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DKI Recommended Machining Parameters For Copper and Copper Alloys (EN) PDF
DKI Recommended Machining Parameters For Copper and Copper Alloys (EN) PDF
machining
parameters for copper
and copper alloys
Translation:
Dr. Andrew Symonds BDÜ
Picture credits:
TORNOS, Pforzheim; Wieland-Werke, Ulm
Compared to other metallic structural als. In order to meet a very wide range ters for the machining of copper and
materials, most copper-based materials of technical and engineering require- copper alloys – particularly in view of
are relatively easy to machine. The free- ments, a great number of copper-based the ongoing developments in the metal
cutting brass with the designation materials have been developed over cutting sector. Furthermore, optimizing
CuZn39Pb3 has established itself as the years. Examples of more recent machining operations by selecting and
an excellent material for manufactur- developments include the low-alloyed adapting the relevant machining data
ing all kinds of form turned parts. The copper alloys, copper-nickel alloys and is of huge commercial importance in
excellent machining properties of these lead-free copper alloys. The spectrum high-volume serial production.
copper-zinc alloys is so well-known of materials available ranges from the
that they are often used as benchmarks high-strength copper-aluminium alloys Material development is focused on
for describing the machining properties to the very soft pure coppers with their the continuous improvement of a
of copper and copper alloys high elongation after fracture. material’s properties. In order to lower
machining costs, fabricators frequent-
Machining copper alloys is considerably The differences in the machinability ly demand materials with improved
easier than machining steels or alumin- of one material compared to that of machinability properties but with
ium alloys of the same strength (see another can be traced to the differences mechanical and physical properties that
Figure 1). This is reflected in the signif- in their mechanical and physical prop- are essentially unchanged. Examples
icantly lower cutting forces as shown erties. Many machine operators have of this trend are the CuTeP and CuSP
in Figure 2. Unless specific technical only a limited knowledge of the ma- alloys. Although pure copper has very
requirements dictate the use of another chinability of the less commonly used high conductivity values, the fact that it
Vergleich der Zerspanbarkeit von Kupferwerklegierungen mit ein
material, free-cutting brass CuZn39Pb3
is the material of choice in contract
copper materials. As a result, the ma-
chining data assumed for one and the
produces long tubular or tangled chips
can make it difficult to machine. For
enstahl und einer Aluminiumlegierung [THIE90
turning shops.
[THIE90, DKI10
turning and machining shops and CNC
DKI10, WIEL10] same material may differ considerably
from one machining shop to another.
this reason alloys have been developed
in which tellurium, sulphur or lead
There is therefore a very definite need have been added to the pure copper
Parts that are mass-manufactured are for up-to-date reference values and as chip-breaking alloying elements.
typically machined from copper materi- recommended processing parame- The conductivity of these alloys is only
100
*
80
***
dex
index
arkeitsind
60
Machinability
*
panba
40 * *
Zersp
Z
20 **
*
AL Stahl
0
CuZn36Pb3 CuZn21Si3P CuZn35Pb1 CuZn39Sn1 CuZn36* AlCu6BiPb 11SMnPb3
(CuZn39Pb3)
(C Z 39Pb3)
Werkstoff
Material
Fig. 1: Comparison of the machinability of copper alloys with a free-cutting steel and an aluminium alloy [1, 2, 3]
* Comparative
C ti M Machinability
hi bilit off Brasses,
B Steels
St l and d Aluminum
Al i Alloys:
All CDA‘s
CDA‘ Universal
U i l Machinability
M hi bilit Index,
I d www.copp
DKI Monograph i.18 | 3
**CuZn36: Zerspanbakrisindex
p nach DKI Werkstoffdatenblatt
Abb. 2
Abb 2: Vergleich
V l i hdder spezifischen
ifi h S Schnittkraft
h i k f von d
dreii K
Kupferlegierungen
f l i
mit einem Einsatzstahl nach Untersuchungeng des DKI und [KÖNI73]
[ ]
vc kc1.1
c1 1 1-mc
Werkstoff
Material m/min N/mm²
CuZn39Pb3 200 539 0 7886
0,7886
2000 Automatenmessing
Free-cutting brass 400 521 0 7458
0,7458
m²)
mm
Kupfer-Zinn-Legierung
p
Copper-tin g
alloy g 400 1020 0 8059
0,8059
CuZn37MnAl2PbSi 200 845 0 7561
0,7561
cutting
Sondermessing
Special brass 400 715 0,7036
1000
hniittk
16MnCr5+N
200 1302 0,7092
Specific
Einsatzstahl
Case-hardened steel
Sch
S
Cu 39 b3
CuZn39Pb3 N10 0 - N200
ez.
spe
16MnCr5+N P10
01
0,1 0,2
0 2 0 4 0,6
0,4 06 10
1,0 20
2,0 αο = 5°;
5 ; γο = 6 °;; λs = 0 °
Spanungsdicke h / mm
Undeformed chip thickness κr = 70°;
70 ; εr = 90°;
90 ;
rε = 0
0,8
8 mm; ap = 3 mm
slightly below that of pure copper, but ting tool materials makes it difficult and recommendations provided in this
the presence of the alloying elements for today’s manufacturers to provide handbook can help machine operators
means that they can be processed on recommended cutting parameters or to find the optimal machining parame-
automatic screw machines or other benchmarks that remain valid for a ters for a specific machining task. If only
high-speed machine tools. longer period of time. If supplement- low-volume production is required,
ed and/or verified by cutting tests the reference values provided in the
The continuous improvements being conducted under realistic machining handbook should be sufficient to yield
made to both workpiece and cut- conditions, the guideline parameters a satisfactory machining result.
Resultant cutting
Wirkrichtung
direction Direction of primary angenommene
Assumed direction of
Schnittrichtung
motion Schnittrichtung
primary motion
ve vc
Wirk- cutting Wi k
Wirk- Werkzeug
Werkzeug-
Working Working Tool cutting edge
Schneidenebene Orthogonal-
g Schneidenebene
edge plane Pse orthogonal plane Ps
Pse ebene Ps
plane Poe
Poe
angenommen
Assumed e
direction
Vorschub-
Direction of feed Vorschubrichtung
of feed motion Werkzeug-
W
Tool korthogonal
richtung
motion Orthogonalebene
plane Po
vf betrachteter
Selected point on Po
Schneidenpunkt
cutting edge
Auflageebene
Tool base A Tool
Auflageebene
fl base
b
W k
Werkzeug-Bezugsebene
B b
Wirk-Bezugsebene
Working reference senkrecht
Tool zur
reference angenommenen
g perpendicular
plane
senkrecht
plane zur
perpendicular toSchnittrichtung
assumed direction
undofparallel
primary
Wirkrichtung
to resultant cutting motionA and
fl parallel
zur Auflageebene
b to tool base Pr
a Pre
direction Pre b Pr
Fig. 4: (a) Tool-in-use reference system (b) Tool-in-hand reference system (DIN 6581)
Section A —A
Schnitt A –inAthe A Aγ
Z
plane
in PPo o Aγ
Aα A
- κr
εr
+
-
+
Aα
Ansicht
View along Z
Z in the αo = O th orthogonal
Orthogonalfreiwinkel
Tool lf i iclearance
k l
planeinPsPs γo = Orthogonalspanwinkel
Tool orthogonal rake
βo = Orthogonalkeilwinkel
Tool g
orthogonal wedge angle
κr = Einstellwinkel
Tool cutting edge angle
εr = E k included
Eckenwinkel
Tool i k l angle
λs = Neigungswinkel
Tool cutting edge inclination
Aα = Freifläche
Flank
Aγ = Spanfläche
Face
λs Pr = Werkzeug
Werkzeug-Bezugsebene
Tool Bezugsebene
reference plane
- Po = Werkzeug-Orthogonalebene
Werkzeug
Tool Orthogonalebene
orthogonal plane
+ Ps = Werkzeug-Schneidenebene
Tool cutting edge plane
DirectionSchnittbewegung
of primary motion /
(Werkstück)
cutting direction (workpiece)
ap κr: Tool
Einstellwinkel
ste e angle
cutting edge
ap: Depth
Schnitttiefe
of cut
b
f: Feed
Vorschub
(here: distance travelled per revolution)
κr h b: Undeformed
Spanungsbreite
chip width
ap h Undeformed
h: S
Spanungsdicke
dichip
k thickness
b=
sin κ r a p ⋅ f = b⋅h : Spanungsquerschnitt
Area of uncut chip
h = f ⋅ sin κ r
Vorschubbewegung
Direction g g
of feed motion
(Werkzeug)
(tool)
Fig. 6: Geometry of tool engagement during cylindrical turning (oblique cutting con-figuration) (DIN 6580)
γγoo == 0°
0° bis
bi 25°
to 25°
b
bessere Oberfläche
Ob flä h
improved surface quality
verminderte Schnittkräfte
lower cutting forces
abnehmender Verschleiß
ααoo ==6°
6° bis
to 10°
10° less wear chip
mit F
Tool with ase
bevelled cutting edge gegebenenfalls
b f ll schlechtere
hl ht
forms may be worse
erhöhte
> greater Schneidenstabilität
tool stability Spanformen
p
steigende
increasing
große
> larger Spanungsdicken
undeformed chip thickness abnehmender
less wear
Schneiden-
tool
stabilität Verschleiß
stability
abnehmender
less wear
steigende
κr betterfläsurface quality Ansicht
View alongZ Z in the
Verschleiß rε Ob
Oberflächenqualität
h lität
in PPss
plane
vermindertes
less chatter Rattern
sinkende
i k d Passivkräfte
decreasingPpassive
i k äf
forces
vermindertes
less chatter Rattern
sinkende Passivkräfte
decreasing passive forces
gelenkter
guided chip flow
S
Spanablauf
bl f
λs
größere Passivkräfte
larger passive forces
steigende
increasing tool stability
Schneidteilstabilität
KB:
KB: crater width
Kolkbreite
Vα
BN
VB
SV
KM:
KM: dKolkmittenabstand
istance of centre of crater
max.
VBB
BC
rε
VB
Kolktiefe b/4
KT: maximum crater depth
SVα: Schneidenversatz in
SVα: FRichtung
lank-sideFreifläche
displacement of C B A N
SVγ:cutting edge
Schneidenversatz in
Richtung Spanfläche
SVγ: Face-side displacement of b Verschleißkerbe
Notch wear on major
an der
d
cutting edge cutting edge
Hauptschneide
Schnitt
SectionA-A
A—A Verschleißkerben
Notch an der
wear on minor Nebenschneide
cutting edge
Kolk
Crater
A
EbenePPs
Plane s
Nach:
(ISO ISO 3685:93
3685)
Fig. 8: Types of wear and wear parameters on turning tools (ISO 3685)
Struktur in
Structuring imworkpiece
Werkstück
vc Scher-
Scher
Shear
plane
ebene
Struktur
Structuring
im Span
within chip
5
1
3
2
4
Freifläche
Flank
Spanfläche
Face
Cut surface of
W k
Werkzeug
Tool
Schnittfläche
Sc tt äc e
workpiece
Drehmeißel
Turning tool
1 Primary
1. primäre Scherzone
shear zone
2 Secondary
2. sekundäre Scherzone
shear zone on theantool
derrake
Spanfläche
face
3 Ssekundäre
3. Scherzone
econdary shear zone at thean der Stau-
stagnation andund Trennzone
separation zone Werkstoff:
Material: Cu-ETP Cu-ETP
S h ittspeed: h i di vkc =it80vm/min
Cutting
Schnittgeschwindigkeit:
4 Secondary
sekundäre
k dä shearS
Scherzone
hzone on the
anflank
d
der face
F
Freifläche
iflä h c = 80 m/min
/ i
4.
5.
5 Elastic-plastic
V f deformation
Verformungsvorlaufzone
l f zone Feed
V per h revolution:
Vorschub: b f = 0,02f =
mm 0,02
0 02 mm
elastischer
elastic zone
Lamellen-,ofScher
Lamellen
Formation und
segmen- Fließspan
Fließspan-
Formation of con- plastischer
plastic zone
Reißspanbereich
ted or discontinuous bereich
Reißspan
(4)4Discontinuous chip tinuous chips Fließbereich
chips
flow zone
eit τ
strength
tigke
1
B
rfest
S Shear
2 E Z
Sche
3
4 ε
ε0
εο Verformungsgrad
V f of deformation
Degree d in the
Verformungsgrad
Degree of deformation ε inshear
der plane
Scherebene
Fig. 10: Influence of mechanical properties of workpiece material on type of chip formed (Source: [7])
There is no unique or unambiguous cutting zone than short spiral chips, formation. The emphasis in finishing
definition of the term ‘machinability’. chip curls or discontinuous chips. work, in contrast, is primarily on the
It can be understood as summarizing These longer chips can form tangled quality of the final surface, with chip
those properties of a material that balls within the machine, resulting shape and chip formation playing a
determine the ease or difficulty with in the interruption of the machining secondary role. However, when ma-
which that material can be machined process and damage to the workpiece chining on an automatic lathe, chip
by various machining operations or and tool. They are also a safety hazard shape and chip formation may be the
techniques. The machinability of a to the machine operator. In most sole criterion used to assess the ma-
material can vary very strongly de- cases, ribbon chips and tangled chips chinability of a workpiece material.
pending on the geometry and material have to be removed manually from
of the cutting tool, the machine tool the workpiece or cutting tool, which
and machining technique used and introduces machine downtimes thus 3.1 Tool life
the machining conditions. The main lowering productivity. As ribbon and The tool life T is defined as the time
goal of any machining operation is the continuous chips have a tendency to in minutes during which a cutting
fabrication of a workpiece of the de- form snarled and tangled balls, their tool performs a machining operation
sired geometry. In view of the complex formation should, wherever possible, under specified cutting conditions
relationships between the numerous be avoided. But fine needle-like chips from the start of the cut to the point at
factors involved, it is not possible to can also cause problems as they can which the tool has become unusable
assess machining operations in terms block cutting fluid filters or get under by reaching a predetermined tool-life
of one single standardized machining the machine housing where they can criterion.
criterion. cause increased wear.
The tool life depends on numerous
We will assess the machinability of The forces generated in metal cut- factors, including:
copper and copper alloys in terms of ting operations determine the power
the following four machining crite- requirements and the structural ● the material to be machined,
ria: tool wear; chip formation; cutting rigidity of the machine tool. They have
forces and surface quality. Although a considerable influence on tool wear ● the tool material,
these four quantities are mutually and therefore on tool life. Generally
interdependent, the additional influ- speaking, the harder a material is to ● the cutting speed, the feed and the
ence of factors such as the condition machine, the greater the forces that depth of cut,
of the workpiece material, the cutting have to be applied. Cutting forces
operation, the specifics of the machine tend to decrease in magnitude with ● the cutting tool geometry,
tool and cutting tool used and the role increasing cutting speed, because at
of lubricants and cooling fluids, means higher cutting speeds, the cutting ● the quality of the cutting edge
that it is not possible to create a single temperature is greater, which in turn (‘tool finish’),
unambiguous machinability criterion. results in a reduction in material
strength (so-called thermal softening). ● the vibrations and motional ac-
Tool wear is understood to mean The cutting force components increase curacy of the workpiece, tool and
the progressive loss of material from proportionally with increasing depth of machining equipment,
the surface of the cutting tool. The cut and also increase with feed though
processes that cause tool wear during the rate of increase is less pronounced ● the tool-life criterion, i.e. the
machining are abrasion, adhesion, at higher feeds. threshold value of tool wear, typi-
scale from high-temperature oxida- cally expressed as the width of the
tion, diffusion, thermal and mechanical High dimensional accuracy and good flank wear land VB.
stresses and surface fatigue. surface quality are frequently required
when machining copper and copper The cutting speed has the strongest in-
Chip formation and chip shape play an alloys. The resulting quality of the fluence on tool wear. The effect of feed
extremely significant role in determin- machined workpiece surface (rough- on tool wear and thus on tool life is
ing efficient chip removal, process ness) is very often the most important also significant. The depth of cut also
safety and high productivity. This is machining criterion. influences tool wear, but the effect is
particularly true for those machining very minor in comparison.
operations in which the cutting zone The relative weighting of the four main
is of limited size. This is the case for machinability criteria mentioned above The dependence of the tool life on
machining techniques with restricted will depend on the goal of the particu- cutting speed can be represented in a
chip flow, e.g. drilling, tapping, plunge lar machining operation being used. tool-life graph. The tool-life graph is a
cutting, broaching, grooving and all For example, in rough machining work, log-log plot with cutting speed data vc
cutting and shaping operations on CNC the machinability criterion of greatest (in m/min) plotted on the abscissa and
machines. Long ribbon and tubular relevance is tool wear, followed by the corresponding tool life T (in min)
chips are harder to remove from the cutting forces, chip shape and chip plotted on the ordinate (see Fig. 11).
logT==logC
logT logCv v++kk logv
logvc c (5)
(5)
Nachdem
Nach demEntlogarithmieren
Entlogarithmierenergibt
ergibtsich
sichdann
danndie
diesog.
sog."Taylor-Gleichung”
"Taylor-Gleichung”
panbarkeit
panbarkeit k 17
17
TT==vvc c CCv v
k (6)
(6)
11.
11. Die
Die sich
sich ergebende Kurve lässt sich über einen großen Bereich durch
As canergebende
Darin
be seen
Darin Kurve
bedeuten:
in bedeuten:
Fig. lässt
11, the sich
T:die
resulting
T: über
die einen
Standzeit
k: großen
ininof
Gradient
Standzeit theBereich
min
min durch
straight line in the life curve, is of particular relevance to
.sogenannte Standzeit-Gerade oder „Taylor-Gerade“tool-life annähern,
plot (k = tan die sich
curve can
.sogenannte be approximated over
Standzeit-Gerade odera vlarge
„Taylor-Gerade“
vc:c:die annähern,
dieSchnittgeschwindigkeit
Schnittgeschwindigkeitininm/min α)
die m/min practical applications as it expresses
sich
part of the plot as a straight line with
rr Geradengleichung how the tool life T varies as a function
Geradengleichung k:diedieSteigung
Steigung der Geraden imStandzeitdiagramm
Standzeitdiagramm (k(kspeed
==tan
tanv)
)
the standard straight line equationk: Cv: Tool life
der T Geraden
for unit cutting
im speed of the cutting c. The steeper
(vc = 1 m/min.) the gradient of the tool life plot, i.e.
yy = CCv:v:die
dieStandzeit
Standzeit TTfür
fürvvcc==11m/min.
m/min.
=mm xx +
+ nn (4)
(4)
(4) the smaller the angle of inclination
The Taylor equation can be rearranged α, the greater the dependence of tool
As the plotDurch
is a log-log
Durch representation,
Umstellen der to yield:
Taylor-Gleichung
UmstellenDarstellung
der Taylor-Gleichung ergibtsich
ergibt sich life on cutting speed. At low cutting
gung der
gung der this
doppeltlogarithmischen
equations becomes:
doppeltlogarithmischen wie folgt
Darstellung wie folgt darstellt:
darstellt: speeds, the relationship between log
1 1
vv c==TTk k CCT (6a)
c T
and log vc is no longer linear due to
T(6a)
(6a)
(5) built-up edge formation at the cutting
logT =
logT = logC
logC v +
dabei
dabei
kk logv
v +ist
ist logv cc (5)
(5)
where tool edge.
Taking the antilogarithms to transform 11
back
rithmieren to thesich
ergibt original
dann variables
die generates CCTT ==CC k (7)
k While
(7) the Taylor equation is completely
rithmieren ergibt sich dann die sog.
sog. "Taylor-Gleichung”
"Taylor-Gleichung” (7)
the so-called Taylor equation: adequate for most practical appli-
CTT, , CCvv und
undkk sind CT, Cv and kGrößen
sindkennzeichnende
kennzeichnende are quantities that charac-
der Schnittbedingungen,cations, this
Schnittbedingungen, simple-to-use
diesich
sich mit demtool-life
mit dem Werk-
k C Größen der die Werk-
k
T = v C
T = v cc Cstoff, (6) terize
(6)
(6) the cutting conditions and that relationship does not have general va-
-Schnittgeschwindigkeits-Diagramm
S im doppeltlogarithmischen
v
v
stoff, dem Schneidstoff,
dem Schneidstoff, derder Schneidkeilgeometrie,
varySchneidkeilgeometrie,
depending on the work material, dem Spanungsquerschnitt
dem Spanungsquerschnitt und dessen
und
lidity. For example, milling dessen
operations
T: where: Aufteilung
Aufteilung inin Vorschub
Vorschub und the
und cutting tool geometry
Schnitttiefe and the
usw. ändern
ändern (nach VDI tend
VDI to exhibit3321).
Richtlinie tool-life
3321). Derrelationships
Der Expo-
T: diedie Standzeit in
in min Schnitttiefe usw. (nach Richtlinie Expo-
eit bzw. Taylor-Geraden
y
Standzeit min
T: Tool life in minutes area of the undeformed (i.e. uncut) that cannot usually be approximated
vvcc:: die nentk,k,das dasMaßMaß derSteigung
Steigungder derGeraden,
Geraden,ist istbesonders
besonderswichtig
wichtigfür
fürdie
diePraxis.
Praxis.Er Er drückt die
die Schnittgeschwindigkeit
nent
Schnittgeschwindigkeit in m/min
in der
m/min chip, which is itself determined by by the Taylor expression.drückt die
vc: Cutting Veränderungen
speed in metres der Standzeit
Standzeit inin Abhängigkeit
Abhängigkeit von der Schnittgeschwindigkeit vvcc aus. aus. JeJe
k:
k: die
die Steigung
Steigung der Geraden
Veränderungen
der Geraden im per
im the chosen
Standzeitdiagramm
der
Standzeitdiagramm feed
(k
(k = and
= tan depth
tan )
) von of cut
der(cf.Schnittgeschwindigkeit
minute größer die VDI Guideline 3321). The exponent k, To deal with these cases, so-called
Cvv:: die
C die Standzeit
Standzeit größer
T
T fürfür vvdie
c = 1Neigung
Neigung
m/min.der
c = 1 m/min.
der Geraden
Geradenist, ist, also
alsojejekleiner
kleinerder
which determines the slope of the tool
der Neigungswinkel
Neigungswinkelist, ist, desto
desto mehr
mehrver-
extended Taylor equations have been
ver-
ändert sich
ändert sich diedie Standzeit
Standzeit mit
mit der
der Schnittgeschwindigkeit.
Schnittgeschwindigkeit. Bei Bei niedrigen
niedrigenthat
developed Schnittgeschwindig-
take into account other
Schnittgeschwindig-
keiten wird der geradlinige Verlauf der Standzeitbeziehung variables gestört,
dadurch that can influence
dass sich toolAuf-
sich life.
er
er Taylor-Gleichung
Taylor-Gleichung keitenergibt
ergibtwird sich
sichder geradlinige Verlauf der Standzeitbeziehung dadurch gestört, dass Auf-
One example is the extended Taylor
1 100
bauschneiden
1 bauschneiden anander
derWerkzeugschneide
Werkzeugschneidebilden. bilden. equation that has been modified to
=T
vv cc = T kk C
CT (6a)
(6a)
T account for the effects of feed and
3 Der Begriff
Für die Belange der Praxis ist die einfache Taylor-Gleichung meist Zerspanbarkeit depth of cut: ausreichend. Diese
völlig
Für die Belange der Praxis ist die einfache Taylor-Gleichung meist völlig ausreichend. Diese
α
1
recht einfach
1recht
k
einfach zu
zu handhabende
handhabende Standzeitbeziehung
Standzeitbeziehung besitzt
besitzt allerdings
allerdings keine
keine allgemeine
allgemeine Gül-
Gül-
CTT =
C =C k
C tigkeit.
tigkeit. So werden
werden z.B.
z.B. beim
beim
(7)
(7) Fräsen Standzeitbeziehungen gefunden, C
T = c a die
diec fsich 1
sich nur (8)
nur in (8)
in Aus-
Aus-
So Fräsen Standzeitbeziehungen gefunden,
a p f v k c
kennzeichnende nahmefällen
Größen
kennzeichnende nahmefällen
Größen der mit„Taylor“
mit „Taylor“annähern
annähern
der Schnittbedingungen,
Schnittbedingungen, dielassen.
sich
sich mit
lassen.
die mit dem
dem Werk-
Werk-
dstoff, der Schneidkeilgeometrie, dem Spanungsquerschnitt und dessen where:
dstoff, der Schneidkeilgeometrie, dem Spanungsquerschnitt Mit: und dessen
T Werkzeugstandzeit in min
/[min]
min
T weitere
Tool lifedie
in minutes
k = tan α
eitT T[min]
chub und Es
Schnitttiefe
Es gibt
usw.
gibt daher
daher noch
ändern
noch die
(nach
die sog.
VDI
sog. erweiterten
Richtlinie
erweiterten Taylor-Gleichungen,
3321). Der Expo-
Taylor-Gleichungen, die
die weitere die Standzeit
Standzeit eines
eines
m
chub und Schnitttiefe usw. ändern (nach VDI Richtlinie 3321). Der Expo- v c Schnittgeschwindigkeit in m/min
er Werkzeuges beeinflussende GrößenPraxis.berücksichtigen. f EinEin Beispiel
Vorschub hierfür
(pro ist in
die
Umdrehung denper)Vor-
in mm
er Steigung
Steigung der
der Geraden,
Werkzeuges
Geraden, ist
ist besonders
besonders wichtig
beeinflussende für
für die
wichtig Größen Er
Er drückt
drückt die
berücksichtigen.
die Praxis. die Beispiel hierfür
vc Cutting ist
speed die den
metres Vor-
10
schubund unddie
die Schnitttiefe enthaltendeerweiterte
erweiterte a Schnitttiefe
Taylor-Gleichung
p minute in mm
er
er Standzeit
Standzeit in
in Abhängigkeit
schub
Abhängigkeit von der
der Schnittgeschwindigkeit
Schnitttiefe
von enthaltende
Schnittgeschwindigkeit v aus.
aus.k Je
vcc Taylor-Gleichung
Je
life
ndze
radlinige
radlinige Verlauf
Verlauf der
der Standzeitbeziehung
Standzeitbeziehung dadurch Standzeitgerade
Linear
dadurch gestört,
gestört,
tool-life
dass
dass sich
function
C
sich Auf-
f
Auf-
dimensionslose Exponent des Vors
er k Gradient of the straight line in
er Werkzeugschneide
Werkzeugschneide bilden.
bilden.
Den Einflüssen entsprechend ist derthe tool-life plot
Exponent k (k = tan groß,
relativ α) während Ca u
er Cf nurausreichend.
kleine Werte annehmen. In der Zahlenwertgleichung ist C1 eine dim
er Praxis
Praxis ist
ist die
die einfache
einfache Taylor-Gleichung
Taylor-Gleichung meist
meist völlig
völlig ausreichend. Diese
Diese C1 Dimensioned, empirically
andhabende Standzeitbeziehung besitzt Konstante,
allerdings keine die von Werkstoff,
allgemeine Gül- Schneidstoff und
determined Zerspanungsverfahren abhä
constant
andhabende Standzeitbeziehung besitzt allerdings keine allgemeine Gül-
z.B.
z.B. beim
beim Fräsen 1
Fräsen Standzeitbeziehungen
Standzeitbeziehungen gefunden,
gefunden, diedie sich
sich nur
nur in
in Aus-
Aus- Ca Dimensionless constant: the
aylor“ annähern lassen.10 C T 100 exponent of the depth of cut
aylor“ annähern lassen.
S h itt
Schnittgeschwindigkeit
h i di k it 100 Cf Dimensionless constant: the
Cutting speed v [m/min]
h
h die
die sog.
sog. erweiterten
erweiterten Taylor-Gleichungen,
Taylor-Gleichungen, vc [m/min]
/ (m/min)
die
die cweitere
weitere die die Standzeit
Standzeit eines
eines exponent of the feed
flussende
flussende Größen
Größen berücksichtigen.
berücksichtigen. Ein Ein Beispiel
Beispiel hierfür
hierfür istist die
die den
den Vor-
Vor-
The size of the parameters k, Ca and Cf
nitttiefe enthaltende
nitttiefe enthaltende erweiterte
erweiterte
Fig. 11: Taylor tool-life Taylor-Gleichung
diagramTaylor-Gleichung
(log-log plot of tool life against cutting speed) reflect the strength of their influence
Seite 1
14 | DKI Monograph i.18
3 Der Begriff Zerspanbarkeit 19
3.2 Zerspankraft
Zur Beurteilung der Zerspanbarkeit eines Werkstoffs wird als weitere Kenngröße die entste-
hende Zerspankraft herangezogen. Die Kenntnis der Zerspankräfte ist Grundlage für die
on tool life; the exponent −k is rela- chinery. To determine the drive power where:
Werkzeugmaschinen-,
tively large, whereas Ca and particularly die Werkzeug-
requirements und or to die Vorrichtungs-Konstruktion.
dimension a tool Fc Außerdem
Cutting force in N erlaubt
Cf assume die
onlyKenntnis
small values.
derC1Zerspankräfte,
is a holding system it isZerspanaufgaben
anfallende generally suffi- leistungsgerecht auf vorhande-
dimensioned constant that depends on cient to make a rough estimate of the b Chip width in mm
ne Werkzeugmaschinen
the workpiece material, the tool mate- zuexpected verteilen.
cutting Dabeiforces.genügt für den Betrieb im Allgemeinen eine
überschlägige
rial and the Abschätzung der Zerspankräfte, um z. B. die erforderliche
cutting operation. h UndeformedLeistungchipzu thickness
errech-
As shown in Fig. 12, the total cutting in mm
nen oder das Werkzeugspannsystem zu dimensionieren.
force F can be resolved into three
3.2 Cutting force components: the cutting force Fc, the mc Dimensionless index reflecting
The cuttingDieforce generated at the
Zerspankraft F kann, wie feedin force
Abb.Ff12 anddargestellt,
the passive force (or Komponenten
in drei the –increase
in die of the specific
Schnittkraft
tool’s cutting edge is a further para- back force) Fp. The symbols used here cutting force
F , die Vorschubkraft F undtodie
meter used cto characterize the ma- f
Passivkraft F – zerlegt werden. Die Bezeichnung der Kraft-
designate the forcepcomponents are
chinabilitykomponenten
of a material. Anerfolgt
under-dabei those nachfoundder DIN in the6584 DIN 6584„Begriffe
standard.der Zerspantechnik
1-mc Gradient – of Kräfte, Ener-
the straight line
standing of the cutting forces acting is The required drive power is determi- Fc' = f(h) in a log-log plot
gie, Arbeit, Leistungen“. Die für die Zerspanung erforderliche Maschinenleistung wird maß-
fundamental to the design of machine ned primarily by the cutting force Fc.
geblich
tools, cutting durch
tools and tooldie Schnittkraft
holders Fc beeinflusst.
According to Kienzle and Nach Kienzle
Victor, the und k Victor lässt sich die Schnitt- 2
c1.1 Specific cutting force in N/mm
and workpiece holders. Knowledge
kraft Fc wie folgt berechnen: of cutting force F c can be calculated as for b = h = 1 mm
the cutting forces also enables machin- follows:
1−m
ing jobs to be intelligently distributed The term h ( c ) is expressed in mm.
among the available production ma- (1m c )
(9)
Abb. 12: Zerlegung
g g der Zerspankraft
p ((nach DIN = k)c1.1 b h
Fc6584) (9)
Corresponding equations can be de-
fined for the other two force com-
Mit: v Fc
Direction Schnittkraft
of primary inittNspeedh i di k it
vv :: Cutting
S h
Schnittgeschwindigkeit ponents Ff and Fp.
e vc cc
motion /
b h ittbdirection vvff:: Feed
Vorschubgeschwindigkeit
Spanungsbreite
Schnittbewegung
S
speedin mm €
cutting The graphical determination of the spe-
vvee:: Effective
Wirkgeschwindigkeit
g cutting speed
h (Werkstück)
(workpiece) Spanungsdicke in mmg
cific cutting force kc1.1 or the material-de-
mc dimensionsloser
F :Total
F: Zerspankraft
Anstiegswert
f
cutting force
der pendent
spezifischen
factors mSchnittkraft
c or (1-mc) is illustrated
1-mc SteigungFFcc:: Cutting
der forceGeraden Fc' = f(h)
Schnittkraft im 13doppeltlogarithmischen
in Fig. and described in detail in the
vf Ff System FFf:f: Feed
Vorschubkraft
force literature [8, 9, 10]. The cutting force
Fp kc1.1 FFpp:: Passive
spezifische Passivkraft
force
Schnittkraft in N/mm2 für b = h =given
expressions 1 mm above use only a
FFaa:: Active
Aktivkraft
force
limited set of parameters. Other factors
(1 m )
wobei h c Fmit der Dimension mm FFDD::einzusetzen
D
Drangkraft
Thrust k ft
force ist. Für die Zerspankraftkomponenten
c F a
that influence the cutting force, suchFas
f
und Fp lassen sich entsprechende Gleichung definieren. the angle of rake γ, the cutting velocity vc,
tool wear and workpiece shape were
FD excluded for reasons of simplicity.
13:
13 G
Graphische Ermittlung
Die graphische derBestimmung
Kennwerte
F ki1.1
der und (1-m
spezifischen (1 Schnittkraft
c ) mit i = c, f
kc1.1 oder
bzw. pderversions
Extended werkstoffabhängigen
of the Victor-Kienzle
Vorschubbewegung
Direction of feed gmotion
g equations are available in which these
T72]] Faktoren(tool) mc oder (1-mc) entsprechend Abb. 13 ist in der Literatur [VICT72, VICT69, KIEN52]
(Werkzeug)
additional parameters are included as
© WZL/Fraunhofer IPTdetailliert beschrieben. Neben den direkt in das Spankraftgesetz Seite 13
eingehenden
correction factors. Parametern
Fig. 12: Total cutting force resolved into component forces (DIN 6584)
müssen aus Gründen der Übersichtlichkeit weitere Einflussgrößen wie Spanwinkel ,
In turning operations using carbide tools,
Schnittgeschwindigkeit vc, Werkzeugverschleiß und Werkstückform unberücksichtigt
the only bleiben
parameters in addition to the
undeformed
bzw. werden in den sog. erweiterten Victor-Kienzle-Gleichungen durchchip thickness h that have
Korrekturfaktoren
1000 any practical influence the specific cutting
berücksichtigt.
ki1.1
i1 1 = 947 N/mm
2
force are the angle of rake γ, the angle
mm))
= Fii’’ /[N/mm]
Beim
600
Drehen mit Hartmetall haben neben der Spanungsdicke hwear. It is generally
praktisch nur dertheSpanwinkel
case that as the
angle of rake γ increases, i.e. becomes
, der Neigungswinkel s und der Werkzeugverschleiß 1 Einfluss
moreauf die Größe
positive, dercutting
the specific spezifi-
force kc
te bb
400
chipbrei
sigen Bereich von ± 10 %1 des ursprünglich der Messung zugrunde of the angle of rake originally
liegenden Span-measured.
bzw.
Undeformed
− mi
Fi = ki1.1 ⋅ b ⋅ h1Größeren
Neigungswinkels. i = cc, ff, pEinfluss hat der Verschleiß. Eine quantitative Aussage über den
However, in view of the numerous factors
200
Kraftanstieg
0,1
mit 0,2
zunehmendem 0,4
Werkzeugverschleiß
0,6 0,8 1,0
ist
2,0
wegen der Vielzahl
influencing an Einflussgrö-
the magnitude of the cutting
force, it is only possible to make appro-
ßen nur näherungsweise Undeformed möglich.
Spanungsdicke
chip h Als
/ mm
thickness Anhaltswerte für den Kraftanstieg bis zum Erreichen
h [mm] ximate, semi-quantitative statements
about the increase in the cutting force
Fig. 13: Graphical determination of the parameters ki1.1 and (1-mc) with i = c, f or p [8] with progressive tool wear. It has been
ε
The mechanical properties of the wrought alloys listed in the following tables refer mainly to rods and bars (as defined in EN 12164, EN 12163, EN 13601 and
EN 12166, strip (as in EN 1652 and EN 1654) and tubes (as in EN 12449). The values for the cast alloys are from EN 1982. The order in which the alloy groups are
presented follows CEN/TS 13388.
Table 1: Specific cutting forces kc1.1 and gradient factors 1-mc for copper and copper alloys. (Note: data drawn from a variety of sources.)
estimated that a flank wear land width The data in the table have been drawn the effect of the nose radius rε can be
(VB) of 0.5 mm indicates that the cutting from numerous sources and cover a range ignored, a tool cutting edge angle of
force will have increased by about 20 %, of different test conditions. κr = 90° means that the feed force Ff
the feed force by about 90 % and the will be little more than 30 % of Fc.
passive force by approximately 100 %. In some cases, the two other force com-
ponents, the feed force Ff and the passive As the forces acting when copper
The cutting force Fc can be calculated force Fp (Fig. 12) may also be of interest. materials are machined are generally
using Equation 9 and the kc1.1 values that quite low, the following relationship is
are listed in Table 1 . If a material is not The latter two forces are much smaller suitable for most approximate calcula-
listed in Table 1, it is usually acceptable than the cutting force Fc. The passive force tions:
for rough calculations to estimate the kc1.1 Fp does not do any work that would need
values by adopting the values listed for a to be supplied by machine power as it is Ff ≈ 0,3 Fc (10)
comparable material. orthogonal to the two main directions of
motion (direction of primary motion and When turning with cemented carbide
Table 2 contains information on the the direction of feed). tools at the now typical cutting speeds of
experimental conditions. vc = 200 m/min or more, it is adequate
The ratio of the feed force Ff to the for most approximate analyses to assume
Table 3 lists specific cutting forces in re- cutting force Fc depends on the tool that FP is of the same rough magnitude
lation to the undeformed chip thickness h. cutting edge angle κr. Assuming that as Ff.
CuTeP CW118C C14500 1232 1200 1168 1134 1104 1075 1045 1016 989 962 935 910 886 860 1)
F v
c c
Pe ' = CuZn35Pb2 CW601N C34200(15)
1349 1293 1240 1183 1134 1087 1040 994 953 912 871 835 800 764 4)
60000
CuZn39Pb3 CW614N C38500 1010 940 875 809 753 701 651 603 562 522 483 450 419 387 1)
CuZn40Pb2 CW617N C37700 1122 1045 973 899 837 779 724 670 624 580 537 500 466 430 1)
Netto-Antriebsleistung in kW
CuSn5Zn5Pb5-C*) CC491K C83600 1114 1065 1019 969 927 887 847 807 772 737 703 672 643 612 7)
Schnittkraft in N
CuSn7Zn4Pb7-C CC493K
Schnittgeschwindigkeit in m/minC93200 2567 2433 2307 2173 2060 1953 1847 1744 1653 1564 1477 1400 1327 1251 7)
0 CuSn5Zn5Pb2-C
Umrechnungsfaktor CC499K
in (N C92220
m)/(kW– min)
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Machinability group II / Type II alloys
ge arbeiten i. A. mit kleinern Spanungsdicken h als einschneidige.
CuNi18Zn19Pb1 CW408J C76300 1303 1286 1269 1250 1234 1217 1200 1183 1168 1151 1135 1120 1105 1089 1)
-Antriebsleistung aus dem je– Zeiteinheit
CuZn35Ni3Mn2AlPb CW710R 1623
zu 1498
1559
zerspanenden
1433 1376
Werk-
1322 1268 1215 1167 1119 1072 1030 989 946 1)
anungsvolumen
CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi cm3/min
Vw in CW713R – und1542
einem
1432 auf
1330 Zeit
1227 und
1140 Leistung
1059 981 907 842 780 721 670 622 574 3)
3
-Spanungsvolumen Vwp in cm– / (min kW), errechnet
CuZn38Mn1Al CW716R 1102 1012 930 847 werden.
778 715 655 598 549 503 459 422 388 353 5)
CuAl10Fe5Ni5-C CC333G – 2215 2077 1946 1812 1698 1592 1489 1389 1302 1218 1136 1065 998 929 6)
CuSn12Ni2-C CC484K C95500 1955 1833 1718 1599 1499 1405 1314 1226 1149 1075 1003 940 881 820 6)
n mehrschneidigen Werkzeuge gilt folgende Beziehung:
CuZn33Pb2-C CC750S C91700 1540 1387 1249 1112 1001 902 809 723 651 584 522 470 423 377 3)
CuAl8Fe3 CW303G C61400 1528 1468 1410 1349 1296 1245 1194 1144 1099 1054 1010 970 932 891 1)
ung in kW
CuAl10Ni5Fe4 CW307G C63000 1760 1714 1668 1620 1577 1535 1493 1451 1413 1374 1335 1300 1266 1229 1)
offvolumen in cm3/min
CuSn8 3 CW453K C52100 1519 1486 1453 1417 1386 1355 1325 1293 1265 1236 1207 1180 1154 1126 1)
anvolumen in cm /min kW
CuZn37 CW508L C27400 1907 1828 1752 1671 1602 1536 1470 1404 1346 1288 1231 1180 1131 1079 1)
wp ist direkt proportional zu der spezifischen Schnittkraft,
olumen VCuZn20Al2As CW702R C68700 1540 1387 1249 1112 1001 902 809 723 651 584 522 470 423 377 3)
gt:
*) The low value can be explained by the low cutting velocities (vc = 32 m/min) used in the tests.
Table 3: Specific cutting force kc in N/mm² as a function of the undeformed chip thickness h in mm for the materials listed in Table 1. (Note: data drawn from
V Av Av
wa variety of sources.)
c 1 c
Please note that because of the differences in the experimental conditions used, data from different sources cannot be directly compared.
Vwp = = = = (17)
Pc Fc v c k c A v c kc
Converting to units of cm3/(min • kW) 60000 Conversion factor in piece surface of a predefined quality, i.e.
W umgerechnet
yields: ergibt sich folgendes: cm3 • N/(mm2 • min • kW) the roughness of the surface must not
(= N • m/(kW • min)) exceed a certain level. Decorative sur-
faces are often required when turning
Vw 60000 Table 4 provides values of Vwp for the components from free-cutting brass
Vwp = = (18) 18)
Pc kc materials listed in Table 1 at unde- (e.g. CuZn39Pb3) and this frequently
formed chip thicknesses h in the range requires the part to be smoothed or
V Specific stock removal rate in 0.08 to 0.315 mm that is typical when precision finished. The achievable
ngsleistungwpin cm 3
cm
/min
3/(min •kW
kW) machining with multipoint tools. surface quality is therefore regarded as
offvolumen in cm3/min the most important machinability
W Vw Stock removal rate in cm3/min criterion when assessing the machin-
kraft in N/mm2 3.3 Surface quality ability of free-cutting alloys such as
N/mm2 P c kW
min Cutting power in kW As with other materials, finish-machin- CuZn39Pb3, CuZn39Pb2, CuZn40Pb2,
ing of copper or copper alloys should CuZn30Pb3, CuNi18Zn19Pb1, CuTeP,
reten Werkstoffe nenntcutting
kc Specific Tab. force
4 Vwpin-Werte
N/mm2 für die beiproduce
generally mehrschneidi-
a machined work- CuPb1P and CuSP.
gen üblichen Spanungsdicken h = 0,08 bis 0,315 mm.
18 | DKI Monograph i.18
Material Undeformed chip thickness h in [mm] Notes on
experi-
mental
Designation Number (EN) Number (UNS) 0,08 0,1 0,125 0,16 0,20 0,25 0,315 condi-
tions
3 Der Begriff Zerspanbarkeit Table 2
3 Der Begriff Zerspanbarkeit
Machinability group I / Type I alloys
sen – d.h. eine bestimmte Rauheit darf nicht überschritten werden. In
CuSP CW114C C14700 sen –61,3
d.h. eine
62,3 bestimmte
63,3 Rauheit
64,4 darf nicht
65,4 66,4 überschritten
67,5 1) werden. In
teilen aus Automatenmessing (z. B. aus CuZn39Pb3) werden oft d
CuTeP CW118C C14500 48,7 50,0 51,4 52,9 54,4 55,8 57,4 1)
teilen aus Automatenmessing (z. B. aus CuZn39Pb3) werden oft d
CuZn35Pb2 CW601N C34200
gefordert,
44,5
die
46,4
ein Schlichten
48,4
oder 52,9
50,7
Feinschlichten
55,2 57,7
des 4)Drehteils bedin
gefordert, die ein Schlichten oder Feinschlichten des Drehteils bedin
CuZn39Pb3 CW614N C38500 Beurteilung
59,4 der Zerspanbarkeit
63,8 68,6 74,2 von Automatenwerkstoffen,
79,7 85,6 92,2 1) wie
Beurteilung der Zerspanbarkeit von Automatenwerkstoffen, wie
CuZn40Pb2 CW617N C37700 CuZn39Pb2,
53,5 CuZn40Pb2,
57,4 61,7 CuZn30Pb3,
66,7 71,7 CuNi18Zn19Pb1,
77,0 82,9 1) CuTeP, Cu
CuSn5Zn5Pb5-C *) CC491K C83600 CuZn39Pb2,
20,5 21,7CuZn40Pb2,
23,0 CuZn30Pb3,
24,5 26,0 CuNi18Zn19Pb1,
27,5 29,2 CuTeP, C
7) wichtigste
Beurteilung der erreichbaren Oberflächenqualität als das Ze
CuSn7Zn4Pb7-C CC493K C93200 Beurteilung
23,4 der
24,7 erreichbaren
26,0 Oberflächenqualität
27,6 29,1 30,7 als das
32,5 7) wichtigste Ze
anzusehen.
CuSn5Zn5Pb2-C CC499K – –
anzusehen. – – – – – – –
Machinability group II / Type II alloys
Zur quantitativen Beurteilung der Oberflächengüte spanend bearbei
CuNi18Zn19Pb1 CW408J C7630046,1 46,7 47,3 48,0
Zur quantitativen Beurteilung der 48,6 49,3
Oberflächengüte 48,2 1)
spanend bearbei
3 Der Begriff Zerspanbarkeit
CuZn35Ni3Mn2AlPb CW710R – Rauheit,
37,0 meist
38,5 gemessen
40,1 in m,
41,9 herangezogen.
43,6 45,4 Dabei
47,3 1)interessiert
27 vor
Rauheit, meist gemessen in m, herangezogen. Dabei interessiert vor
CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi CW713R – (kinematische
65,9 71,9Rauheit),
78,4 gemessen
86,3 in Vorschubrichtung,
94,2 102,7 112,4 3) weil sie mei
sen – d.h. eine bestimmte Rauheit (kinematische
darf 54,5
nichtder Rauheit),
überschritten gemessen
werden. in Vorschubrichtung,
Insbesondere weil sie mei
beiLängsrauheit
Dreh-
CuZn38Mn1Al CW716R – Richtung Schnittgeschwindigkeit
59,3 65,4 70,8 77,1 gemessene
83,9 91,6 5) (Schn
teilen aus Automatenmessing
CuAl10Fe5Ni5-C CC333G – Richtung
(z. kinmetische
B. aus der28,9Schnittgeschwindigkeit
27,1 CuZn39Pb3) werden
30,8ergibt 33,1 oftaus gemessene
dekorative
35,3 dem37,7 Längsrauheit
Oberflächen
40,3 6)und der (Sch
Rauheit sich Eckenradius Rela
CuSn12Ni2-C CC484K
gefordert, die ein C95500
Schlichten kinmetische
oder Werkzeug 30,7
Feinschlichten Rauheit
32,7
des34,9ergibt 37,5
Drehteilssich aus
40,0dem42,7
bedingen. Eckenradius
Daher 45,7
ist für 6) und der Rela
die
und Werkstück.
CuZn33Pb2-C CC750S C91700 39,0 43,3 Werkstück.
48,0 54,0 59,9 66,5 74,2 3)
Beurteilung der Zerspanbarkeit Werkzeug und
von Automatenwerkstoffen, wie z. B. CuZn39Pb3,
Machinability group III / Type III alloys
CuZn39Pb2, CuZn40Pb2,
CuAg0,10 CW013A
Die theoretisch
CuZn30Pb3, erzielbare
CuNi18Zn19Pb1, Rautiefe
CuTeP, Rt,th beiund
CuPb1P einschneidigem
CuSp, die Werkzeu
C11600 20,3 22,2 24,2 26,7 29,1 31,8 34,8 2)
Die theoretisch erzielbare Rautiefe Rt,th bei einschneidigem Werkzeu
Beurteilung der erreichbaren
CuNi2Si CW111C lässt 33,2
sich aus
Oberflächenqualität
C64700 dem
34,6als dasVorschub
36,1 37,8 f und
wichtigste 39,5dem41,2Eckenradius
Zerspanbarkeitskriterium
43,0 1) r (Abb. 14) n
lässt sich aus dem Vorschub f und dem Eckenradius r (Abb. 14) n
anzusehen.
CuAl8Fe3 CW303G C61400 errechnen:
39,3 40,9 42,6 44,5 46,3 48,2 50,3 1)
CuAl10Ni5Fe4 CW307G C63000 errechnen:
34,1 34,5 36,0 37,0 38,1 39,1 40,2 1)
CuSn8Zur quantitativenCW453K
Beurteilung der Oberflächengüte spanend bearbeiteter Flächen
f 2 wird die
C52100 39,5 40,4 41,3 42,3 43,3 44,3 45,3 1)
2
CuZn37 CW508L
Rauheit, meist gemessen inC27400 31,5 32,8
m, herangezogen. 35,9Rt,th =
Dabei34,3interessiert r 39,1
vor37,5allem 2 Querrauheit
rdie f 40,8
2 1) (19)
CuZn20Al2As CW702R C68700 39,0 43,3 48,0 R = r
54,0 t,th 59,9 r
66,5
4 74,2 3) (19)
(kinematische Rauheit), gemessen in Vorschubrichtung, weil sie meist größer ist4als die in
*) The low value can be explained by the low cutting velocities (vc = 32 m/min) used in the tests.
Richtung der Schnittgeschwindigkeit gemessene Längsrauheit (Schnittflächenrauheit). Die
Über eine Reihenentwicklung
Table 4: Specific stock removal rate Vwp in cm³/(min·kW) as a function of the undeformed chip thicknessnach
h in mmTaylor lässt listed
for the materials sichin der Ausdruck
Table 1.
kinmetische
(Note: data drawn from aRauheit ergibt sich aus
variety of sources.) Über dem eine Reihenentwicklung
Eckenradius nach Taylor lässtzwischen
und der Relativbewegung sich der Ausdruck
überschlägig gilt:
Werkzeug und Werkstück. überschlägig gilt:
Surface roughness, which is usual- The theoretically achievable peak-to-
ly measured in µm, is the property valley roughness Rt,th with a single f 22
Dieused
theoretisch erzielbare R (20) Drehen) (20)
assess Rautiefe Rt,th beisuch
einschneidigem
as turning can Werkzeug (z.
f B. beim
t,th
typically to quantitatively point operation Rt,th 8 r (20)
lässt ofsich
the quality aus dem
a machined Vorschubbef calculated
surface. und demfrom Eckenradius
the feed f andrthe
(Abb. 14) nach 8 rfolgender Formel
The transverse roughness (kinematic nose radius rε (Fig. 14) by means of the For most machining operations the
errechnen:
roughness), which is measured in the Weilequation:
following für die spanende Bearbeitung requireddie Rautiefe meist
peak-to-valley surface vorgegeben
rough- is
direction of feed motion, is usually Weil für die spanende Bearbeitung die Rautiefe
ness is usually specified, meist
so that vorgegeben
Eq. 20 i
larger than the longitudinal roughness
welchem Vorschub f bei gegebenem Eckenradius gedreht werden mu
can be used to determine the required
welchem2 Vorschub
f 2 f bei gegebenem Eckenradius gedreht werden mu
(cut surface roughness) measured in Beziehung
Rt,th = r r nach dem (19)
Vorschub aufgelöst:
(19) feed for a given nose radius. The above
the direction of primary motion and Beziehung nach 4 dem Vorschub aufgelöst:
expression can be rearranged to yield
is therefore of greater interest. The the feed:
kinematic roughness is determined by This expression can be simplified by a f 8 r Rt,th (21)
Über
the tool’s eine
nose Reihenentwicklung
radius and the relative nach
Taylor Taylor
series lässt which
expansion, sich yields
der Ausdruck 8 r Rt,th (21) sodass (21)
f vereinfachen,
motion of the tool and the workpiece. the following approximation:
überschlägig gilt:
Für vorgegebene Rautiefen können die theoretisch
The theoretically erforderlichen
required feed f to Vors
Für vorgegebene Rautiefen können producedie theoretisch
a specified erforderlichen Vors
peak-to-valley
Eckenradius r Tab. 5 entnommen werden. An der Drehmaschine ist,
f2
Eckenradius r Tab. 5 entnommen werden. An der Drehmaschine ist,
Rt,th Wert
nicht eingestellt werden
(20) kann, der nächst
DKIkleinere
MonographVorschubwert
i.18 | 19 z
8 rnicht eingestellt werden kann, der nächst kleinere Vorschubwert
Wert
Abb. 14: Geometrische Eingriffsverhältnisse
g beim Drehen
Rt,th 4 µm Rt,th 6,3 µm Rt,th 16 µm Rt,th 25 µm Rt,th 63 µm Rt,th 100 µm
Tab. 5: Feed f in mm/rev as a function of the required theoretical roughness Rt,th and the nose radius rε
Rz1 Rz1 R 2 (=
Rz ( Rz
RRmax)
R 2 (=
( Rmax)
R
) )
Rz5 Rz5
Rz3 Rz3 Rz4 Rz4
lr lr
ln ln
1 5
1 5
lr:
ln:
lr:Sampling
ln:Evaluation
Messstrecke
length
Einzelmessstrecke
Einzelmessstrecke
Messstrecke
length
Rz ( 5 ) Rz
= ( ∑ ∑
5 )
5 i =1
= Rz i
=1 5 i =1
=1
Rzi
Rzi:RzIndividual
Einzelrautiefen
i: Einzelrautiefen
roughness depth (peak-to-valley)
Rz: Rz:Rautiefe
Mean Rautiefe
(arithmetischer
roughness (arithmetischer
Mittelwert
depth (‘ten-point Mittelwert
der Einzelrautiefen
height’): der Einzelrautiefen
arithmetic mean Rzofi aufeinander-
Rzindividual
the i aufeinander-
folgender
folgender
roughness Einzelmessstrecken)
depths Einzelmessstrecken)
Rzi measured for five consecutive sampling lengths
R
Rmax:
RMaximum
Rmax:
maximale
i maximale
l roughness
Rautiefe
R
i lti Rautiefe
Rf ((größte
ti ößt
depth:f ((größte
Ei
Einzelrautiefe
ößt peak-to-valley
largest lEi
Einzelrautiefe
ti fl iinnerhalb
ti f hroughness
iinnerhalb
lb d der
h lb
G
Gesamtmess-
d
der G
value Gesamtmess-
t
within t
the
strecke)
t k strecke)
)t length
evaluation k )
Fig. 15: Roughness parameters (according to Mahr and DIN EN ISO 4287)
ungünstig
g g
unfavourable brauchbar
acceptable gut
g
good brauchbar
acceptable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Bandspäne
1 Ribbon p
chips 6 kurze Wendelspäne
6 Short tubular chips p
2 Wirrspäne
2 Tangled (or snarled) chips 7 konische
7 Conical coiled chips Wendelspäne
3 Flachwendelspäne
3 Corkscrew (or washer-type helical) chips 8 Spiral chips 8 Spiralspäne
44 Schrägwendelspäne
Conical helical chips 9 Spanlocken
9 Arc chips (or chip curls or short comma chips)
55 lange
Long Wendelspäne
tubular chips 10 Discontinuous10(or Bröckelspäne
elemental or short comma) chips
Designation
Designation Further subdivisions
(non-standardized)
Copper - oxygen-containing; oxygen-free;
non-deoxidized; silver-bearing oxygen-free;
phosphorous deoxidized
Copper-nickel alloys - -
Copper-zinc alloys, multi-component alloys Special brass with other alloying elements
Copper unalloyed
a b c
I II III
(Type I Alloys) (Type II Alloys) (Type III Alloys)
Microstructure homogeneous/heterogeneous Heterogeneous a) homogeneous
structure with chip-breaking (coarse particulate phase) b) heterogeneous
particles (Pb, S, Te) no Pb particles (finely dispersed deposits)
Chip form short medium length long and ductile (tightly coiled
(discontinuous, brittle chips) (coiled cylindrical chips) cylindrical, tangled or ribbon chips)
Tool wear low medium high
Table 8: Conventional scheme for classifying the machinability of copper and copper alloys
Copper-tin alloy CuSn5Pb1 CW458K C53400 450 - 720 350 - 680 10 150 - 210 - 70
Wrought copper alloys
Leaded binary
CuZn35Pb2 CW601N C34200 330 - 440 150 - 340 14 - 30 90 - 130 A 90
copper-zinc alloys
CuZn36Pb2As CW602N C35330 280 - 430 120 - 200 15 - 30 80 - 110 - 80
CuZn39Pb2 CW612N - A 90
Copper-tin and
CuSn3Zn8Pb5-C CC490K - 180 - 220 85 - 100 12 - 15 60 - 70 A 90
copper-tin-zinc
casting alloys
CuSn3Zn9Pb7-C - C84400 200 - 234 - 16 - 26 55 - 90
CuZn16Si4-C CC761S C87800 400 - 530 230 - 370 5 - 10 100 - 150 A* 70*
* the use of a cutting tool with a chip breaker is recommended
Table 9: Machinability classification of standardized copper-based materials
Machinability group I: Copper-based materials with excellent machining properties
Copper-aluminium
CuAl10Ni3Fe2-C CC332G – 500 - 600 180 - 250 18 - 20 100 – 130 C* 50
casting alloys
Copper-tin casting
Copper casting alloys
Copper-zinc casting
CuZn32Al2Mn2Fe1-C CC763S – 430 - 440 150 - 330 3 - 10 100 - 130 A* 40*
alloys
annealed
Low-alloyed copper alloys – CuSi3Mn1 CW116C C65500 380 - 900 260 - 890 8 - 50 85 - 210 - 30
non-age-hardenable CuSn0,15 CW117C C14200 250 - 420 320 - 490 2-9 60 - 120 - 20
Copper-aluminium alloys CuAl10Fe3Mn2 CW306G - 590 - 690 330 - 510 6 - 12 140 - 180 - 30
CuAl10Ni5Fe4 CW307G C63000 680 - 740 480 - 530 8 - 10 170 - 210 - 30
Copper-nickel alloys CuNi25 CW350H C71300 290 100 - 70 - 100 - 20
CuNi10Fe1Mn CW352H C70600 280 - 350 90 - 150 10 - 30 70 - 100 A / A* 20
CuNi30Mn1Fe CW354H C71500 340 - 420 120 - 180 14 - 30 80 - 110 A / A* 20
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys CuNi12Zn24 CW403J C75700 380 - 640 270 - 550 5 - 38 90 – 190 A / A* 20
CuNi18Zn20 CW409J - 400 - 650 280 - 580 11 - 35 100 - 210 A / A* 20
Copper-tin alloys CuSn4 CW450K C51100 320 - 450 140 - 160 55 80 – 130 - 20
CuSn5 CW451K C51000 330 - 540 220 - 480 20 - 45 80 - 170 - 20
CuSn6 CW452K C51900 340 - 550 230 - 500 4 - 35 15 - 45 A* 20
CuSn8 CW453K C52100 390 - 620 260 - 550 15 - 45 90 – 190 A* 20
CuSn8P CW459K - 390 - 620 260 - 550 15 - 45 90 – 190 A* 30
Binary copper-zinc alloys CuZn5 CW500L C21000 240 - 350 60 - 310 15 - 30 55 – 115 A* 20
CuZn10 CW501L C22000 270 - 380 80 - 350 14 - 28 60 – 125 A* 20
CuZn15 CW502L C23000 290 - 430 100 - 390 12 - 27 75 - 135 A* 30
CuZn20 CW503L C24000 300 - 450 110 - 410 10 - 27 80 – 140 B* 30
CuZn28 CW504L - B* 30
CuZn30 CW505L C26000 310 - 460 120 - 420 10 - 27 85 – 145 B* 30
CuZn33 CW506L C26800 B* 30
CuZn36 CW507L C27200 A / B* 30
310 - 440 120 - 400 12 - 30 70 - 140
CuZn37 CW508L C27400 A / B* 30
Multi-component copper- CuZn20Al2As CW702R C68700 340 – 390 120 - 150 40 - 45 65 - 95 A 30
zinc alloys CuZn28Sn1AS CW706R C44300 320 - 360 100 - 140 45 - 55 60 - 110 A* 30
Copper-aluminium
Copper casting alloys
The principal tool materials used to ma- j) HS2-9-1 1.3346 material. For these applications, high-
chine copper-based materials are high- k) HS2-9-2 1.3348 speed tool steels produced by powder
speed steels (HSS), cemented carbides l) HS6-5-3 1.3344 metallurgical methods are preferred.
and synthetic diamond. Plain carbon m) HS6-5-2C 1.3343
tool steels play no role in this field.
Cobalt (Co) is sometimes added to these 5.2 Carbides
steels to improve their hot hardness Carbides are sintered composite ma-
5.1 High-speed steel and their tempering resistance, while terials comprising a metallic binder
High-speed steels (HSS) are highly alloy- vanadium (V) is added to increase (typically cobalt) into which the car-
ed tool steels. High-speed steels differ resistance to wear. A number of these bides (WC, TiC, TaC, etc.) are embedded.
from other types of steel in that they steels, such as HS6-5-2C (material no. The function of the binder is to bind
contain a high concentration of carbides 1.3343) have a higher carbon content in the brittle carbide particles together
that gives these materials a relatively order to lengthen tool life. to form a relatively strong solid. The
high resistance to wear and good hot function of the carbides is to create a
hardness. The main alloying elements The high-speed steel HS10-4-3-0 (ma- material with a high hot hardness and
are tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, terial no. 1.3207; see above list) can be wear resistance.
cobalt and chromium. The hardness of recommended for many applications as
the high-speed steels is influenced by it exhibits high hot hardness and good Copper alloys are machined using tools
both the hardness of the base material wear resistance and therefore pro- made from uncoated WC-Co cemented
– the martensite – and the presence of longed tool life. However, a different carbides or using coated carbide tools.
the carbides. The tempering resistance HSS should be selected if the machin- Straight two-phase WC-Co carbides
of HSS is determined by the alloying ing process or tool geometry requires a consist exclusively of hard grains of
elements dissolved in the matrix. cutting-tool material of greater tungsten carbide (WC) embedded in
toughness. The toughest of the con- the cobalt (Co) binder. In the alloy-
High-speed steels are designated in ventional high-speed steels is the alloy ed WC-Co carbides part of the WC is
accordance with an established scheme: HS2-9-1 (material no. 1.3346), which replaced by vanadium carbide (VC),
They are identified by the initials “HS” is why small twist drills, end milling chromium carbide (Cr3C2) or tantalum/
followed by the percentage content of cutters, etc. are frequently manufac- niobium carbide ((Ta,Nb)C). WC-Co
tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium and tured from this or a similar HSS. Milling carbides are characterized by high
cobalt. For example, the tool steel cutters and counterbores are produced abrasion resistance. The various grades
HS18-1-2-10 contains 18 % W, 1 % Mo, primarily from HS6-5-2 (material no. of WC-Co carbides available differ in
2 % V and 10 % Co. Designations such as 1.3243), reamers are generally made the relative content of cobalt binder
“HSS”, “HSS-Co” or other manufacturer- from HS6-5-3 (material no. 1.3344). and the size of the tungsten carbide
specific designations are of little value grains. With increasing cobalt content,
unless the composition of the HSS grade In addition to the high-speed steels the toughness of the cemented carbide
is unambiguously stated. produced by conventional metallurgi- rises at the expense of hardness and
cal processes, HSS materials produced wear resistance. The uncoated carbides
The conventionally produced high- by powder metallurgy (PM) are also used for finishing and semi-roughing
speed tool steels that are used for available commercially. Compared with operations typically contain about
machining copper and copper alloys are conventionally produced HSS materials, 6 % w/w of cobalt (WC-6Co). Tougher
divided into the high tungsten-alloyed those produced by PM generally exhibit cemented carbides with a higher cobalt
steels, with tungsten concentrations of a greater degree of alloying. Because of content (e.g. WC-9Co) are used for
above 12 %: the much finer distribution of carbide roughing operations or interrupted
particles within the microstructure, PM cuts.
Designation in acc. HSS alloys have a considerably better
with DIN EN ISO 4987 No. cuttingedge hardness than HSS types In terms of WC grain size, a distinction
produced by conventional metallurgi- is made between the conventional fine
a) HS18-1-2-10 1.3265 cal techniques. They are also easier to grain carbides with an average grain
b) HS18-1-2-5 1.3255 grind due to their finer grain structure size of 0.8–1.3 µm, the finest grain
c) HS18-0-1 1.3355 and the absence of segregation streaks. carbides (0.5–0.8 µm) and the ultrafine
d) HS12-1-4-5 1.3202 Both of these factors help to improve grain carbides (0.2–0.5 mm).
e) HS12-1-4 1.3302 tool life when performing difficult ma- If the cobalt binder content remains
f) HS12-1-2 1.3318 chining operations, such as tapping, constant, decreasing the WC grain size
profile reaming, gear hobbing and leads to an increase in hardness and
and the molybdenum-alloyed steels: gear shaping. The edge strength of the transverse rupture strength. High-qual-
cutting material is an important factor ity finest grain and ultrafine grain car-
g) HS10-4-3-10 1.3207 in such operations as chip flow is often bides exhibit superior hardness, edge
h) HS2-9-1-8 1.3247 restricted or because the cutting edge strength and toughness compared with
i) HS6-5-2-5 1.3243 engages very suddenly with the work conventional fine grain carbides [21].
auptanwendungsgruppe
p g g pp N der harten Schneidstoffe nach DIN IS
Uncoated and coated carbides are
given the letter code designations ‘HW’
titanium carbonitride (TiCN), diamond-
like carbon (DLC) and diamond. By vary-
manufactured from polycrystalline
diamond.
and ‘HC’ respectively. Examples of such ing the coating material, the structure
designations are: HW-N10 or HC-N20. of the coating layer, its thickness and Monocrystalline diamonds are par-
the coating method used, the properties ticularly well-suited for precision
Carbides in application group N10 of the coated material can be adjusted machining operations and are widely
exhibit the broadest application to suit the requirements of a specific applied in the field of ultra-precision
range when machining copper-based machining task. machining.
Hauptanwendungsgruppen
pMain applicationggroups
g pp Anwendungsgruppen
g groups
Application g pp
Kenn
Kenn- Kenn
Kenn- Werkstück-Werkstoff
Werkstück Werkstoff Harte
Code letter Colour code Workpiece material Hard cutting materials
buchstabe farbe Schneidstoffe
Nichteisenmetalle:
Non-ferrous metals: N01
N01 N05
N05
Aluminium und and other
aluminium N10
N10
NN green
Grün non-ferrous metals, N15
N 15
andere Nichteisenmetalle, N20
N20
N25
non-metal materials N30 N25
Nichtmetallwerkstoffe N30
Zunehmende
increasing Schnittgeschwindigkeit,
cutting speed
zunehmende Verschleißfestigkeit
increasing wear resistance of tool material des Schneidstoffs
Z
Zunehmender
h cutting
increasing d speed
V
Vorschub,
h b
zunehmende
increasing Zähigkeit
wear resistance of tooldes Schneidstoffs
material
Fig. 19: Main application group N of hard cutting materials (DIN ISO 513)
Eine weitere Einflussgröße für die Wahl des Schneidstoffs stellen die Werkzeugkosten je
Standzeit KWT dar. Sie ergeben sich angenähert nach VDI 3321 aus der Gleichung:
KWa
KWT = + KWw (+KWs ) (22)
nT
PCD tools are used both for precision KWw Cost in € associated with chan- same number of parts to be machined
machining andworin bedeuten:
for roughing operations. ging the worn tool in a faster time.
In some applications the rough machi-
WT Werkzeugkosten
ning and finishKmachining steps can be je
KWs Standzeit in regrinding
Cost in € for the tool Such considerations generally lead to
combined intoK aWa
single step [22].
Anschaffungskosten (notWerkzeugs
des applicable if indexable
in the conclusion that cemented carbide
nT Anzahl der Standzeiten inserts
(bei are used)
Wendeplatten Anzahl cutting
der tools (typically, N10 grade car-
Schneidkanten)
KWw Kosten für das Wechseln des verschlissenen Werkzeugs inmuch bide) are more preferable than
5.4 Selecting the cutting material Equation 22 shows that the cost of HSS tools. Indeed, carbide can remain
KWs Kosten für das Nachschleifen des Werkzeugs (entfällt bei Wendeplatten) in
The cost-effectiveness of a cutting ma- purchasing the tool KWa typically the material of choice even when cut-
terial depends Die on several factors. If(22)
Gleichung represents
no zeigt, dass only die aAnschaffungskosten
small fraction of the ting
K Wa speed
in der restrictions
Regel mean that therelativ
nur einen
restrictions are placed on the thickness total costs KWT associated with the number of parts produced per unit time
kleinen Anteil der Werkzeugkosten
of the uncut chip, the number of work-
je Standzeit KWT ausmachen.
service life of the tool. The two other
Die beiden anderen Sum-
is no greater than that achievable with
pieces machined per unit sind
manden time depends terms are generally larger.
meist größer. 52 a HSS tool. This is because the longer
on the cutting material used and is service life of a carbide tool allows a
given by the product h • vc, where h is The tool costs associated with the pro- greater number of parts to be machin-
the thickness of
Schneidstoffs Die
theWerkzeugkosten
uncut chip and vc is jeduction
Werkstück of oneKpartW folgen dann given
are therefore der Gleichung
ed in one tool life, increasing the value
the applicable cutting speed. by the following equation: of nWT in Eq. 23. If indexable cutting
inserts are used, KWs, the third term in
If larger amounts of stock arevon
to bemehreren
K ab. Bei einer Eq. 22, is zero,
keit eines Schneidstoffs hängt KW Einflussgrößen
= WT (23) (23)which reduces the unit
removed, depth of cut ap is another n production cost given by Eq. 24.
n Wahl der Spanungsdicke ergibt sich die schneidspezifische WT Mengenrate
factor that directly influences tool
productivity
Werkstücke – though one
je Zeiteinheit) austhatdemis only where:
Produkt h vc, wobei h die Spanungs- The factors limiting the application
slightly dependentwobei bedeuten:
on the choice of tool of carbide as a cutting material
nwendbare Schnittgeschwindigkeit bezeichnet.
material. KW Tool costs in € for fabricating are usually related to tool geometry.
KW Werkzeugkosten je Werkstück one part in Geometrically complex cutting tools
ugaben zu In nearly
spanen all practical
sind, cases,
nWT tritt however,
als direkter Faktor
Standmenge, noch die
d. h. Anzahl der mögliche
pro Standzeit Schnitt- typically Werkstücke
bearbeiteten have to be made from
the depth of cut ap is fixed by the stock nWT Number of parts machined in extremely tough cutting materials.
geringfügig vom Schneidstoff
allowance, Diethevom
while beeinflusst
Schneidstoff
thickness of the wird.
abhängigen one toolBearbeitungskosten
life je Werkstück K1 sind
Cemented carbides aredann
often unable to
uncut chip h and/or the feed f are meet these requirements or the cost of
limited by the rigidity of the machine/ The total cost of manufacturing one manufacturing a complex tool shape
nden Mehrzahl der Bearbeitungsfälle ist die th1Schnitttiefe aKp Wdurch
= Kth1die + Kent-
workpiece/tool system or by certain K1 =part isRtherefore
+ Kfix +given by: fix + K Wfrom carbide often
(24)proves prohibitively
be fest vorgegeben und die Spanungsdicke
specifications regarding the roughness h bzw. der Vorschub f entwe- expensive. Tapping is an example of
rheit desof Systems
the machined surface, irrespective of
Maschine/Werkstück/Werkzeug K1 = th1 • R +oder
Kfix + Kbestimmte
W = Kth1 + Kfix + KW (24)
Forde- a cutting operation that places high
the cutting material used. In such cases, demands on the toughness of the tool
uheit derthebearbeiteten
influence of theFläche, unabhängigwhere:
cutting material vom Schneidstoff, nach oben material, as at the end of the opera-
n Fällenisreduziert
restricted simply to itsEinfluss
sich der effect on the K1 Total fabrication
des Schneidstoffs cost per unit
auf die anwendbare tion the tap has to be unscrewed from
cutting speed vc. product in € the hole. The resulting frictional forces
gkeit vc. can generate high tensile stresses
Another factor influencing the choice of th1 Machining time per part in at the tool’s cutting edges. Taps are
cutting material is the cost per tool life, minutes
ussgröße für die Wahl des Schneidstoffs stellen die Werkzeugkosten je therefore typically produced in HSS.
which according to the VDI Guidelines
Sie ergeben
3321 cansich angenähertby:
be approximated nach VDI 3321 ausFixed
Kfix der costs
Gleichung:
in € (independent
of cutting speed vc)
6.1 Rake and clearance angles machine operator and can disrupt the radius roughly in the range 0.3–0.5
Due to the large variation in the machining process. When performing mm. The width of the chip breaking
machinability of copper alloys, the continuous turning operations on element is determined primarily by
geometry of the cutting tool has to be these materials it is therefore fre- the thickness of the uncut chip h,
adjusted to meet the specific character- Abb. 20: Querschnitt einer eingeschliffenen
g
quently necessary to shape the chips Spanleitstu
p which is itself determined by the feed
istics of the work material being ma- into shorter coiled chips. This can be f and the tool cutting edge angle κr
chined. Matching the tool geometry to achieved by using chip breakers that (h = f • sin κr), and to a lesser extent
the workpiece material is particularly force the flowing chip into a specific by the width of the uncut chip b. A
advisable if favourable chip formation form as soon as the chip has achieved wide chip requires a wide chip breaker.
is to be achieved. Categorizing tool a minimum thickness of about 0.2–0.3 The following approximate guidelines
geometry based on the main machin- mm. The tool geometry codes for tools are generally valid [23]:
ability groups I–III is unsatisfactory, as that possess a chip breaker are indi-
it represents too great a simplification. cated by an asterisk * in Table 12 (A*,
In order to classify tool geometry, the B*, C*). The table also lists the angle of
three main groups are further divided the chip breaker back wall.
into three groups with the letter codes bf
A, B and C (see Table 12). For cutting Chip breakers increase the extent of o r 70°
50°
tools with a more or less fixed cutting- chip compression, which induces
edge geometry (e.g. milling cutters), higher machining forces and reduces hf
the DIN 1836 standard distinguishes tool life. The tougher the chip material
between the cutting teeth forms H, is or the greater the extent to which it
N und W. Tooth shape H corresponds is deformed, the more pronounced this
approximately to class A, tooth shape N effect becomes.
to class B and tooth form W to class C.
The degree of chip deformation
The tool geometry designators assi- depends on the width of the chip
gned to the copper-based materials breaking element and on the angle
are listed in tables Table 9 to Table 11. between the effective rake face and Fig. 20: Cross-section through a chip breaking
The machinability of a copper alloy the back wall of the chip breaker [23]: element ground into the tool
can therefore be classified as in the the deeper the chip breaking ele-
following example:Material CuZn39Pb3 ment and the steeper the back wall,
= I.A.100 (I: main machinability group / the more the chip is compressed. As Undeformed
Spanungsbreite b in mm Width of chip
alloy type, A: tool geometry designator, a general rule, a chip breaker height chip
Breitewidth b bf in bmm
breaker
der Spanleitstufen f
100: machinability rating). of 0.8 mm and an angle of 70° or 50° in mm in mm
Quelle:
between the back wall and the tool’s 0,4
0,4 ......1,5
1,5 5 • h5 • h
Copper and cooper alloys have a effective rake face are recommended. 1,6
1,6 ......7 7 8 • h8 • h
© WZL/Fraunhofer IPT
pronounced tendency to form long The fillet between the rake face of the 7,5
7,5 ......
12 12 12 • h
12 • h
ductile chips. The resulting ribbon and cutting tool and the back wall of the
tangled chips can be hazardous to the chip breaking element should have a The chip breaker can also be aligned
parallel to the tool’s cutting edge or
aligned so that it widens or narrows
Tool geometry Carbide HSS Angle of back wall
towards the tool’s nose.
designator of chip breaker1)
γ α γ α
Chip breakers that run parallel to the
(°) (°) (°) (°) (°)
cutting edge (alignment angle = 0°) do
A not tend to direct chip flow toward or
0-8 6 5 - 10 8 50
A* away from the workpiece and there-
B fore favour the formation of watch-
8 - 12 6 10 - 14 8 70 spring-like spiral chips. If the width
B* of the chip breaker decreases towards
C the nose of the tool (alignment angle
20 6 25 8 50 -70 > 0°), chip flow is directed away from
C*
the workpiece, favouring the creation
1) An asterisk * after the tool geometry designator indicates a tool with chip breaker.
of cylindrical chips.
Note: The chip breaker data applies only to turning tools or indexable inserts for turning or
drilling; they do not apply to milling cutters, drill tools, etc. If the chip breaker is designed to wid-
en towards the tool’s nose (alignment
angle < 0°), the direction of chip flow
Table 12: Tool geometry classification scheme is toward the workpiece surface, which
Some copper-based materials are ma- with HSS. In contrast, carbide tools can In cases in which normal cooling-
chined dry whereas others are machined maintain their hardness up to higher lubrication by a stream of cutting fluid
while applying a cutting fluid. On some temperatures. (‘flooding’) is not applicable, the fluid
machine tools, the use of a cutting fluid can be applied as a high-speed mist.
is essential as the cutting fluid also If, on the other hand, the tool has sev-
serves to lubricate parts of the machine. eral regions that are in direct contact In mist application, the cutting fluid
with the workpiece but that do not con- is carried in a pressurized air stream
During machining, the cutting fluid tribute to the material removal process and deposited in the cutting zone. The
does not normally penetrate to the root (as is the case with reamers and taps), expansion of the air stream is accom-
of the chip so that there is no direct then the cutting fluid is more important panied by a temperature drop that also
influence of the tool’s cutting edge at as a lubricant than as a coolant. aids cooling (e.g. when tapping threads
the tool-work contact zone. However, using cutting oil on multistation ma-
the cutting fluid can have an indirect If the machine tool manufacturer does chines, which are normally operated
effect on processes at the contact zone not specify the cutting fluid to be used, with emulsified oils).
as cooling the workpiece and the tool emulsified oils are generally preferred
increases the temperature gradient that when cooling is the predominant aim. Besides conventional flood-cooling,
transports heat away from the work-tool copper-based materials can also be
interface. Additionally, the cutting fluid The favourable cooling properties of subjected to neardry machining, in
can quench the upper side of the chip these oil-in-water emulsions are due to which a minimum quantity lubrication
and therefore facilitate the curvature the high specific heat capacity of water. (MQL) system is used, or dry machining
and/or fracturing of the chip. Finally, If, though, lubrication is the primary in which no cutting fluid is used [25].
the cutting fluid also flushes clean the concern, cutting oils are preferred to Both approaches are technologically
machining area. emulsions. Low viscosity oils are fa- feasible for machining copper alloys.
voured as they are easier to deliver
Whether a cutting fluid functions more and remove from the cutting zone. Which cutting fluid is used in practice
as a coolant or as a lubricant depends depends not only technological feasi-
on the machining operation being Cutting oils with added sulphur can bility, but frequently also on factors
performed and the cutting tool used. As show a propensity to react with copper. determined by the machine tool set-up,
HSS tools only retain their hardness up Therefore, either a sulphur-free cutting such as chip removal, heat dissipation,
to the tempering temperature of around oil should be used or the workpiece lubrication of machine parts, and the
550–600 °C, cutting fluids are used should be rinsed immediately after possibility of influencing chip breakage.
primarily as coolants when machining machining [24].
Fertigungskosten
Total cost per piece
Werkzeugkosten
KFngs
Tool costs
gun
ertig
piece
Cost perFe
K F,min
Hauptzeitkosten
Machining time costs
Fixkosten
Non-productive
(fixed) costs
v c,okk
S h itt
Schnittgeschwindigkeit
h iCutting
di k speed
it vc Vc
Fig. 22: Cost components plotted as a function of cutting speed (VDI 3321)
© WZL/Fraunhofer IPT Seite 23
ToK = Cost-optimized tool life in The exponent -k is large for HSS tools Similar calculations can be carried out
min and/or work materials that are difficult to determine the time-optimized cut-
tenoptimale Standzeit in min
to machine, but smaller for cemented ting speed vot, i.e. the cutting speed
sprechend Gleichung
k (5) of straight line in
= Gradient carbide tools and/or work materials that minimizes machining time per
tool-life plot workpiece [26]. This will not be dis-
rkzeugkosten je Standzeit nach Gleichung (22) that in are easy to machine. It there-
fore follows that, all other machining cussed further here as there is gener-
stkostensatz,KWTd.h. Kostensatz
= Tool costs perdes Arbeitsplatzes
tool life in € as ohne Werkzeugkosten
conditions in that
being equal, a material ally no significant difference between
defined in Eq. 22 is difficult to machine will require a voK and vot.
larger value of the cost-optimized tool
KML die
g 25 folgt, dass = Cost rate for operator
kostenoptimale and ma- Tlife von
Standzeit ToK. Itdem
is, however, not always
Exponenten –k, If a number of (possibly different)
oK
chine + labour and machining possible to meet this requirement in tools are being used simultaneously
ten je Standzeit KWT und dem
overheads Restkostensatz practice.
in €/h R abhängig ist. Dabei ist –k to machine a part, Equation 25 has to
/Schneidstoff-Paarung und dem Zerspanungsverfahren abhängig. Aus den be modified as KWT now represents the
tw = Tool change time If the calculated value of ToK, and thus sum of the tool costs for each of the
e Standzeit KWT folgt, dass teure Werkzeuge auf
voK, kostengünstigen Maschi-
lies outside the tool life range cutting tools being used simultaneous-
typically used in practice,
ingesetzt werden sollten. Andererseits zeigt der Restkostensatz R, thedass
optimum ly. The value calculated for the cost-
value achievable under the given optimized tool life ToK will therefore be
Werkzeuge auf kostenintensiven Maschinen vom technologisch
operating maximal
conditions is that value greater than when a single tool is used
which comes closest to the ideal [27, 28].
calculated value.
Wert für ToK und damit vc,oK außerhalb des in der Praxis verwendbaren
die größte Annäherung an ihn das in der Praxis erreichbare Optimum dar.
Copper finds widespread use in optical of the chemical affinity of iron for car- that at the centre of the workpiece the
systems. Ultra-precision machining of bon [21, 29, 30]. cutting speed would be zero. Although
copper can produce optical compon- the cutting forces exerted in ultra-
ents with high-quality mirror surfaces The key features of ultra-precision precision machining are typically less
and high dimensional accuracy. In this machine tools are the aerostatic or than 1 N, machines of high rigidity are
chapter we briefly explain the basic hydrostatic guide systems, air spindles required in order to avoid vibrations
principles of ultraprecision machining and linear direct drives. To achieve and to achieve the required dimen-
and some of its applications, followed a high level of thermal stability and sional precision of less than 0.1 µm.
by an examination of the quality good damping characteristics, granite
levels achievable and the technical is the preferred material for the base of The spindle speed chosen will depend
constraints of the technique. the ultra-precision machine. on the diameter of the component
being machined, the work material
The two main ultra-precision machin- and the dynamics of the additional
9.1 Principles of ultra-precision ing techniques used with diamond axes. Spindle speeds of up to 2500 rpm
machining cutting tools are turning and fly cut- are typically used in the production of
Ultra-precision machining (also com- ting. Turning enables a broad variety of metal optics by ultra-precision ma-
monly known as diamond turning) geometries to be machined, and fast chining. As in macro-scale machining,
differs from conventional machining tool servo (FTS) systems now allow the the feed is determined by the tool
techniques in the cutting material fabrication of non-rotationally sym- nose radius and the specified surface
used. Monocrystalline diamond metric optical surfaces. Fly cutting can roughness. The depth of cut depends
enables tools to be fashioned with very be thought of milling with a single- on the work material. For non-ferrous
precise cutting edge geometry and low tooth milling cutter. The fly cutter metals, recommended depths of cut
wear. The nose radii of such tools are typically has a single-point diamond for turning operations are 20–50 µm
typically around 50 nm. When com- cutting tool mounted on the periphery for roughing and about 3 µm for finish
bined with ultra-precision machining of a rotating disc. Fly cutting is used to machining.
technology, diamond cutting tools can produce flat surfaces or to create linear
be used to fabricate optical surfaces grooves. The geometry of the groove or Ultra-precision machining lathes are
with a surface roughness (Ra) of only a slot is determined by the shape of the generally equipped with a minimum
few nanometres (see Fig. 23). cutting tool (radius, facetted, v-form). quantity lubrication system. Isoparaf-
fins are transported to the cutting zone
One advantage of copper alloys and The quality of a surface produced by in a pressurized air stream where they
other non-ferrous metals is that they diamond cutting is slightly depen- are atomized. In addition to lubricat-
are very easy to machine with mono- dent on the cutting speed. Generally ing, the MQL system also ensures that
crystalline diamond tools. Steel cannot speaking, turning operations are per- the chips are flushed from the cutting
be machined with these tools because formed at a constant spindle speed so zone. The lubricants have a high heat
of vaporization and do not therefore
influence the cutting process by evapo-
rative cooling [29].
Seite 2
The tables of recommended machin- In the following sections we discuss the cutting speed vc of about 10 % is
ing parameters list suggested cutting and explain the recommended ma- recommended.
speeds for machining operations such chining parameters for a variety of
as turning and milling as a function machining operations. When turning is performed on a cast
of the undeformed chip thickness. The part with a normal sand-textured skin,
following procedure can be used to the cutting speed should be reduced by
identify the correct machining para- 10.1 Turning of copper and copper about 15 % when carbide cutting tools
meters: alloys are used and by about 20 % for HSS
The values quoted in Table 13 are tools.
If the material to be machined is stan- estimated to be valid in about 70 % of
dardized, locate the material in Tables cases. They are based on a flank wear When machining copper materials with
Table 9 to Table 11 and note down its land width of VB ≈ 0.6 mm at the end a strain hardened skin, the machin-
machinability rating and the tool geo- of the tool’s life, and a tool life of ability of the material is determined by
metry designator. If the material has T = 30–60 min for carbide cutting tools the machinability of the skin, which is
not been standardized, select the most in group N10 (N20), or T = 45–90 min itself dependent on the hardness of the
similar alternative material based on for HSS cutting tools (HS10-4-3-10). skin layer.
the main alloying components.
If the tool life T is to be doubled, the For turning operations in which chip
Use the material’s machinability rat- value of vc should be reduced by about flow is restricted, such as form turning,
ing to determine the recommended 16 % for carbide tools and by about groove cutting, parting off and thread-
machining parameters in Table 13 to 10 % for HSS tools. However, in the ing, the cutting speed vc should be
Table 19 for the machining operation of case of ductile, high copper content lowered by about 40 % when carbide
interest. materials, doubling the tool life T of a tools are used and by about 50 % when
carbide tool requires a reduction in the HSS turning tools are deployed.
Use the tool geometry designator to cutting speed vc of around 30 %.
determine the recommended tool geo- If an HSS grade other than HS10-4-3-10
metry from Table 12. If the tool life is defined as the cutting is used, the following correction factors
time to reach a flank wear land width of apply:
As machinability depends on the VB ≈ 0.4 mm, then to achieve the same HSS Faktor for vc
strength and hardness of the work tool life T as that based on a value of VB HS10-1-4-5 0,82
material, tensile strength and Brinell ≈ 0.6 mm, the cutting speed vc would HS12-1-4 0,76
hardness data are included in Table 9 need to be reduced by about 35 % for HS6-5-2 0,72
to Table 11. If the material strength or carbide tools and by about 15 % for HSS HS2-9-1 0,65
hardness differs from the values given, tools.
the recommended machining parame- It is not uncommon that the recommend-
ter determined by the machinability Uninterrupted cutting has practically no ed cutting speeds in Table 13 cannot be
index will need to be interpolated or effect on the service life of HSS tools; if attained in practice due to constraints
extrapolated accordingly. carbide tools are used, a reduction in such as limits to the maximum achiev-
Table 13: Recommended machining parameters for turning copper and copper alloys
Recommended cutting speeds vc in m/min as a function of the undeformed chip thickness h in mm and the machinability rating
90 74 239 373
80 69 228 345
70 63 216 318
60 58 205 290
50 52 194 263
40 46 183 235
30 41 171 208
20 35 160 180
Table 14: Machining parameters for drilling copper and copper alloys
Recommended cutting speeds vc in m/min for HSS, solid carbide and index-able-insert drills as a function of the machinability rating
Diameter D [mm]
HSS 0,1 - 0,16 0,16 - 0,25 0,25 - 0,32 0,32 - 0,4 0,4 - 0,5
Feed f [mm]
Carbide 0,08 - 0,12 0,12 - 0,18 0,18 - 0,23 0,24 - 029 0,3 - 0,35
able spindle speed or when a workpiece Because the properties of copper- than about 18 mm (and lengths up to
with a very small diameter is being based materials span such a broad about 2.5 • d). Type N and type H drills
machined. In such cases, the machining range, the choice of drill type and/or can be used if the machine is suffi-
parameters have to be adjusted to take cutting-edge geometry depends on the ciently rigid and sufficiently powerful.
account of the particular machining type of material to be drilled: Copper Whether these drill types can be used
operation and the prevailing cutting alloys that yield short, fragmented to drill copper-based materials that
conditions. chips are drilled using type H drills (cf. produce long continuous tough chips
DIN 1414, sheet 1 and 2), type N drills depends on the availability of index-
are chosen for materials producing able inserts with chip breaker grooves.
10.2 Drilling and counterboring of longer curled chips, while type W drills
copper and copper alloys are used for those materials that yield Drills with internal cooling holes are
Copper-based materials are generally extremely long continuous chip forms. recommended for drilling deep holes.
drilled using HSS twist drills. These The removal of long tough chips is The cutting fluid flows through the
are supplemented by solid carbide easier in type W HSS drills that have coolant hole and can therefore be de-
drills, indexable-insert drills and polished or chromeplated flutes. livered more easily to the drill’s cutting
(deep-hole) gun drills. Recommended edges as well as helping to flush the
cutting speeds for HSS, solid carbide Type H drills correspond to a class A chips away from the cutting zone.
and indexable-insert drills are listed in cutting-edge geometry, type N drills
Table 14. to class B, and type W drills to class C Gun drills are used to drill extremely
(Table 12). deep holes (L > 10 • d) whenever high
The feed rate to be used during a dril- demands are placed on the dimen-
ling operation depends on the work/ Commercially available carbide drills sional tolerances, alignment and
tool material pairing, but primarily include drills with brazed carbide surface quality of the bore hole wall.
on the drill diameter. The required tips, solid carbide drills or drills with
feed per revolution increases with in- indexable carbide inserts. Other rules apply when drilling with
creasing drill diameter. Recommended gun drills but will not be discussed
feed values are listed in Table 15 as a Carbide indexable insert drills prove further here. Suffice to say that the
function of drill diameter and the tool to be the most economical tools when geometry of the tool’s cutting-edge
material. drilling holes with diameters greater and the feed rate depend primarily on
Machinability
uncoated coated 5 10 16 25 40 63
rating
vc [m/min] f [mm]
100 14 19
90 13 18
80 13 17
70 12 16
0,15 0,2 0,25 0,4 0,4
60 11 15 - - - - - 0,6
0,2 0,3 0,35 0,5 0,5
50 10 14
40 10 13
30 9 12
20 8 11
Table 16: Recommended machining parameters for reaming copper and copper alloys with HSS reamers
Recommended cutting speeds vc in m/min as a function of the machinability rating and recommended feeds f in mm as a function of the hole
diameter
Machinability
HC - N10 5 10 16 25 40 63
rating
vc [m/min] f [mm]
100 30
90 27
80 25
70 22
0,2 0,3 0,35 0,4 05
60 19 - - - - - 0,6
0,3 0,4 0,45 0,5 0,6
50 16
40 14
30 11
20 8
Table 17: Recommended machining parameters for reaming copper and copper alloys with solid carbide reamers
Recommended cutting speeds vc in m/min as a function of the machinability rating and recommended feeds f in mm as a function of the hole
diameter
Table 19: Machining parameters for face milling of copper-based materials using in-dexable teeth
Recommended cutting speeds vc in m/min as a function of the undeformed chip thickness hz in mm and the machinability rating
Tool material fz in mm
Machinability
HSS solid carbide Diameter of mill cutter in mm
rating
uncoated coated uncoated coated 1 6 12 20
100 45 80 140 280 Roughing
90 41 73 120 230
80 38 67 110 210 0,004-0,006 0,01-0,02 0,04-0,5 0,05-0,07
70 35 61 100 200
60 32 56 96 190 Finishing
50 29 52 92 180
40 27 47 87 175
0,004-0,006 0,01-0,02 0,04-0,5 0,05-0,07
30 10 Richtwerte
24 für die zerspanende
43 85 Bearbeitung
165 von Kupfer und Kupferlegierungen 75
20 22 40 80 160
bis unteren Bereich zerspanen. Die Spanungsdicke ergibt sich beim Stirnfräsen aus Vor-
Table 20: Machining parameters for peripheral milling of copper-based materials using end milling cutters
schub je Schneide und Umdrehung fz und Einstellwinkeln nach
Recommended cutting speeds vc in m/min and feeds per tooth fz in mm as a function of the diameter of the milling cutter and the machinability
rating
114,6°
carbide application groups N10 and In
h mperipheral
= milling, ( )a
f z sinthechipe is curled ae = Working
(25) engagement
N20, and the HSS grades HS6-5-2, HS6- somewhat ° a comma with
slike D one of (radial depth of cut)
5-2-5, HS2-9-1-8 and HS12-1-4-5. its ends having, in theory at least, zero D = Diameter of milling cutter
In milling operations, the undeformed thickness. The average thickness of
chip thickness perBeim
toothUmfangfräsen
and per wird ein kommaförmiger
the undeformed chip is given Span
by theabgehoben,
As millingder an einem
cutters Ende theore-
vary significantly in
revolution hm is typically in the range following equation: terms
tisch die Dicke Null hat. Als Spanungsdicke gilt hierbei ein mittlerer Wert nach der Gleichung of the number of cutting teeth
0.1–0.35 mm. Face milling cutters and they have and the associated tool costs,
heavy cutting tools tend to be at the the recommended cutting speeds vc can
upper end of this range, while periph- 114,6° ae provide only broad guidance. The values
hm = fz (26) (26)
eral and weaker tools are located in listed in Table 19 refer to face milling
e für die the
zerspanende Bearbeitung °
von Kupfer und Kupferlegierungen
s D 75
middle to lower region. The unde- operations using indexable inserted
formed chip thickness in a face milling where: tooth cutters made from uncoated
operation is
ereich zerspanen. Die determined
Dabei h = U ndeformed chip thickness per
bedeuten ergibt sich beim Stirnfräsen aus Vor- carbide or polycrystalline diamond.
by the
Spanungsdicke feed m
per tooth and revolution fz and the tooth and revolution
eide undcutting
Umdrehung fz und
edge angle κ as Einstellwinkeln
follows: fznach
= Feed per tooth and revolution If the cutting speed vc is reduced by
hz = κ r = Tooljecutting
Spanungsdicke Schneide edge angle
und Umdrehungabout 10 %, the tool life can be
= Schneide
ϕ sje Angle of cutterundengagement effectively doubled; if the cutting
114,6° fz = a Vorschub Umdrehung
h m =g
bb. 26:Umfangsfräsen f z sin () e
(25) h m = A verage
(25) thickness of undeformed speed is increased by 10 %, the tool
s ° im r
Gleich-
= DundEinstellwinkel
Gegenlauf
g chip life will be halved.
s = a p =
FräserschnittwinkelDepth of cut (feed)
If milling a material with a typical sand-
hm
fräsen wird ein kommaförmiger = Span mittlere Spanungsdicke
abgehoben, der an einem Ende theore- cast skin, the cutting speed of a carbide
ap
e Null hat. Als Spanungsdicke =gilt hierbei
Schnitttiefe Wert nach der Gleichung milling cutter should be reduced by
(Zustellung)
ein mittlerer
about 15 %, that of a HSS tool should be
ae = Eingriffsgröße lowered by around 20 %.
114,6° D a e = Fräserdurchmesser
hm = fz (26) The recommended speeds are based on
s ° D a flank wear land width of VB ≈ 0.6 mm
n n at the end of the tool’s life (rough mill-
ing). If the tool life is defined to be the
en
Da Fräser hinsichtlichae Schneidenzahl und Werkzeugkosten ae
machining
in einen time to reachBereich
großen a flank wear
variie-
land width of VB ≈ 0.4 mm, then to
v
ren, können Empfehlungen v
zur Wahl der Schnittgeschwindigkeit
Spanungsdickefz je Schneide f
und Umdrehung ffz
z
f Vorschub
achieve the vsame
c nur bedingt
tool gegeben
life as that based
werden. Die Richtwerte in Tab. 19beziehen auf das on VB ≈
Strinfräsen0.6 mm,
mit the tabulated
Messerköpfen. values Als
Vorschub je Schneide Gl i hlund
Down ff ä Umdrehung
milling
Gleichlauffräsen GUp milling
Gegenlauffräsen
l ff ä
would need to be reduced by about 50 %
Schneidstoffs sind hier unbeschichtetes Hartmetall und Diamant aufgeführt.
Einstellwinkel for carbide tools and by about 30 % for
Fig. 26: The ‘down’ and ‘up’ forms of peripheral milling HSS tools.
Fräserschnittwinkel
Um die Standzeit T zu verdoppeln, ist der Wert vc um etwa 10 % zu senken, um sie zu hal-
mittlere 48
Spanungsdicke
| DKI Monograph i.18
WZL/Fraunhofer IPT Seite 27
bieren um etwa 10 % zu erhöhen.
Schnitttiefe (Zustellung)
11 Appendix
12 Mathematical formula
chungen sind die einzusetzenden Größen mit ihren Dimensionen angege-
Beziehung zwischen Frei-, Keil- und Spanungswinkel: 84
chungen sind die einzusetzenden Größen mit ihren Dimensionen angege-
chungen sind die einzusetzenden Größen mit ihren Dimensionen angege-
84
Beziehung
o +zwischen
o + o = Frei-,
90° Keil- und Spanungswinkel:
(1)
Beziehung
o +zwischen Frei-,
o + o =Frei-, Keil- und Spanungswinkel:
90° Keil- (1)
uchung:
Beziehung zwischen
chungen sind und Spanungswinkel:
11die einzusetzenden
Anhang Größen mit ihren Dimensionen angege- 85
chungensind die
o + einzusetzenden
o +Equations o = 90° Größen mit(1)ihren Dimensionen angege- 14) Feed power:
uchung:12.1.
ho ch+7)C o +, Co =und
90°
where:
(1) 11 Anhang
In numerical
> 1 T equations,
v k sind kennzeichnende
the dimen- T :(2) Größen
Tool life in minutesder Schnittbedingungen:
sions
Beziehung of the quantities
h zwischen Frei-,toKeil-
be entered
und Spanungswinkel: Pf = Ff ⋅ vf (14)
uchung: h given. 11 Anhang
15)
vc Cutting Netto-Antriebsleistung:
1 speed in metres per
uchung:are ch
Beziehung zwischen>1 Frei-, Keil- und Spanungswinkel:
C(2)T =C
minutek
(7) 15) Net machine power:
h
uchung1)Geometrical
o + o + orelationship
= 90° between (1) 15) Netto-Antriebsleistung:
11 Anhang
the
h chclearance, wedge and rake angles f Feed in mm per revolution F v
h
ohch+8) >Erweiterten
1 + = 90° Taylor-Gleichungen: (2)
(1) P' è = c c (15) (15)
uchung > 1
(tool-in-hando o reference system): (2)
60000
uchung: bhch ap Depth of cut in mm 15) Netto-Antriebsleistung: Fc v c
>1 (3)
αob+ βo + γo = 90° (1) C è =Net machine power in kW
PPe’' (15)
uchung:
uchung b T =k 1
(8) 60000
Gradient
ca Pe’c f
of the straight line in
Netto-Antriebsleistung in kW
uchung h ch vc k plot 11 Anhang F v
ch >thickness
2) Chip > 11 compression: (2)the
a(3)
F
f tool-life
Schnittkraft in N
Fc Cutting force P' è =in Nc c (15)
b
hbhch (k
Pe=’ tan α)
c
Netto-Antriebsleistung in kW 60000
> 1 (2)bedeuten:
b chch Darin T: (2) vc
Werkzeugstandzeit in 15)
minNetto-Antriebsleistung:
Schnittgeschwindigkeit vin
c Cutting speed in metres
m/min60000 per
Konstante in N m/kW
hb >>11 (3) F
C1 Dimensioned,
(3) c Schnittkraft
empirically in N minute
ung
uchung b vc Schnittgeschwindigkeit Pe’ inNetto-Antriebsleistung
m/min in FkW
determined constant
vc (proSchnittgeschwindigkeit in m/min60000 Konstante in N m/kW
3) Chip width compression: f Vorschub Umdrehung ) in mm c vc
16) Überschlagsformel
F für
Schnittkraft in die
60000
N Netto-Antriebsleistung
Conversion
P ' è = factor in (N • m)/ (15)bei mehrs
uchung ap Schnitttiefe
Ca Dimensionless
c
in mm constant: (kW • min) 60000
ung yb = m x + n (4) nungswerkzeugen:
k Steigung der v
Geraden
16) Überschlagsformel im Schnittgeschwindigkeit
Standzeitdiagramm (k in
=
für die Netto-Antriebsleistung m/min60000
tan ) Konstante
bei mehrs in
(3) exponent of the
ch c depth of cut
> 1 (3)
b C1 dimensionsbehaftete, Pempirisch e’ 16) Approximate
ermittelte
Netto-Antriebsleistung in kW net machine power for
Konstante
ung
ung yb ch= m
: Logarithmische > 1 x +vnc-T-Abhängigkeit: Ca (4) nungswerkzeugen:
Cf Dimensionless
dimensionslose
(3) constant:
Konstante:
F Exponent
Schnittkraft multipoint
in der
N tools:
Schnitttiefe
V
4) b Equation of a straight line: Cf exponent of
16)feed
the
Überschlagsformel
c
P ' = für
w die Netto-Antriebsleistung
(16) b
dimensionslose Konstante: vc Exponent des è
Schnittgeschwindigkeit Vorschubs
in m/min60000 Konstante in N m/kW mi
nungswerkzeugen: Vwp
y = mx + n (4) Vw
: Logarithmische
ylog = 9)
m x + vnc -T-Abhängigkeit:
Schnittkraftformel
(4)
T = log C v + k log v c nach Kienzle/Victor:
9) Cutting
(4)
(5) force formula (Kienzle/ P ' è = (16) (16)
Victor): 16) Überschlagsformel für
Vwpdie Netto-Antriebsleistung bei mehrsch
ung 5) Equation of Taylor tool-life plot Pe’ Netto-Antriebsleistung
nungswerkzeugen:in kW Vw
: Logarithmische c-T-Abhängigkeit:
vC
log T = log
Logarithmische
(log-log v
plot v +
of log
vckvs. T): v c
c-T-Abhängigkeit: Fc(5) = bV h (1mcZerspantes
)
k c1.1 (9) Werkstoffvolumen (9) Pe’ Net machine P' è3 =power (16)
ung w in cm /min Vwp in kW
y = mx + n (4) V Pe’ Netto-Antriebsleistung in kW
(5) F Cutting Spezifisches
force in N Zerspanvolumen Vw Stockin cm
removal V33/min kW
w rate (volume of (16)
log T = log C v + k log v c c (5)
V
wp
Zerspantes Werkstoffvolumen inP ' è =
cm /min
n: log
y =T c= x log +C n v + k log vinc N
Fm Schnittkraft (5) w
(4) workpieceVmaterial wp removed per
6) Taylor function:
Pe’ Netto-Antriebsleistung ininkW 3
cm3/min)
: Logarithmische b c-T-Abhängigkeit:
vSpanungsbreite in mm b Chip Vwp widthSpezifisches
17) Spezifisches
in mm Zerspanvolumen
Spanungsvolumen
unit in time cm
(spezifische
/min kW
Spanungsleistung):
3
V Zerspantes Werkstoffvolumen in cm /min
n: k
w
P ’ Netto-Antriebsleistung in kW
T =hC v v cvSpanungsdicke
: Logarithmische (6)
c-T-Abhängigkeit:
in mm h Undeformed
(6) chip thickness
e
Vwp Vw Spezifisches
Vwp Specific stock removal 3
Zerspanvolumen 3in cm /min kW
17) Spezifisches Spanungsvolumen rate •(spezifische /min Spanungsleistung):
log 1-mT = clogdimensionsloser
C v + k log v c Anstiegswert (5)in mm der spezifischen Zerspantes Werkstoffvolumen
Schnittkraft V A v volume
A
in cm
of workpiece
v ma-
1 and
n: where: k V wp V 2 wp =
Spezifisches w
= terial
Zerspanvolumen c removed
= in per
cm c3 unit time
/min = kW (17)
n: T: StandzeitT =kTTool
log
T:
in
=v log
Cc1.1 min
v c Hauptwert
life in + k logder
C vminutes v c spezifischen 1-m (6) Dimensionless
(5) Schnittkraft in N/mm
index reflecting Pc SpanungsvolumenF per
v unit kofc power A v supplied k
c 17) Spezifisches V A v c 3/(minA• kW)
c c vc ) (spezifische
c 1c Spanungs
vc: Cutting speed in m/min
vc: Schnittgeschwindigkeit in m/min the increase of the specific = in cm
Vwp = w Spanungsvolumen = = Spanungsleistung):(17)
k 17) Spezifisches (spezifische
T: Steigung T = Cder
Standzeit v Überschlägige
in vGeraden
min (6) cutting force Pc Fc v c k c A v c k c
k: T = 10)
k: C
Gradient
ck Größe der Vorschubkraft:
im Standzeitdiagramm
v v c of the straight line in (6) 18)(kSpezifisches
= tan())
Spanungsvolumen 17) Specific Vw(Zahlenwertgleichung):
stockA removal
v c rate:A v c 1
n:Cvc:: Schnittgeschwindigkeit
Standzeit the Ttool-life
für v plot
= 1 (k
in
=
m/min.m/min
tan(α)) k Specific cutting force in N/mm 2 V = V A = v A= vc 1 =
v c c1.1 wp
T: Standzeit in min Vwp = P=c w c
F = v k = A v(17) k c (17)
T:k: Standzeit
Steigung der in min Geraden im Standzeitdiagramm Ff 0,3 18)(k = tan())
FcSpezifisches Spanungsvolumen
(10) Pc (Zahlenwertgleichung):
Fc v cc k cc A v cc k c c
n:vc: Schnittgeschwindigkeit
Cv: Tool life T for unit cutting in m/minspeed 10) Approximate magnitude of feed Vw 60000
ervCTaylor-Gleichung
cv: :Schnittgeschwindigkeit
Standzeit
T = (v
C T fürk ergibt
c v= 1vm/min.)
vc = 1 sichm/min.
in m/min force:
(6) Vwp = = (18)
k: Steigung der Geraden c im Standzeitdiagramm (k = tan()) 18) Spezifisches
18) Spezifisches P 18) k
Spanungsvolumen
Numerical
Spanungsvolumen equation (Zahlenwertgleichung)
for specific
(Zahlenwertgleichung):
k: Steigung11) der 1 Überschlägige
Geraden
k Größe von Vorschub-
im Standzeitdiagramm und Passivkraft: Vw
(k = tan()) c 60000 c
T =Taylor
The
Cv: Standzeit C vkTequation
vfür
c vc = can 1 be rearranged
m/min. Ff ≈(6)0,3 Fc (10) Vwp 85 = stock
= removal rate: (18)
erCT: v = Tin min
Taylor-Gleichung
v:Standzeit
Standzeit C ergibt sich
tocyield: T fürT vc = 1 m/min.
(6a) Pc kc
VwV 60000 3
vkennzeichnende
c: Standzeit
1
Schnittgeschwindigkeit inder
m/min F11)
P FVf wp 0,3 spezifische
Approximate Fmagnitude
c
Spanungsleistung
of feed (11)
and V wp = =
in=w cm /min Kw
60000 (18)
d T: in min Größen Schnittbedingungen: 85 V wp P =k 3 (18)
er Taylor-Gleichung
v = T k
C ergibt
(6a) sich passive
(6a) V wforce: zerspantes Werkstoffvolumen cPin cm c /min
3 k
er vk: Steigungc
Taylor-Gleichung der Geraden
c: Schnittgeschwindigkeit
T
ergibt sich iminStandzeitdiagramm
m/min Vwp(k = tan())
spezifische Spanungsleistung inc cm /min c Kw
ennzeichnende 12) 1
Wirkleistung:
1kT Größen
1 P Schnittleistung in kW
C 7) CT, Cvder
v c =CTTand
k:v:Steigung
Standzeit C k are
für
Geraden = 1der
kvc quantities
Schnittbedingungen:
m/min.
im that
Standzeitdiagramm FP ≈ FfV
(6a) ≈w0,3
c
(k =Fc tan())
(11)
zerspantes Vwp Werkstoffvolumen Vwp Specific
spezifische Spanungsleistung in2cm stock3 removal
in cm3/min rate
/min Kw in
characterize k = the
T cutting conditions: (7) cm3/(min • kW)
vc = T CT (6a) c k
Pc cutting
spezifische
Vwp V spezifische
Schnittleistung
Schnittkraft in N/mm
Spanungsleistung
in3 kW Werkstoffvolumen
zerspantes in cm3in /min cm3/min Kw
Cv: Standzeit T1 für vc = 1 m/min. 12) Effective power: w
Pe = F60000 e ve = Konstante
Pc + VwPf Pc in cm (12)
N/mm 2
min 2kW rateinincm 3
inN/mm
lor-Gleichungen:
er Taylor-Gleichung
C T = C k ergibt (7) sich (7) kc spezifische zerspantes
Schnittleistung
Schnittkraft Werkstoffvolumen
Vwin Stock removal
kW cm3/min
/min
8) Extended Taylor
1 equation: P e = Fe ⋅ ve = P c + P P
f c
(12) k c Schnittleistung
spezifische
3 in
Schnittkraft
2 kW in N/mm 2
er Taylor-Gleichung ergibt sich 60000 Konstante in cm N/mm min kW
Pc 3 Cutting power in kW2
-Gleichungen: v c =13) T k1 Schnittleistung:
CCT1 (6a) 19) Theoretische
13) Cutting power: c k 60000 Rautiefe: cm N/mm2 min
Konstante inSchnittkraft
spezifische in N/mm kW
T = ck c f k (8) (8)
kccm
Specific
3 cutting
2 force in N/mm2
v c = aT a Cf T vc (6a)19) Theoretische 60000 Konstante Rautiefe: in N/mm min kW
PPcc = FFc c⋅ v cvc(13) 19) Theoretische
(13) Rautiefe:
C1 2 f2
T= c c
(8) R = r r (19)
T: f f vc k
aWerkzeugstandzeit
a
in min t , th
19) Theoretische Rautiefe: 42 2
vc 14)Monograph
Vorschubleistung:
56Schnittgeschwindigkeit
| DKI in m/min 2 f 2 f
i.18 R t ,th = r R tr,th =r r (19)
(19)
f Vorschub (pro Umdrehung ) in mm 4 4
Werkzeugstandzeit in min
zifisches Spanungsvolumen (Zahlenwertgleichung):
Vw 60000
Vwp = = (18)
Pc kc
K1 = th1 ⋅ R + Kfix + KW1 = Kth1 + Kfix + KW1 (24) κ = Tool cutting edge angle
f2
2
g R t ,th = r r (19)
where:
(19) 87 ϕs = Angle of cutter engagement
4
g 20) Approximate
2 expression for theo- K1 Total fabrication cost per unit 87hm = Average thickness of
retically f
achievable peak-to-valley product
g
oretische Tautiefe,
R t ,th überschläglich: (20) in € 87
undeformed chip
roughness:8 r2
f h1 t Machining time per part in ap = Depth of cut (feed)
ang R t ,th (20)
minutes 87
8f 2r
etisch einzustellender
R t ,th Vorschub
(20) bei vorgegebener Rautiefe
(20) und vorgegebe- a = Working engagement
8 r 2 Kfix Fixed costs in € (independent of (radial depth of cut)
nradius: f cutting speed v )
etisch einzustellender
R t ,th feed Vorschub bei vorgegebener Rautiefe (20) und vorgegebe-
c
21) Theoretical 8 r setting required for D = Diameter of milling cutter
nradius:
etisch a specified peak-to-valley
einzustellender Vorschubroughness Kth1 Machining
bei vorgegebener costs in
Rautiefe € vorgegebe-
und
f a 8given
and r Rnose
t , th radius: (21)
nradius: R Cost rate for operator und
and vorgegebe-
eoretisch einzustellender Vorschub bei vorgegebener Rautiefe
f 8 r R t ,th (21) machine
(21)(excluding tool costs)
ckenradius:
eugkosten je Standzeit: in €/min
f Tool8costs
22) r R
pert , thtool life: (21)
11 Anhang 25) Cost-optimized tool life:
88
eugkosten je Standzeit:
f K8Wa r R t ,th (21)
eugkosten je K WT =
Standzeit: + K Ww (+ K Ws ) (22) (22)
n T 11 Anhang (k 1) K WT 88
K Wa 11 Anhang ToK = (25) (25) 88
rkzeugkosten K =
je Standzeit: Ww
where:
WT + K ( + K Ws ) (22) R
KWT Tool K nWa
K WT = costs
T per tool life in €
euten + K Ww (+ K Ws ) where:
(kk 11))K
TToK == ((22) KWTWT (25)
n T worin bedeuten oK R (25)
KWa PurchaseKprice of tool in € ToK = Cost-optimized
R tool life in min
uten K
erkzeugkosten je Standzeit
= Wa
+
ToK =Ww K (+ K )
kostenoptimale (22)
Standzeit in min
nintool
WT Ws
Symbol or
Unit Name/Description
abbreviation
ap mm Depth of cut
ε % Degree of deformation
fh - Correction factor that accounts for the influence of the uncut chip thickness on the cutting force
Fa N Active force
Fc N Cutting force
Fe N Effective force
Ff N Feed force
Fp N Passive force
Ft N Tangential force
HB - Brinell hardness
HM - Carbide
K - Crater ratio
KB mm Crater width
KT mm Crater depth
KM dimensioned Constant; dependent on type of drill, tool material and work material
MD Nm Torque
Pc kW Cutting power
Pf kW Feed power
Q cm3/min Material removal rate or stock removal rate (volume of work material removed per unit time)
VwP cm3/min ⋅ kW Specific stock removal rate (material removal rate per unit of machine power)
[27]
Voss: Optimierung spanender Fertigung
[Optimizing of machining processes]
Technischer Verlag Resch KG,
Gräfelfing: 1976
[28]
Burmester und Burmester: Schnitt-
datenoptimierung an simultan
spanenden Werkzeug-Kollektiven
[Cutting data optimizing of
simultaneously machining tools]
Technisches Zentralblatt für Metall-
bearbeitung, 1981
[29]
Spenrath, N. M.: Technologische
Aspekte zum Feinstdrehen von
Kupferspiegeln
[Technological aspects of micro-turning
of copper reflectors]
Dissertation RWTH Aachen, 1991
[30]
Linke, B.: Wirkmechanismen beim
Abrichten von keramisch gebundenen
Schleifscheiben
[MOA of true running vitrified bonded
grinding wheels]
Dissertation RWTH Aachen: 2007
[31]
Riemer, O.: Trennmechanismen und
Oberflächenfeingestalt bei der
Mikrozerspanung kristalliner und
amorpher Werkstoffe
[Separation mechanism and surface
finish of micro precision machining of
crystalline and amorphous materials]
Dissertation Universität Bremen, 2001
Am Bonneshof 5
40474 Düsseldorf
Telefon: (0211) 4 79 63 00
Telefax: (0211) 4 79 63 10
info@kupferinstitut.de
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