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Black Scholes Formula PDF
Black Scholes Formula PDF
In this note we derive in four separate ways the well-known result of Black
and Scholes that under certain assumptions the time-t price C(St ; K; T ) of a
European call option with strike price K and maturity = T t on a non-
dividend stock with spot price St and a constant volatility when the rate of
interest is a constant r can be expressed as
r
C(St ; K; T ) = St (d1 ) e K (d2 ) (1)
where
2
ln SKt + r + 2
d1 = p
p Ry 1 2
and d2 = d1 , and where (y) = p12 1
e 2 t dt is the standard normal
cdf. We show four ways in which Equation (1) can be derived.
1. By straightforward integration.
2. By applying the Feynman-Kac theorem.
3. By transforming the Black Scholes PDE into the heat equation, for which
a solution is known. This is the original approach adopted by Black and
Scholes [1].
4. Through the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM).
1 Black-Scholes Economy
There are two assets: a risky stock S and riskless bond B: These assets are
driven by the SDEs
The time zero value of the bond is B0 = 1 and that of the stock is S0 . The
model is valid under certain market assumptions that are described in John
1
Hull’s book [3]. By Itō’s Lemma the value Vt of a derivative written on the
stock follows the di¤usion
@V @V 1 @2V 2
dVt = dt + dS + (dS) (3)
@t @S 2 @S 2
@V @V 1 @2V 2 2
= dt + dS + S dt
@t @S 2 @S 2
@V @V 1 2 2 @2V @V
= + St + St dt + St dWt :
@t @S 2 @S 2 @S
and variance 2 2
V ar [X] = e 1 e2 +
: (5)
2
Combining terms and completing the square, the exponent is
2
2
1
2 y2 2y + 2
2 2
y = 2
1
2 y + 2
+ + 1
2
2
:
Equation (8) becomes
0 !2 1
Z 1 2
1 1 1 y +
LX (K) = exp + 1
2
2
p exp @ A dy: (9)
ln K 2 2
Consider the random variable X with pdf fX (x) and cdf FX (x), and the scale-
location transformation Y = X + . It is easy to show that the Jacobian is 1 ,
that the pdf for Y is fY (y)= 1 fX y and that the cdf is FY (y) = FX y .
Hence, the integral in Equation (9) involves the scale-location transformation
of the standard normal cdf. Using the fact that ( x) = 1 (x) this implies
that
2
ln K + + 2
LX (K) = exp + : (10)
2
See Hogg and Klugman [2].
3
3.2 Bond Price
Apply Itō’s Lemma to the function ln Bt . Then ln Bt follows the SDE
d ln Bt = rt dt:
Rt
so the solution to the SDE is Bt = exp 0
ru du since B0 = 1. When in-
rt
terest rates are constant then rt = r and Bt = e . Integrating from t to T
RT
produces the solution Bt;T = exp t ru du or Bt;T = er when interest rates
are constant.
where WtQ = Wt + rt
t. We have that under Q, at time t = 0; the stock price St
2
follows the lognormal distribution with mean S0 ert t and variance S02 e2rt t e t 1 ,
but that St is not a martingale. Using Bt as the numeraire, the discounted
stock price is S~t = B
St
t
and S~t will be a martingale. Apply Itō’s Lemma to S~t ,
which follows the SDE
@ S~ @ S~
dS~t = dBt + dSt (15)
@B @S
since all terms involving the second-order derivatives are zero. Expand Equation
(15) to obtain
St 1
dS~t = dBt + dSt (16)
Bt2 Bt
St 1
= (rt Bt dt) + rt St dt + St dWtQ
Bt2 Bt
= S~t dWtQ :
2
This implies that ln S~t follows the normal distribution with mean ln S~0 2 t and
variance 2 t. To show that S~t is a martingale under Q, consider the expectation
4
under Q for s < t
h i h i
E Q S~t jFs = S~0 exp 1
2
2
t E Q exp WtQ Fs
h i
= S~0 exp 1
2
2
t + WsQ E Q exp WtQ WsQ Fs
Now, the moment generating function (mgf) of a random variable X with normal
distribution N ( ; 2 ) is E e X = exp + 12 2 2 . Under Q we have that
Q
Wt s is Q-Brownian
h motion
i and distributed as N (0; t s). Hence the mgf of
WtQ s is E Q exp WtQ s = exp 1
2
2
(t s) where takes the place of ,
and we can write
h i
E Q S~t jFs = S~0 exp 1
2
2
t + WsQ exp 1
2
2
(t s)
= S~0 exp 1 2
2 s + WsQ
= S~s :
h i
We thus have that E Q S~t jFs = S~s , which shows that S~t is a Q-martingale.
Pricing a European call option under Black-Scholes makes use of the fact that
under Q, at time t the terminal stock price at expiry, ST , follows the normal
2
distribution with mean St er and variance St2 e2r e 1 when the interest
rate rt is a constant value, r: Finally, note that under the original measure the
process for S~t is
dS~t = ( r) S~t dt + S~t dWt
which is obviously not a martingale.
3.4 Summary
We start with the processes for the stock price and bond price
dSt = St dt + St dWt
dBt = rt Bt dt:
We apply Itō’s Lemma to get the processes for ln St and ln Bt
1 2
d ln St = 2 dt + dWt
d ln Bt = rt dt;
which allows us to solve for St and Bt
1 2
St = S0 e( 2 )t+ Wt
Rt
Bt = e 0 rs ds :
5
We apply a change of measure to obtain the stock price under the risk neutral
measure Q
dSt = rSt + St dWtQ )
1 2 Q
St = S e(r 2 )t+ Wt
0
dS = rSdt + SdW Q
St e r
St2 e2r e
2
1 No .
Q 2
dS~ = SdW
~ with S~ = B
S
S~t S~t2 e 1 Yes
2
dS~ = ( ~ + SdW
r) Sdt ~ St e ( r)
e St2 e2(
1 r)
No
This also implies that the logarithm of the stock price is normally distributed.
which can be evaluated to produce Equation (1), reproduced here for conve-
nience
C(St ; K; T ) = St (d1 ) Ke r (d2 )
where
2
St
log K + r+ 2
d1 = p
and
p
d2 = d1
2
St
log K + r 2
= p :
6
The …rst derivation is by straightforward integration of Equation (17); the sec-
ond is by applying the Feynman-Kac theorem; the third is by transforming the
Black-Scholes PDE into the heat equation and solving the heat equation; the
fourth is by using the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM).
To evaluate the two integrals, we make use of the result derived in Section (3.3)
that under Q and at time t the terminal stock price ST follows the lognormal
2
distribution with mean ln St + r 2 and variance 2 , where = T t is
the time to maturity. The …rst integral in the last line of Equation (18) uses
the conditional expectation of ST given that ST > K
Z 1
ST dF (ST ) = E Q [ ST j ST > K]
K
= LST (K):
= St er (d1 );
St (d1 ): (19)
7
Using Equation (7), the second integral in the last line of (18) can be written
Z 1
e r K dF (ST ) = e r K [1 F (K)] (20)
K
2 0 2
13
ln K ln St r 2
= e r K 41 @ p A5
r
= e K [1 ( d2 )]
r
= e K (d2 ):
Combining the terms in Equations (19) and (20) leads to the expression (1) for
the European call price.
8
so that
~t =
dB ~t dWtP
B
is a martingale under P. The value of the European call is determined by using
+
Nt = St as the numeraire along with the payo¤ function V (ST ; T ) = (ST K)
in the valuation Equation (21)
" #
+
P (ST K)
V (St ; t) = St E Ft (24)
ST
= St E P [ (1 KZT )j Ft ]
where Zt = S1t . To evaluate V (St ; t) we need the distribution for ZT . The
process for Z = S1 is obtained using Itō’s Lemma on St in Equation (22) and
the change of measure in Equation (23)
dZt = r+ 2
Zt dt Zt dWtQ
= rZt dt Zt dWtP :
To …nd the solution for Zt we de…ne Yt = ln Zt and apply Itō’s Lemma again,
to produce
2
dYt = r + 2 dt dWtP : (25)
We integrate Equation (25) to produce the solution
2
YT Yt = r+ 2 (T t) WTP WtP :
ZT = e
ln Zt r+ 2 (T t) (WTP WtP )
: (26)
Now, since WTP WtP is identical in distribution to W P , where = T t is the
time to maturity, and since W P follows the normal distribution with zero mean
and variance 2 , the exponent in Equation (26)
2
ln Zt r+ 2 (T t) WTP WtP ;
9
where FZT is the cdf of ZT de…ned in Equation (7). The …rst integral in
Equation (27) is
1
1 ln K u
I1 = FZT K = (28)
v
0 2
1
ln K + ln St + r + 2
= @ p A
= (d1 ) :
Using the de…nition of LZT (x) in Equation (10), the second integral in Equation
(27) is
"Z Z #
1 1
I2 = K ZT dFZT ZT dFZT (29)
1
1 K
1
= K E P [ZT ] LZT
K
1
ln K +u+v
= K eu+v=2 eu+v=2 p
v
2 0 2
13
ln SKt r 2
= Keu+v=2 41 @ p A5
K r
= e (d2 )
St
since 1 ( d2 ) = (d2 ). Substitute the expressions for I1 and I2 from
Equations (28) and (29) into the valuation Equation (24)
V (St ; t) = St E P [ (1 KZT )j Ft ]
= St [I1 I2 ]
= St (d1 ) Ke r (d2 )
10
and suppose the di¤erentiable function V = V (xt ; t) follows the partial di¤er-
ential equation given by
@V @V @2V
+ (xt ; t) + 1
2 (xt ; t)2 r(t; x)V (xt ; t) = 0 (31)
@t @x @x2
with boundary condition V (xT ; T ). The Feynman-Kac theorem stipulates that
V (xt ; t) has solution
h RT i
V (xt ; t) = E Q e t r(Xu ;u)du V (XT ; T ) Ft : (32)
In Equation (32) the time-t expectation is with respect to the same measure Q
under which the stochastic portion of Equation (30) is Brownian motion. See
the Note on www.FRouah.com for illustrations of the Feynman-Kac theorem.
@V @V 2 @2V
+ rSt + 1
2 St2 rVt = 0 (33)
@t @S @S 2
+
with boundary condition V (ST ; T ) = (ST K) . The Note on www.FRouah.com
explains how the PDE (33) is derived. This PDE is the PDE in Equation (31)
with xt = St ; (xt ; t) = rSt ; and (xt ; t) = St . Hence the Feynman-Kac
theorem applies and the value of the European call is
h RT i
V (St ; t) = E Q e t r(Xu ;u)du V (ST ; T ) Ft (34)
r
= e E Q (ST K)+ Ft
11
7.1 Dirac Delta Function
The Dirac delta function (x) is de…ned as
Z 1
0 if x 6= 0
(x) = and ( )d = 1:
1 if x = 0 1
and Z 1
f (x) = f (x ) ( )d : (35)
1
Using the property (35) of the Dirac delta function, we can write the initial
value as Z 1
u0 (x) = (x )u0 ( )d (37)
1
We can also apply the property (35) to the fundamental solution in Equation
(36) and express the solution as
Z 1
u (x; ) = u(x ) ( )d (38)
1
Z 1
= u(x )u0 ( )d
1
Z 1
1 2
= p e (x ) =4 u0 ( )d ;
1 4
with initial value
Z 1
u(x; 0) = (x )u0 ( )d = u0 (x);
1
as before.
12
7.3 The Black-Scholes PDE as the Heat Equation
Through a series of transformations we convert the Black-Scholes PDE in Equa-
tion (33) into the heat equation. The …rst set of transformations convert the
spot price to log-moneyness and the time to one-half the total variance. This
will get rid of the S and S 2 terms in the Black-Scholes PDE. The …rst trans-
formations are
S
x = ln so that S = Kex (39)
K
2 2
= 2 (T t) so that t = T 2
1 1 x 2
U (x; ) = KV (S; t) = KV Ke ; T 2 = :
Apply the chain rule to the partial derivatives in the Black-Scholes PDE. We
have
@V @U @ K 2 @U
= K = ;
@t @ @t 2 @
@V @U @x K @U @U
= K = =e x ;
@S @x @S S @x @x
@2V K @U K @ @U
= +
@S 2 2
S @x S @S @x
K @U K @ @U @x
= +
S 2 @x S @x @x @S
K @U K @2U
= 2
+ 2
S @x S @x2
2x 2
e @ U @U
= :
K @x2 @x
which simpli…es to
@U @U @2U
+ (k 1) + kU = 0 (40)
@ @x @x2
where k = 2r2 . The coe¢ cients of this PDE does not involve x or . The
+
boundary condition for V is V (ST ; T ) = (ST K) . From Equation (39),
ST
when t = T and St = ST we have that x = ln K which we write as xT , and
that = 0. Hence the boundary condition for U is
1 + 1 + +
U0 (xT ) = U (xT ; 0) = V (ST K) = (KexT K) = (exT 1) :
K K
13
We make the additional transformation
2
x+
W (x; ) = e U (x; ) (41)
where = 21 (k 1) and = 12 (k + 1). This will convert Equation (40) into the
heat equation. The partial derivatives of U in terms of W are
@U x 2 @W 2
= e W (x; )
@ @
@U x 2 @W
= e W (x; )
@x @x
@2U x 2
2 @W @2W
= e W (x; ) 2 + :
@x2 @x @x2
2 @W @W
W (x; ) + (k 1) W (x; ) +
@ @x
@W @2W
+ W (x; ) 2 + kW (x; ) = 0
@x @x2
which simpli…es to the heat equation
@W @W 2
= : (42)
@ @x2
From Equation (41) the boundary condition for W (x; ) is
xT
W0 (xT ) = W (xT ; 0) = e U (xT ; 0) (43)
+ +
= e( +1)xT
e xT
= e xT
e xT
:
14
p p
Make the change of variable z = p x so that = 2 z + x and d = 2 dz.
2
Z 1
1 1 2
W (x; ) = p exp z (45)
2 1 2
hp i hp i +
exp 2 z+x 2 z+x dz
Complete the square in the …rst integral I1 . The exponent in the integrand is
1 2 p 1 p 2
2
z + 2 z+ x= z 2 + x+ :
2 2
The …rst integral becomes
Z 1 p
x+ 2 1 1
(z 2
2
) dz:
I1 = e p p e 2
2 x/ 2
p
Make the transformation y = z 2 so that the integral becomes
Z 1
x+ 2 1 1 2
I1 = e p p p e 2 y dy
2 x/ 2 2
x+ 2 x p
= e 1 p 2
2
x+ 2 x p
= e p + 2 :
2
The second integral is identical, except that is replaced with . Hence
x+ 2 x p
I2 = e p + 2 :
2
2 2
S
Recall that x = ln K , k = 2r2 ; = 21 (k 1) = r 2
=2
; = 12 (k + 1) = r+
2
=2
;
1 2
and = 2 (T t). Consequently, we have that
2
S
x p ln K + r+ 2 (T t)
p + 2 = p = d1
2 T t
15
and that p p
x
p + 2 = d1 T t = d2 :
2
Hence the …rst integral is
2
I1 = exp x+ (d1 ) :
The second integral is identical except that is replaced by and involves d2
instead of d1
I2 = exp x + 2 (d2 ) :
The solution is therefore
W (x; ) = I1 I2 (46)
2 2
x+ x+
= e (d1 ) e (d2 ) :
The solution in Equation (46), expressed in terms of I1 and I2 , is the solution for
W (x; ): To obtain the solution for the call price V (St ; t) we must use Equation
(44) and transform the solution in (46) back to V . From (44) and (46)
2
x
V (S; t) = Ke W (x; ) (47)
2
x
= Ke [I1 I2 ] :
The …rst integral in Equation (47) is
2 2
x x+
Ke e (d1 ) = Ke( )x
(d1 ) (48)
= S (d1 )
since = 1. The second integral in Equation (47) is
2 2 2 2
Ke x
e x+
(d2 ) = Ke( ) (d2 ) (49)
= Ke r(T t)
(d2 )
2
since 2 = 2r2 . Combining the terms in Equations (48) and (49) produces
the Black-Scholes call price in Equation (1).
16
8.2 The CAPM for the Assets
h i
In the time increment dt the expected stock price return, E [rS dt] is E dS
St ,
t
where St follows the di¤usion in Equation (2). The expected return is therefore
dSt
E = rdt + S (E [rM ] r) dt: (50)
St
h i
dVt
Similarly, the expected return on the derivative, E [rV dt] is E Vt , where Vt
follows the di¤usion in (3), is
dVt
E = rdt + V (E [rM ] r) dt: (51)
Vt
which is
1 @V 1 2 @2V @V St
rV dt = + St2 dt + rS dt: (52)
Vt @t 2 @S 2 @S Vt
Drop dt from both sides and take the covariance of rV and rM , noting that only
the second term on the right-hand side of Equation (52) is stochastic
@V St
Cov [rV ; rM ] = Cov [rS ; rM ] :
@S Vt
This implies the following relationship between the beta of the derivative, V ,
and the beta of the stock, S
@V St
V = S:
@S Vt
This is Equation (15) of Black and Scholes [1]. Multiply Equation (51) by Vt
to obtain
@V @V 1 @2V 2
E [dVt ] = dt + [rSt dt + St S (E [rM r]) dt] + S 2 dt: (54)
@t @S 2 @S 2
17
Equate Equations (53) and (54), and drop dt from both sides. The term
involving S cancels and we are left with
@V @V 1 2 @2V
+ rSt + St2 rVt = 0: (55)
@t @S 2 @S 2
We recognize that Equation (55) is the Black-Scholes PDE in Equation (33).
Hence, we can obtain the Black-Scholes call price by appealing to the Feynman-
Kac theorem exactly as was done in Section (6.2) and solving the integral as in
Section (5).
9 Incorporating Dividends
The Black-Scholes call price in Equation (1) is for a call written on a non
dividend-paying stock. There are two ways to incorporate dividends into the
call price. The …rst is by assuming the stock pays a continuous dividend yield
q. The second is by assuming the stock pays dividends in lump sumps, "lumpy"
dividends.
1 2
ST = St exp r q + WQ
2
18
The conditional expectation LST (K) from Equation (10) becomes
2 2
LST (K) = exp ln St + r q + (58)
2 2
0 2
1
2
ln K + ln St + r q 2 +
@ p A
= St e(r q)
(d1 )
with d1 rede…ned as
2
ln SKt + r q+ 2
d1 = p :
r
= e K (d2 ) (59)
p
with d2 = d1 as before. Substituting Equations (58) and (59) into
Equation (57) produces the Black-Scholes price of a European call written on a
stock that pays continuous dividends
q r
C (St ; K; T ) = St e (d1 ) e K (d2 ):
Hence, the only modi…cation is that the current value of the stock price is
decreased by e q , and the return on the stock is decreased from r to r q. All
other computations are identical.
References
[1] Black, F., and M. Scholes (1973). "The Pricing of Options and Corporate
Liabilities." Journal of Political Economy, Vol 81, No. 3, pp. 637-654.
[2] Hogg, R.V., and S. Klugman (1984). Loss Distributions. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons.
[3] Hull, J. (2008). Options, Futures, and Other Derivatives, Seventh Edition.
New York, NY: Prentice-Hall.
[4] Wilmott, P., Howison, S., and J. Dewynne (1995). The Mathematics of
Financial Derivatives: A Student Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
19