAP software provided with this book will provide sufficient background of leaming and in reinforcing the understanding of FEM 1.10 CLOSING REMARKS Various aspects of mathematical modelling of engineering problems have been discussed in this chap- ter. Detailed procedures of mathematical modelling are illustrated, which are directly applicable to most engineering problems. Modelling methodology may vary. However, procedure more or less remains unchanged. Further, various types of mathematical equations and boundary conditions used12 | Finite Element Methods in modelling are discussed. Accurate results can be obtained only if the mathematical model devel- oped is appropriate. Various analyses and solution methodologies for modelling are further illustrated in the subsequent chapters. Since a few analytical solutions are possible for simplified problems and the physical modelling is quite cumbersome and expensive, most engineering problems are solved using numerical methods such as FDM, FVM, FEM and BEM. Various aspects of pre-processing and post-processing are also discussed briefly in the context of various numerical methods. The scope of the book, highlights of the book and details of ‘how to use the book’ are also explained. FEM is elaborated in the subsequent chapters. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Aris, R. (1978), Mathematical Modeling Techniques, Pitman, London. Beer, G., and Watson, J. O, (1992). Introduction to Finite and Boundary Element Methods for Engi- neers, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester Berry, J. $., et al. (eds.) (1987). Mathematical Model- ling Courses, Ellis Howard, New York. Boyce. W. E. (ed.) (1981). Case Studies in Mathemati- cal Modeling, Pitman, Boston. Burghis, A. D. Wood (1980). Mashematical Models in the Social, Management and Life Sctences, Eliz Horwood, Chichster. Chapra S.C. and Canale, R. P, (2002), Numerical Meihods for Engineers, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Clements, R. R. (1989). Mathematical Modeling-A Case Stuy Approach, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cook, R. D. (1981). Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, New York, Dym, C. L, and Ivey, E. S. (1980). Principles of Math- ‘ematical Modeling, Academie Press, Boston. Haberman R. (1977). Mathematical Models, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Kapur, J. N. (1988). Mathematical Modeling, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, Krishnamoorthy, C. §. (1994). Finite Element Analy sis: Theory and Programming, Tata MeGraw Hill, New Delhi Levine G., and Burkee, C. J. (1992), Mathematical Model Techniques for Learning Theories, Ava demie Press, New York. Mooney D. D., and Swift R. J. (1999). Course in Math- ematical Modeling, Mathematical Association of America, USA. Murray S.K. (eds) (1987), Mathematical Modeling: Class Notes in Applied Mathematics, Siam, Philadelphia, Reddy, J. N. (1985). An Introduction to the Finite Ele- ment Method, McGraw-Hill Intemational Edition, New York. Sanorskii, A. A., and Mikchailov A. P. (2002). Princi- ples of Mathematical Modeling, Taylor and Francis, London. Singh, B. et al. (eds.) (2001). International Conference ‘on “Mathematical Modelling’, Tata MeGraw Hill, New Delhi Smith, T.M. (1977). Mathematical Modeling and Dig- ital Simulation for Engineers and Scientists, Wiley Inter-sciences, New York Zienkiewicz, O. C., and Taylor, R. L. (1989), The Finite Element Methods, 4th ed., Vol. 1, Basic Formation and Linear Problems, Vol. 2: Solid and Fluid Mech- ‘antes; Dynamies and Non-lincarity; McGraw Hill, UK.Approximate Methods of Analysis 2.1 INTRODUCTION Engineering problems can be classified into two fundamental categories on the basis of adopted view points. In one view point called Lagrangian concept, all matter consists of particles that retain their identity and nature as they move through space. The position of particles in space at any instant is obtained by the coordinate systems, which are functions of time. In the other view point, known as Eulerian concept, the problem is considered to be in continuum rather than consisting of particle. All the processes are characterized by field quantities that are defined at every point in space and time and one point is focused to observe the phenomena occurring there. Most engineering problems can be considered as continuum problems and can be approximately represented by differential or partial differential equations. In mathematical physics, the con- tinuum problems are often referred as boundary value problems. Generally, the solution is sought in some domain defined by the known boundary on which the boundary conditions are specified. For the problem concerned, boundary can be closed or open. Boundary is known as closed if the boundary conditions are specified everywhere on the boundary. Boundary is called open if part of the boundary extends to infinity and no boundary conditions can be specified over it. Concept of the mathematical modeling was illustrated in Chapter 1 through governing equations and boundary conditions applicable to the problem domain. Governing equations are required to be solved with the appropriate boundary conditions over the prescribed domain. Depending on the prob- em, it may be possible to get an exact or approximate solution. An exact solution is one that exactly satisfies the governing differential equation and all the boundary conditions for the problem con- cerned. On the other hand, an approximate solution may satisfy the differential equation exactly but may not satisfy all the boundary conditions or vice versa. Various approximating methods used in the solution of engineering problems are discussed here to set the stage for the introduction of finite element method (FEM). After discussing some popular approximating methods for different classes of problems, necessary definitions, and terminologies will be established to show FEM as one of the important approximating method.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Approximate Methods of Analysis | 15 and boundary condition, an error known as residual will be produced. The unknown parameters in the trial function are determined in such a way that the residual is made as small as possible. A more detailed treatment of weighted residual techniques can be found in Finlayson and Scriven (1966) and Finlayson (1972). Some of the most commonly used weighted residual techniques in engineering applications are Method of Point Collocation, Method of Least Squares, and Galerkin’s Approach. These important weighted residual techniques are elaborated next with examples. 2.3.1 Method of Point Collocation A number of discrete points referred to as collocation points are chosen in the collocation method and the error is forced to become zero at these points. As a result, the differential equation is satisfied at these chosen points. Let L¢ = 0 be the differential equation under consideration, Approximate solution should be such that the polynomial or any other funetion chosen should satisfy the boundary conditions of the prob- em, ie., @ can be expressed by 6=>NO, 1) Here, @ are undetermined parameters and N, are known functions linearly independent in dimen- sionless forms. Parameters 9, are determined by enforcing the error or residual by €{= 1(9)!=0 at n points in the domain resulting in » equations to determine n values of 6, . The number of collocation points depends on the number of unknowns in the assumed function, Depending upon the problem, the point collocation technique can be classified into three methods. In interior collocation method, the «imissible function satisfies all the boundary concitions but not the differential equation in the domain. Here, errors arising are set to zero at chosen points in the inte- rior of the domain, In houndary collocation method, the admissible function satisfies the differential equation exactly in the domain, but does not satisfy the boundary conditions. Here the collocation points are chosen at the boundary. In mixed collocation method, the admissible function does not satisfy the differential equation and boundary conditions exactly. Thus, collocation points are chosen in the domain as well as on the boundaries 2.3.2 Method of Collocation by Sub-Regions ‘This method is very similar to point collocation method. However. error over the integra! of the functicn, rather than collation points is made zero over different regions, Hence if R is the residual function, {rea=0 over the sub-region Q (2.2) a Example 2.1 Solve following differential equetion using point collocation method. (23) Use boundary conditions @¢x = 0) ~ 0 and gfx ~ 1) ~ 0, Choose x ~ 0,25 andi ~ 0.5 as collocation points, Solution: ‘The exact solution for the expression (2.3) is = 0.8509 sinh ~ x (2.4)16 | _ Finite Element Methods Let the approximate solution that satisfies the boundary conditions be of the form O= x= x) (04 ,x...) (2.5) or 9=G,(X- NFA -— KF. Considering only the first two coefficients, i, + 2x(0t, - ,)—30,x° (2.7) and do <= Yar, -0,)-6e1,x 2.8) ae ) (2.8) are derived. Substitution of Eqs. (2.6) and (2.8) into Eq. (2.3) yields an error, e, where €= e(x) = @,(x" ~ x= 2) a, (6x. — 1-2) —x (2.9) Choosing x= 0.25 and x = 0.5 as collocation points, where the error is made equal to zero, following expressions are obtained. e(a= 0.25) = -140a, + 290, - 16 =0 (2.10) e(x = 05) = 1807, - 9a, -4=0 (2.1) Solving Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11) simultaneously, it can be shown that a, = -0.1459 and or, = = 0.15263. Hence, the solution is, Q = x(x — 10.1459 + 0.152634) (2.12) Here it should be noted that the number of collocation points should be equal to the number of unknown parameters ct, 2.3.3 Method of Least Squares In the method of least squares, the sum of squares of the residuals are minimal (or made zero) after substitution of the approximate solution in the differential equation. That is, the sum of the squares of the error is minimized as F2De=SLoy (2.13) oF For F to be minimum =0,i=1,... mthat yields 2 equations to determine 1 values of @,. 09 Thus, the final equations are a“ Jeo 7 dQ=0 (2.14) where 22 are the weights, a6 Method has been demonstrated in the following example. Example 2.2 Solve the following differential equation using least square method. fo ger @s Use boundary conditions $x = 0)= 0 and $e = 1)= 0.Approximate Methods of Analysis. | 17 Solution: Here the approximation function is assumed to be the same as given in Eq. (2.6). Then the erroris given by €=@,(x0 -x-2)-@,(-1 +49 +64-2)-x (2.16) Then, se (a,,(x? — x— 2) — a, (6x42 — xv —2)—¥1Ax? x=) (2.17) and : a [a@,(x? - x -2)-@, (6x 4.27 -x°-2)—x](6x 4x7 = 2x2 (2.18) or, 2 1 Hence, Jlace- = 2)- 0, (6x +x° = x' —2)- x] (x? -x-2)dv=0 (2.19) > and flee? = 2-2) ae (6r + x?) —2)—x](6xt+x7- x5 -2dv=0 (2.20) Simplifying Eqs. (2.19) and (2.20), the resulting equations are 4.674, +2.3501, = -1.084 (221) 2.350, - 4.2760, = 1.05 (2.22) Solving, @, =-0,1500 and a, =— 0.16309 Hence, 9= a(x ~ 1) (0.1500 + 0.16309x) (2.23) 2.3.4 Galerkin’s Method In the Galerkin’s method, approximating or trial functions are considered to be the wei tions. Consider a system with homogeneous boundary conditions inQ (2.24) An approximate function that satisfies these conditions can be used such that o-8= DN, (2.25) Here N/ are the assumed functions and y, are either the unknown parameters or unknown functions of one of the independent variables, Substituting this approximating function in Eq. (2.24) may produce a residual as R=L@)-g#0 (2.26) In the Galerkin’s method, the error is made orthogonal to the same trial function y, i.e. N, (2.27) JRw,dQ=0, where w, This method also yields » linear equations to determine » values of y,. Galerkin’s method may pro- duce symmetrical coefficients in many cases since the weighting function and approximating func- tions are same. Many finite element formulations are based on the Galerkin's type approximating method. In the later chapters, use of Galerkin’s method in development of FEM will be described in details,