L— lon Parascuivaiu —————_____ Winp Tursine DESIGN With Emphasis on Darrieus Concept (@) PoLyTEcHMic hi (NU.Table of Contents Foreword List of Figures Chapter 1 11 Wind Definition and Characteristics 12. Wind Turbines 13 Wind Bnergy Applications 1.4 Benefits and Obstacles in Wind Energy Development 15. Overview of Wind Energy Development 6 Wind Energy Development inthe World 1.7 Cost of Wind Energy 18 Social Cost of Wind Energy Conclusions References Chapter 2 21 The Madaras Rotor Concept 2.2 Savonius Rotor 22.1. Mathematical Model 22.2 Experimental Study. 2.3 Drag-bnven Device 24 Lift-Dsiven Device 23° Ginvmill = 126 Vortex Modeling Cross-Wind Axis Machine 2.7 Aerodynamie Characteristics References Chapter 3 3.1 Introduction 32. Geometry ofthe Darrieus Rotor References 4 B 13 Is 16 25 6 ey 2 u 37 41 61Wind Turbine Design Wi Emphasis om aries Concept Tou Parsschivoiy Production team ‘:citonal management and production: Presses internationales Polytechnique Euiting: Stephen Schettini Illustrations: Faroog Saced Cover Page: Ardecom Ine. For information on distribution and points of sale, see our Web ste: www.polyml ea ‘s-mail of Polytechnic Intemational Press: pip@ polymtl.ca, E-mail of lon Paraschivoiu: ion paraschivoiu@ polymtl.ca All sights reserved. ‘Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal, 2002 ‘This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express writen consent of the publisher. Legal deposit: 4th quarter 2002 ISBN 2-553.00931-3 Bibliotheque nationales du Québec Printed in Canada National Library of Canada 12345 0605040302When the wind is blowing The wind turbine is urning The electricity is flowing The gas emissions are ceasing ‘The environment is refreshing And people are cheering Lp.This book is intended to be a good reference for anyone interested in the design of Verical-Axis Wind Turbine for electricity generation and other applications such as pumping wae, isigation, grinding and drying grain, and heating water to name a few ‘The book is divided into ten chapters that are presented in a logical manner. The content is easy to follow and each chapter has its own conclusions. The innovative nature ofthis book is in its comprehensive review of state of the art in Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT), correlation of existing knowledge base and the more recent developments in understanding the physics of flow associated with the Daricus type vertical avis wind turbine. The principal theories and aerodynamic models for performance calculations ae presented with experimental ata, not only from laboratory measurements but also from real prototypes. ‘The frst chapter presents an introductory topic on the wind characteristics, a brief deserip- tion of the components of both major categories of wind machines: Horizontal-Axis Wind ‘Tasbine (HAWT) and Vertcal-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) and an overview ofthe wind energy evelopment in the world. The state of the art of vertcal-axis wind turbine including Savonius and Giromill rotors are Water Channel Fxperiments of Dynamie Stall on Datrieus Rotor 7.2. Wind Tunnel Experiments 147 153 156 158 m7 188 189 198 237 259 259 206 266 217 28873 1A 15 Table of Contens 72.4 National Rescatsh Coumil of Canada Wiad Tunnel Tests 72.2 Sandia Research Turbines 7.23. Predicted and Experimental Aerodynamic Forces on the Darrieus Rotor Field Test of Darrieus Wind Turbines 73.1 Sandia S Meter Research Turbine 732 NRCMydeo-Qucbce Magdalen Islands 24 Metcr Rescarch Turbine 73.3 NRCIDAF 6.1 Meter Research Turbine 73.4 Lavalin Eole (64 m) Research Turbine, (Cap-Chat, Quebec) 1-33 Pioneer 1 (1 Meter) Cantlevered Kotor Kesearch Turbine (Netherlands) 736 Sandia 17 Meter Research Turbine Commercial Prototype Wind Turbines 74.1 DOE 100 kW (17-m) Darrieus Wind Turbine 74.2 FloWind 17-m and 19-m Commercial Turbines 7.4.3 ndal Technologies 50 kW (11.2 m) and o40U00 KW (24-m) Measurements and Prediction of Aerodynamic Torques for a Darrieus Wind Turbine 75.1 Inwroduction 175.2 Measurements and Data Reduction 75.3. Prediviio of Aciudynanie Torque 754 Measured and Predicted Aerodynamic Torque References Chapter 8 81 82 83 a 85 86 87 ‘Natural Laminar Flow (NLF) Airfoils and Tapered Blades. Acrobrakes. 8241 Spoitess Vortex Generators... Pumped Spoiling ‘ToesIn-Angle Effects Blade Camber Blade Roughness (Soiling), Blade Icing and Parasite Drag Effects, References, Chapter 9 va Wind Turbine Design Parameters 9.1.1 Swept Area 9.1.2 Rotor Aspect Rati 9.13 Blade Airfoil 9.14 Rotor Speed 9.1.5 Rotor Soligity 9.1.6 Blade Material and Construction 288 201 296 303 303 304 305 306 308 308 312 312 312 31a ais 315 317 321 322 06 329 Bai 342 2s 351 355 359 359 RSSESTable of Contents 9.1.7 Central Column of Darrieus Rotor 9.1.8 Horizontal Struts 9.1.10 Cantilever Darrieus Rotor. 9.1.11 Type and Location of Brakes. 9.112 Gearbox 9.41.13 Drive Train 9.1.14 Motor/Generator 9.1.15. Variable Speed. 9.2 Darrieus Wind Turbine Design 9.2.1. Darrieus Design Issues 9.2.2 Furuse Design Alternatives. 9.4 Comparison Between Horizontal-Axis and Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines 93.1 HAWTs vs VAWTs Technical Aspects 9.32. Taking VAWTS to Viability References Chapter 10 1041 Introduction 102 Environmental Aspects 10.2.1 Human Environment Aspects 10.2.2. Natural Environment Aspects 10.2.3. Environmental Effects of Wind Turbine Operation 10.3 Gas Emissions: Wind and Other Energy Sources 104. Public Attn in Varions Contes 105 Social Impact 106 Wind Power and Traditi Conclusions Power Sources References Appendix A. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Symmetrical Airfols, Appendix B Canada and Worldwide Wind Energy Production Appendix C Wind Energy on the Worldwide Web Index sor 368 368 370 310 371 an a8 374 a4 374 a5 377 377 381 382 387 388 389 391 30x 394 396 308 308 401 401 405 47 421 423List of | Figures Chapitre 1 Figure 1.1 Components ~ Upwind rotor and downwind LAWT sotor (Ref, 1.1]. 2 Figure 12 VAWT of Darrous ype [Ref. 1-1] 3 Fignre 13 Type af vertical-ari wind tichines ~ a) Fite hlved Darren or aiculating blade Giromil;b) Savonius rotor 4 The Madaras concept for generating electricity using the Magnus effect (2.1) 1s Savonius rotor ~ Calculation scheme 0 Pressure distribution vs azimuthal angle 18 Starting torque fra rotation 9 Normalized power coefficient vs bucket tip-speed ratio. 2» ‘Tworbucket Savonius rotor 21 “Throe-bucket Savonius rotor. 21 "The sats torque coeficieut as a Funston of angular postin Tata two-bucket Savonius rotor, [2.17] 23 ‘The static torque coefficient as a function of angular postion for throe-bucket Savonits rotor, [2.17], 23 ‘A comparison ofthe power coefficients for two~ and three-bucket Savonius ors with a zap width ratio of 0.18 at Ref of 615 10° m4 [Normalized turbine power for I-meter two-bucket Savonius rotors as 3 function of normalized rotational speed for Re/m of 4.32 x 10° 2s Figure 2.12. Translating drag device 26 Figure 213 Translating airfoil 27 igure 2.14 Power from a translating aro vs lift-drag ratio 2 Figure 2.18 ‘Translating isoil with relative wind 28 igure 2.16 Coordinate sysiem and vorex sheet location for analysis of the Grom 29 Figure 2.17 Strcarmines and velocity profile at X= 3. a= 1/3. The velocity profile is siven along the lines v/R = 0.08 and +2.0 31 Figure 2.18 Vortex shedding ofeross-wind axis actuator 33Figure 2.19 Figure 2.20 Chapitre 3 Figure 3. Figure 3.2 Figure 35 Figure 306 Figure 37 Chapitre 4 Figure 4. Figure 42 Figure 4.3 Figure 44 Figure 4 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 48 Figure 49 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 47 Figure 4.18, Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20 Figure 421 List of Figures, Vortex system of single nladea cross-wing axis actuator Relative velocity and aerodynamic forces for typical blade element. Darieus vetical-axis wind turbine (DOB/SANDIA 34m) Catenay shape ‘Troposkien shape Length of Troposkien blade vs f and Q. ‘Tensions ratio vs blade length Sanaa shape Darrcus rotor geometries (Curved blade vertical-axis wind turbine with thre blades NACA 0012 Airfoil ~ Normal force and chordwise thrust coefficients ‘Comparison of theory and experiment ~ 2) Power coefficient: b) Rotor diag cooticene Effect of rotor solidity NoIR fect of lade seo Cy, ‘Upstream and plan view of typical steameube Blade element forees Relative velocity vector ‘Comparison of DART and single steamtube models with Sandia test data (Um aiamerer rotor) ‘Variation of steamtube velocities through the rotor (view looking upstream Htvough the ton) The fect of solidity on Cy (Re = 3.0 x 10°) Contribution of equatorial and to Cp Efect of wind shear on rotor performance Vortex system fora single blade element. Velocity induced at a point by a vortex filament Fixed-wake geometry Rotor aciulynanic nyu Sali 17-neiactes sescatel turbine, 240 blades, NACA 0015 section, 61-cm chord, $0.6 rpm, X= 2.18, Fined-ake theory and test results, Sandia 17-m-diameter research turbine, «wo blades, NACA 0015 section, 61-em chord, 50.6 rpm ‘Schematic ofa typical Darius turbine ‘Numerical representation ofthe Darreus rotor Vortex system for a single bade element (Ref, 4.14] M 38 8 50 2 3s 6 6 6 74 1s n * ” a1 82 83 4 85 86 6 88 89 89 0 92 93Figure 4.22 Fioure 4.23 Figure 424 Figure 425 Figure 4.26, Figure 4.27, Chapitre 5 Figure 5.1 igure 52 igure 5.3 Figure 64 Figure 55 Figure 56 Figure 5.7 Figure $8 Figure $9 igure $.10 Figure $.11 Figure $12 igure 5.13 Figure 5.4 Figure 8.15 Figure 8.16 Figure $17 Figure 8.18, Figure 5.19 Figure 5.20 igure $21 igure 522 Figure $23 List of Figure [Normal force cuetTicien variation. ~ Two-imcusivual YDART-TURBO, ‘IR = 0,135; © VDART2, olf = 0.15 (Ref. 4.14]; & Experiment (Ref. 4.14] Normal force coefficient vatiation, ef = 0.135, — Three-dimensional \VDART-TURBO: © VDART3 [Ret 4.14] ‘Tangential force cost IR = 0.133; © VDART2,c/K = 0.13 [Ref. 4.14] ‘Tangential force coefficient variation cIR = 0.135, ~ Thre-dimensional \VDART-TURBO: © VDART3 [Ref. 4.14] ‘Wake convection velocity as predicted hy three-dimensional VDART- ‘TURBO, off = 0.135 Wake geometry as predicted by two-dimensional VDART-TURBO, IR =0.135 Woke geometry ae predicted by VDARTS, of Acrodynamie toque Airfoil in Darrcus motion ‘Dynatne-nal events om the Vert VR-T alti 5.4] [Non-inerial frame of reference Computational domain. Algorithm ‘Wake definition ‘Computation ofthe eddy viscosity Siations onthe structured zone Flat plate shape Computational mesh for ft plate Pressure distribution over fat pte Boundary layer velocity profile ~ Ceboci Bouanlay lacs ve mth ity profits ~ Flasone King [Non-inemial frame ~ Pitching motion Computational mesh = NACA 0015 pitching sinfil ‘Transitional function - Pitching motion Drag coefficient ~ Cebeci-Smith model Lilt coefficient ~ Cebec-Smith model Drag coefficient ~Johnson-King model Lift coefficient ~ Johnson-King model Computational mesh #2 - Darreus motion Evolution of the relative velocity and angle of attack for Darieus mation, Darieus motion simulation ion, ~ Two-dimensional VDART-TURBO, 95 93 95 96 9% 98 wo ios 106 or 13 16 uy 9 121 ra 2 12 122 1s 4 1s 125 bs 126 126 nr 1s 8wi Linn of Pgueen igure 524 Figure 5.25, igure 5.26 Figure 5.27 Figure 5.28 Figure 529 Figure £20 Figure $31 igure 5.32 Figure 5.33 Figure 5.34 Figure 8.35 Figure 5.36 Figure $37 Figure $38 Figure $39 Chapitre 6 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 64 Figure 65 Figure 66 igure 6.7 Figure 68 Figure 69) igure 6.10 Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12 Figure 6.13, Figure 6.14 Figure 6.15, Evolution ofthe effective Reynolds number Computed steamnes ~ Cebec-Smith model Evolution of the vorucy Hie ~ Cebec-Smith model Computed streamlines ~ Johason-King mode! [Evolution ofthe vorticity Feld ~Johanon-King model Dynamic stall regions ~Cebeci-Smith mode! Dynamic sta regions Johnson King modst Dynamic stall regions ~ Laminar case Fain of the normal force — Laminar case Evolution ofthe normal force ~ Cobeci-Smith model Evolution ofthe normal force —Johnson-King mode Evolution of the tangential foree ~ Laminar case Evolution ofthe tangential force -Cebeci-Smith model Evolution of the tangential force —Johason-King model Evolution ofthe pitching moment. Wake convection A par of actuator disks in tandem Do Control volumes {and 2 etuator disks sreamlinss pte Control volumes 3, 4 ands Relative velocity and angle of attack Force coefficients of «blade clement sift Elemental forces on a blade element Elemental forces on a blade clement airfoil ina horizontal plane) Definition of rotor geometry fora Darieus wind turbine, Two atuator disks in tandem, Angles, forces and velocity ects a the equator ‘Compatison between normal force coefficients calculated by the multiple streamiube theory, and the peseut sel. Sait Som, 162.3 sp Variation ofthe normal bade loading with azimuthal angle @, fr each blade, inthe upwind and downwind zones ‘Variation ofthe normal fore coefficient with azimathal ange 0 for two blades, at thee tip-specd ratios Comparison between tangential force coefficients calulated bythe multiple streammube theory andthe present model Variation of dhe uaugentil blade foaing wid he acimuhal angle 8, for each blade, inthe upwind and downwind zones, bo BI 132 13 14 1s bs 16 16 Lt 138 138 19 139 ur 19 9 153 1s4 135 188 139 160 1s 166 167 167 fiwt 8 wo 150 153, 1s ss 15 159 160 16s 166 161 161 Figure 6.16 Figuve 67 Figure 6.18 Figure 6.19, Figure 6.20, Figure 621 Figure 6.22 Figure 6.23 Figure 627 Figure 6.28 Figure 629 Figure 630 Figure 631 Figure 6.32 igure 0.33 Figure 6.34 Figure 6.35, Figure 6.36 Figure 6.37 Figure 6.38 Listef Figures ‘Variation ofthe tangential force coefficient with the azimuthal angle @ for te ta Blades, a the three tipped ratios Poet siniTiccat us «Gaston of the equatorial Sip spocd ‘Comparison between analytical mode results and field test data [6.17] for the Sandia 5-m, two-blade rotor Power coofiient as function ofthe equatorial tip-speed rato, Comparison between analytical model results and field est data {6.17} for the Sandie‘S-m threeblade ror Upwind and downwind velocity ratios a functions of tip-speed ratio Variation ofthe angle of attack atthe equator with the Made position Blade element normal force coefiient atthe equator s «function ofthe azimuthal angle 8 Blade element tangential force atthe equator as function ofthe azimuthal angle. 0 Upwind and downwind normal force cocticientsdistibution oa the rotor blades Uposind and downs tangential force conficen icrihtion onthe rotor blades Rott torque as function of the azimuthal angle. Comparison between ‘nalyial results and experimental data Upwind, downwind and rotor power coefficients as functions of tipped. Power coefficient vs Gp-speed ratio. Comparison between present model revs an field test data DDarieus rotor power a a funetion ofthe wind velocity a the equator ‘A typieal Darieus rotor performance characteristic Cp asa function of the ip speed ratio Xe, Power cosficient vs tip-speed ratio Performance coefficient vs advance ratio Power coefficient vs tip-speed ratio for thee types of afi tower wake-veloeny die “Measurement ofthe distribution of mean velocities and relative turbulence ites inthe wake of rotating epinder Power coefficient as function ofthe tip- speed rato. Comparison between experimental data and rests predicted by CARDAA, CARDAAY, and VDARTS codes ‘Open spoiler effects on the performance of the Magdalen Islands rotor Aerodynamic power asa fuel of wid Speed atthe equator. Comparison botween experimental data and results predicted by CARDAAV code, including secondary effets Induced velocity variation with blade position sit 168 169 160 170 m m im 174 vs 176 176 7 v8 v9 19 181 19 186 186 187Figure 6.39 Figure 6.40 igure 0.41 Figure 642 Figure 6.43, lure 6.44 Figure 645 Figure 6.46 Figure 647 Figure 6.48 Figure 649 Figure 680 Figure 681 Figure 652 Figure 653 Figure 684 Figure 655 Figure 686 Figure 657 Figure 658 Figure 69 Figure 6.60 Figure 6.61, Figure 6.62 Figure 6.63 Figuee 664 Figure 6.65 Flguer 6.66 Figure 667 Figure 6.68 Figure 6.69 of Figures Blade tangential force coefficient a function of blade position Average side-frce coefficient asa function of ipspeed ratio ‘imputed pysieal model ot the towne n a horizon slice ofthe rotor Reduction ofthe steamtube ind Curve streamlines through the rotor, calculation and experiments ‘Variation ofthe angle of ain a he equate with the Made position lnistrbed part ofthe rotor ¥s the Performance comparison betwccn theoretical results and experimental data forthe Sandia 17-m turbine Contribution of vertical slices tothe power coetTicint versus ipspeed Pesformance eompatnon of dooreticl resus and experimental data tor the Sandia Sm turbine Normal fore eaeffcient 6 fnetion af the zi thal angle ‘Tangential force coefficient as a Function of the azimuthal angle Schematic diagram ofthe vortex shedding for X= 2.18 Gormont’s model adaptations: Magdalen Islands rotor at 29.4 rpm Gormont’s mode! adaptations: Sandia 17-m a 42.2 rpm Gormonts model adaptations: Sandia 34-m at 28.0 rpm LVAWT: Angles, forces and velocities athe equator (MIT model) Maximum it and moment coetficiens vs rate of change of angle of attack Norma force coefficient vs angle of attack atthe equator for Sandia 17-m, ‘387 epm (experimental data and MIT model) Normal force coefficient vs angle of attack tthe equator for Sandia I7-m, 3K 7 rpm (experimental data and Corman’ move Rotor power vs wind spood atthe equator for Sandi 17-m, 42.2 rpm, Dynamic-stall effects Rotor power vs wind speed atthe equator fr Sandia 17-m, 46.6 rpm Rotor power vs wind speed atthe equator fr Sandia 17-m, 50.6 rpm “The indcial functions as they vary wih time ‘Typical curve of the position ofthe low separation point function of a Crieal normal free coefficient Cy forthe onset of leading-edge separation function ofthe Mach number Dynamic cll vores lif contbution [Normal force coefficient vs angle of attack Aeroiynamie torque vs azimuthal angle at low tp-spesd ratio Power output vs wind velocity Blade shape eeometry for 34-m wind thine Rotor power vs wind sped at equator 187 1s 189 2 198 196 wor 197 198 198 208 205 206 206 208 2u1 213 214 214 216 218, 219 220 21 221 222 a416 ny 2 mi 2 m ma Figure 6.70 Figure 6.71 Figure 6.72 Figure 6.73, Figure 6.74 Figure 6.75, Figuee 676 Figure 677 Figure 6.78 Figure 6.79 Figure 630 Figure 681 Figure 682 Figure 683 Pure 634 Figure 685 gure 686 igure 687 Figur 688 ure 699 Figure 690 Figure 691 Figure 692 Figure 693 Figure 694 Figure 695, sr of Figures Power coefficient vs tip-speed ratio Performance coefficient vs advance ratio Kotor power vs wind speed at equator ‘Schematic of thre-dimensional wind simulation for Darsieus oto wit 55 ride Sectional normal force coeiient versus azimuthal angle atthe rotor feauator, Xp =-4.60 and Wrbulence intensity = (27 percent. 2 percent) Sectional normal force coeficient versus azimuthal angle atthe rotor ‘equator, Xpg = 249 and turbulence intensity = (27 percent, 25 percent) Comparison between CARDAAS-1D & 3D, CARDAAV (0 petcent turbulence), and experimental data Sectional tangential force coefficient vers azimuthal ane a the rotor equator, Xpo = 2, and tree turbulence intensity levels. Comparison | between CARDAAS-ID & 3D, CARDAAV (0 percent turbulence) and nperiental da Rotor torgue distribution, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values at Xg = 287 and turbulence intensity = (27 percent, 25 percent. Comparison between CARDAAS-D and experimental data Performance comparison between theoretical results and experimental data for the Sandia 17-m wind urine [Normal force coefficient F a8 function of the azimuthal angle 8. RMS viluatony sor tower srsses for the CCARDAA aerodynamic model (Ref. 680] Structural capabilites using thie aerodynamic models for studying Darivs ror Velocity field near bide tp. Upwind and downwind interference factors vs rotor height fora 6-m stright bladed rotor, Neg = 520, 125 rpm Litt coeticent vs local angle of ach Drag coefficient vs local angle of atack “Tango Loree cosfien ve arimuthal angle sit cable configuration, Rotor power coefficient vs tipspeed ratio a the rotor equator [Normal load coofisient vs azimuthal angle Specific power vs aspect ratio. NACA 0018 and SNLA OOI8 polars at Re = 3 « 106 [NACA 0018 and SNLA 0018 lift and drag characteristics at Re Sandia 4-m with SNL Blades at 34.0 rpm Sandia 34m with conventional Blades at 4.0 rpm. ‘Angle of attack: Sandia M-m at 34.0 rpm ‘Sanda 17-m with conventional Blades at 42.2 rpm 224 225 2 234 as 236 237 238 239 240 2 24 mas 24s 246, 246 248 19 250 251 232th ef Figures Figure 6.96 Figure 697 igure 6.98 Figure 6.99 Figure 6.100 Figure 6.101 Figure 6.102 Figure 6.103 Figure 6 108 Chapitre 7 Figure 7.1 Figure 72 Figure 7.3 Figure 74 Figure 7.5 Figure 7.6 Figure 7.7 Figure 78 Figure 79 Figure 7.10 Figure 7.11 Figure 7.12 Figure 7.13 Figure 7.14 Figure 7.15, Figure 7.16 Figure 7.17 Figure 7.48, Figure 7.19 Sane 17m with NLF blades a 42.2 ep Main men ovr geometry menu Definition ofa bade shape Operational ~ Contions men Control ~ Parameters mena Performance predictions: Sandi 17 m at 46.6 mp Performance predictions: Magda Islands rotor at 29.4 rpm Performance predictions: Sandia Mm at 1.0 pm ‘Schematic arrangement for obtaining wake velocity profiles ‘Vane direction indicator Blade force measurement. Blade force data for «two-dimensional rotor (Re = 40,000, ‘ow tank data = quasi-steady nivel, ~ Jysaic nal) Blade force data for a two-dimensional rotor (Re = 40.000, N “tow tank data. —- quasi-steady model, dynamic mel) Sueamwise perurhaton velocities (Re = 40,000, N = 3,.= 5.0, "tow tank data, ~ VDART2) Lateral perturbation velocities (Re = 40,000.1V = 3, 2= 5.0, tow tank data, ~ VDART2) Calculated velocity defect profiles fora tree-aimensionaltvo-bladed rotor (CIR =0.10, = 4.0, Re = 0.3% 10%) Calelated centerline veloity i the near wk af a threeimencionsl {worbladed rotor (ff =0.10, A= 4.0, Re =0.3 x 10") Comparison between VDART (7.2] and experiments [7.10] VDART data comected for sain case a Fig. 7.8) Experimental geometry ofthe LDV system Sucauwse ca welciy profiles for & ‘Streamwise mean velocity profiles for rcamvise ucuating vohaiy fu = 2.18 sw NIR=-0.25 and YR =. Oscillograms of the smwiseMuetating velocity fo eco of rotation v2 crosswise fluctuating velocity: a) A= 2.14, XIR = 0.58, 67, YIR= 1.10; 6) 4= 3.85, IR =-0:58, CCronswine uciating velit vs spevual iequeny fn A= 2.14 Flow visualization inthe dynamic-tll condition for 2 = 2.14 253 254 255 256 230 2s7 258 28 an m4 278 276 26 278 2 2a 22 283 233.284 264 285n B ” 6 6 6 8 9 80 1 2 2 288 23s as Figure 720 Figure 721 Figure 7.22 Figure 7.23 Figure 7.24 Figure 7.28 Figure 7.26, Figure 7.27 Figure 7.28 Figure 7.29 Figure 7.30 Figure 731 Figure 7.32 Figure 7.233 Figure 7.34 Figure 7.5 Figure 7.36 Figure 7.37 Figure 7.38, Figure 7.39 Figure 7.40 Figure 741 Figure 1.42, Figure 7.43 Figure 7.44 Figure 745 Mer of Figures Streamwise wake velocities at ‘Streamwise wake velocities at A= 1.25, Powter coefficient tip-speed ratio. NRC 0.76 m ror wind tunel test. Power cosfiient vs ip-speed ratio, NRC 3.66 m rotor wind tunnel tess single blade and olay of 0.083. Power coeticent vs tip-specd ratio, NRC 3.66 m rotor wind tunnel tests, thee blades and solidity of 0.25 ‘Sandia 2-m wind tunnel tests etfects of solidity on performance Sandia 2-m wind tunnel texts effects of Reynolds number on performance ‘Compatison ofthe Sandia 2-m turbine wind tunnel and field est data Comparison of the Sandia 2-m wind tunnel data the NRC 3.66 m wind tuna! data Lif coeticient vs angle of tack Drag coetticrent vs angle o Prodiced velocity defect profiles; comparison between MST, CARDAAV, and VDARTS [Normal force oefFicient vs azimuthal angle fra wo-baded rotor at a=30 “Tangential force coefficient vs azimuthal angle foe a two-Bladed rotor at aa30 ‘Sandia >-m turine perlormance tests comparison oF the aut for wo ‘blade configurations “Measured power output performance ofthe NRCIHydeo. Quebec 2-m turbine at 28.4 rp ‘Comparison of measured and predicted performance forthe NRCIHydro~ ‘Quebec 24m turbine with and without dynamic stall. Comparison of the performance ofthe NRC 6.1 m turbine with and witha srs and cones Lavalin Bole 64-m turbine performance at 10 rpm. Lavan Bate 61 m sbi (Calculated and measured performance ofthe Pioner Iu ‘Sandia 17-m esearch tine meas perfemance with and without Sandia I7-m research turbine measured performance with to and three blades Performance coefficient and power coefficient variation with Reynolds ‘number forthe Sandia 17-m research turbine ‘Measured se level aerodynamic power output for the DOE 100 kW (17-m) VAWT. ‘Measured electrical power output forthe FloWind 17-m turbine 290 293 293 204 a 299 299 00 301 302 303 304 305 206 307 308 309 sw au 312 313wall Lief Figees Figure 7.46 Figure 747 Figure 7.48 Figure 749 Figure 7.50 iguee 781 Figure 7.82 Chapitre 8 Figure 8.1 Figure 82 Figure 8.3 perce Figure 85 Figure 86 Figure 827 Figure 88 Figure 89 Figure 8.10 Figure S11 Figure 8.12 Figure 814 igure 8.14 Figure 8.15 Figure 8.16 igure 8.17 Figure 8.18 Figure 8.19 Figure 8.20, Figure 821 Measured elect 1 power output for the Inda SO kW turbine. Comparison of measured and preieted performance forthe Indl {100/500 KW trie Froe-body dingram of rotor use in rigid-hody approximation [Nomenclature used in defining relative roter positon “Measured and predicted aerodynamic torque, $0.6 ep, Xzy = 25 Measured and predicted aerodynamic tong, $0.6 xp Mpg = 30 Measured and predicted aerodynamic torque, 506 rpm, Xyy = 65. SAND 0018/50 walling-edge variation study SAND 018/50 blade roughness study fect of roughness on airfoil characteristics Comparison of NACA O01 and SAND 0015/47 dag polars Performance of the Sandia S-m turbine with NACA 015 and SAND Power cooicient versus tp-speed ratio fr the Sandia S meter diameter {est turbine with SAND 0415/47 and NACA 0015 blade sections Sandia 17 meter esearch turbine measured performance operating with the SAND (018/50 acto section ‘Sandia 34 moter turbine performance hefore and ater clean wp of paint Faking 6 meter test ubine performance without ating 54 meter test turbine performance wih airings 21 meter tt urbe simulation of Blade joints 1M moter test urine simulation of airings DAF Indat $0 LW tine measited power output with vortex generators Measured shat power versus wind speed forthe Sandia 5-m research turbine with and without pumped spoiling Performance data fr the Sandia S-m research turbine with blade pitch Geometry definition ofthe AWTS 50 KW SoftVAWT. Efects of toe-in angle on power: AWTS 50 kW SoftVAWT. Performance coefficient vs inverse tip-speed ratio fr the Sandia S-m Spoueal aad easnsted Bae wats savant bine ipod Power curves fr the 34 mtr test turbine with clean and diy Blades Segments of power curves for the 34 mse clean, parally clean and dirty ror blades Power curves for the 34 meter test turbine with clean and rain washed blades: tarbine at 18 ep with a4 36 x2 ns a1 331 332 332 4 336 337 a3 338 MS 37 348 349 331 382Figure 822 FloWind 19-m turbine ~Bifect of blade washing. 353 Figure 823 Experimental measures in jing conditions (Magdalen Islands Rotor at serpy 385 Chapitre 9 Figure 9.1. Chronological evolution ofthe swept area 360 Figure 9.2 Rotor mass pe swept area vs swept area 361 Figure 9.3 FloWind Darieus ubines 363 Figure 944 Foundation loads ~ Equivalent HAWT/VAWT r0%ors ‘Wind speed = 60 mis 380 Chapitre 10 Figure 10.1. Aspoos of wind energy 37Wind Energy 1 1.1. WIND DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS WIND js the movement of the air between high pressure and low pressure regions in the atmosphere, caused by the uneven heating of the eart’s surface by the sun, When the air above hot surfaces is heated, it rises, creating a low pressure zone. The air surrounding higher pres- sure zones flows toward the low pressure area, ereating wind. For this reason. sometimes wind energy is called “indirect solar energy.” Wind varies with time in intensity and direction, and the potential of a wind site is generally evaluated as a function ot the annual average wind speed. Wind speeds can be caleulated for other periods to determine hourly, daily or monthly averages. Winds vary with altitude and wind speed is also affected by ground features such as hills. The variation of wind speed with altitude is due to friction between air movement and the earth's surface (the atmospheric boundary-layer). All weather offices report the wind speed at a standard height of |i) meters above ground. Wind near the ground gathers speed to climb a hill, then slows (and sometimes becomes very turbulent) on the far side of the hill. The wind speed strength and direction are measured by anemometers. 1,2, WIND TURBINES ‘The depletion of glahal facil fuel mcerves combined with mom ing environmental concem has served to focus attention to the development of ecologically compatible and renewable alternative energy sources. The harnessing of wind energy is a promising technology able (0 ‘provide a portion of the power requirements in many regions of the world. Wind generators are ‘practical way to capture and convert the kinetic energy of the atmosphere to either mechanical x, more significantly, electrical energy. ‘The term WINDMILL is applied to the wind-powered machine that grinds (or mills) grain. Modem machines are more correctly called WIND TURBINES because they can be used for a variety of applications, such as generating electricity and pumping water. ‘Windmills have a very simple design based on the drag-device that relies on different air resistance on the front and back of the rotor section to cause rotation, An interesting and well documented survey concerning historical development of windmills is given in “Wind Turbine Technology” (ASME Press, 1994, D.A. Spera, editor), Ref. [1-1] ‘The most efficient way to convert wind energy into electrical or mechanical energy is offered by wind turbines that operate asa lifting-device. Wind turbines are classified into two categories, according to the direction of their rotational axis: Horizontal-Axis Wind TurbinesIAWT) aud Vetlical-Anis Wind Tubines (VAWT). Hoticoutal-anis wind uibines capture kinetic wind energy with a propeller type rotor and their rotational axis is parallel to the direc tion of the wind (Fig. 1.1). Vertcal-axis wind turbines use straight or curved bladed (Darrieus type) rotors with rotauing axes perpendicular to the wind stream. ‘They can capture wind from any direction (Fig. 1.2). The most popular wind turbine systems are of the “propeller type,” but the VAWTs have not yet benefited from the years of development undergone by HAWS. These ‘ovo kinds of wind machine are compared in Chapter 9. Poswer Train Navele - a Elevation Equipment ‘Station Lit Foundation Figure 1.1 Components ~ Upwind rotor and downwind HAWT rotor [Ref. 1.1] Both HAWTS and VAWTs have about the same ideal efficiency but the horizontal-axis wind tur- bine is more common, It has the entire rotor, gearbox and generator atthe top ofthe tower, and. ‘must be tumed to face the wind direction. The VAWTT accepts wind from any direction, and its hheavy machinery ie at ground level This ie mote convenient for maintenance, particularly on large units or when operating in potential icing conditions. Both types of wind turbines have the same general components: — a rotor to convert wind energy into mechanical power, ~ a tower to support the rotor, — a gearbox to adjust the rotational speed of the rotor shaft for the electric generator oF pump, ~ a control system to monitor operation of the wind turbine in automatic mode, including starting and stopping, ~ a foundation (sometimes aided by guy wites) to prevent the turbine from blowing over in high winds.Wind Enerey 3 oppor Bearing Upper Hub Cental Column Cables Rotor Height “Tensioner Z/ | 4 « | lee 4 ~ Pon San \ Ground cable \— Rotor Level’ Foundation Foundation Figure 12. VAWT of Danieus type [Ref. 1] The size of a wind turbine is measured in terms of swept area, or surface area swept by the rotating blades, The swept area of the rotor is calculated from the diameter of the rotor by: 5=0.185 D? for HAWTS or by 5 = 1.000 D? for typical VAWTs with an aspect ratio (height diameter) of 1.5. ‘The control system of wind turbines 1$ connected fo an anemometer that continuously measures wind speed. When wind speed is high enough to overcome friction in the drive train the contol system allows the turbine to rotate, producing limited power. This is the “cut-in’ wind speed, usually about 4 or 5 m/s. Wind turbines normally have a “rated wind speed,” corresponding to maximum output power. Typically, the rated wind speed is about 15 m/s. If wind speed exceeds rated wind speed, the control system prevents further power increases until “cut-out” wind speed is reached, at approximatively 25 ms VAWTS are generally classified according to aerodynamic and mechanical characteristics, or the lifting surfaces, oF the movement of the blades of the rotor, about a vertcal-axis along a path in a horizontal plane. Today, there are four classes of VAWTs (Fig. 1.3): 4) the articulating straight-blade Giromill; b)the Savonius rotor, # mostly drag-driven device; ©) the variable-geometry Musgrove, which permits reefing of the blades: and, {the “jump-rope" shaped, fixed-blade Darrieus rotor. Verical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) have been studied by various researchers using modern analysis techniques. Common examples of these vertical-axis wind turbines are the Savonius and Darriens tushines. In 1968, South and Rangi. from the National Research Council of Canada, reintroduced the Darrieus rotor concept. Since then, many analytical models predicting the aerodynamic performance of this type of wind turbine have been formulated.4 Chapter I Figure 1.3 ‘Types of vetticalwnis wind turbines ~ 4) Fixed bladed Dantieus or astivutating blade Giromill; b) Savonius rotor Darricus vertical-axis wind turbine offers a mechanivally and suucturally simple ‘method of harnessing the wind energy. It has proven to be one of the most efficient systems for wind energy conversion. The Darrieus machine is a fixed-pitch vertical-axis turbine, and its simplicity is due to the absence of the yawing mechanism and the positioning ot the heavy machinery directly on the ground. This simplicity, however, does not extend to the rotor's aerodynamics. The blade elements operate both unstalled and stalled, with aerodynamic stall providing the rotor’s inherent power regulation. The blade elements encounter their own wakes and those generated by other elements. These features combine to make a through analysis of Darrieus rotor aerodynamics a challenging task This book discusses in detail the various aspects involved in the prediction of aerodynamic performance for vertical-axis wind turbines. The design of wind turbines and performance hinges on the understandings aud proper analysis uf blade aciudynamies. The uvetalt perfor mance of a rotor is mainly influenced by: rotor geometry, rotational speed, airfoil shape, mean angle of attack, amplitude and oscillation of the instantaneous angle of attack, Reynolds ‘number, the turbulence levels and the type of motion ot the blades. Some natural elements influence the performance and the design of wind turbines. The ‘most important factors are average wind speed and! its variation with time of day or alin, ‘usts, rapid changes in direction and air density variations with the season or time of day. ‘Added to these natural conditions, unsteady aerodynamic phenomenon such as dynamic stallmust be taken into account during performance evaluation. Another factor that plays an ‘equally important role in determining the economic viability of such Dartieus machines is their ‘expected lifetime. Blades have been known to fail due to structural fatigue within as little as 2-3 yeas. The likely source of the random or stochastic loads is atmospheric turbulence, which thas been identified as a major factor in blade Fatigue ‘A wind turbine cannot capture all kinetic energy in wind and a good energy conversion system converts about 25% into useful power. This is proportional to the swept area of the rotor and the cubic average wind speed at the centre ofthe rotorWind Energy 8 Table 1.1, given by Ref, [1.2}, shows the average power outpit for hath types of wind tur. bines: HAWT and VAWT as a function of swept area, rotor diameter and various average wind speeds. ‘Table 1.1 Average Power Output (kW) [Sept Arex | Rotor Diametr ‘Average Wind Speed (wis) | oat Faawr[vawr | «| « [8 | TP a Pf 80m P00 | ors | om tf} asf 2 | ons | 025) osm | tar | wo | 36 | 32 | oir | oom] as | 2m fw | 7 | 63 fon | as | so | 7 | io | us | wo [asr | oa | as | 292 4000 | 226 20 | 749 253 | 599 a [aw | na | wz [no fas | [um _| Wind turbines currently average 100 kilowatts in size, with 500 kilowatt units or larger becoming increasingly common, Several companies are currently developing wind machines up to3 MW, 1.3, WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS Information on the various applications of the wind electric and mechanical power is presented on the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) website, Ref. [1.3]. The same information is reproduced below for convenience. Grid-Connected Power Plants Wind turbines are most effective at supplying centralized electric power. Electricity from large clusters of interconnected wind turbines (wind farms) i fal int the local distribution grid and sold to local utility companies. Wind farms can generate electricity for as Tittle as 4¢ to 7¢ per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Dispersed Grid-Connected Systems ‘Wind turbines are often used to produce electricity for homes, businesses and farms already connected to the uuity grid. During low wind periods, electricity is purchased fions the utility When the wind turbines produce excess power, electrivty is fed back into the utility grid. Remote Stand-Alone Systems For sites a half mile of further from the utility grid, small wind turbines provide a cost- effective source of energy, Remote applications include rural residences, water pumping and tclecommunications, Batteries are often used to store excess electricity, and many systems use ‘diesel generator or solar panels as a back-up system to provide eleciricity during low wind© Chapter t periods. Wind turbines un also produce mechanical power for 4 number of applications including water pumping, irigation, drying grain and heating water. A large wind turbine is required to provide the energy requirements of even one household. Also, because wind speed varies, the time of power production may not coincide with the time of demand, and there are some periods when no power at all is generated. Thus, even though fone of these wind turbines might be able to produce all the electricity needed by a household it alone would not necesarily be a satisfactory power supply. A major aim for any generating system is to produce electricity forthe lowest possible cost per unit of energy, lo faitly compare different generating technologies (such as coal, hydro, nuclear, wind, etc), all costs should be considered, including: = capital cost of the equipment and its installation = fuel cost = operating and maintenance costs, and = environmental vost both dusing opesation, and dui generation system. wal dismantling of the Unfortunately, the environmental cost is difficult to estimate accurately and is therefore ‘often ignored. For wind energy, there is no fuel cost asthe wind itself is free. Thus, the capital ‘cost of the installed wind energy conversion system and its operating and maintenance cost Aivided hy the energy ont ‘determine the cost of the wind energy produced, ‘Modern wind energy conversion systems operate automatically, so there are no operating costs such as the payroll of a diesel power-plant. Wind turbines. like any machinery, do require ‘maintenance, usually two or three times per year, including lubrication, adjustment of ‘mechanical components and verification of control systems. These maintenance costs can also bbe expressed as a fraction of the initial capital cost of the installed system. Typical values fall between 2% and 3%: with larger systems costing less. Hence, the total annual cost of owning and maintaining a wind turbine generating system isthe sum ofthe annual capital cost “charge” plus the annual maintenance cost. ‘To calculate the cost of the electricity produced by a wind energy conversion system, divide the total Annual Cost (AC) by the Annual Energy Output (AEO) produced. Annual Cost (AC) $ x 100 ‘Annual Energy Output (AEO) kWh When comparing this cost to the price per kWh charged by a utility company, remember that the selling price includes not only the cost of generation, but also of distribution and service. Unit costs decrease asthe size of wind turbines increases, Cost of Energy (COE) ¢/kWh = 1.4. BENEFITS AND OBSTACLES IN WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ‘Wind energy, with its impressive growth rate of 40% over the last five years is the fastest growing alternate source of energy in the world since its purely economic potential is ‘complemented by its great positive environmental impact ‘The wind turbine. whether it may be a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) or a Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT), offers a practical way to convert the wind energy into electrical or mechanical energy. Wind energyWind Enerey 7 plays # major role for eleetriety and mechanical power supply not by replacing the conventional power sources but to supplement them. Wind energy is a domestic, renewable source of energy that generates no pollution and has little environmental impact. Up to 95% of land used for wind plants eat alse be used for other profitable activities including tancbing, farming and forestry. Obstacles include the visual impact of the turbines, noise affecting those nearby, the accidental killing of birds (in certain locations) and the availability of suitable wind, To minimize impact, wind farms are situated away from both population centres and sensitive wildlife areas. Positive and negative aspects of wind energy are analysed in detail in Chapter 10, Aesthetic and noise impacts are difficult to evaluate until the wind machines are actually installed, Wind farms should be away from highways or residential areas. Good maintenance is the immediate repair, replacement ar remawal af innporative turbines is needed to minimize public objections. ‘Technological improvements in design and efficient maintenance of wind turbines have considerably reduced their operating costs, Keliability has also improved ~ wind turbines now spin almost 95% of the time compared t0 60% in the 80°s ~ and their improved design makes them more acceptable to the public. Of the commercial machines operating worldwide, the horizontal-axis design is most popular, According to a Comwall survey of public atitudes before and after the installation of wind machines, the general public considers the greatest disadvantage of wind energy (o be its unreliability (66% in the Altamont Pass area). Other objections concerned: = their unfavorable visual effects on the landscape, and = television signal distasbances Birds are the only form of wildlife affected by wind energy, and turbines may constitute obstacles in their migratory routes. However, the impact of wind machine on local or migrant birds is not considered even less significant than that of high-tension lines. Noise isa function of wind speed, wind shear, and atmospheric turbulence. Consequently, different conditions. Noise is a greater problem in heavily populated regions such as Europe, With its limited availability of wind turbine sites. Visual impact was considered the most disadvantageous characteristic of wind energy. ther common objections included noise, effect on landscape and the less noted damage to birds. Noise can be reduced through technical research and development, and landscaping problems can be resolved by careful planning, so visual impact turns out to be the greatest long tem object of concern, Positive attitudes are created by the environmentally clean charactor of wind energy and the negative attitudes are concerned with the negative appearance of wind turbines and wind fluc~ ‘uation, ‘To ensure the rapid development of the wind energy iti therefore important for the wind- energy industry to = Increase public interest in wind power: = Involve local populations in wind farm siting: = Carefully manage landscape:8 Chapter t igorowe programs of public education = Establish communications and information, discussion and exchange: ~ Mobilize public opinion to obtain the cooperation of local authorities Preserve the scenic nature of rurat lands; = Involve the public from the very beginning of the wind development projects; ~ Understand how perception of landscape determines cultural, social and historical values: ~ Study the effect of systems installation on ground and planting conditions, and return installation sites to their inital state. 1,5 OVERVIEW OF WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ‘New technologies are improving wind power plants and developing advanced wind turbi- nes, neiping to make wind energy a signuticant non-poliuung and sustainable energy source. ‘Today wind turbine systems are enhanced by improved rotors, towers, hubs, gearboxes, generators, control systems, grid connections and other components. One of the most important technological advances is new airfoil designs for rotor blades, enabling better distribution of lif, along the turbine blades so as to minimize rotor-thrust loading for a given power output. Up to 30% more energy is captured by controlling lift distribution, which helps restrain peak power. Current research also focuses on a better understanding of system forces that damage such primary structural elements as blades, rotor hub, tower, drive trains and gearboxes, ‘The new generation of advanced wind turbines now under development include blades made of soft, flexible materials that change shape in response to wind speed or aerodynamic loads, aerodynamically-shaped rotating towers, flexible rotor systems with hinged blades and Feetered hubs, and advanced control systems incorporating artifical intelligence. These new technologies together with an advanced uiility-grade promise to deliver clean, affordable wind- generated electricity, even in the pure economical sense (1.4, [5]. 1.6 WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORLD Currently, wind energy technology has achieved such a level of quality that wind turbines now obtain a technical availability of 99% [1.6]. In WindSight Number 5, June 1999, D, Suzuki sent a message to Canadians saying: “The public is ready for renewables.” He called altern tive energy and energy efficiency, “The biggest investment opportunity since the invention of the computer,” and challenged government to take an aggressive role. Even oil companies and other large corporations are now investing in wind and solar energy hecase of ite potential Governments should create incentives that will bring wind energy into the new electricity mar- ket. The American Wind Energy Association (AWEA, 1997) states that much of the wind industry's growth in other countries (compared to the USA) can be attributed to government policies designed to foster the use of clean, renewable energy sources. Countries that have been developing their wind resources include: Germany and India (two-thirds of world installed capacity), USA, Deumash, die Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Spain, Sweden, Greece, New- Zealand, Australia, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Brazil, Israel, Iran and Italy, [1.7 (One of the best examples of wind industry development today is in Germany. where the government has stimulated wind energy research and energy development by the Electricity Feed Law through minimum price controls for regeneratively produced power (1.8)Wind Fnerey “The Eurupean countsies dominate the world wind power in terms of manufacture and ins tallation with approximately three-quarters of the global installed capacity. The leader is Germany with an installed wind power of 6.410 MW (megawatts) in April 2001 followed by Spain with 2,567 MW and Denmark with 2,340 MW. We would like to point out that Denmark has over 6,000 modern wind turbines, in total, produces electricity for more than 14% of the country’s electricity, (1.9), ‘The wind power (expressed in MW) installed in Europe at the end of year 2000 and in April 2001 is shown on the Table 1.2 ‘Table 1.2, Europe's Wind Power (emmy TT eatin at oe tna [rated hy Apri 001] (MW) (MW) Germany _ 6410 Spain 2367 Denmark 2346 Taly t 506 ‘Netherlands | 460 UK. 43 ‘Sweden 21 258 Greese 189 208 ireland us us Portugal 100 105 Auer fil 7 France 66 6 Finland 38 38 ‘Belgium 13 20. | Luxembourg 10 “| EU Total 12769 13606 Other countries Turkey a @ Norway B B Czech Republic 2 2 Poland 5 10 Switzerland 3 3 Romania 1 - T Total ne 13 6410 Chapter 1 ‘The Furopean Union wants to meet 226 af its electricity needs from renewable by the year 2010, a large part of that from wind, [1.10]. The European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) predicted a significant growth of installed wind power with a capacity up to 47 GW (gigawatts) by 2010 and 90 GW by 2020 arriving, in Europe alone, up to 150 GW, [1.9]. The US. is expected to have 5.25 GW of wind power capacity by the end of 2001 and reach 30 GW in 2010, {1.11, 1.12]. The oil and gas companies like Shell and BP believe renewable energy will provide 5% 10 10% of the world's energy supply by 2020 and 30% by 2050. 1.7. COST OF WIND ENERGY ‘The producers and consumers of energy calculate the electricity costs based on the pure ‘economical aspects without taking into account the environmental or social cost. ‘The social costs are provided by the environmental impact of any energy sources, For ‘example, the conventional energy technologies like fossil fuel and nuclear energy have negative ‘ecological impact on the air pollution, climate change or long term damage to health, [1-13] ‘The wind energy is clean and sustainable, unlike conventional energy sources, and produces, ‘no atmospheric emissions, no acid rain and no climate change. Furthermore, the wind plants use 4 lumted land and the parts of wind turbine are generally recycling after plants demolition, Even in the pure economical sense, now the wind energy is getting cheaper and cheaper and ina near.term time will he competitive with non-renewable energy sources. This will be explain by improvement of performance / economy ratio due to the development of the latest 600 ‘generation kW of modern wind turbine. ‘The cost of wind electricity 15 depending also on the size of rotor, on the average annual ‘wind speed on the site and the local circumstances: condition of the social, road conditions or proximity to electrical grid stations. Furthermore, the cost of energy should include annual ‘operation, maintenance, repair and consumables (oil and braking clutches), insurance, adminis ‘ration and lease of land operation and maintenance cost is about 3% of a wind turbine’s extra cost. We point out than these estimations are different for the case of offshore sites and generally more expensive, (114) ‘The wind speed of the site usually on the basis of annual average is one of the major parameter concerning the cost of energy because the power of the wind machine increases with the cubic wind velocity and the cost will decrease. The cost of wind generated electricity (in U.S. cents/kWh) decline from 38 cents/kWh in 1980 to about 2.5 conts/kWh projected by 2008 which means # decreasing uf 1000% in cost The evolution of wind electricity cost during the last twenty years is given in Table 1 (143). Actually the wind power produced by the small turbine of 50 kW or less is more expensive With respect to large wind turbine of 250 kW to 1500 kW but this gap is expected to be reduced in the next years depending on the volume of market for small size machines, The big advantage ‘of small turbines is ther utilization in remote area in hybrid wind/diesel plant,Wind Energy MA Table 1.3 Cost of Wind Electriity Evolution Year | Cents per kWh | 1980 38 187 0 1991 8 195 | 6 2000 | ‘Assumptions: Levelzed costs at excellent wind sites large project areas, not including the production ta cre (post 19) 1.8 SOCIAL COST OF WIND ENERGY ‘The social or external cost of wind energy including long-term damage to health and ecosystems from acid rain is very difficult to calculate, However, the costs of environmental and other categories of damage is enormous if we consider the global climate change. Cutting Emissions of Pollut ‘The wind energy cuts emissions of polluting gases as well as: carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide which are the main gases responsible for acid rain, [1.16]. tis well known that about 1 kg of carbon dioxide is produced for every kilowatt hour of electricity generated by non-renewable energy sources. For example, the coal fired power plants emit stound 800 g up t0 1000 g of carbon dioxide for 1 kWh of electricity generated, [1.17] ‘In the future, wind turbines will have the potential to substitute for any farm of electricity {generation as they reduce the need for building new conventional plants. Thus, the wind plants installed in Europe until the end of 1996 with a capacity of 3,400 MW saved the emission of poluting gases between S and 6.5 million tons ‘The European Uniou elaborated Alene: progcam to promote seuewable energy use in dhe European Community and the major aim is to reduce annual carbon dioxide levels by 180 mil- lion tons by 2005. We would like to point out thatthe total electricity demand in the European ‘Union was around 18/6 Terawatt hours in 2000, [1.9]. The wind power capacity installed by 2005 is estimated at 8,000 MW providing 20 Terawatt hours of electricity per year. Thus the wind energy will contribute as 25% of all renewable energy sources. ‘One way of comparing the environmental impact of different energy technologies is to look at their “external” or “social costs”. The external costs of producing power by conventional ‘means - such as air pollution, long-term damage to health, and oil spillage clean-up ~ are not {generally included in calculations of electricity costs. When cost comparisons are made on this basis, wind energy produces cheaper electricity than new coal and nuclear power plants, Gases12 Chapter 1 Each unit of electricity produced by wind power avoids an equivalent amount of emissions of polluting gases and in the same time contribute to keep a clean environment; this is the social cost of the wind energy. The wind energy is one of the lowest-cost power generation tech- nologies, large scale wind energy development should be among the highest worldwide priorities for consideration in meeting world carbon dioxide reduction goals Reducing Global Climate Change According to projections from the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) wind électricity could reach 30,000 MW of installed power in the U.S.A. by 2010 with reepect to estimated capacity of 5,250 MW at the end of 2001. Thus, wind would reduce U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by 100 million metric tons (MMT) annually which represents mé Wind energy is in a competitive range of the cost compared with a coal plant costs, AS mentioned in Reference [1.18] the cost of a wind project was about 4.5 centskWh, with respect ‘coal plant of about 3.9 cents/kWh in 2000, Furthermore, the wind technology gives the opportunity for cuting carbon dioxide emissions at cost of $ 6 per ton avoided, [1.18] Global climate change is the major environmental problem facing the human race and ‘ecosystems. Several studies predicted that the average temperature around the world will Increase by between 1 and 3.5 degrees Celsius by 2100, which will lead to rising sea levels, causing flooding to low-lying coasts and islands. More storms and unpredictable weather are also expected. Thus the development of renewable energy, including wind, will be a way of mitigating climate change. ‘The direct environmental effects related with manufacturing of wind turbines is similar to those of other equipment production processes, and the indivect environmental effects of the ‘energy used to produce a wind turbine depend on the type of primary energy used. The energy invested in production, installation, operation & maintenance and decommissioning of a typical win turbine as “pay-back” time (energy balance) of 1ess than a Year ot operation, (1.1Y}, ‘The threat of the global climate change and the customer choice, including adequate ‘consideration of the environment, are very strong elements in the favor of wind energy and we should take this opportunity. The issue of global climate change is resulting from fossil fuel ‘combustion and in such an altered environment for the selection of new power plants, public ves will hecome rmich more important than they have in the past, The publie would like to protect the environment, and in particularly, takes care of the environment related to human hhealth such as air pollution. Also, the population strongly prefers using a combination of cfficieney and renewable to meet energy needs, [1.20], Public polluting information case from, United Kingdom, [1.21] shows that wind energy’s primary positive points are that is an cenvironmentally-friendly power source, iti clear, enewable, safe and helps to conserve fossil, fuels. Surveys found that wind’s princxpal weaknesses are the fact that wind is intermittent and somewhat the wind power more expensive than fossl-fired power. The public support for wind has strengthened after a wind plant has been installed and operating for some time.Wind Fnerey 13 CONCLUSIONS Wind power represents now the most promising renewable source, is a mature and -ocesefi ind ny with a 7er0 air pollution Wind turbines represent an environmental technology and in the future they should be better adapted to the conditions of developing countries. Wind power with an worldwide installed capacity more than 20,000 MW in 2001 Is the cheapest clean power souice, offering carbon ~ free generation at a cost which now even competes with gas. Wind energy will play an important role in the future as part of solution of world energy needs and in term of global climate change and people must act now to take advantage of the economic and environmental benefits presented by wind, REFERENCES (111 Spera, 1.8. (Editon), Wind Turbine Technology. Fundamental Concepts of Wind Turbine Engineering, ASME Press, 1994, [1.2] CANWEA Bulletin, Wind Energy-Basic Information, 1993, (1.3) _ hup://wwwneel gov/lab/pao/wind_energy html [14] TEA Wind Energy Newsletter, June 1995, Issue No. 7, [1.5] Lowseu, M., Hoch, S. aid Teeshies, R., “Harnessing the Wind of Change,” Aerospace ‘America, August 1994, pp. 35-39. [1.61 Hahn, B., “Reliability Assessment of Wind Turbines in Germany - Results of the National "250 MW Wind Program,” Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference, Nice, France, March 1-5, 1999, pp. 459-461 U.7) Wagner, A.,“Wind Energy in Europe,” Renewable ENERGY World, January 1999, p. 38 1.8] Durstewitz, M., Hoppe-Kilpper, M., Schmid, J., Stump, N., Windheim, R., “Experiences with 3,000 MW Wind Power in Germany.” Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference, Nice, France, March 1-5, 1999, pp. 551-554. [1.9] Wind Directions, Volume XX, No 5, July 2001 [.10], Wind Power Mouthly, January 2001 (111) Wind Power Monthly. April 2001 [1.12] The Economist, March 10, 2001, pp. 30.31 [1.13]. Surugiu, L., “Energie éolienne ~ énergie nucléaire: sécurité et santé.” Proceedings of The 26! Congress of the American Romanian Academy of Arts and Sciences (ARA), ‘Montréal, Québec, Canada, Polytechnic International Press, 2001, pp. 297-302. [1.14] Andersen, D., "Wind Energy & Atmospheric Physics,” hup:fIwwwrisoe.dk/vea-wind! Iistory bm [1.15] AWEA, 2000. (1.16), Surugiu, L., “Wind Power and Conventional Power Sources.” Proceedings of The 25" Congress of the American Romanian Academy of Arts and Sciences (ARA), Cleveland, Ohio, USA, Polytechnic International Press, 2000, pp. 175-180,“ wan (1.18) 1119) (1.20) way 221 (1.23) Chapter 1 “Wind Energy and Climate Change: Proposal for a Stiategic Initiative,” huyp/f wwwawea.org/policy/eewp html San Martin, R.L., “Environmental Emissions from Energy Technology Systems: The ‘Total Fuel Cycle,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, Spring 1989, World Energy Council, 1994, Brahimi, M.T. and Surugiu, L., “Public Perception and Reaction to Wind Energy Development,” Proceedings of ISROMAC ~ 7, The 7! International Symposium on ‘Transport Phenomena and Dynamics of Rotating Machinery, Vol. C, Bird Rock Publishing House, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 1998, pp. 1777-1781. Farhar, B.C., “Energy and the Environment: The Public View,” Renewable Energy Policy Project Callege Park, Ma: Act 1006 ‘Surugiu, L. and Paraschivoiu, L., “Acceptability, Environmental and Social Aspects of ‘Wind Energy,” Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference, Nice, France, 1999, pp. 586-588. Surugiu, L. and Paraschivoiu, 1, “Status of Wind Energy Development in Cold Climates.” Proceedings of WINDPOWER'98. Bakersfield. California, USA, 1998, pp. 413-422,State of the Art of Vertical-Axis 2 Wind Turbines ‘The earliest practical wind machines were the “Panemones” (examples: Persian vertical- axis windmill in Sist@n, A.D. 1300 and Chinese vertical-axis windmill, A.D. 1219). These ma- | very low tip-speed ratios (much less than unity), which explains their poor efficiency. In spite ofthe simple design, the panemones need large amounts of material, ate not able to withstand high wind foads and thus have not proven cost effective 2.1. THE MADARAS ROTOR CONCEPT This concept was conceived as a “train” of vehicles, each vehicle supporting rotating cylinders mounted vertically on its Mlat-bed, moving to work on a circular track: each cylinder being driven by an electrical motor (2.1), The Madaras rotor was designed on the principle of the Magnus effect known since the 1850s: the exculation induced around a rotating cylinder results in a lift force perpendicular to the flow direction as well as tothe axis ofthe cylinder. On the sie ofthe eylinder, where the flow and the eylinder are moving in the same direction, boundary layer separation is completely eliminated while onthe opposite side a significant part andergoes separation. In 1933, Madaras conceived a plan fora large-scale test (for 40 MW ioe cheaper ia hae rtd cle ar TL a th aes Mounted on a stationary plattorm in order to measure the fo aL eta tS act fen forces due tothe Magnus effect (see Rotting cylinder Cetrifygal force “Tracked camiage so ie by eamiage hese Track Figure 2.1. The Madaras Mure 21 The Madaras concept for generating electricity using the Magnus effet (21)16 Chapter? ‘The Magni effect would propel the ears around the track and drive generators connected to the car axles. The Madaras concept for generating electricity using Magnus effect did not ‘succeed because of mechanical complexity: the need to reverse direction of the cylinder at each fend af the aval track. proar aerodynamic design (low “tip speed” with low aendynamic effi- ciency), mechanical losses (high track loads and overturning moments), lower wind speeds near the ground and electrical losses. 2.2. SAVONIUS ROTOR Nomenclature A, = Savonius turbine swept area, m Cp = 0/g.V.A,), power coefficient Sp = OIg-V.(4rH) |, normalized power coetticient 04g..V.A,), torque coeticient Oflg(4rH012n. normalized torque coefficient 2r, bucket diameter, m rotor height, m tnuniber of buckets feestream static pressure, Pa turbine torque. Nm fiction (tare) torque, N-m (Eg. 2.12) an = Let, teammate paras a F 1 Beenchu of nro tec 26an22 Giagcoee irae 2 fe. = pl Royo mambo teh! fect neg dh fk wish Gee p28 and 27m V..(1 + §), freestream velocity, m/s a 2 simioa ng Pa fates pap Dr bce tpped a ttt nur pao er Fis 26382 deg fever. phn) ene Subscripts: u = uncorrected for blockage == freestrcam conditionsState of the Art of Vetical-Asis Wind Turbine 17 Another vertical-anis machine based othe low Tifl-o-drag ratio is the Savonius rotor tamed after its Finnish inventor [2.1-2.3]. The Savonius rotor has an “S-shaped” cross-section and appears as a vertical cylinder sliced in half from top to bottom. It operates as a cup ‘anemometer with the addition that wind 1s allowed to pass between the bent sheets (or buckets) ‘The Savonius rotor has been studied using wind tunnel tests by several researchers since the 1920s [2.4-2.121, Generally speaking, Savonius rotors can reach maximum power coefficient of 30%, Moreover, itis not efficient with respect to weight/unit power output since it would require as much as 30 times the surface to output the same power as a conventional wind turbine. For this reason, the Savonius machine is only useful and economical for small power requirements such as water pumping, driving a small electrical generator, providing ventilation, viding water agitation to keep stock ponds ice-free during winter. It is also commonly 2 Savenine rotor is very simple and is recommended for applications in developing countries or in isolated ‘areas without electrical power, A simple Savonius rotor can be manufactured by cutting an oil welding the two picces together in a S-shaped Figure 2.2. Savonivs rotor ~ Calculation scheme 2.2.1. Mathematical Model ‘A mathematical model based on the pressure drop on each side ofthe blades was proposed by Chauvin eral, [2.13] fo evaluate the power of a two-bucket Savonius rotor with & gap spac= GE is the instantaneous rotation vector and, due to the sym- © constant, then the torque is given by: a= Sots 4)-¢ ea ‘This sum has two components: 2) the fits is associated with the retreating blade, a driven component, Qyy ») the second is associated with the advancing blade, a resistant component, Op = Oy +O18 Chapter? Suppose the presmuediftem on the eeatng ale and on the advancing Hades py and pp respectively. then the ttl torque Q can also be writen a8 HY (om 2 App) sin 2040 ea) ‘The average power P is obtained by integrating the torgue trom 010 re0-0=2fose ea and the normalized power coefficient as — Tov on es) where rs the radius of the Savonius-rotor bucket or a gap spacing s/d = O; an his case the ur- bine frontal area is the same as total urbine swept area, A, = 4rH. Following the experimental results, Chauvin et al. [2.13] proposed a pressure distribution given by, (see Fig. 2.3) apy sie 3? K (26a) ‘Typically K isa sinusoidal function of a. Drag balbeycle . 2] Ap! [29 ° 90180270360 Asim ale, (ee) Figure 2.3. Pressure distribution vs azimuthal angleState of the Art of Verticl-Axis Wind Turbines 19 total flow velocity given by ¥, — 7, if where V7, isthe freestream veloe ity and) is the absolute velocity of point M, on the blade and the motor component ofthe torque is: = pPHK| v2 +262? ~% vider cosa ~ 2V.érsin a] 2 Oy = pr K\ ve A 5M mt «| (2.66) ‘To calculate the resistant component ofthe torque, we suppose a pressure distribution: App (2.60) and thus @ ‘The difference between pressure on each side of the blade (or bucket) at seven measurements pnts (K = 1, 2.7) i ilustated in Pig. 2.3 for oth the driven (or motor) halfcyele and the re sistant half-cycle ‘The experimental starting torque (2.13] ofa blade for a complete rotation is given in Fig. 2.4 We can see thatthe resistant component of the tonue is very small with respect the motor component. Using the equations (2.6) with (2.3) and (2.4) we can estimate the power cotfiient Cy a8 a funetion ofthe bucket tip-speed ratio 4 = 2a, defined by = ' 1 Ral 5 4 0 100 200 300 Azimuthal angle, « (deg) Figure 2.4 Starting torque for a rotation20 Chapter2 This equation represents a family of enrves depending on the parameter K”; physieal hy accept able solutions exist for K” 2 0.73K. If we chose K’ = K, we neglect the term containing 2 ‘hich does not have any physical meaning, ‘Thus we have (2a) with C5, = 0.17 for Ay =0.78 ‘The limit value of bucket tip-speed ratio is 2, =24y = 1.57. The normalized power coeff cient, in the form C/Cja, vs (/R) calculated with theoretical model 2.13) is compared with experimental data provided by several researchers (2.9, 2.13-2.16]. The difference ean be explained by the fact that in the theoretical model 12.131 the authors neglected the friction (or viscosity) and gap spacing effects: however, their experimental model (2.13] has a gap spacing sld= 0.25. According to the Fig. 2.5 the maximum power coefficient is about 0.17. 00 01 02 03 04 03 06 07 08 Nn Figure 2.5 Normalized power coefficient vs bucket tip-speed ratio 2.2.2 Experimental Study In spite of considerable experimental data on the Savonius rotor, much of it was question- able due to tunnel blockage problems because the mode] occupied an important fraction of the ‘working cross-section ofthe tunnel. An interesting test program on the Savonius rotor rotor was performed in 1975 at the Vought Systems Division Low Speed Wind Tunnel, by Sandia National Laboratories [2.17] ‘Two-bucket and three-bucket configurations (Figs. 2.6 and 2.7) with different gap spacing (sid) and two rotor heights (H= 1.0 and 1.5 m) were tested. The experimental investszation of the Savonius rotor was eventually justified by the application ofthis machine as a passive starter {or the Dartieus rotor since it is well known that the Darricus wind turbine is not self-starting ‘whereas the Savonius rotor has very good starting torque characteristics. However, if a three- bucket Savonius rotor is used to start a three-blade Darrieus wind machine, there will be @ ‘mechanical interference between the Darrieus and Savonius rotor unless the bucket is shortened.State of the Art of VerticalAnis Wind Turbines 21 Figure 2.6 Two-bucket Savonius rotor Figure 2.7. ‘Three-bucket Savonius rotor22 Chapter? Static and dynamic wind tunnel messirements were performed by Sandia National Labo ratores [2.17] onthe experimental models for fiften configurations at nominal tunnel speed of 7 and 14 mvs. In their measurements, Sandia researches tok into account the tunnel blockage g = 1 Mode! Frontal Area 4 Test Section Area Where the model frontal area i the sum of the turbine swept area, As, and the aea of stand and related hardware, In this ease & varies from 0.0125 for 1-m high Savonius o 0.0162 for 1.5-m high rotor. Using the blockage factor, the corrected freestream velocity V.. and corrected dynamic pressure g., become: Vo = (1+ 8) Yow 29) qe = (14 Fa (2.10) where the subsript «refers to uncorrected values. For each test the Reynolds number per unit length s detinea by pv. Re, = 2M aa ean) ‘where the feesteam density, p, was calculated by using the ideal gas equation of state withthe smeasured values of freesteam static pressure, p.. and freestream temperature T. It is impor- tant to point out that there is no universally accepted length seal to define the Reynolds num ber for a Savonius rotor. For this wind turbine, the Reynolds number may be calculated using several reference lengths including turbine diameter, turbine radius, bucket diameter, bucket ra- divs The data measurements of the Savonius rotor were then used to compute the performance 2s follows: 4) the torque coefficient 0+ oT ova, 12) ithe power coefficient @(2+0,) cme FP VAs 13) where Cg and Cp were expressed as a function of turbine tip-speed ratio Ro rg 2a) A and static torque was plotted as a function of the angular position. The static torque coefficient as a function of angular position for a two-bucket Savonius rotor at two Reynolds number per unit length of 4.32 x 10° and 8.64 x 10° is illustrated in Fig. 2.8 for a gap ratio. d= 0.10. In Fig. 2.9, the static torque coefficient as a function of the angular position for the three-bucket Savonius machine with s/d = 0,10, is shown.State af the Art of Verical-Avis Wind Turbines 2% Run Ren aq{ 2 a Age to TO ] oR tector 10 6 Sic ti nef 3° eos ate) 1 oat if 4 3 i/ oof ie Mi 4 oak 4 Ft 20 2 a 6080 Angule positon, 8 (deg) 16018 Figure 2.8 The static torque coetticient as a function ot angular position for a two-bucket Savonius rotor, 2.17] TTT oof 1 un | Rem thm ad N asl ofS asarto ‘to ot 3 Lo on 3 | as 4 02 oof oa 4 30 rT) 20 140160 180 Angular position, 8 (de) Figure 2.9 The static torque coefficient as a function of angular position for a three-bucket Savonius rotor, [2.17]24 Chaprer? ‘The results indicate that static torque coefficient is positive forall angular positions except for the zero gap configuration (see Fig. 2.4). In the case of two-bucket Savonius rotor, a large variation of the static torque with the angular position is observed. However, the three-bucket Savonius rotor exhibits « smaller yasiaion in static torque evefTicient that the Wwo-bucket configuration, ‘The Savonius rotor will start from any initial angular position when the static aerodynamic torque exceeds combined load and friction torques. It was also observed that the two-bucket Savonius configuration is not a good choice for a Darrieus starter because the minimum static torque coefficient is quite small. This problem may be solved by using two sets of Savonius ro- tor, with one rotor offset by 90 deg from the other; inthis case the minimum torque coefficient is found to be 5 times more than the single rotor [2.17], (see Fig. 2.8) of tp-spocd rato of wer an uce-buvhel vnigune: all configurations, the peak ofthe power coefficient occured near the tip-speed ratio of 0.9 (except neat 0.8 when is no gap configuration). However, the ‘uaxinuu power woeffivient uf the two-bucket Savonius rotor was found to be approximately 15 times that of the thre-bucket configuration, ‘Typically, the aerodynamic performance coefficients ofthe Savonius rotor are normalized by afactor(g. V. 47H) which is constant forall configurations. Thus the normalized power co- efficient inthe form C= «x0/(9..V_4rif) vs. bucket tip-sped ratio A= 2ralVis given in Fig. 21 for several gap spacing Vales (sd =0, 0.10, 0.15,0.20), The od = curve shove 4 best maximum power coefficient at low tip-speed ratios but gives poorer performance at high tip-speed ratios. 028 om om fun Mem Ham sid 02 gosto ‘TOO. © 42 ReE< 10 Lo Os 0 OF Oa 06 OR 10 13 1a 1H 120 d Figure 2.10 A comparison of the power coefficients for two- and three-bucket Savonius rotors ‘with a gap width ratio of 0.15 at Re/m of 8.64 x 108State of the Art of Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines 28 saps 432 108 32010 oor teas ae ts 6 8 0 a Figure 2.11 Normalized turbine power for 1-meter, two-bucket Savonius rotors as a function fof normalized rotational speed for Re/m of 4.32 x 105 ‘The researchers at Sandia National Laboratories (2.17] examined several effects on the Savonius machine performance, namely: i) the effect ofthe rotor height; ii) the effect of the gap ‘width and ili) the Reynolds number effect. It was shown empirically that power and torque co- cffcients increase slightly with increasing bucket height, because the endplates provide a redue- tion in end losses. The hest aerodynamic performance of the Savonius rotor is obtained for @ zap width of s/d = 0.1-0.15. A slight improvement in the performance was observed with in- creasing Reynolds’ number. in tne Saudia experimental swudy of dhe Savouius wind iatbine {247} 15 votor coufigarae lions were tested including studies on the effect of several parameters such as: freestream ve~ locity, height of rotor, number of buckets and gap width. This work concluded that two-bucket ‘Savomius machine has a better aerodynamic performance than three-bucket rotor, with the ex~ ception of the starting torque which is more variable with angular position for a two-bucket configuration, A good starter for a Darrieus wind turbine may be a two-bucket Savonius rotor, rotated 90 deg apart, with each rotor having a gap width of sid =U.10-0.15, 2.3. DRAG-DRIVEN DEVICE One of the simplest types of wind machine is a device that moves in a straight line transla- tion under the wind effect. Considering the wind-driven translating device as an instantaneous blade element ofa rotating wind power machine drive by diag, we ean illustate this in Fig. 2-12. Let V.,be the wind velocity, v the blade translation velocity and D the drag of this device. ‘Thus, the extracted power is given by P= by Flv») ps» 215)26 Chanter? where Cp represents th dog cofficet, the projected are ofthe dag. device and (V+) is the elie velocity of the dag deviee- Por a velocity ratio of WV. = 1/3 we obtain « maxi hum powe eosfcien 4 Co max = 35 Oo T psa 27 2.16 Tpsvi SN ST Figure 2.12 Translating drag device P, 2.4 LIFT-DRIVEN DEVICE Figure 2.13 shows a blade clement section (or airfoil) in translation motion with velocity The relative velocity W seen by airfoil makes an angle of attack a with the wind direction of velocity V... In this ease, lift and drag forces appear and, while the translator velocity increases, Use werodytiinic Forces will rotate with the relative wind, The power extracted by such a device is expressed by 1 pvicgs 1-2)» (ey pe foes fi C2)» (2) ean ies ai und iw drag rao ‘Te maximum power coeficient becomes as 4 function of vel vfs 2 be, (eae Tous 9 BTV tp Corman = (2.18) v| 2(L which comesponds to a velocity 5 \¢rma= 3 (5 ‘The power extracted from a translating lift device is shown in Fig. 2.14 in the form of power coetficient-lift coefficient ratio as a function of lift-drag ratio for different velocity ratios (IV, = 1.2.3.4), (2.18)State ofthe Art of Vertical-Avie Wind Turbines 27 A | f | | ok Figure 2.13 Translating airfoil aC Pome 12 pf. Figure 2.14 Power from a translating airfoil vs lift-drag ratio ‘The lifting devices have the advantage of operating at velocities greater than wind veloc~ iy. This means the lift mechanism is designed for a tip-speed ratio greater than one, which is ‘more advantageous for rotating machines. In the case of a drag device, the maximum power coeicient, from expression 2.17 is small enough (4/27) Cog. Wilson et al. (2.18) suppose Coma/Cimax % 1 10 See the relative efficiency of lifting devices to drag devices using the28 Chaprer? 0, as well as Ne = constant ‘The resultant velocity flow field is obtained by superposing the freestream velocity V.., wake Vortex sheet Velocity qy. and Dound vortex sheet velocity Jy where J =u + iv is the complex velocity. If « is the turbine angular velocity, the wake vortex sheet of strength 7” is, shed atthe 90 deg position with velocity 1 2.19) Assuming the vortex sheets in the wake to be straight, the axial induced velocity 1, 2V, 7/7221 90 and 270 deg postions, After the expression of Gauert G-agyuen-t (220) where a represents the axial interference factor. Thus the circulations 7' and can be given in tems of independent parameter a: 2 2.22) where X'= Roo/V,is the tip-speed ratio. Figure 2.16 Coordinate system and vortex sheet location for analysis of the Giromill0 Chapter? ‘The total velocity field is obtained by superimposing the three velocity fields: freestream Vix the velocity induced by vortex yand the velocity induced by vortex sheet 7’. For an ele- ment of vortex sheet yal located ata point s away from the sheet, the induced velocity is given by Biot Savart law in planar flow 5. Pxad ay = 1238 aay Using the complex variable, z= 1+ ithe complex velocity may be writen as a) 0-9 Ee em where dl= Rd@ and = Rel i the length and the location ofthe vorex element 7 Equauon 2.24) ean algo be wntten as 2) = ZR _a aul) EN eteea @25) By integrating equation (2.25) for a bound vorticity using a circular vortex sheet of strength (2) and a semicirculae sheet of strength 2yin the right-hand plane, we obtain ua [x= 2am 3] oad (2.26) arctan = for eee Rand he equton (225) rhe wake sheet becomes wie ay, a Fc Assuming inviscid quasi-steady flow, we can estimate the force on the increment of blade Rd@ boy using Kutta Jouowshd iaw 227 ab = piv x 7RdB 228) ‘where’ represents he local lative velocity Ths the elementar ror Kecomes a 2 ¥(@)r(0)d0 do = |x dF| = pve “OOo 229) ‘where v,(6) isthe real part of ge!® and represents the radial component of the relative velocity field, ‘The power gen by + | yeap XY ra ofeo = dorean to 9 = and the power coefficient:State of the Artof Verical-Axis Wind Turbines 31 Cp = 7 = salt - a)? pVioR 31) ‘The maximum value of Cp occurs at a = 1/3 and is Cjyay = 16/27. As Wilson [2.22] noted, the energy expended to articulate the Giromill blades has not been considered. Using the force given by equation (2.28) we can calculate streamwise force coefficient C, and lateral force co- efficient C, k i = aaa) Tovar (2.32) FE al Tove x (2.33) VI2R 2PM ar G The force in the x-direction is the same as obtained from the actuator disk model for horizon- talaxis rotor and the y-force varies inversely with the tip-speed ratio: when the tip-speed ratio X= the force inthe y-direction goes to zero, Figure 2.17 illustrates the streamlines and velocity profiles across a Giromill rotor for sev- cial loadings aa ip-speed ratio X= 3. The velocity compouents along the A-axls for an axial interference factor a = 1/3 and a tip-speed ratio X = 3 are given in Table 2.1, It can be seen that the upstream velocity approaches the freestream velocity far upwind of the rotor. 2 Figure 2.17 Streamlines and velocity profile at X along the lines x/R = -0.05 and +2.0 13. The velocity profile is given32 Chapter ‘Table 2 Velocity Along the x-Aais for = U3, =3, Ref. [2.22] [40 0.9788. 0.0005 | 8 0.9736 0.0007 oon ec rc os ae set [Peace 0s 0.7651 0.0837 ie esol eco a esi Rs ra cord (cone 2.6 VORTEX MODELING CROSS-WIND AXIS MACHINE ‘The vortex system of a cross-wind axis actuator was analysed by Wilson and Lissaman [2.18}, Fig 2.18 shows a simple eross-wind axis machine model. It consists of slender blades constrained to follow a square path about the axis at constant velocity and at zero angle of at- tack relative to the path As a hlade maves up the leeward portion, it sheds a starting vortex while assuming zero lift over the upper portion of the path. A similar situation occurs on the ‘windward and lower portions of the path. Thus, the resultant vortex system for a single bladed cross-wind axis actuator is formed as illustrated in Fig. 2.19, The vortex system will converge toa simple ring type system if the tip-speed ratio and the number of blades are increased, and as a result, the streamwise vorticity will also be cancelled, In the case of arbitrary cross-section, the solution for the induction of an infinite vortex tube isthe same as for the circular cross-section: a uniform internal axial flow, and zero exter- nal flow. If we consider the blades in rotation, the left and shed tailing and starting vorticity is continually changing. The vortex system shown in Fig. 2.19 differs from those in Fig. 2.16 due to an intemal spanwise vorticity within the tube, which is linearly distributed across the tube and the the non-uniform induced internal flow. Thus, the cross-axis machine cannot achieve the ‘deal power coefficient of a wind system.State ofthe Ar of Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines 38 Aisof Figure 2.19 Vortex system of single bladed cross-wind axis actuator3M Chapter? 2.7 AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS \Vertical-axis wind turbines commonly use several geometrical parameters for aerodynamic was the installation and operation of 34-m Sandia-DOE VAWT in 1987, rated at 625 kW. The Sandia 34-m turbine (Fig. 3.1) was the first curved-blade Darrieus turbine rotor origi designed to mcorporate step tapered blades using varying blade-section auriouls and a blade airfoil section specifically designed for VAWTS. The equator and transition seetions ofthat ro- tor use the SAND 0018/50 airfoil section while the r00t sections are NACA 0021, [3.19-3.20] The test beds are designed so that configurations can be quickly and easily changed 10 investigate the basic physics of wind turbines. For example, the Sandia 34-m test bed is equipped with a variable speed drive system to permit, among other things. performance tests of new blade airfoils and blade shapes over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. Test beds are normally operated on a limited basis and only for specific tests Figure 3.1. Darrieus vertical-axis wind turbine (DOE/SANDIA 34-m) (Courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories)The Darriews Wind-Turbine Concept 38 ‘The Canadians manufactured the first large-scale Darrieus turbine rated at 230 kW with an estimated average output of 100 kW on Magdalen-Islands in May 1977. An unexpected self- start with no brakes destroyed this prototype. and a similar VAWT was installed in 1978, (3.21 Performance test data for this turbine operating at 29.4 rpm [3.22], are believed to be the first field data gathered on large scale Darrieus turbines that clearly show the performance in the post stall regime (at low tip-speed ratios). A complete data set for operation at 36.6 rpm could not be abtained because high wind operation was limited to about 15 mls. The performance data coblained from this turbine were an important element in the design of the Indal 6400-500 kW turbine since the effects of dynamic stall were not included in performance prediction models, and peak power output was seriously underestimated by the models. Under Sandia technical guidance and DOE support funding, Alcoa constructed four 17-m, 100-kW units, two of which were grid-connected. One of these was tested successfully for over 10,000 b in storm winds exceeding 120 mph, (3.23-3.25]. The performance testing of the Sandia National Laboratories 2, 5, 17 and 34-m research turbines resulted in the most rigorous and exhaustive set of performance data and comparisons to theoretical predictions. SNL routinely presented test and predicted data in non-dimensional form, to facilitate comparison with other data, including those for HAWTS. ‘The greatest power output measured for any Darrieus wind turbine constructed to date has ‘een from the Lavalin Eole (64 m) Research Turbine (3.26]. Built in 1986 in Cap Chat, Quebec, Canada, Eole is a ewo-bladed NACA 0018 rotor at fixed rotational speeds of 10 and 11.35 rpm. respectively. The maximum power output isin excess of 1.3 MW at 14.7 mis and corresponds 'o 11.35 rpm. The Eole wind turbine was designed to operate in a variable speed mode up to a ro(or speed of 16.3 rpm with the maximum power reaching about 3,6 MW at 17 m/s and then being held constant by decreasing rotor speed at higher wind speeds [3.27]. However, fatigue lie predictions showed that the turbine should be limited to 13.25 rpm with a nominal cut-out of 1S m/s (ahout 2 MW maximum power output) in order to operate successfully for the five year duration of the energy purchase agreement. designed, manufactured and operated wind turbines from 1982 to 1997. They developed a VAWT FloWind 19-m using a two-bladed NACA 0015 operating at 51.8 rpm and producing 250 KW at a wind speed of about 20 mis, [328-3.29]. Drawing upon this experience, FloWind developed @ new generation advanced vertcal-axis wind turbine, with an extended height- ‘o-diameter (EHD) ratio. This class of advanced VAWT maximizes production from any given wind area. In this case, an optimal balance between aerodynamic efficiency, wake loss and swept area is achieved by varying rotor height and diameter. For example, the three bladed FloWind EHD 17-m wind turbine, using a laminar airfoil SNLA 0021/50, can produce 175 kW S18 spm operating ina wind of 16 mis, (3:30) ‘The power performance data available for Dartieus wind turbines from field tests in several countries is summarised in Table 3.1, Table 3.2 shows a few Darricus wind turbines for which power output data are available from wind tunnel tests. In both cases, both the predicted power and the aerodynamic mode! used for calculation are indicated40 Chapter3 ‘Table 3.1. Power Performance Data Available from Ficld Tests Tutie [Cay | Stat | Beal [ Paced | Ac Moda S| Fest | Pee Tadabaksew WA x | Sara pane, | rae | Sp Sean Tate ‘Sandia S-m Research USA, | x x VDART, las | swnterrimrenes esa | x x | | sndatémtocns [usa | x x |[Sucer.caspaav porwr jusa | x | ox |x Nepverts | USA x rowarraniim {sa x Poi Usa x | FloWind 19-m USA, x X | CARDAAV, e | OX joe x cata, Som | ebay Tada S0KW (112m) | canada x Indal 6400 (24m) | Canada x x CARDAA| wichiviouie2tm [came | x | x | x [vadraro CANA tanta em | cama x |x |eatnen NCRIDAF 6.1m; 2 blades | Canada x | CENGDSCim) | Pence x | x cenebviim — [me | x | ox fx mvicin runnin |X | x rrnrtism, tnt |x |x | [armor Cantilever | (NLR) Apa mn | Sita x Aaewn te 15040 | ema x | x ‘Nowadays most commercial Darrius wind turbines ate uf urediuan scale, producing 250 kW and more, and setup costs have fallen to about US $1,000 per installed kW. One of the most significant advances of the Darrieus rotor is its improved aerodynamic performance. This has been accomplished with the use of a combination aurorl, tapered trom root to equator, that reduces the cost of energy by about 15 percent. In the future, the blade may be fabricated fromThe Darrieus Wind-Turbine Concept composites, costing much less than today's common extrusion method. A typical relative cost of Vertical-axis wind turbine subsystems is presented in Table 3.3 from Reference (3.31) ‘Table 32 Power Output Performance Data Available From Wind Tunnel Tests Turbine | Country | Shaft Power | Electrical | Predicted | Aero Model Power | Power Sandia 2m Usa x x [SIMOSS, DARTER, Research PAREP, Multiple streamtube rco7em | Canada x 1,2,3,4,6 NRC3.7m, Canada 13 Blades | NRCIDAF dom; | Canale x | Sblades I Table 3.3 “Typical Relative Costs of VAW'T Subsystems, jubsystem - Cost share Blade support stem 025 (Struts, root connections, central column, upper bearing, guys, blades) Power Train 020 Control System 0.20 Base Structure 020 Blades ous, ‘The effect of blade geometry on the Dartieus turbine performance has never been studied indetail and for simplicity’ sake a large category of existing models consider the Blade to have the shape ofa quadratic parabola, A parametric analysis enables comparison of the aerodynamic terformance for several blade geometries such as the parabola, catenary. Troposkien (G = 0, where gravity is neglected), Troposkien (with gravity effect, G0) and the Sandia as straight- lnelecular-arc. This analysis is given in Ref, (3.32). The shape of the rotor blades in a ceatifugl force field, or ideal Troposkien shape (G=0) is compared with parabola, a canary, a Troposkien approximation (G#0) and Sandia shape. For the same maximum Gianeer height ratio (B= 0.984), each geometry is compared to the ideal Troposkien shape. At tbe end ofthis chapter, we will analyse different rotor shapes and show that the Sandia shape is the mort suitable approximation of the exact shape ofthe rotating Blades where the gravity effect is neglected, In the case of small Darreus rotors or rotors with an output of less than 100 kW, the effect ofthe gravitational field is negligible when compared to the centrifugal fore fiekd odaced by the rotation ofthe blade in full operation. However, the effect is significant for large Tr sizes and must be considered inthe desig calculation. The eect of different shapes on sezodynamic performance of the Darreus rotor is presented in Chapter 6.2 Chapter 3 Planform geometries of the vertical axis rotor can also include the staight-bladed cylindrical shape, a geometry with some advantages over curved blades on the aerodynamic performance but that is penalized by large bending moments. A straight-bladed rotor allows the size of the wibine tv be reduced (o an acceptable value for a given pertormance. This shape represents the simplest geometry and thus reduces manufacturing costs, It is recommended for low wind speed conditions and for small rotor sizes, ‘The swept area of wind turbines is an important variable, In fact, blade costs escalate with increasing length, and power ouput increases with larger swept ateas, It might be then worthwhile to consirler maximizing the ratio of swept area to blade length. A maximum has been found to occur at a diametertheight ratio, B= RH = 0.994 (Troposkien). But there are more important design choices: e. much lower f (as in FloWind 17-m turbine shown in Refs. (3.28. 2:20}) reduces de peter swept area, eee In this chapter, all geometrical parameters for the Darrieus rotor as well as the radius of ccurvature at the equator, the length ofthe blade, the swept area ofthe rotor, the location of the blade center of gravity are defined. A major objective of the Darrieus rotor study is to express the tension force in each section of the blade as a function of the blade shape and the diameter! hheight ratio, and to determine an analytical relationship for the maximum tension fore. Following this study, we look ata practical geometry of the Dasrieus rotor considering “Sandia shape” for the hlavle (straight-line/circular-are form). Some theoretical studies (3.22, 2.24], considering the Darrieus rotor as a parabola, show that approximately 60% of the equatorial part Of the rotor produces almost 95% of the torque. However, the blades requite an airfoiled section to prevent increased drag and diminished machine pesformance, Catenary Blade A catenary shape is obtained by assuming a perfectly flexible cable of uniform density and cross-section with its ends attached to two points A and B, under the action of gravitational force. (Fig. 12). The equiliim differential equation in vectar frm is given hy the eupre a, Gep=o on where the first term (afd) represents the derivative of the tension with respect to the are length ds and isthe load per unit length (for example the weight of cable, wind forces or exteal weight lke ive, dt, te). The projections of equation (31) on y-direction and z-direction yield {(14)spe0 aa)*? 4(r8) ° 2) aM" as where ds = 1+The Darriens Wind-Turbine Concept Figure 32 Catenary shape By eliminating the tension Tin the equation (3.2), we find x £(2) = wit «= cons K 6) Leta= pK and by integration of equation (3.3 using a variable dye = sin u, we obtain +G i ty © © sinh (-az +6) dz ¢ . G4) acoth( s/a 1G) 4 6, ‘The constants of integration C, = 0 and C, =a cosh(H/a) can be determined using boundary contitions:dydz = 0, for 2= 0 and y= 0for 2 H. Thus, the equation for the eatenary shape willbe: n= 2 (G/B) sinh [( + 6/26, ] sinh [(1~ 5/25,] es) where f= /H and =IR. With the condition n)= 1 and ¢=0 replaced in equation (3.5), we can determine the value of coasant ¢, as a function of diameter/height ratio, B = RIEL. B= 6, [cosn(Ve.) 6644 Chapter 3 For a known valve of B, &, is ealeulated from expression (2.6). The radius of curvature at the ‘equator of a catenary shape is given by 7 [cosh (616.)] a leer] an [ggoontic.] for c= 0,1 = ral han |r| = @ = 6,H, and |p| = R= 6, /8 G8) ‘The length of atenary blades ven by the expression 1 f ds = 26,H sinh (W/C,) Bo or i nondmenstonal fom: 12H = (a/H) sinh (Ha) = £,, sinh (¥/g,.) B.10) The rotor swept ares fra catenary shape, having Verclais she ais fsymmety. is Af sc de = 46. feosh(,)~ 5. sh.) on tich in nndimensional frm becomes: [luve.) cosh (VE) = sinh (1 st = Ut oy sinh (WE) ‘he expression (5.12) enables us 10 calculate the optimal ratio (SIP) as a function of US.) corresponding to B= 0.99128. For a Dartieus rotor, having a eatenary shape for each blade, the maximum swept area (for a piven length of Blade). occurs ata diameteeMeight ratio of one. ‘The center of gravity of a homogenous catenary is located on Oy-axis ata distance ve; with respect tothe origin ofthe axes, ee We. | Yo ‘4 sinh (IE, ) RR [eosh(ué.) = 1] ‘The meridian angle 6 (see Fig. 3.2) is found from (3.13)The Darrieus Wind-Turbine Concept 48 2 = tan ‘fsinn(¢/,)] waa ‘The tension in the section of maximum deplacement is given by T, = oH, G15) ‘where 6 represents the cable mass per unit length If G= og isthe weight of blade we obtain: Gf, = 2sinh(YC,) (316) Parabolic Blade ‘The parabola shape can be obtained from catenary, (Fig 3.2), assuming that the tension 7, >> p. In such a case, the value of T,/p = a becomes very large. Thus, expanding cosh(z/a) in, a Tayor's series 1 yee tyayte coxn(aja) = 1+ 3 a? + 5 (4) an an eeping the fist ems, with equation (3.5 we have the shape blade 3.18) ‘The equation (3.18) satisfies the boundary conditions at point A for z4=/H. y4=0, and in nondimensional form becomes n=1-0, Seb G19) which represents a quadratic parabola, ‘The radius of curvature atthe equator is determined by using equation (3.7) a Be ‘The length ofthe parabola blade is expressed in nondimensional torm as a -[ fab + (2p) n(26 + Si 48") 2 320) andthe swept area of the rotor with parabolic blades is sia) ~ 3 an) ‘The optimal swept area ofthe rotor given by ratio S/? corresponds to a value of B = 0.973, The center of gravity ofthe quadratic parabola is given by 23) where 3.24)46 — Chapter 3 with 2 24 ha 1414p? and hy = 2. 4p Bom ‘The meridian angle of the blade 6s calculated from the relationship 6 = tan (260) 25) Troposkien Blade ‘The ideal Troposkien shape, Fig. 3.3, assumes a perfectly flexible cable of uniform density and cross-section in rotation about the vertical axis at a constant angular velocity under the action of centrifugal forces. The equations of the Troposkien curve have been developed in References (3.33, 3.34) by considering pure tension in the blade and neglecting gravitational forces with respect to centrifugal forces due to rotation, ‘The equation for the dynamic equilibrium of the forces an a hlade element dc is a - Dy isdk =0 3.2 at bt ke 6.26) ‘which in scalar form is expressed by Oy and Oz projections 4 (rs) (12) 4 am?yis = 0 5 (7S) +o a(,# 27 G(7G)- se = 0 where @= constant is angular velocity, o is the mass of the cable per unit length, ¢ is the acceleration due to gravity and s is the length of the cable between the point of maximum horizontal deflection (z = 0) and point M, in Fig. 3.3 Figure 33. Troposkien shapeIntegrating the second equation of (3.27) one obtains: = am +G \where the integration constant C, is calculated using boundary conditions at Bo mar a Thus, C, = T, and then where and the boundary conditions become dnfd§=0 x §=0 and n=0 a" f= The integro-differental equation (3.33) can be converted to a differential equation: The Darriews Wind-Turbine Concept a (328) (329) (330) G3), (32) 33) G34) (335) 336)$8 Chaprer3 which can be reseranged so that both sides of equation are exact differential Se and applying boundary conditions: the integration constant is ©; = 1+ 4 pa? Ts, _ a“ _f, (2 ala and we find ane it al ew Let the new variables w and k defined so that w= n/B and afk = 14 4/(p%02) where 2 < I and the equation (3.41) becomes ju aq Integrating (3.43), we have By letting w= sin 6= n/B, the equation (3.44) has as solution st a vie ui o a [Fl 9/2) - FU: 0)] where rucwa) = | iy 637) (a0) aan (3.42) 43) B44) 45) (3.46)The Darrieus Wind-Turbine Concert 49 are the elliptical integrals ofthe first kind, With the boundary conditions = Land n= 0, 6~0. the equation (3.45) is reduced to = -F [ee 2) (3.466) ‘The solution of equation (3.45) given by Blackwell and Reis [3.33] represents the ideal Troposkien shape Fk) F(kx2) a7) where @= aresin 7. ‘The elliptical integrals have been calculated numerically aftr iterative determination of the argument kas a function of B. The length of the Troposkien blade has been calculated using the integral au [fi- Sr - Je ee in which @ has been replaced by its value with (3.46) and d¢ by differentiating the equation (G49). Finally, oH (49) ere E(k x/2) ful = sing? do isan eliptical complete integral of the second kind, The equation (3.49) can be iteratively solved for the parameter k by Newton's method which takes about 8 iterations for convergence The diameter/height ratio B= RIH can be expressed also as a function of k 2k 1 i F(&e?) 3.30) ‘The nondimensionalized length of Troposkien blade 1/24 is given as a function of f and rotation parameter 42 in Fig. 3.4, Substituting &, $2 and values into equation (3.45) we can determine the shape of blade as a function of its length. For the small ratio of 1/2H, the Troposkien is not too different from the catenary shape. In this ease, the rotation parameter S takes a maximum value of w/2 ‘The swept area of the Darrieus rotor with Troposkien blades is given by: Ss tz fy me nz) asn which can be converted using the variable @ * s Tf, F&e) im” | | -EJeee B50$0 Chapter 3 and finelly, the practical formula for ealoulation is 5S _ nj ey a THR ae FR) (3.53) In fact, blade cost is proportional to the blade length and the extracted power inereases with the rotor swept area, for this reason itis important to determine the maximum value of the ratio, SIL ‘Using the relationship (3.49), (3.50) and (3.53), we can calculate the ratio S/P; (1-2) infos wy - 8] fee Ge ni2) - (1-2) Fe 29] s E 54) and (SIP) occurs at = 0.99459 and its value is approximately 0.3 for Be (0.8: 1.2]. For the blade tension we consider the halance forces in the horizontal andl vertical direc- tion respectively, Fig. 3.4, ins = [ ov'vs = F ass Tend =1,+ feat =1,+6 aso Q = ow" I, os 10 Ls 20 LengthHeight RH B= Diameter Height Figure 3.4. Length of Troposkien blade vs Band QThe Darrieus Wind-Turbine Concept 81 By climinating T between these two equations, we ean write: @57) 3.58) T, can be estimated by eliminating the rotating parameter © from equations (3.34) and (3.46b): 1, = oo a9 (a) > in expression (3.58), the cable tension ratio can be Neglecting the blade weight, G expressed as (3.60) In this equation, the maximum value of (TIT,) accurs at y = 0 (2) -18 | ale 1 For a known blade length, with a fixed value for © and o'= constant, the cable tension T, ‘ares in proportion to the square of the rotational speed a. If the blade length J increases, Q decreases and forthe given values of 0, H and @, the cable tension 7, inereases. Thus T, is also rectly proportional to 1. The maximum tension Tr, increases with a and occurs where the Vades intersect the axis of rotation and can be determined by substituting the value of 7, from equation (3.59) into equation (3.61). The maximum ratio (T/T;)qa, 88 a function of the Troposkien blade length / is illustrated in Fig. 3.5. 1, Lek ow ae (3.62) -onstant, we can calculate the tension coelficient using For a homogenous blade, o= 5, S, ‘equation (3.62). 8.63)52 Chapter 3 (nas Figure 35 Tensions ratio vs blade length Looking the curve Crs =f(B) where 8, represent the material density ofthe Ble and 5, i the tea of the hlade sirfail, we can cee tt it ie warthowht ‘p or more, bt athe same time an optimal oor design must conser thi elect om aerodynamic Performance The meridian angle of the blade for a Dartieus rotor having a Troposkien shape can be expressed by: est) Modified Troposkien Blade For small, Darricus-type vertical-axis wind turbines of 100 KW or less, the gravitational effect on the shape may be neglected with respect to centrifugal forces. However, the weight of the blade becomes important forthe large Darrieus wid turbine and this effect must play a part in design considerations. In this case, an exact solution of the shape equation is obtained by a ‘numerical resolution of the integro-differential equation. However, the gravity effect on the blade may be approximated by changing the ideal Troposkien shape. Thus, we assume thatthe “modified Troposkien blade” remains symmetrical with respect to vertical axis and only aThe Darrieus Wind-Turbine Concept 53 deformation with respect fo horizontal axis i radius becomes R, and the ratio height-diameter will be noted by fj. In this ase, the relation- ship (3.34) is written as dered: for the same height the maximam ow a= F Gat, 3.65) and following the same procedure, k parameter mn the elliptical integral becomes ky given by 1 4 ; ate where AP <1 ) BO Bia CS ‘The equation of the modified Troposkien blade may now be written as a function of ky and 2 it g=+ [F(s 72) - F361) G67) or (= 1 and 9) =0 we obtain 2, = 1-H F(ksx/2) (3.68) B= 3.69) With the previous relationships, we have RU) se R0-e) 77 G70) sad the paramter fy i function of kan G/T, Ky any "en Itcan be seen that for G ~ 0, k = k. For a known parameter k, k; may be determined if the aio GIT, is known. Thus, in # first spprosimation T, is assumed for a Troposkien shape given wyGs9) Fi [2 cia) sofas ee wn E (k:m/2) - rca] 2) 74)4 Chapter3 ana tT) z r 0.75) In the same way, equation (3.47) for “modified Troposkien” may be writen as Pky) Cll tren 3.76) Now, introducing a new variable = (21-9) am Flbim2) Feeay Fd) 6.78) ‘The equation ofthe modified Troposkien shape becomes x(1¢) role ea where the superior signs are for £< [0,1] and the inferior signs eortesponl 0 © {Oe} For n=0, (= #1 and for n= 1, C= G/Tp the maximum diameter of the rotor oecus below the Ox ais (o below the equator level dn ‘The meridian angle Scan be calculated from: tan 7 and for hoth halves of the rotor: 8 = awn $F os[E ( +£)| 80) In order to obtain minimum blade stress due to gravitational effect and centrifugal forces, Grover and Veneruso {3.71 proposed that the attached blade angle be changed. The geometrical parameters of all blade shapes, namely slenderness, blade length, swept area, maximum chord radius and solidity were calculated for a Darrieus rotor with two NACA 0015 blades. Cateulations {3.8} show that approximately 60% of the otal length of the Dias in the equatorial zone contributes to about 95% of total torque. This can be explained by the fact that not all elements of the blade contribute equally tothe rotor torque, The polar zones have a small ‘moment arm and the blade section works inthe range ot stalling incidence but near the equator the contribution is higher due toa large moment arm and low effective angles of incidence. Sandia Type Blade In practice, the Darrieus rotor may be built with a simplified shape corresponding approximately to Troposkien. Thus, the rotor blade is designed as a straight-line atthe top and bottom part of the rotor, with a circular arc-shape in the middle, This kind of practical blade shape has been proposed by Sandia National Laboratories [3.34] and is represented in Fig. 3.6.The Darrieus Wind-Turbine Concept 00,0) OR ARO) Figure 3.6 Sandia shape Now consider a half blade illustrated in Fig. 3.6, which is composed of a straight-line CB anda circular-are of radius R’. Note that the total length of the rotor blade is and the height of the rotor is 24. Let the diameter to height ratio be P= R/Z1 and the coordinates of point B be (0y.2a)- Then the equation of straight-line CB is: Ye _ i= y= | Orin nondimensionalized form: st) vee n= y/R and £ (3.82) sich forthe point B become Mp bs The meridian angle 8 s constant on the straight-line CB and its given by: tan 5, (3.83) Inthe equation (3.81) we consider 7 € [0,ng] and ¢¢ [z= 1,Gg]. The total length of blade is [=2{h +1), where ® + EB, Bl~ =k 08 5$6 Chaprer3 ‘The equation of the circle having the center in O”(R 0) passing through the points AG and B(yp.zp) is given by: [y ~(R ~ R’)]? + 22 = R"2. In nondimensionalized form it becomes: Pe =e ” R (3.85) where ¢¢ [0,+¢9] for n © [1.ngl. Let 6; the merigian angle on the cirle-are position tan 5 3.86) For $= Sp = yl, 8: 6, we obtain Rte ries: 8) where 6; is defined by expression (3.83). Thus, equation (3.85) becomes F 5 - by nai ee 3.88) ‘The total length of the “Sandia type blade" is (See Fig. 3.6) and one obtains 1 inka, S46, 2H ~ cos5, ” sind, G89) ‘The swept area ofthe rotor S, may he calculated by the expression seat tera ‘The curvature radius atthe equator level is: eon “The center of gravity of the blade is ovate at fo 2g, Yc-1. 8 Mono, MotB ny, 4 21, _ “om 0, Wa 3B my + 24) a9) ‘The tension raion the blade is: z 3.93) =), (3.93) where the maximum value of Tiny it where the blade intersect the vertical axis Tuy = ORO (I, + b)/sin 5, 3.99)The Darvieus Wind-Turbine Concept _ 87 ‘The maximum tension coefficient is given by Results and Discussion ‘The geomet to design the geometry of the Dartieus rotor. In general the range of tangential (Crs) oro 1, 1 1 2H Bind, al parameters of two-bladed Darriews rotor for all shape! chapter are presented in Table 3.4, Two rotors having the diameter to height ratio: = 0.984 and {B=0.667 were considered, Results are presented in the nondimensionalized forms and include: the length of the blade 1/2H, the swept area of the rotor S/(4R71) and where Vis the number of blades and c isthe length of the airfoil chord. Also given are the ratio ‘Rand the rotational speed (in rpm) for the Troposkien shape considering the gravity effect on the blade, Among the practical shapes, examples include: the Sandia 1J-m, (p Magdalen Islands rotor (B= two circular ares symmetrical with respect to the equator and a central part as a straight-line. The results given in Table 3.4 show different values of the blade length and the variation of the solidity asa function of . However, the variation of the swept area of the rotor is less impor- tan from one form tothe other for different 8. Inthe same table the values of tangential velocity ins) at the equator which corresponds to a rotational speed 7 in rotations per minute (rpm) tre given, The tangential velocity V; = 7mR/30 is a physical parameter which must be considered (3.95) te rotor solidity Nel, ‘v98), ana tne 1667) whose shapes are composed of two straight-line segments, city at the ‘equator varies from 30 to 40 mis or more. We assume the parameter fto be constant and at a fixed velocity V;= constant. The rotational velocity varies from m to n3, the rotor diameter changes from D, 10 Dy such that n\n) = Da/D,. Consequently, the height of the rotor was to be changed so as to keep B constant. ‘Table 34 Geometrical Parameters for Two-Bladed Darrieus Rotors of Different Blade Shapes [Diane | Wade Chord/Radivs Blade shape B an_| sHaRe ok Nels | ¥yand (pm (Camry 098 Tas | 068 oo | ois | B67 Vaz | 9682 nso | 002 | Prbola 0984 aor) 0.667 oo | 0.160 667 vas | 0.667 050 | 0.03 ea Trpostien oes 1463 | 06st oon | 0.16 (G=0) | 0.667 1339 | 068 0.050 | 0.096 Mies oes Lav | 0658 aos | ate | 2983087) open oes Lar | 0658 ors | ated | 3698422) ice0) 9st Lavo | 0.658 ors | 016s | 4434 (300) Sata Type 098s rate | 0657 os | 01s? Mepis sand 0.667 tas | oss os 098 Ror58 Chapter 3 ‘Table 35 Dimensionless Coordinates and Meridian Angle (Radians) [Number] © Teal Catenary | Parsbola | Sandia Type | Mii “e ‘Teopaien Tropa section (Ge 0)rpm= 22 a [sieub| nm [oeran| nm [oeram| nm [dian] 9 | Sivan 2 |-o9s | oor |-ross | ons |-1139 | oor |-108 | oors |-ro1 | aos | ror 3.09 | 0156 |-toxs | 0221 J-t.0s | 019 |-ros7 | ose |-tow | oso | L072 4 fross | 023s | 1028 | ois [1067 | 0271 os |-tuy | vast | toes s |os | 030 |-101 | oa 036 oars |-1.09| on | -1o049 6 |.o7s | 038s |.0993 | 046 | o9%s | 0.338 0391 nas | tox 8 |068 | 0522 | osae | ons oss oss ois | -o97s 9 |06 | oes |-oois | oes 06s 0626 eso | -n93e 1 ]055 | oss |-o877 | 0738 6098 70s o7ss | 867 {05 | 0707 | 0133 | 0786 | 0725 | 02s on axis | -oso7 12 [04s | 076. |-0783 | 0828 |-naos | 0798 072 aes | ore | 13 Jas | om |o726 | ose |o6 | oss 2565 0909 | oom 1s |-oas | oss |066 | asoe |-o522 | ox76 0599 ass | -ossi is fox | os |.ose7 | 0926 | 0402 | 091 ‘0926 |-aasr | og | coats te |-o2s | ass |-o50s | ass |-o389 | o936 ‘as |-03ks | 059 | -0268 17 |02 | ossi |-o4t6 | as67 | 034 | 096 ‘0969 |-0308 | 099 | .>). Finally note that, for the turbulent flow simulations, @ new value of the eddy viscosity is computed at each time step. 5.3. TURBULENCE MODELING Because of the limited understanding of the turbulent process. calculations of turbulent flows seem to be among the most important issues for computational fluid dynamics today and the choice of the best turbulence model remains an open question, In trying to give a definition of an ideal tnrhulence model, Wileox, inthe introduction to his book (Wileox (5.19), puts it this Way: wan ideal mode! should introduce the minimum amount of complexity while capturing the essence of the relevant physics». In modern terminology, turblence models currently used inn Computational Fluid Dywannics (CFD) ate esther of algebrate type (also reterred to 28 2et0- «equation models), turbulence-energy-equation type (one oF two-equation turbulence models) or sevond-order-closure type. Multiple-equation turbulence models require the solution of one oF ‘mote differential transport equations in addition to the governing flow equations, These models ‘can be very expensive to solve not only because of the addition of one or more equations, but, also hecanse of the very fine mesh required near solid walls. On the other hand, algebvaic bbulence models require no additional field equations and rely only on simple algebraic relations In this study, the modified Cebeci-Smith algebraic model (Cebeci and Smith [5.20]) is used as ‘baseline equilibrium model and the halt-equation Johnson-King model [5.21] is used to study ‘nonequilibrium effects. A brief outline ofthese models is given in the following subsections. 5.3.1 Cebeci-Smith Model In order to inelude and account for the effect of turbulence in a flow field, the laminar Navier Stokes equations siust be undified. This modification leads to additional unknowns in the original system of equations. Additional relations are introduced to relate the fluctuating correlations to the mean flow properties by means of empirical constants. When ths relation is ‘expressed as an algebraic equation, it is referred to as a zero-equation model. Most algebraic ‘models employ an inner/outer region formulation to represent mixing length. The algebraic tut- bulence models have been widely used and tested! Their accuracy in several sla have made them very attractive. ‘The two-layer mixing-length Cebeci-Smith model consists of an inner layer and an outer layer where the eddy viscosity distributions are 1, = Vy tanh (vy /¥5,) 6.44) (545) 0168u.5"F,,, 616) where u, represents the magnitude of the boundary layer edge velocity, 5° isthe incompressi- ble displacement thickness, 1 represen the normal distance from the airfoil and x is voa Karman’s constant. The variable Fy. defined asthe Klebanoff intermittence function [5.22] 8 sven by the following relationUnsteady Aerodynamics CED Molle 11S Fy = —— an we TS S508 where Bis the boundaty Laver thickness Te ear-wall van Dries! damping term D appearing in equation (5.48) is given by D~ 1 ~ expf-n'/A") a8) = MRE [ous (5.49) here @,. is the maximum vorticity along the normal tothe solid wall. At the stagnation and separation points, the value of vorticity atthe solid wall can lead to unrealistic eddy viscosity valves. This is why the coordinate 7 is expressed in terms of Gy. When the Navier-Stokes equations ate being solved, flow properties at the edge of the boundary layer may be difficult to determine, especially when flow separation occurs within tte computational domain, Rostand (5.23) has introduced some modifications to the original Cebeci-Smith model to avoid these problems. Following the definition of the displacement thickness 3° the prodict u,5° ean he written, after some my 45 = f njoldn (5.50) For high Reynolds-number flows, lol and lal usually decrease very rapidly with increasing distance from solid walls Thus, the integral can be evalvated using a coarse approxi- tation 5 ofthe boundary layer thickness which is defined as the first normal distance value 17 for which the corresponding vorticity is smaller than #0. 6 25 = {n]¥n> Wf = an) < O11) < ey} (51) where et However, for the Klebanoff function, the boundary layer thickness must be determined with ‘cision andthe following empirical relation is used (Rostand [5.23] (5.52) J nioten The modeling constants used for the Cebeci-Smith model are x = 0.41, A* = 26 and Crs = 048. The far wake eddy viscosity, Fig. 5.6, is computed using a similar approach to the one of (cebect and Besnard ({3.6)) (553) where116 Chapter 5 Jnioitn, nioten where yy is the computed wake eddy viscosity. The exponential function appearing in equation $3) play smoothing role between he ling ede andthe wake calculations, 0.064 max 654) Figure $6 Wake Uefinition Computational Implementation ‘The modified Cebeci-Smith model requires non-local data along the normals to solid walls. Obtaining this data is straightforward on structured meshes, but presents a major problem on ‘unstructured meshes. Some fur instance, uoturals to solid walls or a secondary structured mesh on which one interpolates the flow properties computed on the main ‘unstructured mesh (Rostand [5.23]; Mavriplis [5.24]), To avoid these complications, we use a hhybrid mesh composed of structured quadrilateral elements around solid walls and unstructured triangular elements elsewhere [5.9]. In the structured region, mesh nodes are placed on normals to the adjacent wall and flow properties along these normals can easily be accessed without in- terpolation, Moreover, ifthe structured region is large enough to include the critical regions of the boundary layer, we can restrict to this zone the search of non-local data, To compute the teat node inthe computational domamn, tne ‘oro closest wall nodes and use the non-local information associated to these nodes. More precisely, here is, step by step, the method we use + Determination of the boundary layer parameters For each solid node, Storie & and yy by scan the yuntted mes Fig. 5.70, ‘then integrate and store w,6" and 5 using equations (5.50) and (5.52) respectively. + Computation of the eddy viscosity i the structured region, For each node located in the structured region, compute the eddy viscosity using equations (5.44-5.46) and the values of u, 3° and 8 ascorinted wi arid line (Fig. 5.7).Unsteady Aerod "7 Computation of the eday viscosity in the unstructured region For each node located in the unstructured region, compute the eddy viscosity using the same equations (5.44-5.46) but, this time, the values of u,6° and 6 are obtained by interpolating the ralues associated with the closest wall nodes (Fig. 5.7e) Search and integration "| region —x (ay . Node located in the 12 structured zone Corresponding wall node —~noae tocatea in tne unstructured zone 1 Corresponding ‘wall nodes igure 8.7 Computation ot the eddy viscosity18 Chapter s 5.3.2 Johnson-King Model The Johnson-King closure model Johnson and King {521}; Johnson {5.25} Johnson and Coakley (826) wae developed to aesount forthe conection and diffs effec the Reynolds shear stress (nonequilibrium eect), by adding some history effects to the simple equim turbulence models. Fr that purpose, a pail diferent equation (pe) derived | from the turbulent neue energy (ke), ase to prescribe the evolution ofthe maximum shear stress, = (-uv") For convenience, the total Reynolds shear stress wll be defined a + ~ vifal"= (Co?) allnough ii in fot © = pv the Johnson-King model isthe ey viscosity ditbution which ist with a blending formula ing point oF vs = Ye {t= ex (Ve ia} 55) Dent? 656) | = 0.0168 045) 4,5" Fy (37) For the Johnson-King model, the sane ueat-wall vas Driest damping function D (equation 5.48) withthe constant A” = 17 and the same KlebanofT function Fi, (equation 5.46) are used but the non-dimensional coordinate nis expressed in terms of the maximum Reynolds shear SFOSS Fy (558) ‘The nonequilibrium parameter cfs) in equation (5.57) the link between the eddy viscosity tisuibuton andthe sucatawine maximum Reynolds sbear stress equation (p de) Detining ihe variables g = 1," and g,, = ty, the partial differential equation developed by Johnson and King to solve forthe maximum Reyoolds shear stess development in the streamuine direction becomes ial) e.g), 4 (,- 2), Sell 550) arn as = 20, (' 2, }* 2(078—n,) s here he dsipation eet wee Fe hem hy Ly = min (04n,,, 0.098) (5.60) ‘Tive modeling constants a, and Ci, take, respectively, the values of 0.25 and 0.5. ‘The pa. is linearized by setting all the terms in equation (5.59) equal to their values atthe previous station except g and g,- This approximation is also applied 6 ty and yg in Ue eddy viscosity distribution (equations 5.55-5.57). The integration of the p.de. (equation 5.59) is, accomplished by a fourth order Runge-Kutta scheme (Fig, 58). ‘The link parameter o(s) between thé eddy viscosity distribution and the p.d.e is iteratively adjusted according to the following relation (561)steady Aerodynamics — CFD Models 119 “one @o0 yew. srucued 2 @ © “Zone Sota Wall £2 Ase iat Station + Figure 5.8. Stations on the structured zone Starting the calculation with the Johnson-King model requites the knowledge of (2V),__ inthe equilibaum eddy viscosity distibution (obtained by seting as) = 1 equations {5.55-5.57), This value is determined using the Cebec-Smith model. According telshason [5.27], an eximate ofthe boundary layer thickness 8 is given by 5 = 12m2t ‘tere F = 1 lol 18 the moment of vorticity function. Following that, the imegration oF this function permits the computation of the product u,6” in the same manner as the Cebeci-Smith oie =n at FlFyyy = 05 (5.62) Computational Implementation Solutions based on the proposed closure model need initial conditions for equation (5.59). Intaly, we assume an equilibrium state on the whole computational domain: v (5.63) Ber 5.64) Inthic cas, a value of the equilibrinm eddy viscosity and shear stress are determined from the Cebec-Smith model (equilibrium model), ‘he main steps of the non-equilibrium Jobnson-King model can be summarized as follows: 8 + Determination of the boundary Ferach sod wall ode dctermine 3 and gy by seaming the strated mesh ted u5° and Busing equations (5.50) and (3.52) respectively. fer parameters 1 integrate ‘Computation of the maximum shear stress for the equilibrium state {,is computed from equations (5.55-5.57) knowing that ¢,, = tl120 Chapter 5 Compute the switch point from eq squiliriuen ‘The transition point is determined for the airfoil upper and lower surfaces according to the following criteria nton Me Compute ¢ ‘The p.de. equation (5.59) is solved by a fourth order Runge-Kutta at each time step + Update the value of the link parameter c for each station ‘A new value of ¢ is iteratively adjusted according to equation (5.61) until the condition + Computation of the eddy Kiowiny the valves OF hy. from equations (5.55-5.57), cosity 1 the boundary layer parameters, the eddy viscosity 18 calculated + Computation of the wake eddy viscosity ‘The wake eddy viscosity is computed using the Cebeci-Smith wake approach from equations (5.53) and (5.54) to allow a smooth transition from the tailing edge to the wake. 5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In an effort wo predict dynamic stall features on rotating airfoils, preliminary performance tests of the turbulence models for some basic benchmark cases are performed. Then, the simul tion ofthe turbulent flow around an airfoil undergoing a Darrieus motion in dynamic-stall con- shitions is presented. For all simulations presented in this section, the performance of the algebraic Cebeci-Smith model (CSM) and the nonequilibrium Johnson-King model (JKM) are compared, 5.4.1. Testing Cases Flat Plate ‘The flow around a flat plate in pure translation was computed for a Reynolds number of 4 10" at zero angle of attack using both turbulence models (CSM and JKM). The shape of airfoil leading and trailing edges. Of course, the effects of the thickness and the leading and trailing edges are not negligible but, around the mid-chord, the pressure gradient should be close to zero and the boundary layer Velocity should be close to the one encountered on & truly Mat plate. The computational mesh (Fig. 5.10) is composed of a structured region of 5080 quadrilateral elements, an unstructured region of 6650 triangular clements an a layer of 20 infinite elements located at 10 chords from the center of the airfoil corresponding to '8825 nodes. On the solid boundary, there are 287 quadrilateral elements of an average thickness ‘of Sx 10% and a maximum length of 0.025 at the center ofthe flat plate, ACA: talling edge, the length of elements adjacent tothe solid wall is 6 x 1c. Note thatthe structured region was extended to the near wake in order to use the same eddy viscosity computing strategy in the ‘wake and over the aiou. The “lish tail” shape of this portion ofthe structured mesh is used to ‘minimize element size variations a the interface with the unstructured mesh.Unsteuly Aerodynamics CED Models 121 09 Figure 5.9 Flat plate shape Figure $.10 Computational mesh for flat plate For high Reynolds flows, the velocity gradient in the boundary layer is far more important jn he normal direction to the solid wall than in the tangential direction, Highly stretched ‘qadilteral elements permit sufficient node density in the normal direciow to capture the mt tal gradient and a much reduced node density in the tangential direction. In addition, ‘qudilteral elements allow a more suitable discretization of the boundary ayer since nodes are luce on normais to the soutd Wall. Ineretore, How properties can be accessed without interpo- lion, Outside the boundary layer, a much-reduced dense grid is necessary since the velocity jpuient decreases very rapidly with increasing normal distance from the airfoil. In the wake. it isnevetheless preferable to preserve a suficient density to simulate the flow correctly. To avoid ‘oaplcaions related toa fully unstructured mesh, a hybrid grid composed of structured elements, ‘war the airfoil and triangular elements elsewhere ix used forall the simulations presented The flow was computed up to a non-dimensional time of 1.0 with a time step variation of 0*t0 25 10" Figure 5.11 shows the distribution ofthe pressure coefficient C, over the fat ise. The effects of the thickness, leading edge and trailing edge are seen to be significant, but, ‘wound the mid-chord, the pressure gradient remains negligible and close to 2ero. The velocity broil at ve = 0.5 are plotted in Fies 5.12 and 5.13. Results from both turhuence models are ‘onpared with the experimental data from Klebanoff [5.22]. Both turbulence models present a ‘wloity profile very close to the experimental data, but the JKM results are slightly better.122 Chanter 5 Tobeson-King as Figure 5.11 Pressure distribution over flat plate 4 Kibanot . 7 CobectSmath ' ° as 1 ula, Figure $.12. Boundary layer velocity profile ~ Cebeci-Simth ne ° os bay, Figure 5.13 Boundary layer velocity profile - Johnson-KingUniteady Aerodynamics — CED Models 123 Pitching Airfort ‘To1est the performance of both turbulence models implemented inthe numerical solver, the flow aronind the pitching NACA 0015 airfoil at x Reynolde mimber of 20% 10° has heen simulated. The flow isin deep dynamic-stall regime and the angle of attack is oscillated around ‘maxis located at one quarter of the chord from the leading edge, according to the formula et) = a4 + ey sin(24*1) 5.65) ‘The parameters of the harmonic mation for this case are: the reduced frequency FF = @e!2u_=0.5, the period of motion T= 2x, the averaged angle of attack % = 15 deg and tte amplitude of motion c, = 4.2 deg. Performance of some turbulence models for an airfoil Ihiving such pitching motion have been tested by Eksteinis tal (5.28, 5.29]. The numerical reals are compared to the experimental data of Piziali [5.30]. The numerical simulation of this notion will establish the capabilities ofthe turbulence models implemented in the numerical ‘ede to simulate deep dynamic stall such as that experienced by a Darrieus rotating airfoil ‘To simulate this pitching motion, the airfoil is centered in the non- the coordinate (0.25.0) a I frame of reference the non-inertial system is inclined at an angle of ey (Fig. 5.14). The computational grid has 8146 nodes, including 5256 quadrilateral elements, 5364 ‘tiangular elements and 16 infinite elements (Fig. 5.15). The average distance from the solid wall tothe frst point ofthe structured zone is 2 x 10‘, which corresponds 10 = 3.0 (where 1 = Re@ya|) The infinite elements begin at 25 chord lengths from the airfoil center and have a thickness of 10 chords. Note, however, that during the first period, we imposed a transitional motion between steady-state and harmonie motion to avoid temporal discontinuity infirt and second derivatives ofthe incidence ce (Fig, 5.16) by using a transitional function f. ‘This tansitional function and its derivatives are defined as, (5.66) areT (567)124 Chapter 5 Figure 5.16 Transitional function ~ Pitching motionUnsteady Aerodsnamice CED Models 138 ‘Numerical integration was performed with 9 non-dimensional time step varying from 5x 10° up to 1.25 x 10” from steady state at 15 deg up to the end of the second period of ‘oxillaion corresponding to a final non-dimensional time of 4. Figures $.17 and 5.18 show the ‘computed drag and lift coefficients using the Cebeci-Smith turbulence model. The experimental daa of Pizial (5.30] and numerical results of Ekaterinaris and Menter (5.28) obtained with the Spalart-Allmaras [5.31] and the original Tones and Launder Ae [5 also represented on these figures. turbulence mod: =23-- Sinus 1s Figure 8.17. Drag coefficient ~ Cebeci-Smith model or 8 RE sta a ees soan Figure 5.18 Lift coefficient ~ Cebeci-Smith model126 Chapt ‘The pitching motion, defined by equation (5.63), is characterized by a massive separation of the flow: The flow remains separated during an important part of the oscillation cycle corres- ponding to important C; - a hysteresis curves. During the upstroke motion of the airfoil. the serodynamic coefficients follow trends similar to experiment. However, the steep decrease during the downstroke motion and the overall hysteresis loop are not predicted by the Cebeci-Smith ‘model. The results abtsined hy the algebraic model show that the hysteresis loop is inaccurate ‘compared to the experimental curve. At this point, it was concluded thatthe equilibrium turbu- lence model was probably inadequate and nonequilibrium effects may be important. Piziali ~ Sait Atma ° = 10 2 “ 6 "yo Figure 5.19 Drag coefficient - Johnson-King model OT Pita a0 th tins 6+ ke — 08 é oat os . er® on, ee a ml a : — ” bw 6 wy ow Figure 5.20 Lift coefficient -Johnson-King modelUnsteady Aerndynamics~ CED Models 127 ‘The drag and lift coefficients obtained by the nonequilibrium Johnson-King model are represented in Figs $.19 and 5.20. Unlike the algebraic model, the Johnson-King model produces results quite similar to those obtained by Ekaterinaris and Menter [5.28] using the Sylart-Allmaras turbulence model. The steep decrease in lift and drag coefficients follows the experimental results quite well. The hysteresis loop produced by the Johnson-King model is similar to the experiments and demonstrates the need to include nonequilibriam behavior of the Reynolds shear stress in the calculations. The algebraic Cebeci-Smith model is based on the assumption that equilibrium conditions prevail for the simulated flow. However, for flows with ‘massive separation (deep dynamic-stall regime), the zero-equation models using this assumption, ate not suitable, For this type of motion, te algebraic model is not able to predict the dynamic- sall vortex responsible for producing the hysteresis loop observed on aerodynamic coefficients. Dindar and Kaynak [5.33] have made the same observations with the use ofthe algebraic model of Baldwin-Lomax for an airfoil in deep and light stall regimes 5.4.2 Darrieus Motion Airfoil [five the validation on test cases (flat plate and pitching airfoil. the numerical solver vas used fo simulate the turbulent flow around a NACA 0015 in Dartieus motion for a blade Reynolds number Re, = Q,Re!V of 67000, a tip-speed ratio of 2.5 and a solidity c/R of 0.25 tccowding to the experimental results of Oler etal [5.24]. A fine structuredianstructared mech sua generated for the Darrieus motion airfoil having 9615 nodes composed of 5676 equilateral elements, 7626 triangular elements and 20 infinite elements, and with the external boundary at ‘0 chord lengths from the mesh center (Ig. 9.21). The fst nodes of the wall were placed at an tverage 1° of 1.0 to guarantee a good mesh resolution in the viscous sublayer. The airfoil sarfce was covered by 192 quadrilateral elements with an average length of 0,01le. To test the effect ofthe grid density on the calculations, another relatively coarse mesh of 7136 nodes, camposed of 4088 structured elements, $794 unstructured elements and 20 infinite elements suas generated, The first node was located at n° of 80. The coarser mesh will he referred to as neh #l and the finer one as mesh #2. Figure $.21 Computational mesh #2 ~ Darrieus motion128 Chapter ‘The Darricus motion is quite similar tothe pitching notion where the relative flow velocity Vig the angle of attack crand Reynolds number vary with the azimuthal angle @ (Figs. 5.22 and 534) eyR +. cos 6) + (u, sino)? (5.68) ‘The dircction of the selaive velocity is defined by angle of wack «x (see Figs, 5.1 and 5.23) uw. sin @ ) > con ae 8 (5.69) However, the rotating airfoil also experiences inertial forces that the pure pitching motion doesn’t have. Moreover, the similitude described previously is vali only atthe blade attachien, ‘Thus, only a non-inertial formulation should be used to simulate the complex flow around an airfoil performing a Dartieus motion. This kind of motion is performed by decentering the airfoil ‘by a distance of & trom the center of the mesh and simply pertorming a rigid body rotation of, the mesh about its center at an angular speed Q, (Fig, 5.23), ‘Azimuth angle, (dee) ‘Aim angle, 0 (3p) Figure 5.22 Evolution ofthe relative velocity and angle of attack for Darrieus motion | nN sr Figure 5.23. Dartieus motion simulationready Aerodynamics CED Modsle 120 ‘he numerical results have been compared to the experimental data of Oler et al. (5.34) ‘The experiments were conducted at hydrodynamic tunnel with the test conditions shown on, ‘Tbe 5.1. As shown in Fig. 5.24, the effective Reynolds number reaches a maximum value of 98800 for @ blade Reynolds number of 67000. Such a Reynolds number Ieads to a non reglgible level of turbulence, particularly in the wake. Both turbulence models, namely the Cebecl-Smith model (CSM) and the Johnson-King. ‘model (KM), have been used to simulate the flow around a NACA 0015 airfoil in a Darricus ration by using the two generated meshes. Computations done with the Cebeci-Smith model ‘sing mesh #1, and with the Johnson-King model using both meshes, were limited to one cycle because of the computer time limitations. The initial solution was obtained by using the flow tenditons similar to the one at @ ~ 360 deg. This state is obtained by turning the vector mat the same speed as that ofthe non-inertial frame. The flow caused by such motion tends rapidly toa stable state that provides the startup conditions for the Darrieus motion simulation, Table $.1. Darrieus Motion Parameters 26800 67000 Tip-speed ratio 25 Period 10.053, Soliaity uz 0010 e000 & 009 0 40900 sao00 0 *” 80 a0 “a ‘Azimuthal angle, 6 (deg) Figure 5.24 Evolution ofthe effective Keynolds number130 Chapter s 5.4.3 Flow Structure To illustrate the flow structure obtained by the Cebeci-Smith model, the evolution of the flow is presented in Figs S98 and 5.26. The frst series of figures shows the evolution of the Streamlines for a complete revolution. The second series concerns the evolution of the computed non-dimensional vorticity. Inthe interval 60° < 6 < 180°, corresponding to 16° < 0°, the separation of the buunaty Tayer occurs on the inner surface of the aiftoi. ‘This separation is also observed inthe evolution ofthe vorticity field, A reversed flow appears at @= 60 deg and progresses from the trailing edge towards the leading edge. With the help of the flow structure evolution (Figs 5.25 and 5.26), a dynamic-stall region corresponding to the separated flow region on the inner surface (ie. the surface located inside the rotation disk) is seen inthe interval 100" < @'< 175°. The reattachment of the boundary layer tarts at @= 160° and is completed at 10°. During the second or downwind half of rotation, the reversed flow is observed at 40° (a= -23.4"), The boundary layer on the outer surface begins to reattach at @ = 3047” sd the seattacinient is completed at @= 340" Figs 5.27 and 5.28 show the flow structure computed with the Johnson-King model. The first series of figures represents the evolution ofthe computed streamlines and the second seties concerns the evolution of the vorticity field. On the frst half (upwind region) ofthe computed streamlines, a recirculating zone is depicted in the interval 105° < @ < 170°. The reattachment tf the boundary Tayer begins at @= 130° (a = 17° and is completed at @ = 190° (a= -6.5°). For the downwind zone, a small dynamic-stall region is depicted in the interval 255° < 6 < 275° (233°sas-21°, ‘The analysis of streamline and vorticity field evolutions with the azimuthal angle have shown that a rotating airfoil generates two dynamic-stall regions. These regions are represented for both models in Figs 5.29 and 9.80. Ihe stall predicted by both turbulence models seems ‘more severe than in the experiments in the downwind region. The duration of these regions ‘match overall the experimental stall intervals of 100° < 8 < 140° om the inner surface and 265° < 0 < 290° on the outer surface. The experimental stall regions were determined fom the evolution ofthe pressure coefficient C,, ‘The dynamic-stall zones predicted by both turbulence models are similar in the first half rotation but differ slightly in the second half of the rotation eycle. However, the dynamie-stall regions predicted by both models are much smaller than those predicted hy the Laminar code of ‘Tehon [5.9] and Hallé [5.12] for the same flow condition, except that the blade Reynolds number is 6700 (Fig. 5.31), | |Unsteady Aerodynamics ~ CFD Models Y=, 2(003)-m with n = 000 12 Figure $.25 Computed streamlines ~ Cebeci-Smith model it1 Chapter $ 0-60 92225 2105 0=240 O=165 0-300 8=180 OMS £ 5 “50 0 30 >100 Vorticiy Figure 5.26 Evolution of the vorticity field ~ Cebeci-Smith modelUnsteady Aerodynamics ~ CFD Models O= 165 0= 360 Sweanalines Y= yy#(003):n with n= O10 12 Figure 827 Compuied sueannes Johnson King mods13 Chapters 8=210 0-120 0-270 0-160 05360 BR Se <100 “30 0 50 >100 Vorticity Figure 5.28 Evolution of the vorticity field — Johnson-King modelere sR cma ge / | \ ‘ 1 J Ne 4 o 0 180 270 360 Avital angle, (ee) igure 5.29 bynamic-stall regions ~ Cebect-Smith modet Ole tal. (5341 as 20 es Jonson Kang tert a (5.34) \B Avimal angle, 0 (eg) Figure £30 Dynamic-stall regions - Johnson-King model ter al (534) Olereta 534) a | 10 il 1s 20 / eo am 0 Azimut angle, (G8) Figure $.31, Dynamic-stll regions ~ Laminar case1396 Chapner 5 5.4.4 Aerodynamic Characteristics Computed nomal force coeicints, Cy = 2, /puce), obtained respectively by the lominae code (89, 5.12] and hy the talent iver aig the Ceboc- Sth and uso Ki tubolence mols [5.12] are shown in Figs 5.32 to 534, The numerical results re compared to the experimental data of Ole et [5 34], Experimental Bade forces are of two kind, hose cbusined trom integrated pressure measurements and those obtained from stain age measurements. Noe that the experimental data concer the second revolution and our simula toni, n most eases, for one complete rotation ony 20 = Powe (538) 15) a pressure (538) » Lina Us * 180 20 0 Azimuthal angle, 6 (deg) Figure 2 Evolution ofthe normal force ~ Laminar case 2» + Fone 5a) SF) pressure (534) | 0 obec Sith 340 nie, 6 (eg) Figure 5.33 Evolution ofthe normal force ~ Cebeci-Smith model -——_————Unsteady Aerodynamics CED Models 137 Is 4 Force (Oler etal, 1983) (© Prosure (Oler eval, 1983) to, Johnson-King 2) 0 4313S IRD 22S 2S 860) Azimuthal angle, 0 (dee) Figure 5.34 Evolution of the normal force ~ Johnson-King model The tangential force coefficients, C, = 2F;/(pu2e), for one revolution computed by “eon [8.9] and by both turbulence models are pesented in Figs $38 to 647. Turhilent and laminar numerial results ofthe pitching moment coefficients, Cy = 2M/(pu2c*), are repre seated in Fig. 5.38. Oler et al. (5.34) did not provide experimental results forthe moment coet- feet Cy and he conparisua is detefore Hite Wo wbmesival sell 40 4 Force (Oler etal, 1983) (© Prescure (Or et al. 1983) [Laminar (Tehon, 1992) S 00 weses m0 usw ‘Azimthal ange, 8 (des) igure $.35. Evolution of the tangential force ~ Laminar caseTR Chapter 5 2 Foree (538) Presse (5,34) Azimuthal angle, 0 (deg) Figure 5.36 Evolution of the tangential force ~ Cebeci-Smith model has Kig (2) Fars (538) Pressure (534 0 » 0 ™ sw Azimuthal angle, 0 (deg) Figure $.37 Evolution of the tangential force ~ Johnson-King modelLnsteady Aerodynamics CED Modele 139 ‘ Laminar 5 esi Smith (12) a of 4 3 4 s 0 0 180 270 300 ‘Azimnuthal angle, ® (deg) Figure 5.38. Evolution of the pitching moment 5.4.5. Discussion Results obtained with both turbulence models show clearly the distinct features of the Darrieus motion. Firs, the variation of the relative velocity and blade Reynulds number ‘eoerates a larger dynamic-stal region in the fist half rotation (upwind zone). In tis region, the wind tends to conveet the wake towards the airfoil and the stall lasts longer. During the second half rotation (downwind zone), the wind favors the convection of the vortices away from the airfoil (Fig 5.39), so the dynamic-stall duration is shorter. | oma er A. Wind, igure 9.39 Wake convection140 Chapters ‘The water tunnel visualizations made by Oler et al. [5.34] show the formation of two leading vortices during airfoil rotation that are responsible for the dynamic-stall process, However, the generation of the leading vortices (typical for dynamic stall) are not ahserved ‘during the evolution of the vorticity field (Figs 5.26 and 5.28) computed by either of these ‘urbulence models. This may be caused partly by too coarse grid in the structured region, The calculation of the boundary layer thickness may also be a cause. Indeed, numerical simulations Undertaken with the Johnson-King model show the formation and the shedding of the vortex on pitching airfoil surface (Dindar and Kaynak [5.33]; Ekaterinars etal. [5.29]. These simula- tions are based on the calculation ofthe boundary layer thickness suggested by Johnson [5.27], ‘The computed boundary layer thickness undergoes important variations from station to station, particulary for stations near the airfoil center It may be possible to remedy this hy increasing ‘mesh density in the unstructured region, although this solution would have a direet impact on the running time. ‘Tie werudynamic coeiticients computed by both turbulence models present no oscillation, unlike the corresponding results computed by the laminar solver [5.9], which show multiple peaks generated by the stall vortices that do not appear in the experiments. The oscillatory na- {ure is typical of laminar computations. The turbulent boundary layer is far more stable than the laminar boundary layer and thus can support without separation a much greater adverse pres- sure gradient than the laminar boundary layer. Consequently, the separation is delayed and

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