Multithreaded Programming Guide: Sun Microsystems, Inc. 4150 Network Circle Santa Clara, CA 95054 U.S.A

Multithreaded Programming Guide
Sun Microsystems, Inc.

4150 Network Circle
Santa Clara, CA 95054
U.S.A.
Part No: 816–5137–10

January 2005
Copyright 2005 Sun Microsystems, Inc. 4150 Network Circle, Santa Clara, CA 95054 U.S.A. All rights reserved.
This product or document is protected by copyright and distributed under licenses restricting its use, copying, distribution, and decompilation. No
part of this product or document may be reproduced in any form by any means without prior written authorization of Sun and its licensors, if any.
Third-party software, including font technology, is copyrighted and licensed from Sun suppliers.
Parts of the product may be derived from Berkeley BSD systems, licensed from the University of California. UNIX is a registered trademark in the U.S.
and other countries, exclusively licensed through X/Open Company, Ltd.
Sun, Sun Microsystems, the Sun logo, docs.sun.com, AnswerBook, AnswerBook2, and Solaris are trademarks or registered trademarks of Sun
Microsystems, Inc. in the U.S. and other countries. All SPARC trademarks are used under license and are trademarks or registered trademarks of
SPARC International, Inc. in the U.S. and other countries. Products bearing SPARC trademarks are based upon an architecture developed by Sun
Microsystems, Inc.
The OPEN LOOK and Sun™ Graphical User Interface was developed by Sun Microsystems, Inc. for its users and licensees. Sun acknowledges the
pioneering efforts of Xerox in researching and developing the concept of visual or graphical user interfaces for the computer industry. Sun holds a
non-exclusive license from Xerox to the Xerox Graphical User Interface, which license also covers Sun’s licensees who implement OPEN LOOK GUIs
and otherwise comply with Sun’s written license agreements.
U.S. Government Rights – Commercial software. Government users are subject to the Sun Microsystems, Inc. standard license agreement and
applicable provisions of the FAR and its supplements.
DOCUMENTATION IS PROVIDED “AS IS” AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED CONDITIONS, REPRESENTATIONS AND WARRANTIES,
INCLUDING ANY IMPLIED WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR NON-INFRINGEMENT, ARE
DISCLAIMED, EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT THAT SUCH DISCLAIMERS ARE HELD TO BE LEGALLY INVALID.
Copyright 2005 Sun Microsystems, Inc. 4150 Network Circle, Santa Clara, CA 95054 U.S.A. Tous droits réservés.
Ce produit ou document est protégé par un copyright et distribué avec des licences qui en restreignent l’utilisation, la copie, la distribution, et la
décompilation. Aucune partie de ce produit ou document ne peut être reproduite sous aucune forme, par quelque moyen que ce soit, sans
l’autorisation préalable et écrite de Sun et de ses bailleurs de licence, s’il y en a. Le logiciel détenu par des tiers, et qui comprend la technologie relative
aux polices de caractères, est protégé par un copyright et licencié par des fournisseurs de Sun.
Des parties de ce produit pourront être dérivées du système Berkeley BSD licenciés par l’Université de Californie. UNIX est une marque déposée aux
Etats-Unis et dans d’autres pays et licenciée exclusivement par X/Open Company, Ltd.
Sun, Sun Microsystems, le logo Sun, docs.sun.com, AnswerBook, AnswerBook2, et Solaris sont des marques de fabrique ou des marques déposées, de
Sun Microsystems, Inc. aux Etats-Unis et dans d’autres pays. Toutes les marques SPARC sont utilisées sous licence et sont des marques de fabrique ou
des marques déposées de SPARC International, Inc. aux Etats-Unis et dans d’autres pays. Les produits portant les marques SPARC sont basés sur une
architecture développée par Sun Microsystems, Inc.
L’interface d’utilisation graphique OPEN LOOK et Sun™ a été développée par Sun Microsystems, Inc. pour ses utilisateurs et licenciés. Sun reconnaît
les efforts de pionniers de Xerox pour la recherche et le développement du concept des interfaces d’utilisation visuelle ou graphique pour l’industrie
de l’informatique. Sun détient une licence non exclusive de Xerox sur l’interface d’utilisation graphique Xerox, cette licence couvrant également les
licenciés de Sun qui mettent en place l’interface d’utilisation graphique OPEN LOOK et qui en outre se conforment aux licences écrites de Sun.
CETTE PUBLICATION EST FOURNIE “EN L’ETAT” ET AUCUNE GARANTIE, EXPRESSE OU IMPLICITE, N’EST ACCORDEE, Y COMPRIS DES
GARANTIES CONCERNANT LA VALEUR MARCHANDE, L’APTITUDE DE LA PUBLICATION A REPONDRE A UNE UTILISATION
PARTICULIERE, OU LE FAIT QU’ELLE NE SOIT PAS CONTREFAISANTE DE PRODUIT DE TIERS. CE DENI DE GARANTIE NE
S’APPLIQUERAIT PAS, DANS LA MESURE OU IL SERAIT TENU JURIDIQUEMENT NUL ET NON AVENU.
040915@9495
Contents
Preface 11
1 Covering Multithreading Basics 15

Defining Multithreading Terms 15
Meeting Multithreading Standards 17
Benefiting From Multithreading 17
Improving Application Responsiveness 17
Using Multiprocessors Efficiently 18
Improving Program Structure 18
Using Fewer System Resources 18
Combining Threads and RPC 18
Multithreading Concepts 19
Concurrency and Parallelism 19
Looking at Multithreading Structure 19
Thread Scheduling 20
Thread Cancellation 20
Thread Synchronization 21
Using the 64-bit Architecture 21
2 Basic Threads Programming 23

The Threads Library 23
Creating a Default Thread 23
Waiting for Thread Termination 25
Simple Threads Example 26
Detaching a Thread 27
Creating a Key for Thread-Specific Data 28
3
Deleting the Thread-Specific Data Key 29
Setting Thread-Specific Data 30
Getting Thread-Specific Data 30
Getting the Thread Identifier 33
Comparing Thread IDs 34
Initializing Threads 34
Yielding Thread Execution 35
Setting the Thread Priority 35
Getting the Thread Priority 36
Sending a Signal to a Thread 37
Accessing the Signal Mask of the Calling Thread 37
Forking Safely 38
Terminating a Thread 39
Finishing Up 39
Cancel a Thread 40
Cancelling a Thread 41
Enabling or Disabling Cancellation 42
Setting Cancellation Type 43
Creating a Cancellation Point 43
Pushing a Handler Onto the Stack 44
Pulling a Handler Off the Stack 44
3 Thread Attributes 47
Attribute Object 47
Initializing Attributes 48
Destroying Attributes 49
Setting Detach State 50
Getting the Detach State 51
Setting the Stack Guard Size 52
Getting the Stack Guard Size 53
Setting the Scope 53
Getting the Scope 54
Setting the Thread Concurrency Level 55
Getting the Thread Concurrency Level 55
Setting the Scheduling Policy 56
Getting the Scheduling Policy 57
Setting the Inherited Scheduling Policy 58
Getting the Inherited Scheduling Policy 58
4 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

Setting the Scheduling Parameters 59
Getting the Scheduling Parameters 60
Setting the Stack Size 61
Getting the Stack Size 62
About Stacks 63
Setting the Stack Address and Size 64
Getting the Stack Address and Size 65
4 Programming with Synchronization Objects 67

Mutual Exclusion Lock Attributes 68
Initializing a Mutex Attribute Object 70
Destroying a Mutex Attribute Object 70
Setting the Scope of a Mutex 71
Getting the Scope of a Mutex 72
Setting the Mutex Type Attribute 72
Getting the Mutex Type Attribute 74
Setting the Mutex Attribute’s Protocol 74
Getting the Mutex Attribute’s Protocol 76
Setting the Mutex Attribute’s Priority Ceiling 77
Getting the Mutex Attribute’s Priority Ceiling 78
Setting the Mutex’s Priority Ceiling 79
Getting the Mutex’s Priority Ceiling 80
Setting the Mutex’s Robust Attribute 81
Getting the Mutex’s Robust Attribute 83
Using Mutual Exclusion Locks 84
Initializing a Mutex 84
Making a Mutex Consistent 86
Locking a Mutex 87
Unlocking a Mutex 88
Locking With a Nonblocking Mutex 89
Destroying a Mutex 91
Code Examples of Mutex Locking 91
Condition Variable Attributes 95
Initializing a Condition Variable Attribute 96
Removing a Condition Variable Attribute 97
Setting the Scope of a Condition Variable 98
Getting the Scope of a Condition Variable 99
Using Condition Variables 100
5
Initializing a Condition Variable 100
Blocking on a Condition Variable 101
Unblocking One Thread 103
Blocking Until a Specified Time 104
Blocking For a Specified Interval 105
Unblocking All Threads 106
Destroying the Condition Variable State 108
Lost Wake-Up Problem 108
Producer and Consumer Problem 109
Synchronization With Semaphores 111
Named and Unnamed Semaphores 113
Counting Semaphores Overview 113
Initializing a Semaphore 114
Incrementing a Semaphore 115
Blocking on a Semaphore Count 116
Decrementing a Semaphore Count 117
Destroying the Semaphore State 117
Producer and Consumer Problem Using Semaphores 118
Read-Write Lock Attributes 119
Initializing a Read-Write Lock Attribute 120
Destroying a Read-Write Lock Attribute 121
Setting a Read-Write Lock Attribute 121
Getting a Read-Write Lock Attribute 122
Using Read-Write Locks 123
Initializing a Read-Write Lock 123
Acquiring the Read Lock on Read-Write Lock 124
Reading a Lock With a Nonblocking Read-Write Lock 125
Writing a Lock on Read-Write Lock 125
Writing a Lock With a Nonblocking Read-Write Lock 126
Unlocking a Read-Write Lock 127
Destroying a Read-Write Lock 128
Synchronization Across Process Boundaries 129
Producer and Consumer Problem Example 129
Comparing Primitives 130
5 Programming With the Solaris Software 133

Forking Issues in Process Creation 133
Fork-One Model 134

Fork-All Model 136
Choosing the Right Fork 137
Process Creation: exec and exit Issues 137
Timers, Alarms, and Profiling 138
Per-LWP POSIX Timers 138
Per-Thread Alarms 139
Profiling a Multithreaded Program 139
Nonlocal Goto: setjmp and longjmp 140
Resource Limits 140
LWPs and Scheduling Classes 140
Timeshare Scheduling 141
Realtime Scheduling 141
Fair Share Scheduling 142
Fixed Priority Scheduling 142
Extending Traditional Signals 142
Synchronous Signals 143
Asynchronous Signals 144
Continuation Semantics 144
Operations on Signals 145
Thread-Directed Signals 147
Completion Semantics 148
Signal Handlers and Async-Signal Safety 149
Interrupted Waits on Condition Variables 151
I/O Issues 152
I/O as a Remote Procedure Call 152
Tamed Asynchrony 152
Asynchronous I/O 153
Shared I/O and New I/O System Calls 154
Alternatives to getc and putc 155
6 Safe and Unsafe Interfaces 157

Thread Safety 157
MT Interface Safety Levels 158
Re-entrant Functions for Unsafe Interfaces 159
Async-Signal-Safe Functions 160
MT Safety Levels for Libraries 161
Unsafe Libraries 161
7
7 Compiling and Debugging 163
Compiling a Multithreaded Application 163
Preparing for Compilation 163
Choosing Solaris or POSIX Semantics 164
Including <thread.h> or <pthread.h> 164
Defining _REENTRANT or _POSIX_C_SOURCE 165
Linking With libthread or libpthread 165
Linking With -lrt for POSIX Semaphores 167
Linking Old Modules With New Modules 167
Alternate Threads Library 168
Debugging a Multithreaded Program 168
Common Oversights in Multithreaded Programs 168
Tracing and Debugging With the TNF Utilities 169
Using truss 169
Using mdb 169
Using dbx 170
8 Programming With Solaris Threads 173

Comparing APIs for Solaris Threads and POSIX Threads 173
Major API Differences 174
Function Comparison Table 174
Unique Solaris Threads Functions 178
Suspending Thread Execution 178
Continuing a Suspended Thread 179
Similar Synchronization Functions—Read-Write Locks 180
Initialize a Read-Write Lock 180
Acquiring a Read Lock 181
Trying to Acquire a Read Lock 182
Acquiring a Write Lock 183
Trying to Acquire a Write Lock 183
Unlock a Read-Write Lock 184
Destroying the Read-Write Lock State 185
Similar Solaris Threads Functions 186
Creating a Thread 186
Getting the Minimal Stack Size 189
Acquiring the Thread Identifier 190
Yield Thread Execution 190
Send a Signal to a Thread 190

Access the Signal Mask of the Calling Thread 191
Terminate a Thread 192
Wait for Thread Termination 192
Creating a Thread-Specific Data Key 194
Setting the Thread-Specific Data Value 194
Getting the Thread-Specific Data Value 195
Set the Thread Priority 195
Get the Thread Priority 196
Similar Synchronization Functions—Mutual Exclusion Locks 197
Initialize a Mutex 197
Destroy a Mutex 199
Acquiring a Mutex 200
Releasing a Mutex 200
Trying to Acquire a Mutex 201
Similar Synchronization Functions: Condition Variables 201
Initialize a Condition Variable 201
Destroying a Condition Variable 203
Waiting for a Condition 203
Wait for an Absolute Time 204
Waiting for a Time Interval 205
Unblock One Thread 205
Unblock All Threads 206
Similar Synchronization Functions: Semaphores 206
Initialize a Semaphore 207
Increment a Semaphore 208
Block on a Semaphore Count 208
Decrement a Semaphore Count 209
Destroy the Semaphore State 209
Synchronizing Across Process Boundaries 210
Example of Producer and Consumer Problem 210
Special Issues for fork() and Solaris Threads 212
9 Programming Guidelines 213

Rethinking Global Variables 213
Providing for Static Local Variables 214
Synchronizing Threads 215
Single-Threaded Strategy 216
Re-entrant Function 216
9
Avoiding Deadlock 218
Deadlocks Related to Scheduling 219
Locking Guidelines 219
Some Basic Guidelines for Threaded Code 220
Creating and Using Threads 221
Working With Multiprocessors 221
Underlying Architecture 222
Examples of Threads Programs 226
Further Reading 226
A Sample Application: Multithreaded grep 227

Description of tgrep 227
B Solaris Threads Example: barrier.c 253
Index 257

Preface
The Multithreaded Programming Guide describes the multithreaded programming

interfaces for POSIX® threads and Solaris threads in the Solaris™ Operating System
(Solaris OS). This guide shows application programmers how to create new
multithreaded programs and how to add multithreading to existing programs.
Although this guide covers both the POSIX and Solaris threads interfaces, most topics
assume a POSIX threads interest. Information applying to only Solaris threads is
covered in a special chapter.
To understand this guide, a reader must be familiar with concurrent programming

concepts.
■ A UNIX® SVR4 system - preferably the Solaris release.
■ The C programming language - multithreading interfaces are provided by the
standard C library.
■ The principles of concurrent programming (as opposed to sequential
programming).
Note – This Solaris release supports systems that use the SPARC® and x86 families of
processor architectures: UltraSPARC®, SPARC64, AMD64, Pentium, and Xeon EM64T.
The supported systems appear in the Solaris 10 Hardware Compatibility List at
http://www.sun.com/bigadmin/hcl. This document cites any implementation
differences between the platform types.
In this document the term “x86” refers to 64-bit and 32-bit systems manufactured
using processors compatible with the AMD64 or Intel Xeon/Pentium product families.
For supported systems, see the Solaris 10 Hardware Compatibility List.
11
How This Guide Is Organized
Chapter 1 gives a structural overview of threads implementation in this release.
Chapter 2 discusses the general POSIX threads routines, emphasizing creating a thread
with default attributes.
Chapter 3 covers creating a thread with nondefault attributes.
Chapter 4 covers the threads synchronization routines.
Chapter 5 discusses changes to the operating environment to support multithreading.
Chapter 6 covers multithreading safety issues.
Chapter 7 covers the basics of compiling and debugging multithreaded applications.
Chapter 8 covers the Solaris threads (as opposed to POSIX threads) interfaces.
Chapter 9 discusses issues that affect programmers writing multithreaded

applications.
Appendix A shows how code can be designed for POSIX threads.
Appendix B shows an example of building a barrier in Solaris threads.
Accessing Sun Documentation Online

The docs.sun.comSM Web site enables you to access Sun technical documentation
online. You can browse the docs.sun.com archive or search for a specific book title or
subject. The URL is http://docs.sun.com.
Related Books
Multithreading requires a different way of thinking about function interactions. The
following books are recommended reading.
■ Concurrent Programming by Alan Burns & Geoff Davies (Addison-Wesley, 1993)
■ Distributed Algorithms and Protocols by Michel Raynal (Wiley, 1988)

■ Operating System Concepts by Silberschatz, Peterson, & Galvin (Addison-Wesley,
1991)
■ Principles of Concurrent Programming by M. Ben-Ari (Prentice-Hall, 1982)
■ Programming with Threads by Steve Kleiman, Devang Shah, & Bart Smalders
(Prentice Hall, 1996)
What Typographic Conventions Mean

The following table describes the typographic changes used in this book.
TABLE P–1 Typographic Conventions
Typeface or
Symbol Meaning Example
AaBbCc123 The names of commands, files, and Edit your .login file.
directories; on-screen computer output
Use ls -a to list all files.
machine_name% you have
mail.
AaBbCc123 What you type, contrasted with on-screen machine_name% su

computer output Password:
AaBbCc123 Command-line placeholder: replace with To delete a file, type rm

a real name or value filename.
AaBbCc123 Book titles, new words, or terms, or Read Chapter 6 in User’s Guide.
words to be emphasized.
These are called class options.
You must be root to do this.
Shell Prompts in Command Examples

The following table shows the default system prompt and superuser prompt for the C
shell, Bourne shell, and Korn shell.
13
TABLE P–2 Shell Prompts
Shell Prompt
C shell prompt machine_name%
C shell superuser prompt machine_name#
Bourne shell and Korn shell prompt $
Bourne shell and Korn shell superuser prompt #

CHAPTER 1
Covering Multithreading Basics
The word multithreading can be translated as multiple threads of control or multiple flows
of control. While a traditional UNIX process contains a single thread of control,
multithreading (MT) separates a process into many execution threads. Each of these
threads runs independently.
This chapter explains some multithreading terms, benefits, and concepts. If you are
ready to start using multithreading, skip to Chapter 2.
■ “Defining Multithreading Terms” on page 15
■ “Meeting Multithreading Standards” on page 17
■ “Benefiting From Multithreading” on page 17
■ “Multithreading Concepts” on page 19
Defining Multithreading Terms

Table 1–1 introduces some of the terms that are used in this book.
TABLE 1–1 Multithreading Terms
Term Definition
Process The UNIX environment, such as file descriptors, user ID, and
so on, created with the fork(2) system call, which is set up
to run a program.
Thread A sequence of instructions executed within the context of a

process.
POSIX pthreads A threads interface that is POSIX threads compliant.
15
TABLE 1–1 Multithreading Terms (Continued)
Term Definition
Solaris threads A Sun Microsystems™ threads interface that is not POSIX

threads compliant. A predecessor of pthreads.
Single-threaded Restricted access to a single thread.
Multithreading Allows access to two or more threads.
User-level or Application-level Threads managed by threads routines in user as opposed to

threads kernel space.
Lightweight processes Kernel threads, also called LWPs, that execute kernel code and
system calls. Beginning with Solaris 9, every thread has a
dedicated LWP.
Bound thread (obsolete term) Prior to Solaris 9, a user-level thread that is permanently
bound to one LWP. Beginning with Solaris 9, every thread has
a dedicated LWP.
Unbound thread (obsolete Prior to Solaris 9, a user-level thread that is not necessarily
term) bound to one LWP. Beginning with Solaris 9, every thread has
a dedicated LWP.
Attribute object Contains opaque data types and related manipulation

functions. These data types and functions standardize some of
the configurable aspects of POSIX threads, mutual exclusion
locks (mutexes), and condition variables.
Mutual exclusion locks Functions that lock and unlock access to shared data.
Condition variables Functions that block threads until a change of state.
Read-write locks Functions that allow multiple read-only access to shared data,
but exclusive access for modification of that data.
Counting semaphore A memory-based synchronization mechanism.
Parallelism A condition that arises when at least two threads are executing
simultaneously.
Concurrency A condition that exists when at least two threads are making
progress. A more generalized form of parallelism that can
include time-slicing as a form of virtual parallelism.

Meeting Multithreading Standards
The concept of multithreaded programming goes back to at least the 1960s.
Multithreaded programming development on UNIX systems began in the middle
1980s. While an agreement exists about what multithreading is and the features
necessary to support multithreading, the interfaces used to implement multithreading
have varied greatly.
For several years, POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface) 1003.4a has been
working on standards for multithreaded programming. The standard has now been
ratified.
This Multithreaded Programming Guide is based on the POSIX standard IEEE Std
1003.1 1996 Edition (also known as ISO/IEC 9945–1 Second edition). These features
are also present in the latest revision of the POSIX standard IEEE Std 1003.1:2001 (also
known as ISO/IEC 9945:2002 and as The Single UNIX Specification, Version 3).
Subjects specific to Solaris threads are covered in the Chapter 8.
Benefiting From Multithreading

This section briefly describes the benefits of multithreading.
Multithreading your code can

■ Improve application responsiveness
■ Use multiprocessors more efficiently
■ Improve program structure
■ Use fewer system resources
Improving Application Responsiveness

Any program in which many activities are not dependent upon each other can be
redesigned so that each activity is defined as a thread. For example, the user of a
multithreaded GUI does not have to wait for one activity to complete before starting
another activity.
Chapter 1 • Covering Multithreading Basics 17

Using Multiprocessors Efficiently
Typically, applications that express concurrency requirements with threads need not
take into account the number of available processors. The performance of the
application improves transparently with additional processors.
Numerical algorithms and numerical applications with a high degree of parallelism,

such as matrix multiplications, can run much faster when implemented with threads
on a multiprocessor.
Improving Program Structure

Many programs are more efficiently structured as multiple independent or
semi-independent units of execution instead of as a single, monolithic thread.
Multithreaded programs can be more adaptive to variations in user demands than
single-threaded programs.
Using Fewer System Resources

Programs that use two or more processes that access common data through shared
memory are applying more than one thread of control.
However, each process has a full address space and operating environment state. Cost
of creating and maintaining this large amount of state information makes each process
much more expensive than a thread in both time and space.
In addition, the inherent separation between processes can require a major effort by
the programmer. This effort includes handling communication between the threads in
different processes, or synchronizing their actions.
Combining Threads and RPC

By combining threads and a remote procedure call (RPC) package, you can exploit
nonshared-memory multiprocessors, such as a collection of workstations. This
combination distributes your application relatively easily and treats the collection of
workstations as a multiprocessor.
For example, one thread might create additional threads. Each of these children could
then place a remote procedure call, invoking a procedure on another workstation.
Although the original thread has merely created threads that are now running in
parallel, this parallelism involves other computers.

Multithreading Concepts
This section introduces basic concepts of multithreading.
Concurrency and Parallelism

In a multithreaded process on a single processor, the processor can switch execution
resources between threads, resulting in concurrent execution.
In the same multithreaded process in a shared-memory multiprocessor environment,

each thread in the process can run concurrently on a separate processor, resulting in
parallel execution. When the process has fewer or as many threads as the number of
processors, the threads support system in conjunction with the operating environment
ensure that each thread runs on a different processor. For example, in a matrix
multiplication that has the same number of threads and processors, each thread and
each processor computes a row of the result.
Looking at Multithreading Structure

Traditional UNIX already supports the concept of threads. Each process contains a
single thread, so programming with multiple processes is programming with multiple
threads. But, a process is also an address space, and creating a process involves
creating a new address space.
Creating a thread is less expensive than creating a new process because the newly
created thread uses the current process address space. The time that is required to
switch between threads is less than the time required to switch between processes. A
switch between threads is faster because no switching between address spaces occurs.
Communication between the threads of one process is simple because the threads
share everything, address space, in particular. So, data produced by one thread is
immediately available to all the other threads.
In Solaris 9 and earlier Solaris releases, the interface to multithreading support was
through specific subroutine libraries. The libraries are libpthread for POSIX
threads, and libthread for Solaris threads. Multithreading provides flexibility by
decoupling kernel-level and user-level resources. In the current release, multithreading
support for both sets of interfaces is provided by the standard C library.
User-Level Threads
Threads are the primary programming interface in multithreaded programming.
Threads are visible only from within the process, where the threads share all process
resources like address space, open files, and so on.

User-Level Threads State
The following state is unique to each thread.
■ Thread ID
■ Register state, including PC and stack pointer
■ Stack
■ Signal mask
■ Priority
■ Thread-private storage
Threads share the process instructions and most of the process data. For that reason, a
change in shared data by one thread can be seen by the other threads in the process.
When a thread needs to interact with other threads in the same process, the thread can
do so without involving the operating environment.
Note – User-level threads are so named to distinguish them from kernel-level threads,
which are the concern of systems programmers only. Because this book is for
application programmers, kernel-level threads are not discussed.
Thread Scheduling
The POSIX standard specifies three scheduling policies: first-in-first-out
(SCHED_FIFO), round-robin (SCHED_RR), and custom (SCHED_OTHER). SCHED_FIFO
is a queue-based scheduler with different queues for each priority level. SCHED_RR is
like FIFO except that each thread has an execution time quota.
Both SCHED_FIFO and SCHED_RR are POSIX Realtime extensions. SCHED_OTHER is

the default scheduling policy.
See “LWPs and Scheduling Classes” on page 140 for information about the
SCHED_OTHER policy.
Two scheduling scopes are available: process scope (PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS) and

system scope (PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM). Threads with differing scope states can
coexist on the same system and even in the same process. Process scope causes such
threads to contend for resources only with other such threads in the same process.
System scope causes such threads to contend with all other threads in the system. In
practice, beginning with the Solaris 9 release\, the system makes no distinction
between these two scopes.
Thread Cancellation
A thread can request the termination of any other thread in the process. The target
thread, the one being cancelled, can keep cancellation requests pending as well as
perform application-specific cleanup when the thread acts upon the cancellation
request.

The pthreads cancellation feature permits either asynchronous or deferred termination
of a thread. Asynchronous cancellation can occur at any time. Deferred cancellation
can occur only at defined points. Deferred cancellation is the default type.
Thread Synchronization
Synchronization enables you to control program flow and access to shared data for
concurrently executing threads.
The four synchronization models are mutex locks, read/write locks, condition
variables, and semaphores.
■ Mutex locks allow only one thread at a time to execute a specific section of code, or
to access specific data.
■ Read/write locks permit concurrent reads and exclusive writes to a protected shared
resource. To modify a resource, a thread must first acquire the exclusive write lock.
An exclusive write lock is not permitted until all read locks have been released.
■ Condition variables block threads until a particular condition is true.
■ Counting semaphores typically coordinate access to resources. The count is the limit
on how many threads can have access to a semaphore. When the count is reached,
the semaphore blocks.
Using the 64-bit Architecture

For application developers, the major difference between the Solaris 64-bit and 32–bit
environments is the C–language data type model used. The 64-bit data type uses the
LP64 model where longs and pointers are 64 bits wide. All other fundamental data
types remain the same as the data types of the 32–bit implementation. The 32–bit data
type uses the ILP32 model where ints, longs, and pointers are 32 bits.
The following summary briefly describes the major features and considerations for
using the 64-bit environment:
■ Large Virtual Address Space
In the 64-bit environment, a process can have up to 64 bits of virtual address space,
or 18 exabytes. The larger virtual address space is 4 billion times the current 4
Gbyte maximum of a 32-bit process. Because of hardware restrictions, however,
some platforms might not support the full 64 bits of address space.
A large address space increases the number of threads that can be created with the
default stack size. The stack size is 1 megabyte on 32 bits, 2 megabytes on 64 bits.
The number of threads with the default stack size is approximately 2000 threads on
a 32–bit system and 8000 billion on a 64-bit system.

■ Kernel Memory Readers
The kernel is an LP64 object that uses 64-bit data structures internally. This means
that existing 32-bit applications that use libkvm, /dev/mem, or /dev/kmem do
not work properly and must be converted to 64-bit programs.
■ /proc Restrictions
A 32-bit program that uses /proc is able to look at 32-bit processes but is unable to
understand a 64-bit process. The existing interfaces and data structures that
describe the process are not large enough to contain the 64-bit quantities. Such
programs must be recompiled as 64-bit programs to work for both 32-bit processes
and 64-bit processes.
■ 64-bit Libraries
32–bit applications are required to link with 32–bit libraries and 64-bit applications
are required to link with 64-bit libraries. With the exception of those libraries that
have become obsolete, all of the system libraries are provided in both 32–bit
versions and 64-bit versions.
■ 64-bit Arithmetic
64-bit arithmetic has long been available in previous 32–bit Solaris releases. The
64-bit implementation now provides full 64-bit machine registers for integer
operations and parameter passing.
■ Large Files
If an application requires only large file support, the application can remain 32-bit
and use the Large Files interface. To take full advantage of 64-bit capabilities, the
application must be converted to 64-bit.

CHAPTER 2
Basic Threads Programming
This chapter introduces the basic threads programming routines for POSIX threads.
This chapter describes default threads, or threads with default attribute values, which
are the kind of threads that are most often used in multithreaded programming. This
chapter explains how to create and use threads with nondefault attributes.
The POSIX routines which are introduced here have programming interfaces that are
similar to the original Solaris multithreading library.
The Threads Library

The following brief roadmap directs you to the discussion of a particular task and its
associated man page.
Creating a Default Thread

When an attribute object is not specified, the object is NULL, and the default thread is
created with the following attributes:
■ Process scope
■ Nondetached
■ A default stack and stack size
■ A priority of zero
You can also create a default attribute object with pthread_attr_init(), and then
use this attribute object to create a default thread. See the section “Initializing
Attributes” on page 48 for details.
23
pthread_create Syntax
Use pthread_create(3C) to add a new thread of control to the current process.
int pthread_create(pthread_t *tid, const pthread_attr_t *tattr,
void*(*start_routine)(void *), void *arg);
#include <pthread.h>
pthread_attr_t() tattr;
pthread_t tid;
extern void *start_routine(void *arg);
void *arg;
int ret;
/* default behavior*/
ret = pthread_create(&tid, NULL, start_routine, arg);
/* initialized with default attributes */

ret = pthread_attr_init(&tattr);
/* default behavior specified*/
ret = pthread_create(&tid, &tattr, start_routine, arg);
The pthread_create() function is called with attr that has the necessary state
behavior. start_routine is the function with which the new thread begins execution.
When start_routine returns, the thread exits with the exit status set to the value
returned by start_routine. See “pthread_create Syntax” on page 24.
When pthread_create() is successful, the ID of the created thread is stored in the

location referred to as tid.
When you call pthread_create() with either a NULL attribute argument or a

default attribute, pthread_create() creates a default thread. When tattr is
initialized, the thread acquires the default behavior.
pthread_create Return Values

pthread_create() returns zero when the call completes successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions
are detected, pthread_create() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EAGAIN
Description: A system limit is exceeded, such as when too many threads have been
created.
EINVAL
Description: The value of tattr is invalid.

Waiting for Thread Termination
The pthread_join() function blocks the calling thread until the specified thread
terminates.
pthread_join Syntax
Use pthread_join(3C) to wait for a thread to terminate.
int pthread_join(thread_t tid, void **status);
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
void *status;
/* waiting to join thread "tid" with status */

ret = pthread_join(tid, &status);
/* waiting to join thread "tid" without status */

ret = pthread_join(tid, NULL);
The specified thread must be in the current process and must not be detached. For
information on thread detachment, see “Setting Detach State” on page 50.
When status is not NULL, status points to a location that is set to the exit status of the
terminated thread when pthread_join() returns successfully.
If multiple threads wait for the same thread to terminate, all the threads wait until the
target thread terminates. Then one waiting thread returns successfully. The other
waiting threads fail with an error of ESRCH.
After pthread_join() returns, any data storage associated with the terminated
thread can be reclaimed by the application.
pthread_join Return Values

pthread_join() returns zero when the call completes successfully. Any other return
value indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions are
detected, pthread_join() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ESRCH
Description: No thread could be found corresponding to the given thread ID.
EDEADLK
Description: A deadlock would exist, such as a thread waits for itself or thread A
waits for thread B and thread B waits for thread A.
Chapter 2 • Basic Threads Programming 25

EINVAL
Description: The thread corresponding to the given thread ID is a detached thread.
pthread_join() works only for target threads that are nondetached. When no
reason exists to synchronize with the termination of a particular thread, then that
thread should be detached.
Simple Threads Example

In Example 2–1, one thread executes the procedure at the top, creating a helper thread
that executes the procedure fetch(). fetch() executes a complicated database
lookup and might take some time.
The main thread awaits the results of the lookup but has other work to do in the
meantime. So, the main thread perform those other activities and then waits for its
helper to complete its job by executing pthread_join().
An argument, pbe, to the new thread is passed as a stack parameter. The thread
argument can be passed as a stack parameter because the main thread waits for the
spun-off thread to terminate. However, the preferred method is to use malloc to
allocate storage from the heap instead of passing an address to thread stack storage. If
the argument is passed as an address to thread stack storage, this address might be
invalid or be reassigned if the thread terminates.
EXAMPLE 2–1 Simple Threads Program

void mainline (...)
{
struct phonebookentry *pbe;
pthread_attr_t tattr;
pthread_t helper;
void *status;
pthread_create(&helper, NULL, fetch, &pbe);
/* do something else for a while */
pthread_join(helper, &status);
/* it’s now safe to use result */
}
void *fetch(struct phonebookentry *arg)

{
struct phonebookentry *npbe;
/* fetch value from a database */
npbe = search (prog_name)

if (npbe != NULL)
*arg = *npbe;
pthread_exit(0);

EXAMPLE 2–1 Simple Threads Program (Continued)
struct phonebookentry {
char name[64];
char phonenumber[32];
char flags[16];
}
Detaching a Thread
pthread_detach(3C) is an alternative to pthread_join(3C) to reclaim storage for
a thread that is created with a detachstate attribute set to
PTHREAD_CREATE_JOINABLE.
pthread_detach Syntax
int pthread_detach(thread_t tid);
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
/* detach thread tid */

ret = pthread_detach(tid);
The pthread_detach() function is used to indicate to your application that storage

for the thread tid can be reclaimed when the thread terminates. If tid has not
terminated, pthread_detach() does not cause the thread to terminate.
pthread_detach Return Values

pthread_detach() returns zero when the call completes successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions is
detected, pthread_detach() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: tid is a detached thread.
ESRCH
Description: tid is not a valid, undetached thread in the current process.

Creating a Key for Thread-Specific Data
Single-threaded C programs have two basic classes of data: local data and global data.
For multithreaded C programs a third class, thread-specific data, is added.
Thread-specific data is very much like global data, except that the data is private to a
thread.
Thread-specific data is maintained on a per-thread basis. TSD is the only way to define
and refer to data that is private to a thread. Each thread-specific data item is associated
with a key that is global to all threads in the process. By using the key, a thread can
access a pointer (void *) maintained per-thread.
pthread_key_create Syntax
int pthread_key_create(pthread_key_t *key,
void (*destructor) (void *));
pthread_key_t key;
int ret;
/* key create without destructor */

ret = pthread_key_create(&key, NULL);
/* key create with destructor */

ret = pthread_key_create(&key, destructor);
Use pthread_key_create(3C) to allocate a key that is used to identify

thread-specific data in a process. The key is global to all threads in the process. When
the thread-specific data is created, all threads initially have the value NULL associated
with the key.
Call pthread_key_create() once for each key before using the key. No implicit
synchronization exists for the keys shared by all threads in a process.
Once a key has been created, each thread can bind a value to the key. The values are
specific to the threads and are maintained for each thread independently. The
per-thread binding is deallocated when a thread terminates if the key was created with
a destructor function.
When pthread_key_create() returns successfully, the allocated key is stored in

the location pointed to by key. The caller must ensure that the storage and access to
this key are properly synchronized.
An optional destructor function, destructor, can be used to free stale storage. If a

key has a non-NULL destructor function and the thread has a non-NULL value
associated with that key, the destructor function is called with the current
associated value when the thread exits. The order in which the destructor functions
are called is unspecified.

pthread_key_create Return Values
pthread_key_create() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
occur, pthread_key_create() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EAGAIN
Description: The key name space is exhausted.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient virtual memory is available in this process to create a new
key.
Deleting the Thread-Specific Data Key

Use pthread_key_delete(3C) to destroy an existing thread-specific data key. Any
memory associated with the key can be freed because the key has been invalidated.
Reference to an invalid key returns an error. No comparable function is present in
Solaris threads.
pthread_key_delete Syntax
int pthread_key_delete(pthread_key_t key);
pthread_key_t key;
int ret;
/* key previously created */

ret = pthread_key_delete(key);
If a key has been deleted, any reference to the key with the pthread_setspecific
() or pthread_getspecific() call yields undefined results.
The programmer must free any thread-specific resources before calling the delete
function. This function does not invoke any of the destructors. Repeated calls to
pthread_key_create() and pthread_key_delete() can cause a problem. The
problem occurs when the key value is never reused after pthread_key_delete()
marks a key as invalid. Call pthread_key_create() only once for each desired key.
pthread_key_delete Return Values

pthread_key_delete() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs,
pthread_key_delete() fails and returns the corresponding value.

EINVAL
Description: The key value is invalid.
Setting Thread-Specific Data

Use pthread_setspecific(3C) to set the thread-specific binding to the specified
thread-specific data key.
pthread_setspecific Syntax
int pthread_setspecific(pthread_key_t key, const void *value);
pthread_key_t key;
void *value;
int ret;

ret = pthread_setspecific(key, value);
pthread_setspecific Return Values

pthread_setspecific() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
occur, pthread_setspecific() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient virtual memory is available.
EINVAL
Description: key is invalid.
Note – pthread_setspecific() does not free its storage when a new binding is set.
The existing binding must be freed, otherwise a memory leak can occur.
Getting Thread-Specific Data

Use pthread_getspecific(3C) to get the calling thread’s binding for key, and store
the binding in the location pointed to by value.
pthread_getspecific Syntax
void *pthread_getspecific(pthread_key_t key);

pthread_key_t key;
void *value;

value = pthread_getspecific(key);
pthread_getspecific Return Values

pthread_getspecific returns no errors.
Global and Private Thread-Specific Data Example

Example 2–2 shows an excerpt from a multithreaded program. This code is executed
by any number of threads, but the code has references to two global variables, errno
and mywindow. These global values really should be references to items private to each
thread.
EXAMPLE 2–2 Thread-Specific Data—Global but Private

body() {
...
while (write(fd, buffer, size) == -1) {

if (errno != EINTR) {
fprintf(mywindow, "%s\n", strerror(errno));
exit(1);
}
}
...
References to errno should get the system error code from the routine called by this
thread, not by some other thread. So, references to errno by one thread refer to a
different storage location than references to errno by other threads.
The mywindow variable refers to a stdio stream that is connected to a window that is
private to the referring thread. So, as with errno, references to mywindow by one
thread should refer to a different storage location than references to mywindow by
other threads. Ultimately, the reference is to a different window, The only difference
here is that the system takes care of errno, but the programmer must handle
references for mywindow.
The next example shows how the references to mywindow work. The preprocessor
converts references to mywindow into invocations of the _mywindow() procedure.

This routine in turn invokes pthread_getspecific(). pthread_getspecific()
receives the mywindow_key global variable and win an output parameter that receives
the identity of this thread’s window.
EXAMPLE 2–3 Turning Global References Into Private References

thread_key_t mywin_key;
FILE *_mywindow(void) {
FILE *win;
win = pthread_getspecific(mywin_key);
return(win);
}
#define mywindow _mywindow()
void routine_uses_win( FILE *win) {

...
}
void thread_start(...) {
...
make_mywin();
...
routine_uses_win( mywindow )
...
}
The mywin_key variable identifies a class of variables for which each thread has its
own private copy. These variables are thread-specific data. Each thread calls
make_mywin() to initialize its window and to arrange for its instance of mywindow to
refer to the thread-specific data.
Once this routine is called, the thread can safely refer to mywindow and, after
_mywindow(), the thread gets the reference to its private window. References to
mywindow behave as if direct references were made to data private to the thread.
Example 2–4 shows how to set up the reference.
EXAMPLE 2–4 Initializing the Thread-Specific Data

void make_mywindow(void) {
FILE **win;
static pthread_once_t mykeycreated = PTHREAD_ONCE_INIT;
pthread_once(&mykeycreated, mykeycreate);
win = malloc(sizeof(*win));
create_window(win, ...);
pthread_setspecific(mywindow_key, win);
}

EXAMPLE 2–4 Initializing the Thread-Specific Data (Continued)
void mykeycreate(void) {
pthread_key_create(&mywindow_key, free_key);
}
void free_key(void *win) {

free(win);
}
First, get a unique value for the key, mywin_key. This key is used to identify the
thread-specific class of data. The first thread to call make_mywin() eventually calls
pthread_key_create(), which assigns to its first argument a unique key. The
second argument is a destructor function that is used to deallocate a thread’s
instance of this thread-specific data item once the thread terminates.
The next step is to allocate the storage for the caller’s instance of this thread-specific
data item. Having allocated the storage, calling create_window() sets up a window
for the thread. win points to the storage allocated for the window. Finally, a call is
made to pthread_setspecific(), which associates win with the key.
Subsequently, whenever the thread calls pthread_getspecific() to pass the

global key, the thread gets the value that is associated with this key by this thread in an
earlier call to pthread_setspecific().
When a thread terminates, calls are made to the destructor functions that were set
up in pthread_key_create(). Each destructor function is called only if the
terminating thread established a value for the key by calling pthread_setspecific
().
Getting the Thread Identifier

Use pthread_self(3C) to get the thread identifier of the calling thread.
pthread_self Syntax
pthread_t pthread_self(void);
pthread_t tid;
tid = pthread_self();
pthread_self Return Values

pthread_self() returns the thread identifier of the calling thread.

Comparing Thread IDs
Use pthread_equal(3C) to compare the thread identification numbers of two
threads.
pthread_equal Syntax
int pthread_equal(pthread_t tid1, pthread_t tid2);
pthread_t tid1, tid2;

int ret;
ret = pthread_equal(tid1, tid2);
pthread_equal Return Values

pthread_equal() returns a nonzero value when tid1 and tid2 are equal, otherwise,
zero is returned. When either tid1 or tid2 is an invalid thread identification number,
the result is unpredictable.
Initializing Threads
Use pthread_once(3C) to call an initialization routine the first time pthread_once
is called. Subsequent calls to pthread_once() have no effect.
pthread_once Syntax
int pthread_once(pthread_once_t *once_control,
void (*init_routine)(void));
pthread_once_t once_control = PTHREAD_ONCE_INIT;

int ret;
ret = pthread_once(&once_control, init_routine);
The once_control parameter determines whether the associated initialization routine

has been called.
pthread_once Return Values

pthread_once() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs,
pthread_once() fails and returns the corresponding value.

EINVAL
Description: once_control or init_routine is NULL.
Yielding Thread Execution

Use sched_yield(3RT) to cause the current thread to yield its execution in favor of
another thread with the same or greater priority.
sched_yield Syntax
int sched_yield(void);
#include <sched.h>
int ret;
ret = sched_yield();
sched_yield Return Values

sched_yield() returns zero after completing successfully. Otherwise, -1 is returned
and errno is set to indicate the error condition.
ENOSYS
Description: sched_yield is not supported in this implementation.
Setting the Thread Priority

Use pthread_setschedparam(3C) to modify the priority of an existing thread. This
function has no effect on scheduling policy.
pthread_setschedparam Syntax
int pthread_setschedparam(pthread_t tid, int policy,
const struct sched_param *param);
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
struct sched_param param;
int priority;

/* sched_priority will be the priority of the thread */
sched_param.sched_priority = priority;
policy = SCHED_OTHER;
/* scheduling parameters of target thread */

ret = pthread_setschedparam(tid, policy, &param);
pthread_setschedparam Return Values

pthread_setschedparam() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. When either of the following conditions
occurs, the pthread_setschedparam() function fails and returns the
corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: The value of the attribute being set is not valid.
ENOTSUP
Description: An attempt was made to set the attribute to an unsupported value.
Getting the Thread Priority

pthread_getschedparam(3C) gets the priority of the existing thread.
pthread_getschedparam Syntax
int pthread_getschedparam(pthread_t tid, int policy,
struct schedparam *param);
pthread_t tid;
sched_param param;
int priority;
int policy;
int ret;
/* scheduling parameters of target thread */

ret = pthread_getschedparam (tid, &policy, &param);
/* sched_priority contains the priority of the thread */

priority = param.sched_priority;
pthread_getschedparam Return Values

pthread_getschedparam() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs, the
function fails and returns the corresponding value.

ESRCH
Description: The value specified by tid does not refer to an existing thread.
Sending a Signal to a Thread

Use pthread_kill(3C) to send a signal to a thread.
pthread_kill Syntax
int pthread_kill(thread_t tid, int sig);
#include <signal.h>
int sig;
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
ret = pthread_kill(tid, sig);
pthread_kill() sends the signal sig to the thread specified by tid. tid must be a
thread within the same process as the calling thread. Thesig argument must be from
the list that is given in signal(5).
When sig is zero, error checking is performed but no signal is actually sent. This error
checking can be used to check the validity of tid.
pthread_kill Return Values

pthread_kill() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
indicates that an error occurred. When either of the following conditions occurs,
pthread_kill() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: sig is not a valid signal number.
ESRCH
Description: tid cannot be found in the current process.
Accessing the Signal Mask of the Calling Thread

Use pthread_sigmask(3C) to change or examine the signal mask of the calling
thread.
pthread_sigmask Syntax
int pthread_sigmask(int how, const sigset_t *new, sigset_t *old);

#include <signal.h>
int ret;
sigset_t old, new;
ret = pthread_sigmask(SIG_SETMASK, &new, &old); /* set new mask */

ret = pthread_sigmask(SIG_BLOCK, &new, &old); /* blocking mask */
ret = pthread_sigmask(SIG_UNBLOCK, &new, &old); /* unblocking */
how determines how the signal set is changed. how can have one of the following
values:
■ SIG_BLOCK. Add new to the current signal mask, where new indicates the set of
signals to block.
■ SIG_UNBLOCK. Delete new from the current signal mask, where new indicates the
set of signals to unblock.
■ SIG_SETMASK. Replace the current signal mask with new, where new indicates the
new signal mask.
When the value of new is NULL, the value of how is not significant. The signal mask of
the thread is unchanged. To inquire about currently blocked signals, assign a NULL
value to the new argument.
The old variable points to the space where the previous signal mask is stored, unless
old is NULL.
pthread_sigmask Return Values

pthread_sigmask() returns zero when the call completes successfully. Any other
pthread_sigmask() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: The value of how is not defined.
Forking Safely
See the discussion about pthread_atfork(3C) in “Solution: pthread_atfork”
on page 136.
pthread_atfork Syntax
int pthread_atfork(void (*prepare) (void), void (*parent) (void),
void (*child) (void) );

pthread_atfork Return Values
pthread_atfork() returns zero when the call completes successfully. Any other
pthread_atfork() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient table space exists to record the fork handler addresses.
Terminating a Thread
Use pthread_exit(3C) to terminate a thread.
pthread_exit Syntax
void pthread_exit(void *status);
void *status;
pthread_exit(status); /* exit with status */
The pthread_exit() function terminates the calling thread. All thread-specific data
bindings are released. If the calling thread is not detached, then the thread’s ID and
the exit status specified by status are retained until your application calls
pthread_join() to wait for the thread. Otherwise, status is ignored. The thread’s ID
can be reclaimed immediately. For information on thread detachment, see “Setting
Detach State” on page 50.
pthread_exit Return Values

The calling thread terminates with its exit status set to the contents of status.
Finishing Up
A thread can terminate its execution in the following ways:
■ By returning from its first (outermost) procedure, the threads start routine. See
pthread_create.
■ By calling pthread_exit(), supplying an exit status.
■ By termination with POSIX cancel functions. See pthread_cancel().

The default behavior of a thread is to linger until some other thread has acknowledged
its demise by “joining” with the lingering thread. This behavior is the same as the
default pthread_create() attribute that is nondetached, see pthread_detach.
The result of the join is that the joining thread picks up the exit status of the
terminated thread and the terminated thread vanishes.
An important special case arises when the initial thread, calling main(), returns from
calling main() or calls exit(). This action causes the entire process to be terminated,
along with all its threads. So, take care to ensure that the initial thread does not return
from main() prematurely.
Note that when the main thread merely calls pthread_exit, the main thread
terminates itself only. The other threads in the process, as well as the process, continue
to exist. The process terminates when all threads terminate.
Cancel a Thread
Cancellation allows a thread to request the termination of any other thread in the
process. Cancellation is an option when all further operations of a related set of
threads are undesirable or unnecessary.
One example of thread cancellation is an asynchronously generated cancel condition,

such as, when a user requesting to close or exit a running application. Another
example is the completion of a task undertaken by a number of threads. One of the
threads might ultimately complete the task while the others continue to operate. Since
the running threads serve no purpose at that point, these threads should be cancelled.
Cancellation Points
Be careful to cancel a thread only when cancellation is safe. The pthreads standard
specifies several cancellation points, including:
■ Programmatically, establish a thread cancellation point through a
pthread_testcancel call.
■ Threads waiting for the occurrence of a particular condition in
pthread_cond_wait or pthread_cond_timedwait(3C).
■ Threads waiting for the occurrence of a particular condition in
pthread_cond_wait or pthread_cond_timedwait(3C).
■ Threads blocked on sigwait(2).
■ Some standard library calls. In general, these calls include functions in which
threads can block. See the man page cancellation(5) for a list.
Cancellation is enabled by default. At times, you might want an application to disable

cancellation. Disabled cancellation has the result of deferring all cancellation requests
until cancellation requests are enabled again.

See “pthread_setcancelstate Syntax” on page 42 for information about disabling
cancellation.
Placing Cancellation Points

Dangers exist in performing cancellations. Most deal with properly restoring
invariants and freeing shared resources. A thread that is cancelled without care might
leave a mutex in a locked state, leading to a deadlock. Or a cancelled thread might
leave a region of allocated memory with no way to identify the memory and therefore
unable to free the memory.
The standard C library specifies a cancellation interface that permits or forbids

cancellation programmatically. The library defines cancellation points that are the set of
points at which cancellation can occur. The library also allows the scope of cancellation
handlers to be defined so that the handlers are sure to operate when and where
intended. The cancellation handlers provide clean up services to restore resources and
state to a condition that is consistent with the point of origin.
Placement of cancellation points and the effects of cancellation handlers must be based
on an understanding of the application. A mutex is explicitly not a cancellation point
and should be held only for the minimal essential time.
Limit regions of asynchronous cancellation to sequences with no external

dependencies that could result in dangling resources or unresolved state conditions.
Take care to restore cancellation state when returning from some alternate, nested
cancellation state. The interface provides features to facilitate restoration:
pthread_setcancelstate(3C) preserves the current cancel state in a referenced
variable, pthread_setcanceltype(3C) preserves the current cancel type in the
same way.
Cancellations can occur under three different circumstances:

■ Asynchronously
■ At various points in the execution sequence as defined by the standard
■ At a call to pthread_testcancel()
By default, cancellation can occur only at well-defined points as defined by the POSIX
standard.
In all cases, take care that resources and state are restored to a condition consistent
with the point of origin.
Cancelling a Thread
Use pthread_cancel(3C) to cancel a thread.

pthread_cancel Syntax
int pthread_cancel(pthread_t thread);
pthread_t thread;
int ret;
ret = pthread_cancel(thread);
How the cancellation request is treated depends on the state of the target thread. Two
functions, pthread_setcancelstate(3C) and pthread_setcanceltype(3C),
determine that state.
pthread_cancel Return Values

pthread_cancel() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return
value indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs, the
ESRCH
Description: No thread could be found corresponding to that specified by the given
thread ID.
Enabling or Disabling Cancellation

Use pthread_setcancelstate(3C) to enable or disable thread cancellation. When
a thread is created, thread cancellation is enabled by default.
pthread_setcancelstate Syntax
int pthread_setcancelstate(int state, int *oldstate);
int oldstate;
int ret;
/* enabled */
ret = pthread_setcancelstate(PTHREAD_CANCEL_ENABLE, &oldstate);
/* disabled */
ret = pthread_setcancelstate(PTHREAD_CANCEL_DISABLE, &oldstate);
pthread_setcancelstate Return Values

pthread_setcancelstate() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
pthread_setcancelstate() function fails and returns the corresponding value.

EINVAL
Description: The state is not PTHREAD_CANCEL_ENABLE or
PTHREAD_CANCEL_DISABLE.
Setting Cancellation Type

Use pthread_setcanceltype(3C) to set the cancellation type to either deferred or
asynchronous mode.
pthread_setcanceltype Syntax
int pthread_setcanceltype(int type, int *oldtype);
int oldtype;
int ret;
/* deferred mode */
ret = pthread_setcanceltype(PTHREAD_CANCEL_DEFERRED, &oldtype);
/* async mode*/
ret = pthread_setcanceltype(PTHREAD_CANCEL_ASYNCHRONOUS, &oldtype);
When a thread is created, the cancellation type is set to deferred mode by default. In
deferred mode, the thread can be cancelled only at cancellation points. In
asynchronous mode, a thread can be cancelled at any point during its execution. The
use of asynchronous mode is discouraged.
pthread_setcanceltype Return Values

pthread_setcanceltype() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL
Description: The type is not PTHREAD_CANCEL_DEFERRED or
PTHREAD_CANCEL_ASYNCHRONOUS.
Creating a Cancellation Point

Use pthread_testcancel(3C) to establish a cancellation point for a thread.
pthread_testcancel Syntax
void pthread_testcancel(void);

pthread_testcancel();
The pthread_testcancel() function is effective when thread cancellation is

enabled and in deferred mode. pthread_testcancel() has no effect if called while
cancellation is disabled.
Be careful to insert pthread_testcancel() only in sequences where thread

cancellation is safe. In addition to programmatically establishing cancellation points
through the pthread_testcancel() call, the pthreads standard specifies several
cancellation points. See “Cancellation Points” on page 40 for more details.
pthread_testcancel Return Values

pthread_testcancel() has no return value.
Pushing a Handler Onto the Stack

Use cleanup handlers to restore conditions to a state that is consistent with that state at
the point of origin. This consistent state includes cleaning up allocated resources and
restoring invariants. Use the pthread_cleanup_push(3C) and
pthread_cleanup_pop(3C) functions to manage the handlers.
Cleanup handlers are pushed and popped in the same lexical scope of a program. The
push and pop should always match. Otherwise, compiler errors are generated.
pthread_cleanup_push Syntax
Use pthread_cleanup_push(3C) to push a cleanup handler onto a cleanup stack
(LIFO).
void pthread_cleanup_push(void(*routine)(void *), void *args);
/* push the handler "routine" on cleanup stack */

pthread_cleanup_push (routine, arg);
pthread_cleanup_push Return Values

pthread_cleanup_push() has no return value.
Pulling a Handler Off the Stack

Use pthread_cleanup_pop(3C) to pull the cleanup handler off the cleanup stack.

pthread_cleanup_pop Syntax
void pthread_cleanup_pop(int execute);
/* pop the "func" out of cleanup stack and execute "func" */

pthread_cleanup_pop (1);
/* pop the "func" and DONT execute "func" */

pthread_cleanup_pop (0);
A nonzero argument in the pop function removes the handler from the stack and
executes the handler. An argument of zero pops the handler without executing the
handler.
pthread_cleanup_pop() is effectively called with a nonzero argument when a

thread either explicitly or implicitly calls pthread_exit(3C) or when the thread accepts
a cancel request.
pthread_cleanup_pop Return Values

pthread_cleanup_pop() has no return values.

CHAPTER 3
Thread Attributes
The previous chapter covered the basics of threads creation using default attributes.
This chapter discusses setting attributes at thread creation time.
Note – Only pthreads uses attributes and cancellation. The API covered in this chapter
is for POSIX threads only. Otherwise, the capability for Solaris threads and pthreads
is largely the same. See Chapter 8 for more information about similarities and
differences.
Attribute Object
Attributes are a way to specify behavior that is different from the default. When a
thread is created with pthread_create(3C) or when a synchronization variable is
initialized, an attribute object can be specified. The defaults are usually sufficient.
An attribute object is opaque, and cannot be directly modified by assignments. A set of

functions is provided to initialize, configure, and destroy each object type.
Once an attribute is initialized and configured, the attribute has process-wide scope.
The suggested method for using attributes is to configure all required state
specifications at one time in the early stages of program execution. The appropriate
attribute object can then be referred to as needed.
The use of attribute objects provides two primary advantages.

■ Using attribute objects adds to code portability.
Even though supported attributes might vary between implementations, you need
not modify function calls that create thread entities. These function calls do not
require modification because the attribute object is hidden from the interface.
47
If the target port supports attributes that are not found in the current port,
provision must be made to manage the new attributes. Management of these
attributes is an easy porting task because attribute objects need only be initialized
once in a well-defined location.
■ State specification in an application is simplified.
As an example, consider that several sets of threads might exist within a process.
Each set of threads provides a separate service. Each set has its own state
requirements.
At some point in the early stages of the application, a thread attribute object can be
initialized for each set. All future thread creations will then refer to the attribute
object that is initialized for that type of thread. The initialization phase is simple
and localized. Any future modifications can be made quickly and reliably.
Attribute objects require attention at process exit time. When the object is initialized,
memory is allocated for the object. This memory must be returned to the system. The
pthreads standard provides function calls to destroy attribute objects.
Initializing Attributes
Use pthread_attr_init(3C) to initialize object attributes to their default values.
The storage is allocated by the thread system during execution.
pthread_attr_init Syntax
int pthread_attr_init(pthread_attr_t *tattr);
int ret;
/* initialize an attribute to the default value */

Table 3–1 shows the default values for attributes (tattr).
TABLE 3–1 Default Attribute Values for tattr
Attribute Value Result
scope PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS New thread contends with other

threads in the process.
detachstate PTHREAD_CREATE_JOINABLE Completion status and thread ID

are preserved after the thread
exits.

TABLE 3–1 Default Attribute Values for tattr (Continued)
Attribute Value Result
stackaddr NULL New thread has system-allocated

stack address.
stacksize 0 New thread has system-defined

stack size.
priority 0 New thread has priority 0.
inheritsched PTHREAD_EXPLICIT_SCHED New thread does not inherit

parent thread scheduling priority.
schedpolicy SCHED_OTHER New thread uses Solaris-defined

fixed priorities for synchronization
object contention. Threads run
until preempted or until the
threads block or yield.
pthread_attr_init Return Values

pthread_attr_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return
value indicates that an error occurred. If the following condition occurs, the function
fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOMEM
Description: Returned when not enough memory is allocated to initialize the thread
attributes object.
Destroying Attributes
Use pthread_attr_destroy(3C) to remove the storage that was allocated during
initialization. The attribute object becomes invalid.
pthread_attr_destroy Syntax
int pthread_attr_destroy(pthread_attr_t *tattr);
int ret;
/* destroy an attribute */
ret = pthread_attr_destroy(&tattr);
Chapter 3 • Thread Attributes 49

pthread_attr_destroy Return Values
pthread_attr_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. If the following condition occurs, the
EINVAL
Description: Indicates that the value of tattr was not valid.
Setting Detach State

When a thread is created detached (PTHREAD_CREATE_DETACHED), its thread ID and
other resources can be reused as soon as the thread exits. Use
pthread_attr_setdetachstate(3C) when the calling thread does not want to
wait for the thread to exit.
pthread_attr_setdetachstate(3C) Syntax
int pthread_attr_setdetachstate(pthread_attr_t *tattr,int detachstate);
int ret;
/* set the thread detach state */

ret = pthread_attr_setdetachstate(&tattr,PTHREAD_CREATE_DETACHED);
When a thread is created nondetached with PTHREAD_CREATE_JOINABLE, the

assumption is that your application will wait for the thread to complete. That is, the
program will execute a pthread_join() on the thread.
Whether a thread is created detached or nondetached, the process does not exit until
all threads have exited. See “Finishing Up” on page 39 for a discussion of process
termination caused by premature exit from main().
Note – When no explicit synchronization prevents a newly created, detached thread

from failing, its thread ID can be reassigned to another new thread before its creator
returns from pthread_create().
Nondetached threads must have a thread join with the nondetached thread after the
nondetached thread terminates. Otherwise, the resources of that thread are not
released for use by new threads that commonly results in a memory leak. So, when
you do not want a thread to be joined, create the thread as a detached thread.

EXAMPLE 3–1 Creating a Detached Thread
pthread_t tid;
void *start_routine;
void arg
int ret;

ret = pthread_attr_init (&tattr);
ret = pthread_attr_setdetachstate (&tattr,PTHREAD_CREATE_DETACHED);
ret = pthread_create (&tid, &tattr, start_routine, arg);
pthread_attr_setdetachstate Return Values

pthread_attr_setdetachstate() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
other return value indicates that an error occurred. If the following condition occurs,
the function fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: Indicates that the value of detachstate or tattr was not valid.
Getting the Detach State

Use pthread_attr_getdetachstate(3C) to retrieve the thread create state, which
can be either detached or joined.
pthread_attr_getdetachstate Syntax
int pthread_attr_getdetachstate(const pthread_attr_t *tattr,
int *detachstate;
int detachstate;
int ret;
/* get detachstate of thread */

ret = pthread_attr_getdetachstate (&tattr, &detachstate);
pthread_attr_getdetachstate Return Values

pthread_attr_getdetachstate() returns zero after completing successfully. Any

EINVAL
Description: Indicates that the value of detachstate is NULL or tattr is invalid.
Setting the Stack Guard Size

pthread_attr_setguardsize(3C) sets the guardsize of the attr object.
pthread_attr_setguardsize(3C) Syntax
int pthread_attr_setguardsize(pthread_attr_t *attr, size_t guardsize);
The guardsize attribute is provided to the application for two reasons:

■ Overflow protection can potentially result in wasted system resources. When your
application creates a large number of threads, and you know that the threads will
never overflow their stack, you can turn off guard areas. By turning off guard areas,
you can conserve system resources.
■ When threads allocate large data structures on stack, a large guard area might be
needed to detect stack overflow.
The guardsize argument provides protection against overflow of the stack pointer. If a
thread’s stack is created with guard protection, the implementation allocates extra
memory at the overflow end of the stack. This extra memory acts as a buffer against
stack overflow of the stack pointer. If an application overflows into this buffer an error
results, possibly in a SIGSEGV signal being delivered to the thread.
If guardsize is zero, a guard area is not provided for threads that are created with attr. If
guardsize is greater than zero, a guard area of at least size guardsize bytes is provided
for each thread created with attr. By default, a thread has an implementation-defined,
nonzero guard area.
A conforming implementation is permitted to round up the value contained in

guardsize to a multiple of the configurable system variable PAGESIZE. See PAGESIZE
in sys/mman.h. If an implementation rounds up the value of guardsize to a multiple
of PAGESIZE, a call to pthread_attr_getguardsize() that specifies attr stores, in
guardsize, the guard size specified in the previous call to
pthread_attr_setguardsize().
pthread_attr_setguardsize Return Values

pthread_attr_setguardsize() fails if:
EINVAL
Description: The argument attr is invalid, the argument guardsize is invalid, or the
argument guardsize contains an invalid value.

Getting the Stack Guard Size
pthread_attr_getguardsize(3C) gets the guardsize of the attr object.
pthread_attr_getguardsize Syntax
int pthread_attr_getguardsize(const pthread_attr_t *attr,

size_t *guardsize);
A conforming implementation is permitted to round up the value contained in

guardsize to a multiple of the configurable system variable PAGESIZE. See PAGESIZE
in sys/mman.h. If an implementation rounds up the value of guardsize to a multiple
of PAGESIZE, a call to pthread_attr_getguardsize() that specifies attr stores, in
guardsize, the guard size specified in the previous call to
pthread_attr_setguardsize().
pthread_attr_getguardsize Return Values

pthread_attr_getguardsize() fails if:
EINVAL
Description: The argument attr is invalid, the argument guardsize is invalid, or the
argument guardsize contains an invalid value.
Setting the Scope

Use pthread_attr_setscope(3C) to establish the contention scope of a thread,
either PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM or PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS. With
PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM, this thread contends with all threads in the system. With
PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS, this thread contends with other threads in the process.
Note – Both thread types are accessible only within a given process.
pthread_attr_setscope Syntax
int pthread_attr_setscope(pthread_attr_t *tattr,int scope);

int ret;
/* bound thread */
ret = pthread_attr_setscope(&tattr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM);
/* unbound thread */
ret = pthread_attr_setscope(&tattr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS);
This example uses three function calls: a call to initialize the attributes, a call to set any
variations from the default attributes, and a call to create the pthreads.
pthread_attr_t attr;
pthread_t tid;
void start_routine;
void arg;
int ret;

/* BOUND behavior */
ret = pthread_attr_setscope(&tattr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM);
ret = pthread_create (&tid, &tattr, start_routine, arg);
pthread_attr_setscope Return Values

pthread_attr_setscope() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. If the following conditions occur, the
EINVAL
Description: An attempt was made to set tattr to a value that is not valid.
Getting the Scope

Use pthread_attr_getscope(3C) to retrieve the thread scope.
pthread_attr_getscope Syntax
int pthread_attr_getscope(pthread_attr_t *tattr, int *scope);
int scope;
int ret;

/* get scope of thread */
ret = pthread_attr_getscope(&tattr, &scope);
pthread_attr_getscope Return Values

pthread_attr_getscope() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL
Description: The value of scope is NULL or tattr is invalid.
Setting the Thread Concurrency Level

pthread_setconcurrency(3C) is provided for standards compliance.
pthread_setconcurrency() is used by an application to inform the system of the
application’s desired concurrency level. For the threads implementation introduced in
the Solaris 9 release, this interface has no effect, all runnable threads are attached to
LWPs.
pthread_setconcurrency Syntax
int pthread_setconcurrency(int new_level);
pthread_setconcurrency Return Values

pthread_setconcurrency() fails if the following conditions occur:
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by new_level is negative.
EAGAIN
Description: The value specified by new_level would cause a system resource to be
exceeded.
Getting the Thread Concurrency Level

pthread_getconcurrency(3C) returns the value set by a previous call to
pthread_setconcurrency().

pthread_getconcurrency Syntax
int pthread_getconcurrency(void);
If the pthread_setconcurrency() function was not previously called,

pthread_getconcurrency() returns zero.
pthread_getconcurrency Return Values

pthread_getconcurrency() always returns the concurrency level set by a
previous call to pthread_setconcurrency(). If pthread_setconcurrency()
has never been called, pthread_getconcurrency() returns zero.
Setting the Scheduling Policy

Use pthread_attr_setschedpolicy(3C) to set the scheduling policy. The POSIX
standard specifies the scheduling policy attributes of SCHED_FIFO (first-in-first-out),
SCHED_RR (round-robin), or SCHED_OTHER (an implementation-defined method).
pthread_attr_setschedpolicy(3C) Syntax
int pthread_attr_setschedpolicy(pthread_attr_t *tattr, int policy);
int policy;
int ret;
/* set the scheduling policy to SCHED_OTHER */

ret = pthread_attr_setschedpolicy(&tattr, SCHED_OTHER);
■ SCHED_FIFO
First-In-First-Out threads whose contention scope is system
(PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM) are in the real-time (RT) scheduling class if the calling
process has an effective userid of 0. These threads, if not preempted by a higher
priority thread, proceed until a thread yields or blocks. Use SCHED_FIFO for
threads that have a contention scope of process (PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS), or
whose calling process does not have an effective userid of 0. SCHED_FIFO is based
on the TS scheduling class.
■ SCHED_RR
Round-Robin threads whose contention scope is system
(PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM) are in real-time (RT) scheduling class if the calling
process has an effective user id of 0. These threads, if not preempted by a higher
priority thread, and if the threads do not yield or block, will execute for the

system-determined time period. Use SCHED_RR for threads that have a contention
scope of process (PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS) is based on the TS scheduling class.
Additionally, the calling process for these threads does not have an effective userid
of 0.
SCHED_FIFO and SCHED_RR are optional in the POSIX standard, and are supported
for real-time threads only.
For a discussion of scheduling, see the section “Thread Scheduling” on page 20.
pthread_attr_setschedpolicy Return Values

pthread_attr_setschedpolicy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
other return value indicates that an error occurred. When either of the following
conditions occurs, the function fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
ENOTSUP
Getting the Scheduling Policy

Use pthread_attr_getschedpolicy(3C) to retrieve the scheduling policy.
pthread_attr_getschedpolicy Syntax
int pthread_attr_getschedpolicy(pthread_attr_t *tattr, int *policy);
int policy;
int ret;
/* get scheduling policy of thread */

ret = pthread_attr_getschedpolicy (&tattr, &policy);
pthread_attr_getschedpolicy Return Values

pthread_attr_getschedpolicy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any

EINVAL
Description: The parameter policy is NULL or tattr is invalid.
Setting the Inherited Scheduling Policy

Use pthread_attr_setinheritsched(3C) to set the inherited scheduling policy.
pthread_attr_setinheritsched Syntax
int pthread_attr_setinheritsched(pthread_attr_t *tattr, int inherit);
int inherit;
int ret;
/* use the current scheduling policy */

ret = pthread_attr_setinheritsched(&tattr, PTHREAD_EXPLICIT_SCHED);
An inherit value of PTHREAD_INHERIT_SCHED means that the scheduling policies

defined in the creating thread are to be used. Any scheduling attributes that are
defined in the pthread_create() call are to be ignored. If the default value
PTHREAD_EXPLICIT_SCHED is used, the attributes from the pthread_create()
call are to be used.
pthread_attr_setinheritsched Return Values

pthread_attr_setinheritsched() returns zero after completing successfully.
Any other return value indicates that an error occurred. When either of the following
EINVAL
ENOTSUP
Getting the Inherited Scheduling Policy

pthread_attr_getinheritsched(3C) returns the scheduling policy set by
pthread_attr_setinheritsched().
pthread_attr_getinheritsched Syntax
int pthread_attr_getinheritsched(pthread_attr_t *tattr, int *inherit);

int inherit;
int ret;
/* get scheduling policy and priority of the creating thread */

ret = pthread_attr_getinheritsched (&tattr, &inherit);
pthread_attr_getinheritsched Return Values

pthread_attr_getinheritsched() returns zero after completing successfully.
Any other return value indicates that an error occurred. If the following condition
occurs, the function fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: The parameter inherit is NULL or tattr is invalid.
Setting the Scheduling Parameters

pthread_attr_setschedparam(3C) sets the scheduling parameters.
pthread_attr_setschedparam Syntax
int pthread_attr_setschedparam(pthread_attr_t *tattr,
int newprio;
sched_param param;
newprio = 30;
/* set the priority; others are unchanged */

param.sched_priority = newprio;
/* set the new scheduling param */

ret = pthread_attr_setschedparam (&tattr, &param);
Scheduling parameters are defined in the param structure. Only the priority
parameter is supported. Newly created threads run with this priority.
pthread_attr_setschedparam Return Values

pthread_attr_setschedparam() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
other return value indicates that an error occurred. If the following conditions occur,

EINVAL
Description: The value of param is NULL or tattr is invalid.
You can manage pthreads priority in either of two two ways:

■ You can set the priority attribute before creating a child thread
■ You can change the priority of the parent thread and then change the priority back
Getting the Scheduling Parameters

pthread_attr_getschedparam(3C) returns the scheduling parameters defined by
pthread_attr_setschedparam().
pthread_attr_getschedparam Syntax
int pthread_attr_getschedparam(pthread_attr_t *tattr,
pthread_attr_t attr;
struct sched_param param;
int ret;
/* get the existing scheduling param */

ret = pthread_attr_getschedparam (&tattr, &param);
Creating a Thread With a Specified Priority

You can set the priority attribute before creating the thread. The child thread is created
with the new priority that is specified in the sched_param structure. This structure
also contains other scheduling information.
The recommended practice when creating a child thread is to:

■ Get the existing parameters
■ Change the priority
■ Create the child thread
■ Restore the original priority
Example of Creating a Prioritized Thread

Example 3–2 shows an example of creating a child thread with a priority that is
different from its parent’s priority.
EXAMPLE 3–2 Creating a Prioritized Thread
#include <sched.h>

EXAMPLE 3–2 Creating a Prioritized Thread (Continued)
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
int newprio = 20;
sched_param param;

/* safe to get existing scheduling param */

ret = pthread_attr_getschedparam (&tattr, &param);
/* set the priority; others are unchanged */

param.sched_priority = newprio;
/* setting the new scheduling param */

ret = pthread_attr_setschedparam (&tattr, &param);
/* with new priority specified */

ret = pthread_create (&tid, &tattr, func, arg);
pthread_attr_getschedparam Return Values

pthread_attr_getschedparam() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Description: The value of param is NULL or tattr is invalid.
Setting the Stack Size

pthread_attr_setstacksize(3C) sets the thread stack size.
pthread_attr_setstacksize Syntax
int pthread_attr_setstacksize(pthread_attr_t *tattr,
size_t size);
size_t size;
int ret;

size = (PTHREAD_STACK_MIN + 0x4000);
/* setting a new size */

ret = pthread_attr_setstacksize(&tattr, size);
The stacksize attribute defines the size of the stack (in bytes) that the system allocates.
The size should not be less than the system-defined minimum stack size. See “About
Stacks” on page 63 for more information.
size contains the number of bytes for the stack that the new thread uses. If size is zero,
a default size is used. In most cases, a zero value works best.
PTHREAD_STACK_MIN is the amount of stack space that is required to start a thread.

This stack space does not take into consideration the threads routine requirements that
are needed to execute application code.
pthread_attr_setstacksize Return Values

pthread_attr_setstacksize() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Description: The value of size is less than PTHREAD_STACK_MIN, or exceeds a
system-imposed limit, or tattr is not valid.
Getting the Stack Size

pthread_attr_getstacksize(3C) returns the stack size set by
pthread_attr_setstacksize().
pthread_attr_getstacksize Syntax
int pthread_attr_getstacksize(pthread_attr_t *tattr,
size_t *size);
size_t size;
int ret;
/* getting the stack size */

ret = pthread_attr_getstacksize(&tattr, &size);

pthread_attr_getstacksize Return Values
pthread_attr_getstacksize() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Description: tattr is not valid.
About Stacks
Typically, thread stacks begin on page boundaries. Any specified size is rounded up to
the next page boundary. A page with no access permission is appended to the
overflow end of the stack. Most stack overflows result in sending a SIGSEGV signal to
the offending thread. Thread stacks allocated by the caller are used without
modification.
When a stack is specified, the thread should also be created with

PTHREAD_CREATE_JOINABLE. That stack cannot be freed until the
pthread_join(3C) call for that thread has returned. The thread’s stack cannot be
freed until the thread has terminated. The only reliable way to know if such a thread
has terminated is through pthread_join(3C).
Allocating Stack Space for Threads

Generally, you do not need to allocate stack space for threads. The system allocates 1
megabyte (for 32 bit systems) or 2 megabytes (for 64 bit systems) of virtual memory
for each thread’s stack with no swap space reserved. The system uses the
MAP_NORESERVE option of mmap() to make the allocations.
Each thread stack created by the system has a red zone. The system creates the red
zone by appending a page to the overflow end of a stack to catch stack overflows. This
page is invalid and causes a memory fault if accessed. Red zones are appended to all
automatically allocated stacks whether the size is specified by the application or the
default size is used.
Note – Runtime stack requirements vary for library calls and dynamic linking. You
should be absolutely certain that the specified stack satisfies the runtime requirements
for library calls and dynamic linking.
Very few occasions exist when specifying a stack, its size, or both, is appropriate. Even
an expert has a difficult time knowing whether the right size was specified. Even a
program that is compliant with ABI standards cannot determine its stack size
statically. The stack size is dependent on the needs of the particular runtime
environment in execution.

Building Your Own Stack
When you specify the thread stack size, you must account for the allocations needed
by the invoked function and by each subsequent function called. The accounting
should include calling sequence needs, local variables, and information structures.
Occasionally, you want a stack that differs a bit from the default stack. An obvious
situation is when the thread needs more than the default stack size. A less obvious
situation is when the default stack is too large. You might be creating thousands of
threads with insufficient virtual memory to handle the gigabytes of stack space
required by thousands of default stacks.
The limits on the maximum size of a stack are often obvious, but what about the limits
on its minimum size? Sufficient stack space must exist to handle all stack frames that
are pushed onto the stack, along with their local variables, and so on.
To get the absolute minimum limit on stack size, call the macro
PTHREAD_STACK_MIN. The PTHREAD_STACK_MIN macro returns the amount of
required stack space for a thread that executes a NULL procedure. Useful threads need
more than the minimum stack size, so be very careful when reducing the stack size.
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
size_t size = PTHREAD_STACK_MIN + 0x4000;

/* setting the size of the stack also */

ret = pthread_attr_setstacksize(&tattr, size);
/* only size specified in tattr*/

ret = pthread_create(&tid, &tattr, start_routine, arg);
Setting the Stack Address and Size

pthread_attr_setstack(3C) sets the thread stack address and size.
pthread_attr_setstack(3C) Syntax
int pthread_attr_setstack(pthread_attr_t *tattr,void *stackaddr,
size_t stacksize);

void *base;
size_t size;
int ret;
base = (void *) malloc(PTHREAD_STACK_MIN + 0x4000);
/* setting a new address and size */

ret = pthread_attr_setstack(&tattr, base,PTHREAD_STACK_MIN + 0x4000);
The stackaddr attribute defines the base (low address) of the thread’s stack. The
stacksize attribute specifies the size of the stack. If stackaddr is set to non-null, rather
than the NULL default, the system initializes the stack at that address, assuming the
size to be stacksize.
base contains the address for the stack that the new thread uses. If base is NULL, then
pthread_create(3C) allocates a stack for the new thread with at least stacksize
bytes.
pthread_attr_setstack(3C) Return Values

pthread_attr_setstack() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL
Description: The value of base or tattr is incorrect. The value of stacksize is less than
PTHREAD_STACK_MIN.
The following example shows how to create a thread with a custom stack address and
size.
pthread_t tid;
int ret;
void *stackbase;
size_t size;

/* setting the base address and size of the stack */

ret = pthread_attr_setstack(&tattr, stackbase,size);
/* address and size specified */

ret = pthread_create(&tid, &tattr, func, arg);
Getting the Stack Address and Size

pthread_attr_getstack(3C) returns the thread stack address and size set by
pthread_attr_setstack().

pthread_attr_getstack Syntax
int pthread_attr_getstack(pthread_attr_t *tattr,void * *stackaddr,
size_t *stacksize);
void *base;
size_t size;
int ret;
/* getting a stack address and size */

ret = pthread_attr_getstackaddr (&tattr, &base, &size);
pthread_attr_getstack Return Values

pthread_attr_getstackaddr() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Description: The value of tattr is incorrect.

CHAPTER 4
Programming with Synchronization

Objects
This chapter describes the synchronization types that are available with threads. The
chapter also discusses when and how to use synchronization.
■ “Mutual Exclusion Lock Attributes” on page 68
■ “Using Mutual Exclusion Locks” on page 84
■ “Condition Variable Attributes” on page 95
■ “Using Condition Variables” on page 100
■ “Synchronization With Semaphores” on page 111
■ “Read-Write Lock Attributes” on page 119
■ “Setting the Mutex Attribute’s Protocol” on page 74
■ “Synchronization Across Process Boundaries” on page 129
■ “Comparing Primitives” on page 130
Synchronization objects are variables in memory that you access just like data. Threads
in different processes can communicate with each other through synchronization
objects that are placed in threads-controlled shared memory. The threads can
communicate with each other even though the threads in different processes are
generally invisible to each other.
Synchronization objects can also be placed in files. The synchronization objects can
have lifetimes beyond the life of the creating process.
The available types of synchronization objects are

■ Mutex locks
■ Condition variables
■ Read-Write locks
■ Semaphores
Situations that can benefit from the use of synchronization include the following:
■ Synchronization is the only way to ensure consistency of shared data.
■ Threads in two or more processes can use a single synchronization object jointly.
Because reinitializing a synchronization object sets the object to the unlocked state,
the synchronization object should be initialized by only one of the cooperating
67
processes.
■ Synchronization can ensure the safety of mutable data.
■ A process can map a file and direct a thread in this process get a record’s lock.
Once the lock is acquired, any thread in any process mapping the file attempting to
acquire the lock is blocked until the lock is released.
■ Acessing a single primitive variable, such as an integer, can use more than one
memory cycle for a single memory load. More than one memory cycle is used
where the integer is not aligned to the bus data width or is larger than the data
width. While integer misalignment cannot happen on the SPARC® Platform
Edition architecture, portable programs cannot rely on the proper alignment.
Note – On 32-bit architectures, a long long is not atomic. (An atomic operation cannot
be divided into smaller operations.) A long long is read and written as two 32-bit
quantities. The types int, char, float, and pointers are atomic on SPARC Platform
Edition machines and Intel Architecture machines.
Mutual Exclusion Lock Attributes

Use mutual exclusion locks (mutexes) to serialize thread execution. Mutual exclusion
locks synchronize threads, usually by ensuring that only one thread at a time executes
a critical section of code. Mutex locks can also preserve single-threaded code.
To change the default mutex attributes, you can declare and initialize an attribute
object. Often, the mutex attributes are set in one place at the beginning of the
application so the attributes can be located quickly and modified easily. Table 4–1 lists
the functions that manipulate mutex attributes.
TABLE 4–1 Mutex Attributes Routines
Operation Related Function Description
Initialize a mutex attribute object “pthread_mutexattr_init Syntax” on page 70
Destroy a mutex attribute object “pthread_mutexattr_destroy Syntax” on page

70
Set the scope of a mutex “pthread_mutexattr_setpshared Syntax”

on page 71
Get the scope of a mutex “pthread_mutexattr_getpshared Syntax”

on page 72

TABLE 4–1 Mutex Attributes Routines (Continued)
Set the mutex type attribute “pthread_mutexattr_settype Syntax” on page

72
Get the mutex type attribute “pthread_mutexattr_gettype Syntax” on page

74
Set mutex attribute’s protocol “pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol Syntax”

on page 74
Get mutex attribute’s protocol “pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol Syntax”

on page 77
Set mutex attribute’s priority ceiling “pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling Syntax”

on page 77
Get mutex attribute’s priority ceiling “pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling Syntax”

on page 78
Set mutex’s priority ceiling “pthread_mutex_setprioceiling Syntax”

on page 79
Get mutex’s priority ceiling “pthread_mutex_getprioceiling Syntax”

on page 81
Set mutex’s robust attribute “pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np Syntax”

on page 81
Get mutex’s robust attribute “pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np Syntax”

on page 83
The differences between Solaris threads and POSIX threads when defining the scope of
a mutex are shown in Table 4–2.
TABLE 4–2 Mutex Scope Comparison
Solaris POSIX Definition
USYNC_PROCESS PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED Use to synchronize

threads in this
process and other
processes
USYNC_PROCESS_ROBUST No POSIX equivalent Use to robustly

synchronize threads
between processes
USYNC_THREAD PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE Use to synchronize

threads in this
process only
Chapter 4 • Programming with Synchronization Objects 69

Initializing a Mutex Attribute Object
Use pthread_mutexattr_init(3C) to initialize attributes that are associated with
the mutex object to their default values. Storage for each attribute object is allocated by
the threads system during execution.
pthread_mutexattr_init Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_init(pthread_mutexattr_t *mattr);
pthread_mutexattr_t mattr;
int ret;
/* initialize an attribute to default value */

ret = pthread_mutexattr_init(&mattr);
The default value of the pshared attribute when this function is called is
PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE. This value means that the initialized mutex can be
used within a process.
mattr is an opaque type that contains a system-allocated attribute object. The possible
values of mattr’s scope are PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE and
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED. PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE is the default value.
Before a mutex attribute object can be reinitialized, the object must first be destroyed
by a call to pthread_mutexattr_destroy(3C). The pthread_mutexattr_init
() call results in the allocation of an opaque object. If the object is not destroyed, a
memory leak results.
pthread_mutexattr_init Return Values

pthread_mutexattr_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. If either of the following conditions
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient memory exists to initialize the mutex attribute object.
Destroying a Mutex Attribute Object

pthread_mutexattr_destroy(3C) deallocates the storage space used to maintain
the attribute object created by pthread_mutexattr_init().
pthread_mutexattr_destroy Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_destroy(pthread_mutexattr_t *mattr)

int ret;
ret = pthread_mutexattr_destroy(&mattr);
pthread_mutexattr_destroy Return Values

pthread_mutexattr_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by mattr is invalid.
Setting the Scope of a Mutex

pthread_mutexattr_setpshared(3C) sets the scope of the mutex variable.
pthread_mutexattr_setpshared Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_setpshared(pthread_mutexattr_t *mattr,
int pshared);
int ret;
ret = pthread_mutexattr_init(&mattr);
/*
* resetting to its default value: private
*/
ret = pthread_mutexattr_setpshared(&mattr,
PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE);
The scope of a mutex variable can be either process private (intraprocess) or system
wide (interprocess). To share the mutex among threads from more than one process,
create the mutex in shared memory with the pshared attribute set to
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED. This behavior is equivalent to the USYNC_PROCESS flag
in mutex_init() in the original Solaris threads implementation.
If the mutex pshared attribute is set to PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE, only those

threads created by the same process can operate on the mutex.

pthread_mutexattr_setpshared Return Values
pthread_mutexattr_setpshared() returns zero after completing successfully.
EINVAL
Getting the Scope of a Mutex

pthread_mutexattr_getpshared(3C) returns the scope of the mutex variable
defined by pthread_mutexattr_setpshared().
pthread_mutexattr_getpshared Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_getpshared(pthread_mutexattr_t *mattr,
int *pshared);
int pshared, ret;
/* get pshared of mutex */

ret = pthread_mutexattr_getpshared(&mattr, &pshared);
Get the current value of pshared for the attribute object mattr. The value is either
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED or PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE.
pthread_mutexattr_getpshared Return Values

pthread_mutexattr_getpshared() returns zero after completing successfully.
EINVAL
Setting the Mutex Type Attribute

pthread_mutexattr_settype(3C) sets the mutex type attribute.
pthread_mutexattr_settype Syntax

int pthread_mutexattr_settype(pthread_mutexattr_t *attr , int type);
The default value of the type attribute is PTHREAD_MUTEX_DEFAULT.
The type argument specifies the type of mutex. The following list describes the valid
mutex types:
PTHREAD_MUTEX_NORMAL
Description: This type of mutex does not detect deadlock. A thread attempting to
relock this mutex without first unlocking the mutex deadlocks. Attempting to
unlock a mutex locked by a different thread results in undefined behavior.
Attempting to unlock an unlocked mutex results in undefined behavior.
PTHREAD_MUTEX_ERRORCHECK
Description: This type of mutex provides error checking. A thread attempting to
relock this mutex without first unlocking the mutex returns an error. A thread
attempting to unlock a mutex that another thread has locked returns an error. A
thread attempting to unlock an unlocked mutex returns an error.
PTHREAD_MUTEX_RECURSIVE
Description: A thread attempting to relock this mutex without first unlocking the
mutex succeeds in locking the mutex. The relocking deadlock that can occur with
mutexes of type PTHREAD_MUTEX_NORMAL cannot occur with this type of mutex.
Multiple locks of this mutex require the same number of unlocks to release the
mutex before another thread can acquire the mutex. A thread attempting to unlock
a mutex that another thread has locked returns an error. A thread attempting to
unlock an unlocked mutex returns an error.
PTHREAD_MUTEX_DEFAULT
Description: Attempting to recursively lock a mutex of this type results in
undefined behavior. Attempting to unlock a mutex of this type that was not locked
by the calling thread results in undefined behavior. Attempting to unlock a mutex
of this type that is not locked results in undefined behavior. An implementation is
allowed to map this mutex to one of the other mutex types. For Solaris threads,
PTHREAD_PROCESS_DEFAULT is mapped to PTHREAD_PROCESS_NORMAL.
pthread_mutexattr_settype Return Values

If successful, the pthread_mutexattr_settype function returns zero. Otherwise,
an error number is returned to indicate the error.
EINVAL
Description: The value type is invalid.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr is invalid.

Getting the Mutex Type Attribute
pthread_mutexattr_gettype(3C) gets the mutex type attribute set by
pthread_mutexattr_settype().
pthread_mutexattr_gettype Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_gettype(pthread_mutexattr_t *attr , int *type);
The default value of the type attribute is PTHREAD_MUTEX_DEFAULT.
The type argument specifies the type of mutex. Valid mutex types include
■ PTHREAD_MUTEX_NORMAL
■ PTHREAD_MUTEX_ERRORCHECK
■ PTHREAD_MUTEX_RECURSIVE
■ PTHREAD_MUTEX_DEFAULT
For a description of each type, see “pthread_mutexattr_settype Syntax”

on page 72.
pthread_mutexattr_gettype Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_gettype() returns 0. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred.
Setting the Mutex Attribute’s Protocol

pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol(3C) sets the protocol attribute of a mutex
attribute object.
pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol(pthread_mutexattr_t *attr, int protocol);
attr points to a mutex attribute object created by an earlier call to

pthread_mutexattr_init().
protocol defines the protocol that is applied to the mutex attribute object.
The value of protocol that is defined in pthread.h can be one of the following values:
PTHREAD_PRIO_NONE, PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT, or PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT.

■ PTHREAD_PRIO_NONE
A thread’s priority and scheduling are not affected by the mutex ownership.
■ PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT
This protocol value, such as thrd1, affects a thread’s priority and scheduling.
When higher-priority threads block on one or more mutexes owned by thrd1
where those mutexes are initialized with PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT, thrd1 runs
with the higher of its priority or the highest priority of any thread waiting on any
of the mutexes owned by thrd1.
If thrd1 blocks on a mutex owned by another thread, thrd3, the same priority
inheritance effect recursively propagates to thrd3.
Use PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT to avoid priority inversion. Priority inversion
occurs when a low-priority thread holds a lock that a higher-priority thread
requires. The higher-priority thread cannot continue until the lower-priority thread
releases the lock. Set PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT to treat each thread as if the thread
had the inverse of its intended priority.
If _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is defined for a mutex initialized with the
protocol attribute value PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT, the following actions occur
when the owner of that mutex fails. The behavior on owner failure depends on the
value of the robustness argument of pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np().
■ The mutex is unlocked.
■ The next owner of the mutex acquires the mutex with an error return of
EOWNERDEAD.
■ The next owner of the mutex should try to make the state protected by the
mutex consistent. The state might have been left inconsistent when the previous
owner failed. If the owner is successful in making the state consistent, call
pthread_mutex_init() for the mutex and unlock the mutex.
Note – If pthread_mutex_init() is called on a previously initialized but not

yet destroyed mutex, the mutex is not reinitialized.
■ If the owner is unable to make the state consistent, do not call

pthread_mutex_init(). Unlock the mutex instead. In this event, all waiters
are woken up. All subsequent calls to pthread_mutex_lock() fail to acquire
the mutex and return an error code of ENOTRECOVERABLE. You can now make
the mutex state consistent by calling pthread_mutex_destroy() to
uninitialize the mutex. Call pthread_mutex_init() to reinitialize the mutex.
■ If the thread that acquired the lock with EOWNERDEAD fails, the next owner
acquires the lock with an error code of EOWNERDEAD.
■ PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT
This protocol value affects the priority and scheduling of a thread, such as thrd2,
when the thread owns one or more mutexes that are initialized with
PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT. thrd2 runs with the higher of its priority or the

highest-priority ceiling of all mutexes owned by thrd2. Higher-priority threads
blocked on any of the mutexes, owned by thrd2, have no effect on the scheduling
of thrd2.
If a thread calls sched_setparam() to change the original priority, the scheduler

does not move that thread to the scheduling queue tail with the new priority.
■ When a thread owns a mutex that is initialized with PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT or
PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT
■ When a thread unlocks a mutex that is initialized with PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT
or PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT
A thread can simultaneously own several mutexes initialized with a mix of

PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT and PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT. In this case, the thread
executes at the highest priority obtained by either of these protocols.
pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol() returns 0. Any
other return value indicates that an error occurred.
If either of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol()

ENOSYS
Description: Neither of the options _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT or
_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_PROTECT is defined and the implementation does not
support the function.
ENOTSUP
Description: The value specified by protocol is an unsupported value.
If either of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol()

might fail and return the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or protocol is not valid.
EPERM
Description: The caller does not have the privilege to perform the operation.
Getting the Mutex Attribute’s Protocol

pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol(3C) gets the protocol attribute of a mutex
attribute object.

pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol(const pthread_mutexattr_t *attr,

int *protocol);

protocol contains one of the following protocol attributes: PTHREAD_PRIO_NONE,

PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT, or PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT.
pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol() returns 0. Any
If the following condition occurs, pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol() fails and

returns the corresponding value.
ENOSYS
Description: Neither the _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIToption or the
_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_PROTECT option is defined and the implementation does
not support the function.
If either of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol()

EINVAL
EPERM
Setting the Mutex Attribute’s Priority Ceiling

pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling(3C) sets the priority ceiling attribute of a
mutex attribute object.
pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling(pthread_mutexatt_t *attr,

int prioceiling, int *oldceiling);

prioceiling specifies the priority ceiling of initialized mutexes. The ceiling defines the
minimum priority level at which the critical section guarded by the mutex is executed.
prioceiling falls within the maximum range of priorities defined by SCHED_FIFO. To
avoid priority inversion, set prioceiling to a priority higher than or equal to the highest
priority of all threads that might lock the particular mutex.
oldceiling contains the old priority ceiling value.
pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling() returns 0.
Any other return value indicates that an error occurred.
If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling

() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOSYS
Description: The option _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_PROTECT is not defined and the
implementation does not support the function.
If either of the following conditions occurs,

pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling() might fail and return the corresponding
value.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or prioceiling is invalid.
EPERM
Getting the Mutex Attribute’s Priority Ceiling

pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling(3C) gets the priority ceiling attribute of a
mutex attribute object.
pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling(const pthread_mutexatt_t *attr,

int *prioceiling);
attr designates the attribute object created by an earlier call to

Note – The attr mutex attribute object includes the priority ceiling attribute only if the
symbol _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_PROTECT is defined.
pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling() returns the priority ceiling of initialized

mutexes in prioceiling. The ceiling defines the minimum priority level at which the
critical section guarded by the mutex is executed. prioceiling falls within the maximum
range of priorities defined by SCHED_FIFO. To avoid priority inversion, set prioceiling
to a priority higher than or equal to the highest priority of all threads that might lock
the particular mutex.
pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling() returns 0.
Any other return value indicates that an error occurred.
If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling

() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOSYS
If either of the following conditions occurs,

pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling() might fail and return the corresponding
value.
EINVAL
EPERM
Setting the Mutex’s Priority Ceiling

pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling(3C) sets the priority ceiling of a mutex.
pthread_mutex_setprioceiling Syntax

int pthread_mutex_setprioceiling(pthread_mutex_t *mutex,
int prioceiling, int *old_ceiling);
pthread_mutex_setprioceiling() changes the priority ceiling, prioceiling, of a

mutex, mutex. pthread_mutex_setprioceiling() locks a mutex if unlocked, or
blocks until pthread_mutex_setprioceiling() successfully locks the mutex,
changes the priority ceiling of the mutex and releases the mutex. The process of
locking the mutex need not adhere to the priority protect protocol.
If pthread_mutex_setprioceiling() succeeds, the previous value of the priority

ceiling is returned in old_ceiling. If pthread_mutex_setprioceiling() fails, the
mutex priority ceiling remains unchanged.
pthread_mutex_setprioceiling Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutex_setprioceiling() returns 0. Any
If the following condition occurs, pthread_mutexatt_setprioceiling() fails

and returns the corresponding value.
ENOSYS
If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutex_setprioceiling()

EINVAL
Description: The priority requested by prioceiling is out of range.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by mutex does not refer to a currently existing
mutex.
ENOSYS
Description: The implementation does not support the priority ceiling protocol for
mutexes.
EPERM
Getting the Mutex’s Priority Ceiling

pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling(3C) gets the priority ceiling of a mutex.

pthread_mutex_getprioceiling Syntax
int pthread_mutex_getprioceiling(const pthread_mutex_t *mutex,

int *prioceiling);
pthread_mutex_getprioceiling() returns the priority ceiling, prioceiling of a

mutex.
pthread_mutex_getprioceiling Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutex_getprioceiling() returns 0. Any
If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexatt_getprioceiling()

ENOSYS
If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutex_getprioceiling()

EINVAL
Description: The value specified by mutex does not refer to a currently existing
mutex.
ENOSYS
Description: The implementation does not support the priority ceiling protocol for
mutexes.
EPERM
Setting the Mutex’s Robust Attribute

pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np(3C) sets the robust attribute of a mutex
attribute object.
pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np(pthread_mutexattr_t *attr,

int *robustness);
Note – pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np() applies only if the symbol

_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is defined.
attr points to the mutex attribute object previously created by a call to

robustness defines the behavior when the owner of the mutex fails. The value of
robustness that is defined in pthread.h is PTHREAD_MUTEX_ROBUST_NP or
PTHREAD_MUTEX_STALLED_NP. The default value is
PTHREAD_MUTEX_STALLED_NP.
■ PTHREAD_MUTEX_ROBUST_NP
When the owner of the mutex fails, all subsequent calls to pthread_mutex_lock
() are blocked from progress in an unspecified manner.
■ PTHREAD_MUTEX_STALLED_NP
When the owner of the mutex fails, the mutex is unlocked. The next owner of this
mutex acquires the mutex with an error return of EOWNWERDEAD.
Note – Your application must check the return code from pthread_mutex_lock
() for a mutex with an error return of EOWNWERDEAD.
■ The new owner of this mutex should make the state protected by the mutex
consistent. This state might have been left inconsistent when the previous
owner failed.
■ If the new owner is able to make the state consistent, call
pthread_mutex_consistent_np() for the mutex. Unlock the mutex
instead.
■ If the new owner is not able to make the state consistent, do not call
pthread_mutex_consistent_np() for the mutex, but unlock the mutex.
All waiters are woken up and all subsequent calls to pthread_mutex_lock()
fail to acquire the mutex. The return code is ENOTRECOVERABLE. The mutex
can be made consistent by calling pthread_mutex_destroy() to uninitialize
the mutex, and calling pthread_mutex_int() to reinitialize the mutex.
If the thread that acquires the lock with EOWNERDEAD fails, the next owner acquires
the lock with an EOWNERDEAD return code.
pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np() returns 0. Any

If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np()
ENOSYS
Description: The option _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO__INHERIT is not defined or the
implementation does not support pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np().
ENOTSUP
Description: The value specified by robustness is not supported.
pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np() might fail if the following condition

occurs:
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or robustness is invalid.
Getting the Mutex’s Robust Attribute

pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np(3C) gets the robust attribute of a mutex
attribute object.
pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np Syntax
int pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np(const pthread_mutexattr_t *attr,

int *robustness);
Note – pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np() applies only if the symbol

_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is defined.
attr points to the mutex attribute object previously created by a call to

robustness is the value of the robust attribute of a mutex attribute object.
pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np Return Values

On successful completion, pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np() returns 0. Any
If any of the following conditions occurs, pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np()


ENOSYS
Description: The option _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO__INHERIT is not defined or the
implementation does not support pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np().
pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np() might fail if the following condition

occurs:
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or robustness is invalid.
Using Mutual Exclusion Locks

Table 4–3 lists the functions that manipulate mutex locks.
TABLE 4–3 Routines for Mutual Exclusion Locks
Initialize a mutex “pthread_mutex_init Syntax” on page 85
Make mutex consistent “pthread_mutex_consistent_np Syntax”

on page 86
Lock a mutex “pthread_mutex_lock Syntax” on page 87
Unlock a mutex “pthread_mutex_unlock Syntax” on page 89
Lock with a nonblocking mutex “pthread_mutex_trylock Syntax” on page 89
Destroy a mutex “pthread_mutex_destroy Syntax” on page 91
The default scheduling policy, SCHED_OTHER, does not specify the order in which
threads can acquire a lock. When multiple threads are waiting for a mutex, the order
of acquisition is undefined. When contention occurs, the default behavior is to unblock
threads in priority order.
Initializing a Mutex
Use pthread_mutex_init(3C) to initialize the mutex pointed at by mp to its default
value or to specify mutex attributes that have already been set with
pthread_mutexattr_init(). The default value for mattr is NULL. For Solaris
threads, see “mutex_init(3C) Syntax” on page 197.

pthread_mutex_init Syntax
int pthread_mutex_init(pthread_mutex_t *mp,
const pthread_mutexattr_t *mattr);
pthread_mutex_t mp = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER;
int ret;
/* initialize a mutex to its default value */

ret = pthread_mutex_init(&mp, NULL);
/* initialize a mutex */
ret = pthread_mutex_init(&mp, &mattr);
When the mutex is initialized, the mutex is in an unlocked state. The mutex can be in
memory that is shared between processes or in memory private to a process.
Note – The mutex memory must be cleared to zero before initialization.
The effect of mattr set to NULL is the same as passing the address of a default mutex
attribute object, but without the memory overhead.
Use the macro PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER to initialize statically defined

mutexes to their default attributes.
Do not reinitialize or destroy a mutex lock while other threads are using the mutex.
Program failure results if either action is not done correctly. If a mutex is reinitialized
or destroyed, the application must be sure the mutex is not currently in use.
pthread_mutex_init Return Values

pthread_mutex_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EBUSY
Description: The implementation has detected an attempt to reinitialize the object
referenced by mp, a previously initialized but not yet destroyed mutex.
EINVAL
Description: The mattr attribute value is invalid. The mutex has not been modified.
EFAULT
Description: The address for the mutex pointed at by mp is invalid.

Making a Mutex Consistent
If the owner of a mutex fails, the mutex can become inconsistent.
pthread_mutex_consistent_np makes the mutex object, mutex, consistent after the death
of its owner.
pthread_mutex_consistent_np Syntax
int pthread_mutex_consistent_np(pthread_mutex_t *mutex);
Note – pthread_mutex_consistent_np() applies only if the symbol

_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is defined and for mutexes that are initialized with
the protocol attribute value PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT.
Call pthread_mutex_lock() to acquire the inconsistent mutex. The EOWNWERDEAD

return value indicates an inconsistent mutex.
Call pthread_mutex_consistent_np() while holding the mutex acquired by a

previous call to pthread_mutex_lock().
The critical section protected by the mutex might have been left in an inconsistent
state by a failed owner. In this case, make the mutex consistent only if you can make
the critical section protected by the mutex consistent.
Calls to pthread_mutex_lock(), pthread_mutex_unlock(), and

pthread_mutex_trylock() for a consistent mutex behave in the normal manner.
The behavior of pthread_mutex_consistent_np() for a mutex that is not

inconsistent, or is not held, is undefined.
pthread_mutex_consistent_np Return Values

pthread_mutex_consistent_np() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
pthread_mutex_consistent_np() fails if the following condition occurs:
ENOSYS
Description: The option _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is not defined or the
implementation does not support pthread_mutex_consistent_np().
pthread_mutex_consistent_np() might fail if the following condition occurs:
EINVAL
Description: The mattr attribute value is invalid.

Locking a Mutex
Use pthread_mutex_lock(3C) to lock the mutex pointed to by mutex.
pthread_mutex_lock Syntax
int pthread_mutex_lock(pthread_mutex_t *mutex);
pthread_mutex_t mutex;
int ret;
ret = pthread_ mutex_lock(&mp); /* acquire the mutex */
When pthread_mutex_lock() returns, the mutex is locked. The calling thread is

the owner. If the mutex is already locked and owned by another thread, the calling
thread blocks until the mutex becomes available. For Solaris threads, see
“mutex_lock Syntax” on page 200.
If the mutex type is PTHREAD_MUTEX_NORMAL, deadlock detection is not provided.

Attempting to relock the mutex causes deadlock. If a thread attempts to unlock a
mutex not locked by the thread or a mutex that is unlocked, undefined behavior
results.
If the mutex type is PTHREAD_MUTEX_ERRORCHECK, then error checking is provided.

If a thread attempts to relock a mutex that the thread has already locked, an error is
returned. If a thread attempts to unlock a mutex not locked by the thread or a mutex
that is unlocked, an error is returned.
If the mutex type is PTHREAD_MUTEX_RECURSIVE, then the mutex maintains the

concept of a lock count. When a thread successfully acquires a mutex for the first time,
the lock count is set to 1. Every time a thread relocks this mutex, the lock count is
incremented by 1. Every time the thread unlocks the mutex, the lock count is
decremented by 1. When the lock count reaches 0, the mutex becomes available for
other threads to acquire. If a thread attempts to unlock a mutex not locked by the
thread or a mutex that is unlocked, an error is returned.
If the mutex type is PTHREAD_MUTEX_DEFAULT, attempting to recursively lock the

mutex results in undefined behavior. Attempting to unlock the mutex if the mutex was
not locked by the calling thread results in undefined behavior. Attempting to unlock
the mutex if the mutex is not locked results in undefined behavior.
pthread_mutex_lock Return Values

pthread_mutex_lock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other

EAGAIN
Description: The mutex could not be acquired because the maximum number of
recursive locks for mutex has been exceeded.
EDEADLK
Description: The current thread already owns the mutex.
If the symbol _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is defined, the mutex is initialized

with the protocol attribute value PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT. Additionally, if the
robustness argument of pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np() is
PTHREAD_MUTEX_ROBUST_NP, the function fails and returns one of the following
values.
EOWNERDEAD
Description: The last owner of this mutex failed while holding the mutex. This
mutex is now owned by the caller. The caller must attempt to make the state
protected by the mutex consistent.
If the caller is able to make the state consistent, call

pthread_mutex_consistent_np() for the mutex and unlock the mutex.
Subsequent calls to pthread_mutex_lock() behave normally.
If the caller is unable to make the state consistent, do not call

pthread_mutex_init() for the mutex. Unlock the mutex instead. Subsequent
calls to pthread_mutex_lock() fail to acquire the mutex and return an
ENOTRECOVERABLE error code.
If the owner that acquired the lock with EOWNERDEAD fails, the next owner
acquires the lock with EOWNERDEAD.
ENOTRECOVERABLE
Description: The mutex you are trying to acquire is protecting state left
irrecoverable by the mutex’s previous owner that failed while holding the lock. The
mutex has not been acquired. This irrecoverable condition can occur when:
■ The lock was previously acquired with EOWNERDEAD
■ The owner was unable to cleanup the state
■ The owner had unlocked the mutex without making the mutex state consistent
ENOMEM
Description: The limit on the number of simultaneously held mutexes has been
exceeded.
Unlocking a Mutex
Use pthread_mutex_unlock(3C) to unlock the mutex pointed to by mutex. For
Solaris threads, see “mutex_unlock Syntax” on page 200.

pthread_mutex_unlock Syntax
int pthread_mutex_unlock(pthread_mutex_t *mutex);
int ret;
ret = pthread_mutex_unlock(&mutex); /* release the mutex */
pthread_mutex_unlock() releases the mutex object referenced by mutex. The

manner in which a mutex is released is dependent upon the mutex’s type attribute. If
threads are blocked on the mutex object when pthread_mutex_unlock() is called
and the mutex becomes available, the scheduling policy determines which thread
acquires the mutex. For PTHREAD_MUTEX_RECURSIVE mutexes, the mutex becomes
available when the count reaches zero and the calling thread no longer has any locks
on this mutex.
pthread_mutex_unlock Return Values

pthread_mutex_unlock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EPERM
Description: The current thread does not own the mutex.
Locking With a Nonblocking Mutex

Use pthread_mutex_trylock(3C) to attempt to lock the mutex pointed to by mutex.
For Solaris threads, see “mutex_trylock Syntax” on page 201.
pthread_mutex_trylock Syntax
int pthread_mutex_trylock(pthread_mutex_t *mutex);
int ret;
ret = pthread_mutex_trylock(&mutex); /* try to lock the mutex */
pthread_mutex_trylock() is a nonblocking version of pthread_mutex_lock()

. If the mutex object referenced by mutex is currently locked by any thread, including
the current thread, the call returns immediately. Otherwise, the mutex is locked and
the calling thread is the owner.

pthread_mutex_trylock Return Values
pthread_mutex_trylock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EBUSY
Description: The mutex could not be acquired because the mutex pointed to by
mutex was already locked.
EAGAIN
Description: The mutex could not be acquired because the maximum number of
recursive locks for mutex has been exceeded.
If the symbol _POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT is defined, the mutex is initialized

with the protocol attribute value PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT. Additionally, if the
robustness argument of pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np() is
PTHREAD_MUTEX_ROBUST_NP, the function fails and returns one of the following
values:
EOWNERDEAD
Description: The last owner of this mutex failed while holding the mutex. This
mutex is now owned by the caller. The caller must attempt to make the state
protected by the mutex consistent.
If the caller is able to make the state consistent, call

pthread_mutex_consistent_np() for the mutex and unlock the mutex.
Subsequent calls to pthread_mutex_lock() behave normally.
If the caller is unable to make the state consistent, do not call

pthread_mutex_init() for the mutex, but unlock the mutex. Subsequent calls
to pthread_mutex_trylock() fail to acquire the mutex and return an
ENOTRECOVERABLE error code.
If the owner that acquired the lock with EOWNERDEAD fails, the next owner
acquires the lock with EOWNERDEAD.
ENOTRECOVERABLE
Description: The mutex you are trying to acquire is protecting state left
irrecoverable by the mutex’s previous owner that failed while holding the lock. The
mutex has not been acquired. This condition can occur when:
■ The lock was previously acquired with EOWNERDEAD
■ The owner was unable to cleanup the state
■ The owner had unlocked the mutex without making the mutex state consistent
ENOMEM
Description: The limit on the number of simultaneously held mutexes has been
exceeded.

Destroying a Mutex
Use pthread_mutex_destroy(3C) to destroy any state that is associated with the
mutex pointed to by mp. For Solaris threads, see “mutex_destroy Syntax” on page
199.
pthread_mutex_destroy Syntax
int pthread_mutex_destroy(pthread_mutex_t *mp);
pthread_mutex_t mp;
int ret;
ret = pthread_mutex_destroy(&mp); /* mutex is destroyed */
Note that the space for storing the mutex is not freed.
pthread_mutex_destroy Return Values

pthread_mutex_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
occur, the function fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by mp does not refer to an initialized mutex object.
Code Examples of Mutex Locking

Example 4–1 shows some code fragments with mutex locking.
EXAMPLE 4–1 Mutex Lock Example

pthread_mutex_t count_mutex;
long long count;
void
increment_count()
{
pthread_mutex_lock(&count_mutex);
count = count + 1;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&count_mutex);
}

EXAMPLE 4–1 Mutex Lock Example (Continued)
long long
get_count()
{
long long c;
pthread_mutex_lock(&count_mutex);
c = count;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&count_mutex);
return (c);
}
The two functions in Example 4–1 use the mutex lock for different purposes. The
increment_count() function uses the mutex lock to ensure an atomic update of the
shared variable. The get_count() function uses the mutex lock to guarantee that the
64-bit quantity count is read atomically. On a 32-bit architecture, a long long is really
two 32-bit quantities.
When you read an integer value, the operation is atomic because an integer is the
common word size on most machines.
Examples of Using Lock Hierarchies

Occasionally, you might want to access two resources at once. Perhaps you are using
one of the resources, and then discover that the other resource is needed as well. A
problem exists if two threads attempt to claim both resources but lock the associated
mutexes in different orders. For example, if the two threads lock mutexes 1 and 2
respectively, a deadlock occurs when each attempts to lock the other mutex. Example
4–2 shows possible deadlock scenarios.
EXAMPLE 4–2 Deadlock
Thread 1 Thread 2
pthread_mutex_lock(&m1); pthread_mutex_lock(&m2);
/* use resource 1 */ /* use resource 2 */
pthread_mutex_lock(&m2); pthread_mutex_lock(&m1);
/* use resources 1 and 2 */ /* use resources 1 and 2 */
pthread_mutex_unlock(&m2); pthread_mutex_unlock(&m1);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&m1); pthread_mutex_unlock(&m2);
The best way to avoid this problem is to make sure that when threads lock multiple
mutexes, the threads do so in the same order. When locks are always taken in a
prescribed order, deadlock should not occur. This technique, known as lock
hierarchies, orders the mutexes by logically assigning numbers to the mutexes.

Also, honor the restriction that you cannot take a mutex that is assigned n when you
are holding any mutex assigned a number that is greater than n.
However, this technique cannot always be used. Sometimes, you must take the
mutexes in an order other than prescribed. To prevent deadlock in such a situation,
use pthread_mutex_trylock(). One thread must release its mutexes when the
thread discovers that deadlock would otherwise be inevitable.
EXAMPLE 4–3 Conditional Locking
Thread 1 Thread 2
pthread_mutex_lock(&m1); for (; ;)
pthread_mutex_lock(&m2);
{ pthread_mutex_lock(&m2);
/* no processing */
if(pthread_mutex_trylock(&m1)==0)
pthread_mutex_unlock(&m2);
/* got it */
break;
/* didn’t get it */
}
/* get locks; no processing */
In Example 4–3, thread1 locks mutexes in the prescribed order, but thread2 takes the
mutexes out of order. To make certain that no deadlock occurs, thread2 has to take
mutex1 very carefully. If thread2 blocks while waiting for the mutex to be released,
thread2 is likely to have just entered into a deadlock with thread1.
To ensure that thread2 does not enter into a deadlock, thread2 calls
pthread_mutex_trylock(), which takes the mutex if available. If the mutex is not
available, thread2 returns immediately, reporting failure. At this point, thread2 must
release mutex2. Thread1 can now lock mutex2, and then release both mutex1 and
mutex2.
Examples of Using Nested Locking With a Singly-Linked

List
Example 4–4 and Example 4–5 show how to take three locks at once. Deadlock is
prevented by taking the locks in a prescribed order.

EXAMPLE 4–4 Singly-Linked List Structure
typedef struct node1 {
int value;
struct node1 *link;
pthread_mutex_t lock;
} node1_t;
node1_t ListHead;
This example uses a singly linked list structure with each node that contains a mutex.
To remove a node from the list, first search the list starting at ListHead until the desired
node is found. ListHead is never removed.
To protect this search from the effects of concurrent deletions, lock each node before
any of its contents are accessed. Because all searches start at ListHead, a deadlock
cannot occur because the locks are always taken in list order.
When the desired node is found, lock both the node and its predecessor since the
change involves both nodes. Because the predecessor’s lock is always taken first, you
are again protected from deadlock. Example 4–5 shows the C code to remove an item
from a singly-linked list.
EXAMPLE 4–5 Singly-Linked List With Nested Locking

node1_t *delete(int value)
{
node1_t *prev, *current;
prev = &ListHead;
pthread_mutex_lock(&prev->lock);
while ((current = prev->link) != NULL) {
pthread_mutex_lock(&current->lock);
if (current->value == value) {
prev->link = current->link;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&current->lock);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&prev->lock);
current->link = NULL;
return(current);
}
prev = current;
}
return(NULL);
}

Example of Nested Locking With a Circularly-Linked List
Example 4–6 modifies the previous list structure by converting the list structure into a
circular list. Because a distinguished head node no longer exists, a thread can be
associated with a particular node and can perform operations on that node and its
neighbor. Lock hierarchies do not work easily here because the obvious hierarchy,
following the links, is circular.
EXAMPLE 4–6 Circular-Linked List Structure
typedef struct node2 {
int value;
struct node2 *link;
pthread_mutex_t lock;
} node2_t;
Here is the C code that acquires the locks on two nodes and performs an operation
that involves both locks.
EXAMPLE 4–7 Circular Linked List With Nested Locking
void Hit Neighbor(node2_t *me) {
while (1) {
pthread_mutex_lock(&me->lock);
if (pthread_mutex_lock(&me->link->lock)!= 0) {
/* failed to get lock */
pthread_mutex_unlock(&me->lock);
continue;
}
break;
}
me->link->value += me->value;
me->value /=2;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&me->link->lock);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&me->lock);
}
Condition Variable Attributes

Use condition variables to atomically block threads until a particular condition is true.
Always use condition variables together with a mutex lock.
With a condition variable, a thread can atomically block until a condition is satisfied.
The condition is tested under the protection of a mutual exclusion lock (mutex).
When the condition is false, a thread usually blocks on a condition variable and
atomically releases the mutex waiting for the condition to change. When another
thread changes the condition, that thread can signal the associated condition variable
to cause one or more waiting threads to perform the following actions:

■ Wake up
■ Acquire the mutex again
■ Re-evaluate the condition
Condition variables can be used to synchronize threads among processes in the

following situations:
■ The threads are allocated in memory that can be written to
■ The memory is shared by the cooperating processes
The scheduling policy determines how blocking threads are awakened. For the default
SCHED_OTHER, threads are awakened in priority order.
The attributes for condition variables must be set and initialized before the condition
variables can be used. The functions that manipulate condition variable attributes are
listed in Table 4–4.
TABLE 4–4 Condition Variable Attributes
Operation Function Description
Initialize a condition variable attribute “pthread_condattr_init Syntax” on page 97
Remove a condition variable attribute “pthread_condattr_destroy Syntax” on page

97
Set the scope of a condition variable “pthread_condattr_setpshared Syntax”

on page 98
Get the scope of a condition variable “pthread_condattr_getpshared Syntax”

on page 99
The differences between Solaris and POSIX threads when defining the scope of a
condition variable are shown in Table 4–5.
TABLE 4–5 Condition Variable Scope Comparison
Solaris POSIX Definition
USYNC_PROCESS PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED Use to synchronize threads in this process

and other processes
USYNC_THREAD PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE Use to synchronize threads in this process

only
Initializing a Condition Variable Attribute

Use pthread_condattr_init(3C) to initialize attributes that are associated with
this object to their default values. Storage for each attribute object is allocated by the
threads system during execution.

pthread_condattr_init Syntax
int pthread_condattr_init(pthread_condattr_t *cattr);
pthread_condattr_t cattr;
int ret;
/* initialize an attribute to default value */

ret = pthread_condattr_init(&cattr);
The default value of the pshared attribute when this function is called is
PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE. This value of pshared means that the initialized
condition variable can be used within a process.
cattr is an opaque data type that contains a system-allocated attribute object. The
possible values of cattr’s scope are PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE and
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED. PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE is the default value.
Before a condition variable attribute can be reused, the attribute must first be
reinitialized by pthread_condattr_destroy(3C). The
pthread_condattr_init() call returns a pointer to an opaque object. If the object
is not destroyed, a memory leak results.
pthread_condattr_init Return Values

pthread_condattr_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient memory allocated to initialize the thread attributes object.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by cattr is invalid.
Removing a Condition Variable Attribute

Use pthread_condattr_destroy(3C) to remove storage and render the attribute
object invalid.
pthread_condattr_destroy Syntax
int pthread_condattr_destroy(pthread_condattr_t *cattr);
int ret;

ret
= pthread_condattr_destroy(&cattr);
pthread_condattr_destroy Return Values

pthread_condattr_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Setting the Scope of a Condition Variable

pthread_condattr_setpshared(3C) sets the scope of a condition variable to
either process private (intraprocess) or system wide (interprocess).
pthread_condattr_setpshared Syntax
int pthread_condattr_setpshared(pthread_condattr_t *cattr,
int pshared);
int ret;
/* all processes */
ret = pthread_condattr_setpshared(&cattr, PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED);
/* within a process */
ret = pthread_condattr_setpshared(&cattr, PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE);
A condition variable created with the pshared attribute set in shared memory to
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED, can be shared among threads from more than one
process. This behavior is equivalent to the USYNC_PROCESS flag in mutex_init() in
the original Solaris threads implementation.
If the mutex pshared attribute is set to PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE, only those

threads created by the same process can operate on the mutex.
PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE is the default value. PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE
results in the same behavior as with the USYNC_THREAD flag in the original Solaris
threads cond_init() call. PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE behaves like a local
condition variable. The behavior of PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED is equivalent to a
global condition variable.

pthread_condattr_setpshared Return Values
pthread_condattr_setpshared() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
EINVAL
Description: The value of cattr is invalid, or the pshared value is invalid.
Getting the Scope of a Condition Variable

pthread_condattr_getpshared(3C) gets the current value of pshared for the
attribute object cattr.
pthread_condattr_getpshared Syntax
int pthread_condattr_getpshared(const pthread_condattr_t *cattr,
int *pshared);
int pshared;
int ret;
/* get pshared value of condition variable */

ret = pthread_condattr_getpshared(&cattr, &pshared);
The value of the attribute object is either PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED or

PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE.
pthread_condattr_getpshared Return Values

pthread_condattr_getpshared() returns zero after completing successfully. Any
other return value indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition
EINVAL
Description: The value of cattr is invalid.

Using Condition Variables
This section explains how to use condition variables. Table 4–6 lists the functions that
are available.
TABLE 4–6 Condition Variables Functions
Initialize a condition variable “pthread_cond_init Syntax” on page 100
Block on a condition variable “pthread_cond_wait Syntax” on page 101
Unblock a specific thread “pthread_cond_signal Syntax” on page

103
Block until a specified time “pthread_cond_timedwait Syntax”

on page 104
Block for a specified interval “pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np

Syntax” on page 105
Unblock all threads “pthread_cond_broadcast Syntax”

on page 106
Destroy condition variable state “pthread_cond_destroy Syntax” on page

108
Initializing a Condition Variable

Use pthread_cond_init(3C) to initialize the condition variable pointed at by cv to
its default value, or to specify condition variable attributes that are already set with
pthread_condattr_init().
pthread_cond_init Syntax
int pthread_cond_init(pthread_cond_t *cv,
const pthread_condattr_t *cattr);
pthread_cond_t cv;
int ret;
/* initialize a condition variable to its default value */

ret = pthread_cond_init(&cv, NULL);
/* initialize a condition variable */

ret = pthread_cond_init(&cv, &cattr);
cattr is NULL. The effect of cattr set to NULL is the same as passing the address of a
default condition variable attribute object, but without the memory overhead. For
Solaris threads, see “cond_init Syntax” on page 202.
Use the macro PTHREAD_COND_INITIALIZER to initialize statically defined

condition variables to their default attributes. The PTHREAD_COND_INITIALIZER
macro has the same effect as dynamically allocating pthread_cond_init() with
null attributes. No error checking is done.
Multiple threads must not simultaneously initialize or reinitialize the same condition
variable. If a condition variable is reinitialized or is destroyed, the application must be
sure that the condition variable is not in use.
pthread_cond_init Return Values

pthread_cond_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return
value indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions occurs,
EINVAL
EBUSY
Description: The condition variable is being used.
EAGAIN
Description: The necessary resources are not available.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient memory exists to initialize the condition variable.
Blocking on a Condition Variable

Use pthread_cond_wait(3C) to atomically release the mutex pointed to by mp and
to cause the calling thread to block on the condition variable pointed to by cv. For
Solaris threads, see “cond_wait Syntax” on page 203.
pthread_cond_wait Syntax
int pthread_cond_wait(pthread_cond_t *cv,pthread_mutex_t *mutex);
pthread_cond_t cv;

pthread_mutex_t mp;
int ret;
/* wait on condition variable */

ret = pthread_cond_wait(&cv, &mp);
The blocked thread can be awakened by a pthread_cond_signal(), a

pthread_cond_broadcast(), or when interrupted by delivery of a signal.
Any change in the value of a condition that is associated with the condition variable
cannot be inferred by the return of pthread_cond_wait(). Such conditions must be
reevaluated.
The pthread_cond_wait() routine always returns with the mutex locked and
owned by the calling thread, even when returning an error.
This function blocks until the condition is signaled. The function atomically releases
the associated mutex lock before blocking, and atomically acquires the mutex again
before returning.
In typical use, a condition expression is evaluated under the protection of a mutex

lock. When the condition expression is false, the thread blocks on the condition
variable. The condition variable is then signaled by another thread when the thread
changes the condition value. The change causes all threads that are waiting on the
condition to unblock and to try to acquire the mutex lock again.
The condition that caused the wait must be retested before continuing execution from
the point of the pthread_cond_wait(). The condition could change before an
awakened thread reacquires the mutes and returns from pthread_cond_wait(). A
waiting thread could be awakened spuriously. The recommended test method is to
write the condition check as a while() loop that calls pthread_cond_wait().
pthread_mutex_lock();
while(condition_is_false)
pthread_cond_wait();
pthread_mutex_unlock();
No specific order of acquisition is guaranteed when more than one thread blocks on
the condition variable.
Note – pthread_cond_wait() is a cancellation point. If a cancel is pending and the

calling thread has cancellation enabled, the thread terminates and begins executing its
cleanup handlers while continuing to hold the lock.
pthread_cond_wait Return Values

pthread_cond_wait() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return
value indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs, the

EINVAL
Description: The value specified by cv or mp is invalid.
Unblocking One Thread

Use pthread_cond_signal(3C) to unblock one thread that is blocked on the
condition variable pointed to by cv. For Solaris threads, see “cond_signal Syntax”
on page 205.
pthread_cond_signal Syntax
int pthread_cond_signal(pthread_cond_t *cv);
pthread_cond_t cv;
int ret;
/* one condition variable is signaled */

ret = pthread_cond_signal(&cv);
Modify the associated condition under the protection of the same mutex used with the
condition variable being signaled. Otherwise, the condition variable could be modified
between its test and blocking in pthread_cond_wait(), which can cause an infinite
wait.
The scheduling policy determines the order in which blocked threads are awakened.
For SCHED_OTHER, threads are awakened in priority order.
When no threads are blocked on the condition variable, calling

pthread_cond_signal() has no effect.
EXAMPLE 4–8 Using pthread_cond_wait() and pthread_cond_signal()
pthread_mutex_t count_lock;
pthread_cond_t count_nonzero;
unsigned count;
decrement_count()
{
pthread_mutex_lock(&count_lock);
while (count == 0)
pthread_cond_wait(&count_nonzero, &count_lock);
count = count - 1;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&count_lock);
}
increment_count()
{
pthread_mutex_lock(&count_lock);

EXAMPLE 4–8 Using pthread_cond_wait() and pthread_cond_signal()
(Continued)
if (count == 0)
pthread_cond_signal(&count_nonzero);
count = count + 1;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&count_lock);
}
pthread_cond_signal Return Values

pthread_cond_signal() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL
Description: cv points to an illegal address.
Example 4–8 shows how to use pthread_cond_wait() and

pthread_cond_signal().
Blocking Until a Specified Time

Use pthread_cond_timedwait(3C) as you would use pthread_cond_wait(),
except that pthread_cond_timedwait() does not block past the time of day
specified by abstime.
pthread_cond_timedwait Syntax
int pthread_cond_timedwait(pthread_cond_t *cv,
pthread_mutex_t *mp, const struct timespec *abstime);
#include <time.h>
pthread_cond_t cv;
pthread_mutex_t mp;
timestruct_t abstime;
int ret;

ret = pthread_cond_timedwait(&cv, &mp, &abstime);
pthread_cond_timedwait() always returns with the mutex locked and owned by

the calling thread, even when pthread_cond_timedwait() is returning an error.
For Solaris threads, see “cond_timedwait Syntax” on page 204.
The pthread_cond_timedwait() function blocks until the condition is signaled or

until the time of day specified by the last argument has passed.

Note – pthread_cond_timedwait() is also a cancellation point.
EXAMPLE 4–9 Timed Condition Wait

pthread_timestruc_t to;
pthread_mutex_t m;
pthread_cond_t c;
...
pthread_mutex_lock(&m);
to.tv_sec = time(NULL) + TIMEOUT;
to.tv_nsec = 0;
while (cond == FALSE) {
err = pthread_cond_timedwait(&c, &m, &to);
if (err == ETIMEDOUT) {
/* timeout, do something */
break;
}
}
pthread_mutex_unlock(&m);
pthread_cond_timedwait Return Values

pthread_cond_timedwait() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL
Description: cv or abstime points to an illegal address.
ETIMEDOUT
Description: The time specified by abstime has passed.
The timeout is specified as a time of day so that the condition can be retested
efficiently without recomputing the value, as shown in Example 4–9.
Blocking For a Specified Interval

Use pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np(3C) as you would use
pthread_cond_timedwait() with one exception.
pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np() takes a relative time interval rather than an
absolute future time of day as the value of its last argument.
pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np Syntax
int pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np(pthread_cond_t *cv,
pthread_mutex_t *mp,
const struct timespec *reltime);

#include <time.h>
pthread_cond_t cv;
pthread_mutex_t mp;
timestruct_t reltime;
int ret;

ret = pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np(&cv, &mp, &reltime);
pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np() always returns with the mutex locked and

owned by the calling thread, even when pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np() is
returning an error. For Solaris threads, see cond_reltimedwait(3C). The
pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np() function blocks until the condition is signaled
or until the time interval specified by the last argument has elapsed.
Note – pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np() is also a cancellation point.
pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np Return Values

pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np() returns zero after completing successfully.
Any other return value indicates that an error occurred. When either of the following
EINVAL
Description: cv or reltime points to an illegal address.
ETIMEDOUT
Description: The time interval specified by reltime has passed.
Unblocking All Threads

Use pthread_cond_broadcast(3C) to unblock all threads that are blocked on the
condition variable pointed to by cv, specified by pthread_cond_wait().
pthread_cond_broadcast Syntax
int pthread_cond_broadcast(pthread_cond_t *cv);
pthread_cond_t cv;
int ret;

/* all condition variables are signaled */
ret = pthread_cond_broadcast(&cv);
When no threads are blocked on the condition variable, pthread_cond_broadcast

() has no effect. For Solaris threads, see “cond_broadcast Syntax” on page 206.
Since pthread_cond_broadcast() causes all threads blocked on the condition to

contend again for the mutex lock, use pthread_cond_broadcast() with care. For
example, use pthread_cond_broadcast() to allow threads to contend for varying
resource amounts when resources are freed, as shown in Example 4–10.
EXAMPLE 4–10 Condition Variable Broadcast
pthread_mutex_t rsrc_lock;
pthread_cond_t rsrc_add;
unsigned int resources;
get_resources(int amount)
{
pthread_mutex_lock(&rsrc_lock);
while (resources < amount) {
pthread_cond_wait(&rsrc_add, &rsrc_lock);
}
resources -= amount;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&rsrc_lock);
}
add_resources(int amount)
{
pthread_mutex_lock(&rsrc_lock);
resources += amount;
pthread_cond_broadcast(&rsrc_add);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&rsrc_lock);
}
Note that in add_resources() whether resources are updated first, or if

pthread_cond_broadcast() is called first inside the mutex lock does not matter.
Modify the associated condition under the protection of the same mutex that is used
with the condition variable being signaled. Otherwise, the condition variable could be
modified between its test and blocking in pthread_cond_wait(), which can cause
an infinite wait.
pthread_cond_broadcast Return Values

pthread_cond_broadcast() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL

Destroying the Condition Variable State
Use pthread_cond_destroy(3C) to destroy any state that is associated with the
condition variable pointed to by cv. For Solaris threads, see “cond_destroy Syntax”
on page 203.
pthread_cond_destroy Syntax
int pthread_cond_destroy(pthread_cond_t *cv);
pthread_cond_t cv;
int ret;
/* Condition variable is destroyed */

ret = pthread_cond_destroy(&cv);
Note that the space for storing the condition variable is not freed.
pthread_cond_destroy Return Values

pthread_cond_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by cv is invalid.
Lost Wake-Up Problem

A call to pthread_cond_signal() or pthread_cond_broadcast() when the
thread does not hold the mutex lock associated with the condition can lead to lost
wake-up bugs.
A lost wake-up occurs when all of the following conditions are in effect:
■ A thread calls pthread_cond_signal() or pthread_cond_broadcast()
■ Another thread is between the test of the condition and the call to
pthread_cond_wait()
■ No threads are waiting
The signal has no effect, and therefore is lost
This can occur only if the condition being tested is modified without holding the
mutex lock associated with the condition. As long as the condition being tested is
modified only while holding the associated mutex, pthread_cond_signal() and
pthread_cond_broadcast() can be called regardless of whether they are holding
the associated mutex.

Producer and Consumer Problem
The producer and consumer problem is one of the small collection of standard,
well-known problems in concurrent programming. A finite-size buffer and two classes
of threads, producers and consumers, put items into the buffer (producers) and take
items out of the buffer (consumers).
A producer cannot put something in the buffer until the buffer has space available. A
consumer cannot take something out of the buffer until the producer has written to the
buffer.
A condition variable represents a queue of threads that wait for some condition to be
signaled.
Example 4–11 has two such queues. One (less) queue for producers waits for a slot in
the buffer. The other (more) queue for consumers waits for a buffer slot containing
information. The example also has a mutex, as the data structure describing the buffer
must be accessed by only one thread at a time.
EXAMPLE 4–11 Producer and Consumer Problem With Condition Variables

typedef struct {
char buf[BSIZE];
int occupied;
int nextin;
int nextout;
pthread_cond_t more;
pthread_cond_t less;
} buffer_t;
buffer_t buffer;
As Example 4–12 shows, the producer thread acquires the mutex protecting the
buffer data structure. The producer thread then makes certain that space is available
for the item produced. If space is not available, the producer thread calls
pthread_cond_wait(). pthread_cond_wait() causes the producer thread to
join the queue of threads that are waiting for the condition less to be signaled. less
represents available room in the buffer.
At the same time, as part of the call to pthread_cond_wait(), the thread releases
its lock on the mutex. The waiting producer threads depend on consumer threads to
signal when the condition is true, as shown in Example 4–12. When the condition is
signaled, the first thread waiting on less is awakened. However, before the thread can
return from pthread_cond_wait(), the thread must acquire the lock on the mutex
again.
Acquire the mutex to ensure that the thread again has mutually exclusive access to the
buffer data structure. The thread then must check that available room in the buffer
actually exists. If room is available, the thread writes into the next available slot.

At the same time, consumer threads might be waiting for items to appear in the buffer.
These threads are waiting on the condition variable more. A producer thread, having
just deposited something in the buffer, calls pthread_cond_signal() to wake up
the next waiting consumer. If no consumers are waiting, this call has no effect.
Finally, the producer thread unlocks the mutex, allowing other threads to operate on
the buffer data structure.
EXAMPLE 4–12 The Producer and Consumer Problem: the Producer
void producer(buffer_t *b, char item)
{
pthread_mutex_lock(&b->mutex);
while (b->occupied >= BSIZE)

pthread_cond_wait(&b->less, &b->mutex);
assert(b->occupied < BSIZE);
b->buf[b->nextin++] = item;
b->nextin %= BSIZE;
b->occupied++;
/* now: either b->occupied < BSIZE and b->nextin is the index

of the next empty slot in the buffer, or
b->occupied == BSIZE and b->nextin is the index of the
next (occupied) slot that will be emptied by a consumer
(such as b->nextin == b->nextout) */
pthread_cond_signal(&b->more);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&b->mutex);
}
Note the use of the assert() statement. Unless the code is compiled with NDEBUG
defined, assert() does nothing when its argument evaluates to true (nonzero). The
program aborts if the argument evaluates to false (zero). Such assertions are especially
useful in multithreaded programs. assert() immediately points out runtime
problems if the assertion fails. assert() has the additional effect of providing useful
comments.
The comment that begins /* now: either b->occupied ... could better be
expressed as an assertion, but the statement is too complicated as a Boolean-valued
expression and so is given in English.
Both assertions and comments are examples of invariants. These invariants are logical
statements that should not be falsified by the execution of the program with the
following exception. The exception occurs during brief moments when a thread is
modifying some of the program variables mentioned in the invariant. An assertion, of
course, should be true whenever any thread executes the statement.
The use of invariants is an extremely useful technique. Even if the invariants are not
stated in the program text, think in terms of invariants when you analyze a program.

The invariant in the producer code that is expressed as a comment is always true
whenever a thread executes the code where the comment appears. If you move this
comment to just after the mutex_unlock(), the comment does not necessarily
remain true. If you move this comment to just after the assert(), the comment is
still true.
This invariant therefore expresses a property that is true at all times with the following
exception. The exception occurs when either a producer or a consumer is changing the
state of the buffer. While a thread is operating on the buffer under the protection of a
mutex, the thread might temporarily falsify the invariant. However, once the thread is
finished, the invariant should be true again.
Example 4–13 shows the code for the consumer. The logic flow is symmetric with the
logic flow of the producer.
EXAMPLE 4–13 The Producer and Consumer Problem: the Consumer

char consumer(buffer_t *b)
{
char item;
pthread_mutex_lock(&b->mutex);
while(b->occupied <= 0)
pthread_cond_wait(&b->more, &b->mutex);
assert(b->occupied > 0);
item = b->buf[b->nextout++];
b->nextout %= BSIZE;
b->occupied--;
/* now: either b->occupied > 0 and b->nextout is the index

of the next occupied slot in the buffer, or
b->occupied == 0 and b->nextout is the index of the next
(empty) slot that will be filled by a producer (such as
b->nextout == b->nextin) */
pthread_cond_signal(&b->less);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&b->mutex);
return(item);
}
Synchronization With Semaphores

A semaphore is a programming construct designed by E. W. Dijkstra in the late 1960s.
Dijkstra’s model was the operation of railroads. Consider a stretch of railroad where a
single track is present over which only one train at a time is allowed.

A semaphore synchronizes travel on this track. A train must wait before entering the
single track until the semaphore is in a state that permits travel. When the train enters
the track, the semaphore changes state to prevent other trains from entering the track.
A train that is leaving this section of track must again change the state of the
semaphore to allow another train to enter.
In the computer version, a semaphore appears to be a simple integer. A thread waits

for permission to proceed and then signals that the thread has proceeded by
performing a P operation on the semaphore.
The thread must wait until the semaphore’s value is positive, then change the
semaphore’s value by subtracting 1 from the value. When this operation is finished,
the thread performs a V operation, which changes the semaphore’s value by adding 1
to the value. These operations must take place atomically. These operations cannot be
subdivided into pieces between which other actions on the semaphore can take place.
In the P operation, the semaphore’s value must be positive just before the value is
decremented, resulting in a value that is guaranteed to be nonnegative and 1 less than
what it was before it was decremented.
In both P and V operations, the arithmetic must take place without interference. The
net effect of two V operations performed simultaneously on the same semaphore,
should be that the semaphore’s new value is 2 greater than it was.
The mnemonic significance of P and V is unclear to most of the world, as Dijkstra is

Dutch. However, in the interest of true scholarship: P stands for prolagen, a made-up
word derived from proberen te verlagen, which means try to decrease. V stands for
verhogen, which means increase. The mnemonic significance is discussed in one of
Dijkstra’s technical notes, EWD 74.
sem_wait(3RT) and sem_post(3RT) correspond to Dijkstra’s P and V operations.

sem_trywait(3RT) is a conditional form of the P operation. If the calling thread
cannot decrement the value of the semaphore without waiting, the call to returns
immediately with a nonzero value.
The two basic sorts of semaphores are binary semaphores and counting semaphores.
Binary semaphores never take on values other than zero or one, and counting
semaphores take on arbitrary nonnegative values. A binary semaphore is logically just
like a mutex.
However, although not enforced, mutexes should be unlocked only by the thread that
holds the lock. Because no notion exists of “the thread that holds the semaphore,” any
thread can perform a V or sem_post(3RT) operation.
Counting semaphores are nearly as powerful as conditional variables when used in

conjunction with mutexes. In many cases, the code might be simpler when
implemented with counting semaphores rather than with condition variables, as
shown in Example 4–14, Example 4–15, and Example 4–16.

However, when a mutex is used with condition variables, an implied bracketing is
present. The bracketing clearly delineates which part of the program is being
protected. This behavior is not necessarily the case for a semaphore, which might be
called the go to of concurrent programming. A semaphore is powerful but too easy to
use in an unstructured, indeterminate way.
Named and Unnamed Semaphores

POSIX semaphores can be unnamed or named. Unnamed semaphores are allocated in
process memory and initialized. Unnamed semaphores might be usable by more than
one process, depending on how the semaphore is allocated and initialized. Unnamed
semaphores are either private, inherited through fork(), or are protected by access
protections of the regular file in which they are allocated and mapped.
Named semaphores are like process-shared semaphores, except that named

semaphores are referenced with a pathname rather than a pshared value. Named
semaphores are sharable by several processes. Named semaphores have an owner
user-id, group-id, and a protection mode.
The functions sem_open, sem_getvalue, sem_close, and sem_unlink are

available to open, retrieve, close, and remove named semaphores. By using
sem_open, you can create a named semaphore that has a name defined in the file
system name space.
For more information about named semaphores, see the sem_open, sem_getvalue,
sem_close, and sem_unlink man pages.
Counting Semaphores Overview

Conceptually, a semaphore is a nonnegative integer count. Semaphores are typically
used to coordinate access to resources, with the semaphore count initialized to the
number of free resources. Threads then atomically increment the count when resources
are added and atomically decrement the count when resources are removed.
When the semaphore count becomes zero, no more resources are present. Threads that
try to decrement the semaphore when the count is zero block until the count becomes
greater than zero.
TABLE 4–7 Routines for Semaphores
Initialize a semaphore “sem_init Syntax” on page 114
Increment a semaphore “sem_post Syntax” on page 116

TABLE 4–7 Routines for Semaphores (Continued)
Block on a semaphore count “sem_wait Syntax” on page 116
Decrement a semaphore count “sem_trywait Syntax” on page 117
Destroy the semaphore state “sem_destroy Syntax” on page 117
Because semaphores need not be acquired and be released by the same thread,
semaphores can be used for asynchronous event notification, such as in signal
handlers. And, because semaphores contain state, semaphores can be used
asynchronously without acquiring a mutex lock as is required by condition variables.
However, semaphores are not as efficient as mutex locks.
By default, no defined order is enforced for unblocking if multiple threads are waiting
for a semaphore.
Semaphores must be initialized before use, however semaphores do not have

attributes.
Initializing a Semaphore
Use sem_init(3RT) to initialize the unnamed semaphore variable pointed to by sem
to value amount.
sem_init Syntax
int sem_init(sem_t *sem, int pshared, unsigned int value);
#include <semaphore.h>
sem_t sem;
int pshared;
int ret;
int value;
/* initialize a private semaphore */

pshared = 0;
value = 1;
ret = sem_init(&sem, pshared, value);
If the value of pshared is zero, then the semaphore cannot be shared between processes.
If the value of pshared is nonzero, then the semaphore can be shared between
processes. For Solaris threads, see “sema_init Syntax” on page 207.
Multiple threads must not initialize the same semaphore.
A semaphore must not be reinitialized while other threads might be using the
semaphore.

Initializing Semaphores With Intraprocess Scope
When pshared is 0, the semaphore can be used by all the threads in this process only.
sem_t sem;
int ret;
int count = 4;
/* to be used within this process only */

ret = sem_init(&sem, 0, count);
Initializing Semaphores With Interprocess Scope

When pshared is nonzero, the semaphore can be shared by other processes.
sem_t sem;
int ret;
int count = 4;
/* to be shared among processes */

ret = sem_init(&sem, 1, count);
sem_init Return Values

sem_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions occurs, the
EINVAL
Description: The value argument exceeds SEM_VALUE_MAX.
ENOSPC
Description: A resource that is required to initialize the semaphore has been
exhausted. The limit on semaphores SEM_NSEMS_MAX has been reached.
ENOSYS
Description: The sem_init() function is not supported by the system.
EPERM
Description: The process lacks the appropriate privileges to initialize the
semaphore.
Incrementing a Semaphore
Use sem_post(3RT) to atomically increment the semaphore pointed to by sem.

sem_post Syntax
int sem_post(sem_t *sem);
sem_t sem;
int ret;
ret = sem_post(&sem); /* semaphore is posted */
When any threads are blocked on the semaphore, one of the threads is unblocked. For
Solaris threads, see “sema_post Syntax” on page 208.
sem_post Return Values

sem_post() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs, the function
EINVAL
Description: sem points to an illegal address.
Blocking on a Semaphore Count

Use sem_wait(3RT) to block the calling thread until the semaphore count pointed to
by sem becomes greater than zero, then atomically decrement the count.
sem_wait Syntax
int sem_wait(sem_t *sem);
sem_t sem;
int ret;
ret = sem_wait(&sem); /* wait for semaphore */
sem_wait Return Values

sem_wait() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL

EINTR
Description: A signal interrupted this function.
Decrementing a Semaphore Count

Use sem_trywait(3RT) to try to atomically decrement the count in the semaphore
pointed to by sem when the count is greater than zero.
sem_trywait Syntax
int sem_trywait(sem_t *sem);
sem_t sem;
int ret;
ret = sem_trywait(&sem); /* try to wait for semaphore*/
This function is a nonblocking version of sem_wait(). sem_trywait() returns

immediately if unsuccessful.
sem_trywait Return Values

sem_trywait() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL
EINTR
Description: A signal interrupted this function.
EAGAIN
Description: The semaphore was already locked, so the semaphore cannot be
immediately locked by the sem_trywait() operation.
Destroying the Semaphore State

Use sem_destroy(3RT) to destroy any state that is associated with the unnamed
semaphore pointed to by sem.
sem_destroy Syntax
int sem_destroy(sem_t *sem);

sem_t sem;
int ret;
ret = sem_destroy(&sem); /* the semaphore is destroyed */
The space for storing the semaphore is not freed. For Solaris threads, see
“sema_destroy(3C) Syntax” on page 210.
sem_destroy Return Values

sem_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
indicates that an error occurred. When the following condition occurs, the function
EINVAL
Producer and Consumer Problem Using

Semaphores
The data structure in Example 4–14 is similar to the structure used for the condition
variables example, shown in Example 4–11. Two semaphores represent the number of
full and empty buffers. The semaphores ensure that producers wait until buffers are
empty and that consumers wait until buffers are full.
EXAMPLE 4–14 Producer and Consumer Problem With Semaphores

typedef struct {
char buf[BSIZE];
sem_t occupied;
sem_t empty;
int nextin;
int nextout;
sem_t pmut;
sem_t cmut;
} buffer_t;
buffer_t buffer;
sem_init(&buffer.occupied, 0, 0);
sem_init(&buffer.empty,0, BSIZE);
sem_init(&buffer.pmut, 0, 1);
sem_init(&buffer.cmut, 0, 1);
buffer.nextin = buffer.nextout = 0;

Another pair of binary semaphores plays the same role as mutexes. The semaphores
control access to the buffer when multiple producers use multiple empty buffer slots,
and when multiple consumers use multiple full buffer slots. Mutexes would work
better here, but would not provide as good an example of semaphore use.
EXAMPLE 4–15 Producer and Consumer Problem: the Producer

void producer(buffer_t *b, char item) {
sem_wait(&b->empty);
sem_wait(&b->pmut);
b->buf[b->nextin] = item;
b->nextin++;
b->nextin %= BSIZE;
sem_post(&b->pmut);
sem_post(&b->occupied);
}
EXAMPLE 4–16 Producer and Consumer Problem: the Consumer

char consumer(buffer_t *b) {
char item;
sem_wait(&b->occupied);
sem_wait(&b->cmut);
item = b->buf[b->nextout];
b->nextout++;
b->nextout %= BSIZE;
sem_post(&b->cmut);
sem_post(&b->empty);
return(item);
}
Read-Write Lock Attributes

Read-write locks permit concurrent reads and exclusive writes to a protected shared
resource. The read-write lock is a single entity that can be locked in read or write mode.
To modify a resource, a thread must first acquire the exclusive write lock. An exclusive
write lock is not permitted until all read locks have been released.
See “Similar Synchronization Functions—Read-Write Locks” on page 180 for the Solaris
threads implementation of read-write locks.

Database access can be synchronized with a read-write lock. Read-write locks support
concurrent reads of database records because the read operation does not change the
record’s information. When the database is to be updated, the write operation must
acquire an exclusive write lock.
To change the default read-write lock attributes, you can declare and initialize an
attribute object. Often, the read-write lock attributes are set up in one place at the
beginning of the application. Set up at the beginning of the application makes the
attributes easier to locate and modify. The following table lists the functions discussed
in this section that manipulate read-write lock attributes.
TABLE 4–8 Routines for Read-Write Lock Attributes
Initialize a read-write lock attribute “pthread_rwlockattr_init Syntax” on page 120
Destroy a read-write lock attribute “pthread_rwlockattr_destroy Syntax” on page 121
Set a read-write lock attribute “pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared Syntax”

on page 121
Get a read-write lock attribute “pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared Syntax”

on page 122
Initializing a Read-Write Lock Attribute

pthread_rwlockattr_init(3C) initializes a read-write lock attributes object attr
with the default value for all of the attributes defined by the implementation.
pthread_rwlockattr_init Syntax
int pthread_rwlockattr_init(pthread_rwlockattr_t *attr);
Results are undefined if pthread_rwlockattr_init is called specifying an already

initialized read-write lock attributes object. After a read-write lock attributes object
initializes one or more read-write locks, any function that affects the object, including
destruction, does not affect previously initialized read-write locks.
pthread_rwlockattr_init Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlockattr_init() returns zero. Otherwise, an error
number is returned to indicate the error.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient memory exists to initialize the read-write attributes object.

Destroying a Read-Write Lock Attribute
pthread_rwlockattr_destroy(3C) destroys a read-write lock attributes object.
pthread_rwlockattr_destroy Syntax
int pthread_rwlockattr_destroy(pthread_rwlockattr_t *attr);
The effect of subsequent use of the object is undefined until the object is re-initialized
by another call to pthread_rwlockattr_init(). An implementation can cause
pthread_rwlockattr_destroy() to set the object referenced by attr to an invalid
value.
pthread_rwlockattr_destroy Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlockattr_destroy() returns zero. Otherwise, an error
EINVAL
Setting a Read-Write Lock Attribute

pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared(3C) sets the process-shared read-write lock
attribute.
pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared Syntax
int pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared(pthread_rwlockattr_t *attr,

int pshared);
The read-write lock attribute has one of the following values:
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED
Description: Permits a read-write lock to be operated on by any thread that has
access to the memory where the read-write lock is allocated. Operation on the
read-write lock is permitted even if the lock is allocated in memory that is shared
by multiple processes.

PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE
Description: The read-write lock is only operated upon by threads created within
the same process as the thread that initialized the read-write lock. If threads of
differing processes attempt to operate on such a read-write lock, the behavior is
undefined. The default value of the process-shared attribute is
PTHREAD_PROCESS_PRIVATE.
pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared() returns zero. Otherwise, an
error number is returned to indicate the error.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or pshared is invalid.
Getting a Read-Write Lock Attribute

pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared(3C) gets the process-shared read-write lock
attribute.
pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared Syntax
int pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared(const pthread_rwlockattr_t *attr,

int *pshared);
pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared() obtains the value of the process-shared

attribute from the initialized attributes object referenced by attr.
pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared() returns zero. Otherwise, an
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or pshared is invalid.

Using Read-Write Locks
After the attributes for a read-write lock are configured, you initialize the read-write
lock. The following functions are used to initialize or destroy, lock or unlock, or try to
lock a read-write lock. The following table lists the functions discussed in this section
that manipulate read-write locks.
TABLE 4–9 Routines that Manipulate Read-Write Locks
Initialize a read-write lock “pthread_rwlock_init Syntax” on page 123
Read lock on read-write lock “pthread_rwlock_rdlock Syntax” on page 124
Read lock with a nonblocking “pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock Syntax” on page

read-write lock 125
Write lock on read-write lock “pthread_rwlock_wrlock Syntax” on page 126
Write lock with a nonblocking “pthread_rwlock_trywrlock Syntax” on page

read-write lock 126
Unlock a read-write lock “pthread_rwlock_unlock Syntax” on page 127
Destroy a read-write lock “pthread_rwlock_destroy Syntax” on page 128
Initializing a Read-Write Lock

Use pthread_rwlock_init(3C) to initialize the read-write lock referenced by rwlock
with the attributes referenced by attr.
pthread_rwlock_init Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_init(pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock,

const pthread_rwlockattr_t *attr);
pthread_rwlock_t rwlock = PTHREAD_RWLOCK_INITIALIZER;
If attr is NULL, the default read-write lock attributes are used. The effect is the same as
passing the address of a default read-write lock attributes object. After the lock is
initialized, the lock can be used any number of times without being re-initialized. On
successful initialization, the state of the read-write lock becomes initialized and
unlocked. Results are undefined if pthread_rwlock_init() is called specifying an
already initialized read-write lock. Results are undefined if a read-write lock is used
without first being initialized. For Solaris threads, see “rwlock_init Syntax”
on page 180.

In cases where default read-write lock attributes are appropriate, the macro
PTHREAD_RWLOCK_INITIALIZER can initialize read-write locks that are statically
allocated. The effect is equivalent to dynamic initialization by a call to
pthread_rwlock_init() with the parameter attr specified as NULL, except that no
error checks are performed.
pthread_rwlock_init Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlock_init() returns zero. Otherwise, an error number is
returned to indicate the error.
If pthread_rwlock_init() fails, rwlock is not initialized and the contents of rwlock

are undefined.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by attr or rwlock is invalid.
Acquiring the Read Lock on Read-Write Lock

pthread_rwlock_rdlock(3C) applies a read lock to the read-write lock referenced
by rwlock.
pthread_rwlock_rdlock Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_rdlock(pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock );
The calling thread acquires the read lock if a writer does not hold the lock and no
writers are blocked on the lock. Whether the calling thread acquires the lock when a
writer does not hold the lock and writers are waiting for the lock is unspecified. If a
writer holds the lock, the calling thread does not acquire the read lock. If the read lock
is not acquired, the calling thread blocks. The thread does not return from the
pthread_rwlock_rdlock() until the thread can acquire the lock. Results are
undefined if the calling thread holds a write lock on rwlock at the time the call is made.
Implementations are allowed to favor writers over readers to avoid writer starvation.
For instance, the Solaris threads implementation favors writers over readers. See
“rw_rdlock Syntax” on page 182.
A thread can hold multiple concurrent read locks on rwlock The thread can
successfully call pthread_rwlock_rdlock() n times. The thread must call
pthread_rwlock_unlock() n times to perform matching unlocks.
Results are undefined if pthread_rwlock_rdlock() is called with an uninitialized

read-write lock.

A thread signal handler processes a signal delivered to a thread waiting for a
read-write lock. On return from the signal handler, the thread resumes waiting for the
read-write lock for reading as if the thread was not interrupted.
pthread_rwlock_rdlock Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlock_rdlock() returns zero. Otherwise, an error number
is returned to indicate the error.
EINVAL
Reading a Lock With a Nonblocking Read-Write

Lock
pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock(3C) applies a read lock as in
pthread_rwlock_rdlock() with the exception that the function fails if any thread
holds a write lock on rwlock or writers are blocked on rwlock. For Solaris threads, see
“rw_tryrdlock Syntax” on page 182.
pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock(pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock);
pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock Return Values

pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock() returns zero if the lock for reading on the
read-write lock object referenced by rwlock is acquired. If the lock is not acquired, an
EBUSY
Description: The read-write lock could not be acquired for reading because a writer
holds the lock or was blocked on it.
Writing a Lock on Read-Write Lock

pthread_rwlock_wrlock(3C) applies a write lock to the read-write lock referenced
by rwlock.

pthread_rwlock_wrlock Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_wrlock(pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock );
The calling thread acquires the write lock if no other reader thread or writer thread
holds the read-write lock rwlock. Otherwise, the thread blocks. The thread does not
return from the pthread_rwlock_wrlock() call until the thread can acquire the
lock. Results are undefined if the calling thread holds the read-write lock, either a read
lock or write lock, at the time the call is made.
Implementations are allowed to favor writers over readers to avoid writer starvation.
(For instance, the Solaris threads implementation favors writers over readers. See
“rw_wrlock Syntax” on page 183.)
Results are undefined if pthread_rwlock_wrlock() is called with an uninitialized

read-write lock.
The thread signal handler processes a signal delivered to a thread waiting for a
read-write lock for writing. Upon return from the signal handler, the thread resumes
waiting for the read-write lock for writing as if the thread was not interrupted.
pthread_rwlock_wrlock Return Values

pthread_rwlock_rwlock() returns zero if the lock for writing on the read-write
lock object referenced by rwlock is acquired. If the lock is not acquired, an error
Writing a Lock With a Nonblocking Read-Write

Lock
pthread_rwlock_trywrlock(3C) applies a write lock like
pthread_rwlock_wrlock(), with the exception that the function fails if any thread
currently holds rwlock, for reading or writing. For Solaris threads, see
“rw_trywrlock Syntax” on page 183.
pthread_rwlock_trywrlock Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_trywrlock(pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock);
Results are undefined if pthread_rwlock_trywrlock() is called with an

uninitialized read-write lock.

The thread signal handler processes a signal delivered to a thread waiting for a
read-write lock for writing. On return from the signal handler, the thread resumes
waiting for the read-write lock for writing as if the thread was not interrupted.
pthread_rwlock_trywrlock Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlock_trywrlock() returns zero if the lock for writing on
the read-write lock object referenced by rwlock is acquired. Otherwise, an error number
EBUSY
Description: The read-write lock could not be acquired for writing because the
read-write lock is already locked for reading or writing.
Unlocking a Read-Write Lock

pthread_rwlock_unlock(3C) releases a lock held on the read-write lock object
referenced by rwlock.
pthread_rwlock_unlock Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_unlock (pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock);
Results are undefined if the read-write lock rwlock is not held by the calling thread. For
Solaris threads, see “rw_unlock Syntax” on page 184.
If pthread_rwlock_unlock() is called to release a read lock from the read-write

lock object, and other read locks are currently held on this lock object, the object
remains in the read locked state. If pthread_rwlock_unlock() releases the calling
thread’s last read lock on this read-write lock object, the calling thread is no longer an
owner of the object. If pthread_rwlock_unlock() releases the last read lock for
this read-write lock object, the read-write lock object is put in the unlocked state with
no owners.
If pthread_rwlock_unlock() is called to release a write lock for this read-write

lock object, the lock object is put in the unlocked state with no owners.
If pthread_rwlock_unlock() unlocks the read-write lock object and multiple

threads are waiting to acquire the lock object for writing, the scheduling policy
determines which thread acquires the object for writing. If multiple threads are
waiting to acquire the read-write lock object for reading, the scheduling policy
determines the order the waiting threads acquire the object for reading. If multiple
threads are blocked on rwlock for both read locks and write locks, whether the readers
or the writer acquire the lock first is unspecified.

Results are undefined if pthread_rwlock_unlock() is called with an uninitialized
read-write lock.
pthread_rwlock_unlock Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlock_unlock() returns zero. Otherwise, an error number
Destroying a Read-Write Lock

pthread_rwlock_destroy(3C) destroys the read-write lock object referenced by
rwlock and releases any resources used by the lock.
pthread_rwlock_destroy Syntax
int pthread_rwlock_destroy(pthread_rwlock_t *rwlock);
pthread_rwlock_t rwlock = PTHREAD_RWLOCK_INITIALIZER;
The effect of subsequent use of the lock is undefined until the lock is re-initialized by
another call to pthread_rwlock_init(). An implementation can cause
pthread_rwlock_destroy() to set the object referenced by rwlock to an invalid
value. Results are undefined if pthread_rwlock_destroy() is called when any
thread holds rwlock. Attempting to destroy an uninitialized read-write lock results in
undefined behavior. A destroyed read-write lock object can be re-initialized using
pthread_rwlock_init(). The results of otherwise referencing the read-write lock
object after the lock object has been destroyed are undefined. For Solaris threads, see
“rwlock_destroy Syntax” on page 185.
pthread_rwlock_destroy Return Values

If successful, pthread_rwlock_destroy() returns zero. Otherwise, an error
EINVAL

Synchronization Across Process
Boundaries
Each of the synchronization primitives can be used across process boundaries. The
primitives are set up by ensuring that the synchronization variable is located in a
shared memory segment and by calling the appropriate init() routine. The
primitive must have been initialized with its shared attribute set to interprocess.
Producer and Consumer Problem Example

Example 4–17 shows the producer and consumer problem with the producer and
consumer in separate processes. The main routine maps zero-filled memory shared
with its child process into its address space.
A child process is created to run the consumer. The parent runs the producer.
This example also shows the drivers for the producer and consumer. The
producer_driver() reads characters from stdin and calls producer(). The
consumer_driver() gets characters by calling consumer() and writes them to
stdout.
The data structure for Example 4–17 is the same as the structure used for the condition
variables example, shown in Example 4–4. Two semaphores represent the number of
full and empty buffers. The semaphores ensure that producers wait for empty buffers
and that consumers wait until the buffers are full.
EXAMPLE 4–17 Synchronization Across Process Boundaries
main() {
int zfd;
buffer_t *buffer;
pthread_condattr_t cvattr_less, cvattr_more;
zfd = open("/dev/zero", O_RDWR);

buffer = (buffer_t *)mmap(NULL, sizeof(buffer_t),
PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_SHARED, zfd, 0);
buffer->occupied = buffer->nextin = buffer->nextout = 0;
pthread_mutex_attr_init(&mattr);
pthread_mutexattr_setpshared(&mattr,
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED);
pthread_mutex_init(&buffer->lock, &mattr);
pthread_condattr_init(&cvattr_less);
pthread_condattr_setpshared(&cvattr_less, PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED);

EXAMPLE 4–17 Synchronization Across Process Boundaries (Continued)
pthread_cond_init(&buffer->less, &cvattr_less);
pthread_condattr_init(&cvattr_more);
pthread_condattr_setpshared(&cvattr_more,
PTHREAD_PROCESS_SHARED);
pthread_cond_init(&buffer->more, &cvattr_more);
if (fork() == 0)
consumer_driver(buffer);
else
producer_driver(buffer);
}
void producer_driver(buffer_t *b) {

int item;
while (1) {
item = getchar();
if (item == EOF) {
producer(b, ‘\0’);
break;
} else
producer(b, (char)item);
}
}
void consumer_driver(buffer_t *b) {

char item;
while (1) {
if ((item = consumer(b)) == ’\0’)
break;
putchar(item);
}
}
Comparing Primitives
The most basic synchronization primitive in threads is the mutual exclusion lock. So,
mutual exclusion lock is the most efficient mechanism in both memory use and
execution time. The basic use of a mutual exclusion lock is to serialize access to a
resource.
The next most efficient primitive in threads is the condition variable. The basic use of a
condition variable is to block on a change of state. The condition variable provides a
thread wait facility. Remember that a mutex lock must be acquired before blocking on
a condition variable and must be unlocked after returning from
pthread_cond_wait(). The mutex lock must also be held across the change of state
that occurs before the corresponding call to pthread_cond_signal().

The semaphore uses more memory than the condition variable. The semaphore is
easier to use in some circumstances because a semaphore variable operates on state
rather than on control. Unlike a lock, a semaphore does not have an owner. Any
thread can increment a semaphore that has blocked.
The read-write lock permits concurrent reads and exclusive writes to a protected
resource. The read-write lock is a single entity that can be locked in read or write mode.
To modify a resource, a thread must first acquire the exclusive write lock. An exclusive
write lock is not permitted until all read locks have been released.

CHAPTER 5
Programming With the Solaris

Software
This chapter describes how multithreading interacts with the Solaris software and
how the software has changed to support multithreading.
■ “Process Creation: exec and exit Issues” on page 137
■ “Timers, Alarms, and Profiling” on page 138
■ “Nonlocal Goto: setjmp and longjmp” on page 140
■ “Resource Limits” on page 140
■ “LWPs and Scheduling Classes” on page 140
■ “Extending Traditional Signals” on page 142
■ “I/O Issues” on page 152
Forking Issues in Process Creation

The default handling of fork() in the Solaris 9 product and earlier Solaris releases is
somewhat different from the way fork() is handled in POSIX threads. For Solaris
releases after Solaris 9, fork() behaves as specified for POSIX threads in all cases.
Table 5–1 compares the differences and similarities of fork() handling in Solaris
threads and pthreads. When the comparable interface is not available either in POSIX
threads or in Solaris threads, the ‘—’ character appears in the table column.
TABLE 5–1 Comparing POSIX and Solaris fork() Handling
Solaris Interface POSIX Threads Interface
Fork-one model fork1(2) fork(2)
Fork-all model forkall(2) forkall(2)
Fork safety — pthread_atfork(3C)
133
Fork-One Model
As shown in Table 5–1, the behavior of the pthreads fork(2) function is the same as
the behavior of the Solaris fork1(2) function. Both the pthreads fork(2) function
and the Solaris fork1(2) function create a new process, duplicating the complete
address space in the child. However, both functions duplicate only the calling thread
in the child process.
Duplication of the calling thread in the child process is useful when the child process
immediately calls exec(), which is what happens after most calls to fork(). In this
case, the child process does not need a duplicate of any thread other than the thread
that called fork().
In the child, do not call any library functions after calling fork() and before calling
exec(). One of the library functions might use a lock that was held in the parent at
the time of the fork(). The child process may execute only Async-Signal-Safe
operations until one of the exec() handlers is called.
Fork-One Safety Problem and Solution

Besides the usual concerns such as locking shared data, a library should be well
behaved with respect to forking a child process when only the thread that called
fork() is running. The problem is that the sole thread in the child process might try
to grab a lock held by a thread not duplicated in the child.
Most programs are not likely to encounter this problem. Most programs call exec()
in the child right after the return from fork(). However, if the program has to carry
out actions in the child before calling exec(), or never calls exec(), then the child
could encounter deadlocks. Each library writer should provide a safe solution,
although not providing a fork-safe library is not a large concern because this condition
is rare.
For example, assume that T1 is in the middle of printing something and holds a lock
for printf(), when T2 forks a new process. In the child process, if the sole thread
(T2) calls printf(), T2 promptly deadlocks.
The POSIX fork() or Solaris fork1() function duplicates only the thread that calls
fork() or fork1(). If you call Solaris forkall() to duplicate all threads, this issue
is not a concern.
However, forkall() can cause other problems and should be used with care. For
instance, if a thread calls forkall(), the parent thread performing I/O to a file is
replicated in the child process. Both copies of the thread will continue performing I/O
to the same file, one in the parent and one in the child, leading to malfunctions or file
corruption.

To prevent deadlock when calling fork1(), ensure that no locks are being held at the
time of forking. The most obvious way to prevent deadlock is to have the forking
thread acquire all the locks that could possibly be used by the child. Because you
cannot acquire all locks for printf() because printf() is owned by libc, you
must ensure that printf() is not being used at fork() time.
To manage the locks in your library, you should perform the following actions:
■ Identify all the locks used by the library.
■ Identify the locking order for the locks used by the library. If a strict locking order
is not used, then lock acquisition must be managed carefully.
■ Arrange to acquire all locks at fork time.
In the following example, the list of locks used by the library is {L1,...Ln}. The
locking order for these locks is also L1...Ln.
mutex_lock(L1);
mutex_lock(L2);
fork1(...);
mutex_unlock(L1);
mutex_unlock(L2);
When using either Solaris threads or POSIX threads, you can add a call to
pthread_atfork(f1, f2, f3) in your library’s .init() section. The f1(),
f2(), f3() are defined as follows:
f1() /* This is executed just before the process forks. */
{
mutex_lock(L1); |
mutex_lock(...); | -- ordered in lock order
mutex_lock(Ln); |
} V
f2() /* This is executed in the child after the process forks. */

{
mutex_unlock(L1);
mutex_unlock(...);
mutex_unlock(Ln);
}
f3() /* This is executed in the parent after the process forks. */

{
mutex_unlock(L1);
mutex_unlock(...);
mutex_unlock(Ln);
}
Virtual Forks–vfork
The standard vfork(2) function is unsafe in multithreaded programs. vfork(2),
like fork1(2), copies only the calling thread in the child process. As in nonthreaded
implementations, vfork() does not copy the address space for the child process.
Chapter 5 • Programming With the Solaris Software 135

Be careful that the thread in the child process does not change memory before the
thread calls exec(2). vfork() gives the parent address space to the child. The
parent gets its address space back after the child calls exec() or exits. The child must
not change the state of the parent.
For example, disastrous problems occur if you create new threads between the call to
vfork() and the call to exec().
Solution: pthread_atfork
Use pthread_atfork() to prevent deadlocks whenever you use the fork-one model.
int pthread_atfork(void (*prepare) (void), void (*parent) (void),

void (*child) (void) );
The pthread_atfork() function declares fork() handlers that are called before
and after fork() in the context of the thread that called fork().
■ The prepare handler is called before fork() starts.
■ The parent handler is called after fork() returns in the parent.
■ The child handler is called after fork() returns in the child.
Any handler argument can be set to NULL. The order in which successive calls to
pthread_atfork() are made is significant.
For example, a prepare handler could acquire all the mutexes needed. Then the parent
and child handlers could release the mutexes. The prepare handler acquiring all
required mutexes ensures that all relevant locks are held by the thread calling the fork
function before the process is forked. This technique prevents a deadlock in the child.
pthread_atfork Return Value

pthread_atfork() returns zero when the call completes successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. If the following condition is detected,
pthread_atfork() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient table space exists to record the fork handler addresses.
Fork-All Model
The Solaris forkall(2) function duplicates the address space and all the threads in
the child. Address space duplication is useful, for example, when the child process
never calls exec(2) but does use its copy of the parent address space.

When one thread in a process calls Solaris forkall(2), threads that are blocked in an
interruptible system call will return EINTR.
Be careful not to create locks that are held by both the parent and child processes.
Locks held in both parent and child processes occur when locks are allocated in shared
memory by calling mmap() with the MAP_SHARED flag. This problem does not occur if
the fork-one model is used.
Choosing the Right Fork

Starting with the Solaris 10 release, a call to fork() is identical to a call to fork1().
Specifically, only the calling thread is replicated in the child process. The behavior is
the same as the POSIX fork().
In previous releases of the Solaris software, the behavior of fork() was dependent on
whether the application was linked with the POSIX threads library. When linked with
-lthread (Solaris threads) but not linked with -lpthread (POSIX threads), fork()
was the same as forkall(). When linked with -lpthread, regardless of whether
fork() was also linked with -lthread, fork() was the same as fork1().
Starting with the Solaris 10 release, neither -lthread nor -lpthread is required for
multithreaded applications. The standard C library provides all threading support for
both sets of application program interfaces. Applications that require replicate all fork
semantics must call forkall().
Be careful when using global state after a call to any fork() function.
For example, when one thread reads a file serially and another thread in the process
successfully forks, each process contains a thread that reads the file. Because the seek
pointer for a file descriptor is shared after a fork() call, the parent thread gets data
while the child thread gets different data. The parent thread and child thread get
different data, which introduces gaps in the sequential read accesses.
Process Creation: exec and exit Issues

Both the exec(2) and exit(2) system calls work as these functions do in
single-threaded processes with the following exception. In a multithreaded
application, the functions destroy all the threads in the address space. Both calls block
until all the execution resources, and so all active threads, are destroyed.
When exec() rebuilds the process, exec() creates a single lightweight process
(LWP). The process startup code builds the initial thread. As usual, if the initial thread
returns, the thread calls exit() and the process is destroyed.

When all the threads in a process exit, the process exits. A call to any exec() function
from a process with more than one thread terminates all threads, and loads and
executes the new executable image. No destructor functions are called.
Timers, Alarms, and Profiling

The “End of Life” announcements for per-LWP timers and per-thread alarms were
made in the Solaris 2.5 release. See the timer_create(3RT), alarm(2), or
setitimer(2) man pages. Both per-LWP timers and per-thread alarms are now
replaced with the per-process variants that are described in this section.
Originally, each LWP had a unique realtime interval timer and alarm that a thread
bound to the LWP could use. The timer or alarm delivered one signal to the thread
when the timer or alarm expired.
Each LWP also had a virtual time or profile interval timer that a thread bound to the
LWP could use. When the interval timer expired, either SIGVTALRM or SIGPROF, as
appropriate, was sent to the LWP that owned the interval timer.
Per-LWP POSIX Timers

In the Solaris 2.3 and 2.4 releases, the timer_create(3RT) function returned a timer
object with a timer ID that was meaningful only within the calling LWP. Expiration
signals are delivered to that LWP. Because of the behavior of the returned timer object,
the only threads that could use the POSIX timer facility were bound threads.
Even with the restricted use, POSIX timers in the Solaris 2.3 and 2.4 releases for
multithreaded applications were unreliable. These timers do not reliably mask the
resulting signals, and do not reliably deliver the associated value from the sigvent
structure.
Introduced in the Solaris 2.5 release, an application can create per-process timers.
Compile the application with the macro _POSIX_PER_PROCESS_TIMERS defined,
or by defining the macro _POSIX_C_SOURCE with a value that is greater than or equal
to 199506L.
Effective with the Solaris 9 release, all timers are per-process except for the virtual time
and profile interval timers, which remain per_LWP. See setitimer(2) for
ITIMER_VIRTUAL and ITIMER_PROF.
The timer IDs of per-process timers are usable from any LWP. The expiration signals
are generated for the process rather than directed to a specific LWP.
The per-process timers are deleted only by timer_delete(3RT), or when the process
terminates.

Per-Thread Alarms
In the Solaris 2.3 and 2.4 releases, a call to alarm(2) or setitimer(2) was meaningful
only within the calling LWP. Such timers were deleted automatically when the
creating LWP terminated. Because of this behavior, the only threads that could use
alarm() or setitimer() were bound threads.
Even with use that is restricted to bound threads, alarm() and setitimer() timers
in Solaris 2.3 and 2.4 multithreaded applications were unreliable. In particular,
alarm() and settimer() timers are unreliable about masking the signals from the
bound thread that issued these calls. When such masking was not required, then these
two system calls worked reliably from bound threads.
With the Solaris 2.5 release, an application linking with -lpthread (POSIX) threads
got per-process delivery of SIGALRM when calling alarm(). The SIGALRM generated
by alarm() is generated for the process rather than directed to a specific LWP. Also,
the alarm is reset when the process terminates.
Applications compiled with a release before the Solaris 2.5 release, or not linked with
-lpthread, continue to see a per-LWP delivery of signals generated by alarm() and
setitimer()
Effective with the Solaris 9 release, calls to alarm() or to setitimer(ITIMER_REAL)

cause the resulting SIGALRM signal to be sent to the process.
Profiling a Multithreaded Program

In Solaris releases prior to Solaris 2.6, calling profil() in a multithreaded program
would affect only the calling LWP. The profile state was not inherited at LWP creation
time. To profile a multithreaded program with a global profile buffer, each thread
needed to call profil() at threads start-up time. Furthermore, each thread had to be
a bound thread. These restrictions are cumbersome. These restrictions do not easily
support dynamically turning profiling on and off.
In Solaris 2.6 and later releases, the profil() system call for multithreaded processes
has global impact. A call to profil() impacts all LWPs and threads in a process.
profil() can cause applications that depend on the previous per-LWP semantic to
break. However, calling profil() is expected to improve multithreaded programs
that want profiling turned on and turned off dynamically at runtime.

Nonlocal Goto: setjmp and longjmp
The scope of setjmp() and longjmp() is limited to one thread, which is acceptable
most of the time. However, the limited scope does mean that a thread that handles a
signal can execute a longjmp() only when a setjmp() is performed in the same
thread.
Resource Limits
Resource limits are set on the entire process and are determined by adding the
resource use of all threads in the process. When a soft resource limit is exceeded, the
offending thread is sent the appropriate signal. The sum of the resources that are used
in the process is available through getrusage(3C).
LWPs and Scheduling Classes

The Solaris kernel has three classes of scheduling. The highest-priority scheduling
class is Realtime (RT). The middle-priority scheduling class is system. The system
class cannot be applied to a user process. The lowest-priority scheduling class is
timeshare (TS), which is also the default class.
A scheduling class is maintained for each LWP. When a process is created, the initial
LWP inherits the scheduling class and priority of the creating LWP in the parent
process. As more threads are created, their associated LWPs also inherit this
scheduling class and priority.
Threads have the scheduling class and priority of their underlying LWPs. Each LWP in
a process can have a unique scheduling class and priority that are visible to the kernel.
Thread priorities regulate contention for synchronization objects. By default, LWPs are
in the timesharing class. For compute-bound multithreading, thread priorities are not
very useful. For multithreaded applications that use the MT libraries to do
synchronization frequently, thread priorities are more meaningful.
The scheduling class is set by priocntl(2). How you specify the first two arguments
determines whether only the calling LWP or all the LWPs of one or more processes are
affected. The third argument of priocntl() is the command, which can be one of the
following commands.

■ PC_GETCID - Get the class ID and class attributes for a specific class.
■ PC_GETCLINFO - Get the class name and class attributes for a specific class.
■ PC_GETPARMS - Get the class identifier and the class-specific scheduling
parameters of a process, an LWP with a process, or a group of processes.
■ PC_SETPARMS - Set the class identifier and the class-specific scheduling
parameters of a process, an LWP with a process, or a group of processes.
Note that priocntl() affects the scheduling of the LWP associated with the calling
thread. For unbound threads, the calling thread is not guaranteed to be associated
with the affected LWP after the call to priocntl() returns.
Timeshare Scheduling
Timeshare scheduling distributes the processing resource fairly among the LWPs in
the timeshare scheduling class. Other parts of the kernel can monopolize the processor
for short intervals without degrading the response time seen by the user.
The priocntl(2) call sets the nice(2) level of one or more processes. The
priocntl() call also affects the nice() level of all the timesharing class LWPs in the
process. The nice() level ranges from 0 to +20 normally and from -20 to +20 for
processes with superuser privilege. The lower the value, the higher the priority.
The dispatch priority of time-shared LWPs is calculated from the instantaneous CPU
use rate of the LWP and from its nice() level. The nice() level indicates the relative
priority of the LWPs to the timeshare scheduler.
LWPs with a greater nice() value get a smaller, but nonzero, share of the total
processing. An LWP that has received a larger amount of processing is given lower
priority than an LWP that has received little or no processing.
Realtime Scheduling
The Realtime class (RT) can be applied to a whole process or to one or more LWPs in a
process. You must have superuser privilege to use the Realtime class.
Unlike the nice(2) level of the timeshare class, LWPs that are classified Realtime can
be assigned priorities either individually or jointly. A priocntl(2) call affects the
attributes of all the Realtime LWPs in the process.
The scheduler always dispatches the highest-priority Realtime LWP. The high-priority
Realtime LWP pre-empts a lower-priority LWP when a higher-priority LWP becomes
runnable. A pre-empted LWP is placed at the head of its level queue.
A Realtime LWP retains control of a processor until the LWP is pre-empted, the LWP
suspends, or its Realtime priority is changed. LWPs in the RT class have absolute
priority over processes in the TS class.

A new LWP inherits the scheduling class of the parent process or LWP. An RT class
LWP inherits the parent’s time slice, whether finite or infinite.
A finite time slice LWP runs until the LWP terminates, blocks on an I/O event, gets
pre-empted by a higher-priority runnable Realtime process, or the time slice expires.
An LWP with an infinite time slice ceases execution only when the LWP terminates,
blocks, or is pre-empted.
Fair Share Scheduling

The fair share scheduler (FSS) scheduling class allows allocation of CPU time based on
shares.
By default, the FSS scheduling class uses the same range of priorities (0 to 59) as the
TS and interactive (IA) scheduling classes. All LWPs in a process must run in the same
scheduling class. The FSS class schedules individual LWPs, not whole processes. Thus,
a mix of processes in the FSS and TS/IA classes could result in unexpected scheduling
behavior in both cases.
The TS/IA or the FSS scheduling class processes do not compete for the same CPUs.
Processor sets enable mixing TS/IA with FSS in a system. However, all processes in
each processor set must be in either the TS/IA or the FSS scheduling class.
Fixed Priority Scheduling

The FX, fixed priority, scheduling class assigns fixed priorities and time quantum not
adjusted to accommodate resource consumption. Process priority can be changed only
by the process that assigned the priority or an appropriately privileged process. For
more information about FX, see the priocntl(1) and dispadmin(1M) man pages.
Threads in this class share the same range of priorities (0 to 59) as the TS and
interactive (IA) scheduling classes. TS is usually the default. FX is usually used in
conjunction with TS.
Extending Traditional Signals

The traditional UNIX signal model is extended to threads in a fairly natural way. The
key characteristics are that the signal disposition is process-wide, but the signal mask
is per-thread. The process-wide disposition of signals is established using the
traditional mechanisms (signal(3C), sigaction(2), and so on).

When a signal handler is marked SIG_DFL or SIG_IGN, the action on receipt of a
signal is performed on the entire receiving process. These signals include exit, core
dump, stop, continue, and ignore. The action on receipt of these signals is carried out
on all threads in the process. Therefore, the issue of which thread picks the signal is
nonexistent. The exit, core dump, stop, continue, and ignore signals have no handlers.
See signal(5) for basic information about signals.
Each thread has its own signal mask. The signal mask lets a thread block some signals
while the thread uses memory or another state that is also used by a signal handler.
All threads in a process share the set of signal handlers that are set up by
sigaction(2) and its variants.
A thread in one process cannot send a signal to a specific thread in another process. A
signal sent by kill(2), sigsend(2), or sigqueue(3RT) to a process is handled by any
receptive threads in the process.
Signals are divided into the following categories: traps, exceptions, and interrupts.
Exceptions are synchronously generated signals. Traps and interrupts are
asynchronously generated signals.
As in traditional UNIX, if a signal is pending, additional occurrences of that signal

normally have no additional effect. A pending signal is represented by a bit, not by a
counter. However, signals that are posted through the sigqueue(3RT) interface allow
multiple instances of the same signal to be queued to the process.
As is the case with single-threaded processes, when a thread receives a signal while
blocked in a system call, the thread might return early. When a thread returns early,
the thread either returns an EINTR error code, or, in the case of I/O calls, with fewer
bytes transferred than requested.
Of particular importance to multithreaded programs is the effect of signals on

pthread_cond_wait(3C). This call usually returns without error, a return value of
zero, only in response to a pthread_cond_signal(3C) or a
pthread_cond_broadcast(3C). However, if the waiting thread receives a
traditional UNIX signal, pthread_cond_wait() returns with a return value of zero
even though the wakeup was spurious. The Solaris threads cond_wait(3C) function
returns EINTR in this circumstance. See “Interrupted Waits on Condition Variables”
on page 151 for more information.
Synchronous Signals
Traps, such as SIGILL, SIGFPE, and SIGSEGV, result from an operation on the
thread, such as dividing by zero or making reference to nonexistent memory. A trap is
handled only by the thread that caused the trap. Several threads in a process can
generate and handle the same type of trap simultaneously.
The idea of signals to individual threads is easily extended for synchronously

generated signals. The handler is invoked on the thread that generated the
synchronous signal.

However, if the process chooses not to establish an appropriate signal handler, the
default action is taken when a trap occurs. The default action occurs even if the
offending thread is blocked on the generated signal. The default action for such signals
is to terminate the process, perhaps with a core dump.
Such a synchronous signal usually means that something is seriously wrong with the
whole process, not just with a thread. In this case, terminating the process is often a
good choice.
Asynchronous Signals
Interrupts, such as SIGINT and SIGIO, are asynchronous with any thread and result
from some action outside the process. These interrupts might be signals sent explicitly
by another process, or might represent external actions such as a user typing a
Control-C.
An interrupt can be handled by any thread whose signal mask allows the interrupt.
When more than one thread is able to receive the interrupt, only one thread is chosen.
When multiple occurrences of the same signal are sent to a process, then each
occurrence can be handled by a separate thread. However, the available threads must
not have the signal masked. When all threads have the signal masked, then the signal
is marked pending and the first thread to unmask the signal handles the signal.
Continuation Semantics
Continuation semantics are the traditional way to deal with signals. When a signal
handler returns, control resumes where the process was at the time of the interruption.
This control resumption is well suited for asynchronous signals in single-threaded
processes, as shown in Example 5–1.
This control resumption is also used as the exception-handling mechanism in other

programming languages, such as PL/1.
EXAMPLE 5–1 Continuation Semantics
unsigned int nestcount;
unsigned int A(int i, int j) {

nestcount++;
if (i==0)
return(j+1)
else if (j==0)
return(A(i-1, 1));
else
return(A(i-1, A(i, j-1)));

EXAMPLE 5–1 Continuation Semantics (Continued)
void sig(int i) {
printf("nestcount = %d\n", nestcount);
}
main() {
sigset(SIGINT, sig);
A(4,4);
}
Operations on Signals
This section describes the operations on signals.
“Setting the Thread’s Signal Mask” on page 145

“Sending a Signal to a Specific Thread” on page 145
“Waiting for a Specified Signal” on page 146
“Waiting for Specified Signal Within a Given Time” on page 147
Setting the Thread’s Signal Mask

pthread_sigmask(3C) does for a thread what sigprocmask(2) does for a process.
pthread_sigmask() sets the thread’s signal mask. When a new thread is created,
its initial mask is inherited from its creator.
The call to sigprocmask() in a multithreaded process is equivalent to a call to

pthread_sigmask(). See the sigprocmask(2) man page for more information.
Sending a Signal to a Specific Thread

pthread_kill(3C) is the thread analog of kill(2). pthread_kill() sends a
signal to a specific thread. A signal that is sent to a specified thread is different from a
signal that is sent to a process. When a signal is sent to a process, the signal can be
handled by any thread in the process. A signal sent by pthread_kill() can be
handled only by the specified thread.
You can use pthread_kill() to send signals only to threads in the current process.
Because the thread identifier, type thread_t, is local in scope, you cannot name a thread
outside the scope of the current process.
On receipt of a signal by the target thread, the action invoked (handler, SIG_DFL, or
SIG_IGN) is global, as usual. If you send SIGXXX to a thread, and SIGXXX to kill a
process, the whole process is killed when the target thread receives the signal.

Waiting for a Specified Signal
For multithreaded programs, sigwait(2) is the preferred interface to use because
sigwait() deals well with asynchronously generated signals.
sigwait() causes the calling thread to wait until any signal identified by its set
argument is delivered to the thread. While the thread is waiting, signals identified by
the set argument are unmasked, but the original mask is restored when the call
returns.
All signals identified by the set argument must be blocked on all threads, including
the calling thread. Otherwise, sigwait() might not work correctly.
Use sigwait() to separate threads from asynchronous signals. You can create one
thread that listens for asynchronous signals while you create other threads to block
any asynchronous signals set to this process.
Two versions of sigwait() are available beginning with the Solaris 2.5 release: the
Solaris 2.5 version, and the POSIX standard version. New applications and new
libraries should use the POSIX standard interface, as the Solaris version might not be
available in future releases.
The following example shows the syntax for the two versions of sigwait().
#include <signal.h>
/* the Solaris 2.5 version*/

int sigwait(sigset_t *set);
/* the POSIX standard version */

int sigwait(const sigset_t *set, int *sig);
When the signal is delivered, the POSIX sigwait() clears the pending signal and
places the signal number in sig. Many threads can call sigwait() at the same time,
but only one thread returns for each signal that is received.
With sigwait(), you can treat asynchronous signals synchronously. A thread that
deals with such signals calls sigwait() and returns as soon as a signal arrives. By
ensuring that all threads, including the caller of sigwait(), mask asynchronous
signals, ensures signals are handled only by the intended handler and are handled
safely.
By always masking all signals in all threads and calling sigwait() as necessary, your
application is much safer for threads that depend on signals.
Usually, you create one or more threads that call sigwait() to wait for signals.
Because sigwait() retrieves even masked signals, be sure to block the signals of
interest in all other threads so the signals are not accidentally delivered.

When a signal arrives, a thread returns from sigwait(), handles the signal, and calls
sigwait() again to wait for more signals. The signal-handling thread is not
restricted to using Async-Signal-Safe functions. The signal-handling thread can
synchronize with other threads in the usual way. The Async-Signal-Safe category is
defined in “MT Interface Safety Levels” on page 158.
Note – sigwait() cannot receive synchronously generated signals.
Waiting for Specified Signal Within a Given Time

sigtimedwait(3RT) is similar to sigwait(2) except that sigtimedwait() fails
and returns an error when a signal is not received in the indicated amount of time.
Thread-Directed Signals
The UNIX signal mechanism is extended with the idea of thread-directed signals.
Thread-directed signals are just like ordinary asynchronous signals, except that
thread-directed signals are sent to a particular thread instead of to a process.
A separate thread that waits for asynchronous signals can be safer and easier than
installing a signal handler that processes the signals.
A better way to deal with asynchronous signals is to treat these signals synchronously.
By calling sigwait(2), a thread can wait until a signal occurs. See “Waiting for a
Specified Signal” on page 146.
EXAMPLE 5–2 Asynchronous Signals and sigwait(2)
main() {
sigset_t set;
void runA(void);
int sig;
sigemptyset(&set);
sigaddset(&set, SIGINT);
pthread_sigmask(SIG_BLOCK, &set, NULL);
pthread_create(NULL, 0, runA, NULL, PTHREAD_DETACHED, NULL);
while (1) {
sigwait(&set, &sig);
printf("nestcount = %d\n", nestcount);
printf("received signal %d\n", sig);
}
}
void runA() {
A(4,4);

EXAMPLE 5–2 Asynchronous Signals and sigwait(2) (Continued)
exit(0);
}
This example modifies the code of Example 5–1. The main routine masks the SIGINT
signal, creates a child thread that calls function A of the previous example, and issues
sigwait() to handle the SIGINT signal.
Note that the signal is masked in the compute thread because the compute thread
inherits its signal mask from the main thread. The main thread is protected from
SIGINT while, and only while, the thread is not blocked inside of sigwait().
Also, note that no danger exists of having system calls interrupted when you use
sigwait().
Completion Semantics
Another way to deal with signals is with completion semantics.
Use completion semantics when a signal indicates that something so catastrophic has
happened that no reason exists to continue executing the current code block. The
signal handler runs instead of the remainder of the block that had the problem. In
other words, the signal handler completes the block.
In Example 5–3, the block in question is the body of the then part of the if statement.
The call to setjmp(3C) saves the current register state of the program in jbuf and
returns 0, thereby executing the block.
EXAMPLE 5–3 Completion Semantics
sigjmp_buf jbuf;
void mult_divide(void) {
int a, b, c, d;
void problem();
sigset(SIGFPE, problem);
while (1) {
if (sigsetjmp(&jbuf) == 0) {
printf("Three numbers, please:\n");
scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c);
d = a*b/c;
printf("%d*%d/%d = %d\n", a, b, c, d);
}
}
}
void problem(int sig) {

printf("Couldn’t deal with them, try again\n");

EXAMPLE 5–3 Completion Semantics (Continued)
siglongjmp(&jbuf, 1);
}
If a SIGFPE floating-point exception occurs, the signal handler is invoked.
The signal handler calls siglongjmp(3C), which restores the register state saved in
jbuf, causing the program to return from sigsetjmp() again. The registers that are
saved include the program counter and the stack pointer.
This time, however, sigsetjmp(3C) returns the second argument of

siglongjmp(), which is 1. Notice that the block is skipped over, only to be executed
during the next iteration of the while loop.
You can use sigsetjmp(3C) and siglongjmp(3C) in multithreaded programs. Be

careful that a thread never does a siglongjmp() that uses the results of another
thread’s sigsetjmp().
Also, sigsetjmp() and siglongjmp() restore as well as save the signal mask, but
setjmp(3C) and longjmp(3C) do not.
Use sigsetjmp() and siglongjmp() when you work with signal handlers.
Completion semantics are often used to deal with exceptions. In particular, the Sun
Ada™ programming language uses this model.
Note – Remember, sigwait(2) should never be used with synchronous signals.
Signal Handlers and Async-Signal Safety

A concept that is similar to thread safety is Async-Signal safety. Async-Signal-Safe
operations are guaranteed not to interfere with operations that are being interrupted.
The problem of Async-Signal safety arises when the actions of a signal handler can
interfere with the operation that is being interrupted.
For example, suppose a program is in the middle of a call to printf(3S), and a

signal occurs whose handler calls printf(). In this case, the output of the two
printf() statements would be intertwined. To avoid the intertwined output, the
handler should not directly call printf() when printf() might be interrupted by a
signal.
This problem cannot be solved by using synchronization primitives. Any attempt to

synchronize between the signal handler and the operation being synchronized would
produce an immediate deadlock.

Suppose that printf() is to protect itself by using a mutex. Now, suppose that a
thread that is in a call to printf() and so holds the lock on the mutex is interrupted
by a signal.
If the handler calls printf(), the thread that holds the lock on the mutex attempts to
take the mutex again. Attempting to take the mutex results in an instant deadlock.
To avoid interference between the handler and the operation, ensure that the situation
never arises. Perhaps you can mask off signals at critical moments, or invoke only
Async-Signal-Safe operations from inside signal handlers.
The only routines that POSIX guarantees to be Async-Signal-Safe are listed in Table
5–2. Any signal handler can safely call in to one of these functions.
TABLE 5–2 Async-Signal-Safe Functions
_exit() fstat() read() sysconf()
access() getegid() rename() tcdrain()
alarm() geteuid() rmdir() tcflow()
cfgetispeed() getgid() setgid() tcflush()
cfgetospeed() getgroups() setpgid() tcgetattr()
cfsetispeed() getpgrp() setsid() tcgetpgrp()
cfsetospeed() getpid() setuid() tcsendbreak()
chdir() getppid() sigaction() tcsetattr()
chmod() getuid() sigaddset() tcsetpgrp()
chown() kill() sigdelset() time()
close() link() sigemptyset() times()
creat() lseek() sigfillset() umask()
dup2() mkdir() sigismember() uname()
dup() mkfifo() sigpending() unlink()
execle() open() sigprocmask() utime()
execve() pathconf() sigsuspend() wait()
fcntl() pause() sleep() waitpid()
fork() pipe() stat() write()

Interrupted Waits on Condition Variables
When an unmasked, caught signal is delivered to a thread waiting on a condition
variable, the thread returns from the signal handler with a spurious wakeup. A
spurious wakeup is a wakeup not caused by a condition signal call from another
thread. In this case, the Solaris threads interfaces, cond_wait() and
cond_timedwait(), return EINTR while the POSIX threads interfaces,
pthread_cond_wait() and pthread_cond_timedwait(), return 0. In all cases,
the associated mutex lock is reacquired before returning from the condition wait.
Reacquition of the associated mutex lock does not imply that the mutex is locked
while the thread is executing the signal handler. The state of the mutex in the signal
handler is undefined.
The implementation of libthread in releases of the Solaris software prior to the

Solaris 9 release guaranteed that the mutex was held while in the signal handler.
Applications that rely on this old behavior require revision for the Solaris 9 release and
subsequent releases.
Handler cleanup is illustrated by Example 5–4.

EXAMPLE 5–4 Condition Variables and Interrupted Waits
int sig_catcher() {
sigset_t set;
void hdlr();
mutex_lock(&mut);
sigemptyset(&set);
sigaddset(&set, SIGINT);
sigsetmask(SIG_UNBLOCK, &set, 0);
if (cond_wait(&cond, &mut) == EINTR) {

/* signal occurred and lock is held */
cleanup();
mutex_unlock(&mut);
return(0);
}
normal_processing();
mutex_unlock(&mut);
return(1);
}
void hdlr() {
/* state of the lock is undefined */
...
}
Assume that the SIGINT signal is blocked in all threads on entry to sig_catcher().
Further assume that hdlr() has been established, with a call to sigaction(2), as
the handler for the SIGINT signal. When an unmasked and caught instance of the

SIGINT signal is delivered to the thread while the thread is in cond_wait(), the
thread calls hdlr(). The thread then returns to the cond_wait() function where the
lock on the mutex is reacquired, if necessary, and returns EINTR from cond_wait().
Whether SA_RESTART has been specified as a flag to sigaction() has no effect here.
cond_wait(3C) is not a system call and is not automatically restarted. When a
caught signal occurs while a thread is blocked in cond_wait(), the call always
returns EINTR.
I/O Issues
One of the attractions of multithreaded programming is I/O performance. The
traditional UNIX API gave you little assistance in this area. You either used the
facilities of the file system or bypassed the file system entirely.
This section shows how to use threads to get more flexibility through I/O concurrency
and multibuffering. This section also discusses the differences and similarities between
the approaches of synchronous I/O with threads, and asynchronous I/O with and
without threads.
I/O as a Remote Procedure Call

In the traditional UNIX model, I/O appears to be synchronous, as if you were placing
a remote procedure call to the I/O device. Once the call returns, then the I/O has
completed, or at least appears to have completed. A write request, for example, might
merely result in the transfer of the data to a buffer in the operating environment.
The advantage of this model is familiar concept of procedure calls.
An alternative approach not found in traditional UNIX systems is the asynchronous

model, in which an I/O request merely starts an operation. The program must
somehow discover when the operation completes.
The asynchronous model is not as simple as the synchronous model. But, the
asynchronous model has the advantage of allowing concurrent I/O and processing in
traditional, single-threaded UNIX processes.
Tamed Asynchrony
You can get most of the benefits of asynchronous I/O by using synchronous I/O in a
multithreaded program. With asynchronous I/O, you would issue a request and check
later to determine when the I/O completes. You can instead have a separate thread
perform the I/O synchronously. The main thread can then check for the completion of
the operation at some later time perhaps by calling pthread_join(3C).

Asynchronous I/O
In most situations, asynchronous I/O is not required because its effects can be
achieved with the use of threads, with each thread execution of synchronous I/O.
However, in a few situations, threads cannot achieve what asynchronous I/O can.
The most straightforward example is writing to a tape drive to make the tape drive
stream. Streaming prevents the tape drive from stopping while the drive is being
written to. The tape moves forward at high speed while supplying a constant stream
of data that is written to tape.
To support streaming, the tape driver in the kernel should use threads. The tape driver
in the kernel must issue a queued write request when the tape driver responds to an
interrupt. The interrupt indicates that the previous tape-write operation has
completed.
Threads cannot guarantee that asynchronous writes are ordered because the order in
which threads execute is indeterminate. You cannot, for example, specify the order of a
write to a tape.
Asynchronous I/O Operations

#include <sys/asynch.h>
int aioread(int fildes, char *bufp, int bufs, off_t offset,

int whence, aio_result_t *resultp);
int aiowrite(int filedes, const char *bufp, int bufs,

off_t offset, int whence, aio_result_t *resultp);
aio_result_t *aiowait(const struct timeval *timeout);
int aiocancel(aio_result_t *resultp);
aioread(3AIO) and aiowrite(3AIO) are similar in form to pread(2) and

pwrite(2), except for the addition of the last argument. Calls to aioread() and
aiowrite() result in the initiation or queueing of an I/O operation.
The call returns without blocking, and the status of the call is returned in the structure
pointed to by resultp. resultp is an item of type aio_result_t that contains the
following values:
int aio_return;
int aio_errno;
When a call fails immediately, the failure code can be found in aio_errno.
Otherwise, this field contains AIO_INPROGRESS, meaning that the operation has been
successfully queued.

Waiting for I/O Operation to Complete
You can wait for an outstanding asynchronous I/O operation to complete by calling
aiowait(3AIO). aiowait() returns a pointer to the aio_result_t structure
supplied with the original aioread(3AIO) or original aiowrite(3) call.
This time, aio_result_t contains whatever read(2) or write(2) would have

returned if either function had been called instead of the asynchronous version. If the
read() or write() is successful, aio_return contains the number of bytes that
have been read or written. If the read() or write() is not successful, aio_return
is -1, and aio_errno contains the error code.
aiowait() takes a timeout argument, which indicates how long the caller is willing to
wait. A NULL pointer here means that the caller is willing to wait indefinitely. A
pointer to a structure containing a zero value means that the caller is unwilling to wait
at all.
You might start an asynchronous I/O operation, do some work, then call aiowait()
to wait for the request to complete. Or you can use SIGIO to be notified,
asynchronously, when the operation completes.
Finally, a pending asynchronous I/O operation can be cancelled by calling

aiocancel(). This routine is called with the address of the result area as an
argument. This result area identifies which operation is being cancelled.
Shared I/O and New I/O System Calls

When multiple threads perform concurrent I/O operations with the same file
descriptor, you might discover that the traditional UNIX I/O interface is not thread
safe. The problem occurs with nonsequential I/O where the lseek(2) system call
sets the file offset. The file offset is then used in the next read(2) or write(2) call to
indicate where in the file the operation should start. When two or more threads are
issuing lseeks() to the same file descriptor, a conflict results.
To avoid this conflict, use the pread(2) and pwrite(2) system calls.
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <unistd.h>
ssize_t pread(int fildes, void *buf, size_t nbyte, off_t offset);
ssize_t pwrite(int filedes, void *buf, size_t nbyte,

off_t offset);
pread(2) and pwrite(2) behave just like read(2) and write(2) except that pread(2)
and pwrite(2) take an additional argument, the file offset. With this argument, you
specify the offset without using lseek(2), so multiple threads can use these routines
safely for I/O on the same file descriptor.

Alternatives to getc and putc
An additional problem occurs with standard I/O. Programmers are accustomed to
routines, such as getc(3C) and putc(3C), that are implemented as macros, being
very quick. Because of the speed of getc(3C) and putc(3C), these macros can be
used within the inner loop of a program with no concerns about efficiency.
However, when getc(3C) and putc(3C) are made thread safe the macros suddenly
become more expensive. The macros now require at least two internal subroutine calls,
to lock and unlock a mutex.
To get around this problem, alternative versions of these routines are supplied,
getc_unlocked(3C) and putc_unlocked(3C).
getc_unlocked(3C) and putc_unlocked(3C) do not acquire locks on a mutex.

These macros are as quick as the original, nonthread-safe versions of getc(3C) and
putc(3C)..
However, to use these macros in a thread-safe way, you must explicitly lock and
release the mutexes that protect the standard I/O streams, using flockfile(3C)
and funlockfile(3C). The calls to these latter routines are placed outside the loop.
Calls to getc_unlocked() or putc_unlocked() are placed inside the loop.

CHAPTER 6
Safe and Unsafe Interfaces
This chapter defines MT-safety levels for functions and libraries. This chapter
discusses the following topics:
■ “Thread Safety” on page 157
■ “MT Interface Safety Levels” on page 158
■ “Async-Signal-Safe Functions” on page 160
■ “MT Safety Levels for Libraries” on page 161
Thread Safety
Thread safety is the avoidance of data races. Data races occur when data are set to
either correct or incorrect values, depending upon the order in which multiple threads
access and modify the data.
When no sharing is intended, give each thread a private copy of the data. When
sharing is important, provide explicit synchronization to make certain that the
program behaves in a deterministic manner.
A procedure is thread safe when the procedure is logically correct when executed
simultaneously by several threads. At a practical level, safety falls into the following
recognized levels.
■ Unsafe
■ Thread safe, Serializable
■ Thread safe, MT-Safe
An unsafe procedure can be made thread safe and able to be serialized by surrounding
the procedure with statements to lock and unlock a mutex. Example 6–1 shows three
simplified implementations of fputs(), initially thread unsafe.
157
Next is a serializable version of this routine with a single mutex protecting the
procedure from concurrent execution problems. Actually, the single mutex is stronger
synchronization than is usually necessary. When two threads are sending output to
different files by using fputs(), one thread need not wait for the other thread. The
threads need synchronization only when sharing an output file.
The last version is MT-safe. This version uses one lock for each file, allowing two
threads to print to different files at the same time. So, a routine is MT-safe when the
routine is thread safe, and the routine’s execution does not negatively affect
performance.
EXAMPLE 6–1 Degrees of Thread Safety

/* not thread-safe */
fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream) {
char *p;
for (p=s; *p; p++)
putc((int)*p, stream);
}
/* serializable */
static mutex_t mut;
char *p;
mutex_lock(&m);
for (p=s; *p; p++)
mutex_unlock(&m);
}
/* MT-Safe */
mutex_t m[NFILE];
static mutex_t mut;
char *p;
mutex_lock(&m[fileno(stream)]);
for (p=s; *p; p++)
mutex_unlock(&m[fileno(stream)]0;
}
MT Interface Safety Levels

The threads man pages, man(3C), use the safety level categories listed in Table 6–1 to
describe how well an interface supports threads. These categories are explained more
fully in the Intro(3) man page.

TABLE 6–1 Interface Safety Levels
Category Description
Safe This code can be called from a multithreaded application
Safe with exceptions See the NOTES sections of these pages for a description of the
exceptions.
Unsafe This interface is not safe to use with multithreaded

applications unless the application arranges for only one
thread at a time to execute within the library.
MT-Safe This interface is fully prepared for multithreaded access. The

interface is both safe and supports some concurrency.
MT-Safe with exceptions See the NOTES sections of these pages in the man pages
section 3: Basic Library Functions for a list of the exceptions.
Async-Signal-Safe This routine can safely be called from a signal handler. A

thread that is executing an Async-Signal-Safe routine does not
deadlock with itself when interrupted by a signal.
Fork1–Safe This interface releases locks it has held whenever Solaris

fork1(2) or POSIX fork(2) is called.
See the section 3 reference manual pages for the safety levels of library routines.
Some functions have purposely not been made safe for the following reasons.
■ The interface made MT-Safe would have negatively affected the performance of
single-threaded applications.
■ The library has an unsafe interface. For example, a function might return a pointer
to a buffer in the stack. You can use re-entrant counterparts for some of these
functions. The re-entrant function name is the original function name with “_r”
appended.
Caution – The only way to be certain that a function with a name not ending in “_r” is
MT-Safe is to check the function’s manual page. Use of a function identified as not
MT-Safe must be protected by a synchronizing device or by restriction to the initial
thread.
Re-entrant Functions for Unsafe Interfaces

For most functions with unsafe interfaces, an MT-Safe version of the routine exists.
The name of the new MT-Safe routine is always the name of the old Unsafe routine
with “_r” appended. The Table 6–2 “_r” routines are supplied in the Solaris
environment.
Chapter 6 • Safe and Unsafe Interfaces 159

TABLE 6–2 Re-entrant Functions
asctime_r(3c) gethostbyname_r(3n) getservbyname_r(3n)
ctermid_r(3s) gethostent_r(3n) getservbyport_r(3n)
ctime_r(3c) getlogin_r(3c) getservent_r(3n)
fgetgrent_r(3c) getnetbyaddr_r(3n) getspent_r(3c)
fgetpwent_r(3c) getnetbyname_r(3n) getspnam_r(3c)
fgetspent_r(3c) getnetent_r(3n) gmtime_r(3c)
gamma_r(3m) getnetgrent_r(3n) lgamma_r(3m)
getauclassent_r(3) getprotobyname_r(3n) localtime_r(3c)
getauclassnam_r(3) getprotobynumber_r(3n) nis_sperror_r(3n)
getauevent_r(3) getprotoent_r(3n) rand_r(3c)
getauevnam_r(3) getpwent_r(3c) readdir_r(3c)
getauevnum_r(3) getpwnam_r(3c) strtok_r(3c)
getgrent_r(3c) getpwuid_r(3c) tmpnam_r(3s)
getgrgid_r(3c) getrpcbyname_r(3n) ttyname_r(3c)
getgrnam_r(3c) getrpcbynumber_r(3n)
gethostbyaddr_r(3n) getrpcent_r(3n)
Async-Signal-Safe Functions
Functions that can safely be called from signal handlers are Async-Signal-Safe. The
POSIX standard defines and lists Async-Signal-Safe functions (IEEE Std 1003.1-1990,
3.3.1.3 (3)(f), page 55). In addition to the POSIX Async-Signal-Safe functions, the
following functions from the Solaris threads interface are also Async-Signal-Safe:
■ sema_post(3C)
■ thr_sigsetmask(3C), similar to pthread_sigmask(3C)
■ thr_kill(3C), similar to pthread_kill(3C)

MT Safety Levels for Libraries
All routines that can potentially be called by a thread from a multithreaded program
should be MT-Safe. Therefore, two or more activations of a routine must be able to
correctly execute concurrently. So, every library interface that a multithreaded program
uses must be MT-Safe.
Not all libraries are now MT-Safe. The commonly used libraries that are MT-Safe are
listed in Table 6–3. Additional libraries will eventually be modified to be MT-Safe.
TABLE 6–3 Some MT-Safe Libraries
Library Comments
lib/libc Interfaces that are not safe have thread-safe interfaces of the
form *_r, often with different semantics.
lib/libdl_stubs To support static switch compiling
lib/libintl Internationalization library
lib/libm Math library that is compliant with System V Interface

Definition, Edition 3, X/Open and ANSI C
lib/libmalloc Space-efficient memory allocation library, see malloc(3X)
lib/libmapmalloc Alternative mmap-based memory allocation library, see

mapmalloc(3X)
lib/libnsl The TLI interface, XDR, RPC clients and servers, netdir,
netselect and getXXbyYY interfaces are not safe, but have
thread-safe interfaces of the form getXXbyYY_r
lib/libresolv Thread-specific errno support
lib/libsocket Socket library for making network connections
lib/libw Wide character and wide string functions for supporting

multibyte locales
lib/straddr Network name-to-address translation library
lib/libX11 X11 Windows library routines
lib/libC C++ runtime shared objects
Unsafe Libraries
Routines in libraries that are not guaranteed to be MT-Safe can safely be called by
multithreaded programs only when such calls are single threaded.
Chapter 6 • Safe and Unsafe Interfaces 161

CHAPTER 7
Compiling and Debugging
This chapter describes how to compile and debug multithreaded programs. This
chapter discusses the following topics:
■ “Compiling a Multithreaded Application” on page 163
■ “Debugging a Multithreaded Program” on page 168
Compiling a Multithreaded Application

Many options are available for header files, define flags, and linking.
Preparing for Compilation

The following items are required to compile and link a multithreaded program. Except
for the C compiler, all items should be included with your Solaris software.
■ A standard C compiler
■ Include files:
■ <thread.h> and <pthread.h>
■ <errno.h>, <limits.h>, <signal.h>, <unistd.h>
■ The regular Solaris linker, ln(1)
■ For Solaris 9 and previous releases only, the Solaris threads library (libthread),
the POSIX threads library (libpthread), and possibly the POSIX realtime library
(librt) for semaphores
■ MT-safe libraries such as libc, libm, libw, libintl, libnsl, libsocket,
libmalloc, libmapmalloc, and so on
163
Choosing Solaris or POSIX Semantics
Certain functions have different semantics in the POSIX standard than in the Solaris
2.4 release, which was based on an early POSIX draft. Function definitions are chosen
at compile time. See the man pages section 3: Library Interfaces and Headers for a
description of the differences in expected parameters and return values. The functions
with different semantics are:
■ asctime_r(3C)
■ ctime_r(3C)
■ ftrylockfile(3C) (new)
■ getgrgid_r(3C)
■ getgrnam_r(3C)
■ getlogin_r(3C)
■ getpwnam_r(3C)
■ getpwuid_r(3C)
■ readdir_r(3C)
■ sigwait(2)
■ ttyname_r(3C)
In Solaris 9 and previous releases, the Solaris fork(2) function duplicates all threads
fork-all behavior. The POSIX fork(2) function duplicates only the calling thread fork-one
behavior, as does the Solaris fork1() function.
Starting with the Solaris 10 release, the behavior of fork() when not linked to
-lpthreaad might change in order to be consistent with the POSIX version. In
particular, fork() is redefined to be fork1(). Therefore, fork() replicates the calling
thread in the child process. The behavior of fork1() is present in all Solaris releases. A
new function, forkall(), is provided to replicate all of the parent process’s threads
in the child for applications that require this behavior.
Including <thread.h> or <pthread.h>

The include file <thread.h> compiles code that is upwardly compatible with earlier
releases of the Solaris software. This file contains declarations for the Solaris threads
interfaces. To call thr_setconcurrency(3C) with POSIX threads, your program
needs to include <thread.h>.
The include file <pthread.h>, used with the -lpthread library, compiles code that
conforms with the multithreading interfaces defined by the POSIX standard. For
complete POSIX compliance, the feature test macro _POSIX_C_SOURCE should be set
to a (long) value ≥ 199506. See thestandards(5) man page.
For the 1996 edition POSIX standard:

cc89 -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE=199506L [flags] file
For the 2001 edition POSIX standard:

cc99 -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE=200112L [flags] file ... [-l rt]
You can mix Solaris threads and POSIX threads in the same application. Include both
<thread.h> and <pthread.h> in the application.
In mixed use, Solaris semantics prevail when compiling with -D_REENTRANT,

whereas POSIX semantics prevail when compiling with -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE.
Defining _REENTRANT or _POSIX_C_SOURCE

For POSIX behavior, compile applications with the -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE flag set ≥
199506L. For Solaris behavior, compile multithreaded programs with the
-D_REENTRANT flag. These compiler flags apply to every module of an application.
For mixed applications, Solaris threads with POSIX semantics compile with the
-D_REENTRANT and -D_POSIX_PTHREAD_SEMANTICS flags.
To compile a single-threaded application, define neither the -D_REENTRANT nor the

-D_POSIX_C_SOURCE flag. When these flags are not present, all the old definitions
for errno, stdio, and so on remain in effect.
Note – Compile single-threaded applications without the -D_REENTRANT flag.

Compile single-threaded applications in this manner to eliminate performance
degradation incurred when macros, such as putc(3s), are converted into reentrant
function calls.
To summarize, POSIX applications that define -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE get the POSIX

semantics for the routines. Applications that define only -D_REENTRANT get the
Solaris semantics for these routines. Solaris applications that define
-D_POSIX_PTHREAD_SEMANTICS get the POSIX semantics for these routines, but can
still use the Solaris threads interface.
Applications that define both -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE and -D_REENTRANT get the

POSIX semantics.
Linking With libthread or libpthread

For POSIX threads behavior, in Solaris 9 and prior releases, load the libpthread
library. For Solaris threads behavior, load the libthread library. Some POSIX
programmers might want to link with -lthread to preserve the Solaris distinction
between fork() and fork1(). The -lpthread library makes fork() behave the
same way as the Solaris fork1() call.
Chapter 7 • Compiling and Debugging 165

In Solaris 10 and subsequent releases, neither threads library is required, but the
library can still be specified for compatibility. All threading functionality has been
moved into the standard C library. To use libthread, specify -lthread before lc
on the ld command line, or la st on the cc command line.
To use libthread, specify -lthread before -lc on the ld command line, or last on
the cc command line.
To use libpthread, specify -lpthread before -lc on the ld command line, or last
on the cc command line.
Prior to the Solaris 9 release, you should not link a nonthreaded program with
-lthread or -lpthread. Doing so establishes multithreading mechanisms at link
time that are initiated at runtime. These mechanisms slow down a single-threaded
application, waste system resources, and produce misleading results when you debug
your code.
In Solaris 9 and subsequent releases, linking a nonthreaded program with -lthread

or -lpthread makes no semantic difference to the program. No extra threads or extra
LWPs are created. The main, and only, thread executes as a traditional single-threaded
process. The only effect on the program is to make system library locks become real
locks, as opposed to dummy function calls. You must pay the price of acquiring
uncontended locks.
Prior to the Solaris 10 release, all calls to libthread and libpthread are no-ops if
the application does not link -lthread or -lpthread. The runtime library libc has
many predefined libthread and libpthread stubs that are null procedures. True
procedures are interposed by libthread or libpthread when the application links
both libc and the thread library.
Note – For C++ programs that use threads, use the -mt option rather than -lthread
to compile and link your application. The -mt option links with libthread and
ensures proper library linking order. -lthread might cause your program to core
dump.
Linking in the POSIX Environment

For the 1996 edition POSIX standard, use the following options to compile and link
your application:
For the 2001 edition POSIX standard, use the following options to compile and link
your application:

Linking in the Solaris Environment
In a Solaris threads environment, use the following options to compile and link your
application:
cc -D_REENTRANT -D POSIX_THREAD_SEMANTICS [flags] file ... [-l rt]
Linking in a Mixed Environment

In a mixed environment, use the following options to compile and link your
application:
cc -D_REENTRANT [flags] file ... [-l rt]
In mixed usage, you need to include both thread.h and pthread.h.
Linking With -lrt for POSIX Semaphores

The Solaris semaphore routines, sema_*(3C), are contained in the standard C library.
By contrast, you link with the -lrt library to get the standard sem_*(3R) POSIX
semaphore routines described in “Synchronization With Semaphores” on page 111.
Linking Old Modules With New Modules

Table 7–1 shows that multithreaded object modules should be linked with old object
modules only with great caution.
TABLE 7–1 Compiling With and Without the _REENTRANT Flag
File Type Compiled Reference Return Value
Old object files Without the _REENTRANT Static storage The traditional errno
(nonthreaded) and or _POSIX_C_SOURCE
new object files flag
New object files With the _REENTRANT or __errno, the new The address of the
_POSIX_C_SOURCE flag binary entry point thread’s definition
of errno
Programs that use TLI With the _REENTRANT or __t_errno, a new The address of the
in libnsl. Include _POSIX_C_SOURCE flag entry point thread’s definition
tiuser.h to get the (required) of t_errno.
TLI global error
variable.

Alternate Threads Library
The Solaris 8 release introduced an alternate threads library implementation that is
located in the directories /usr/lib/lwp (32-bit) and /usr/lib/lwp/64 (64-bit). In
the Solaris 9 release, this implementation became the standard threads implementation
found in /usr/lib and /usr/lib/64. Effective with the Solaris 10 release, all
threads functionality has been moved into libc and no separate threads library is
required.
Debugging a Multithreaded Program

The following discussion describes characteristics that can cause bugs in
multithreaded programs.
Common Oversights in Multithreaded Programs

The following list points out some of the more frequent oversights that can cause bugs
in multithreaded programs.
■ A pointer passed to the caller’s stack as an argument to a new thread.
■ The shared changeable state of global memory accessed without the protection of a
synchronization mechanism.
■ Deadlocks caused by two threads trying to acquire rights to the same pair of global
resources in alternate order. One thread controls the first resource and the other
controls the second resource. Neither thread can proceed until the other gives up.
■ Trying to reacquire a lock already held (recursive deadlock).
■ Creating a hidden gap in synchronization protection. This gap in protection occurs
when a protected code segment contains a function that frees and reacquires the
synchronization mechanism before returning to the caller. The result is misleading.
To the caller, the appearance is that the global data has been protected when the
data actually has not been protected.
■ When mixing UNIX signals with threads, using the sigwait(2) model for
handling asynchronous signals.
■ Calling setjmp(3C) and longjmp(3C), and then long-jumping away without
releasing the mutex locks.
■ Failing to re-evaluate the conditions after returning from a call to *_cond_wait()
or *_cond_timedwait().

■ Forgetting that default threads are created PTHREAD_CREATE_JOINABLE and
must be reclaimed with pthread_join(3C). Note that pthread_exit(3C)
does not free up its storage space.
■ Making deeply nested, recursive calls and using large automatic arrays can cause
problems because multithreaded programs have a more limited stack size than
single-threaded programs.
■ Specifying an inadequate stack size, or using nondefault stacks.
Multithreaded programs, especially those containing bugs, often behave differently in

two successive runs, even with identical inputs. This behavior is caused by differences
in the order that threads are scheduled.
In general, multithreading bugs are statistical instead of deterministic. Tracing is

usually a more effective method of finding the order of execution problems than is
breakpoint-based debugging.
Tracing and Debugging With the TNF Utilities

Use the TNF utilities to trace, debug, and gather performance analysis information
from your applications and libraries. The TNF utilities integrate trace information
from the kernel as well as from multiple user processes and threads. The TNF utilities
are especially useful for multithreaded code. The TNF utilities are included as part of
the Solaris software.
With the TNF utilities, you can easily trace and debug multithreaded programs. See
the TNF manual pages for detailed information on using prex(1) and tnfdump(1).
Using truss
See the truss(1) man page for information on tracing system calls, signals and
user-level function calls.
Using mdb
For information about mdb, see the Solaris Modular Debugger Guide.
The following mdb commands can be used to access the LWPs of a multithreaded
program.
$l Prints the LWP ID of the representative thread if the target is a
user process.
$L Prints the LWP IDs of each LWP in the target if the target is a
user process.

pid::attach Attaches to process # pid.
::release Releases the previously attached process or core file. The
process can subsequently be continued by prun(1) or it can
be resumed by applying MDB or another debugger.
address ::context Context switch to the specified process.
These commands to set conditional breakpoints are often useful.

[ addr ] ::bp [+/-dDestT] [-c cmd] [-n count] sym ...
Set a breakpoint at the specified locations.
addr ::delete [id | all]
Delete the event specifiers with the given ID number.
Using dbx
With the dbx utility, you can debug and execute source programs that are written in
C++, ANSI C, and FORTRAN. dbx accepts the same commands as the Debugger, but
uses a standard terminal (TTY) interface. Both dbx and the Debugger support the
debugging of multithreaded programs. For a description of how to start dbx, see the
dbx(1) man page, See Debugging a Program With dbx for an overview of dbx. The
Debugger features are described in the online help in the Debugger GUI for dbx.
All the dbx options that are listed in Table 7–2 can support multithreaded
applications.
TABLE 7–2 dbx Options for MT Programs
Option Action
cont at line [-sig signo id] Continues execution at line with signal signo. The id, if
present, specifies which thread or LWP to continue. The
default value is all.
lwp Displays current LWP. Switches to given LWP [lwpid].
lwps Lists all LWPs in the current process.
next ... tid Steps the given thread. When a function call is skipped,
all LWPs are implicitly resumed for the duration of that
function call. Nonactive threads cannot be stepped.
next ... lid Steps the given LWP. Does not implicitly resume all
LWPs when skipping a function. The LWP on which the
given thread is active. Does not implicitly resume all
LWP when skipping a function.

TABLE 7–2 dbx Options for MT Programs (Continued)
Option Action
step... tid Steps the given thread. When a function call is skipped,
all LWPs are implicitly resumed for the duration of that
function call. Nonactive threads cannot be stepped.
step... lid Steps the given LWP. Does not implicitly resume all
LWPs when skipping a function.
stepi... lid The given LWP.
stepi... tid The LWP on which the given thread is active.
thread Displays current thread. Switches to thread tid. In all the

following variations, an optional tid implies the current
thread.
thread -info [ tid ] Prints everything known about the given thread.
thread -blocks [ tid ] Prints all locks held by the given thread blocking other
threads.
thread -suspend [ tid ] Puts the given thread into suspended state.
thread -resume [ tid ] Unsuspends the given thread.
thread -hide [ tid ] Hides the given or current thread. The thread does not
appear in the generic threads listing.
thread -unhide [ tid ] Unhides the given or current thread.
thread -unhide all Unhides all threads.
threads Prints the list of all known threads.
threads -all Prints threads that are not usually printed (zombies).
threads -mode all|filter Controls whether threads prints all threads or filters
threads by default.
threads -mode auto|manual Enables automatic updating of the thread listing.
threads -mode Echoes the current modes. Any of the previous forms
can be followed by a thread or LWP ID to get the
traceback for the specified entity.

CHAPTER 8
Programming With Solaris Threads
This chapter compares the application programming interface (API) for Solaris and
POSIX threads, and explains the Solaris features that are not found in POSIX threads.
The chapter discusses the following topics:
■ “Comparing APIs for Solaris Threads and POSIX Threads” on page 173
■ “Unique Solaris Threads Functions” on page 178
■ “Similar Synchronization Functions—Read-Write Locks” on page 180
■ “Similar Solaris Threads Functions” on page 186
■ “Similar Synchronization Functions—Mutual Exclusion Locks” on page 197
■ “Similar Synchronization Functions: Condition Variables” on page 201
■ “Similar Synchronization Functions: Semaphores” on page 206
■ “Special Issues for fork() and Solaris Threads” on page 212
Comparing APIs for Solaris Threads and

POSIX Threads
The Solaris threads API and the pthreads API are two solutions to the same problem:
build parallelism into application software. Although each API is complete, you can
safely mix Solaris threads functions and pthread functions in the same program.
The two APIs do not match exactly, however. Solaris threads support functions that
are not found in pthreads, and pthreads include functions that are not supported in
the Solaris interface. For those functions that do match, the associated arguments
might not, although the information content is effectively the same.
By combining the two APIs, you can use features not found in one API to enhance the
other API. Similarly, you can run applications that use Solaris threads exclusively with
applications that use pthreads exclusively on the same system.
173
Major API Differences
Solaris threads and pthreads are very similar in both API action and syntax. The major
differences are listed in Table 8–1.
TABLE 8–1 Unique Solaris Threads and pthreads Features
Solaris Threads POSIX Threads
thr_ prefix for threads function names, pthread_ prefix for pthreads function names,
sema_ prefix for semaphore function sem_ prefix for semaphore function names
names
Ability to create “daemon” threads Cancellation semantics
Suspending and continuing a thread Scheduling policies
Function Comparison Table

The following table compares Solaris threads functions with pthreads functions. Note
that even when Solaris threads and pthreads functions appear to be essentially the
same, the arguments to the functions can differ.
When a comparable interface is not available either in pthreads or Solaris threads, a

hyphen ‘-’ appears in the column. Entries in the pthreads column, that are followed by
“POSIX.1b”, are part of the POSIX Realtime standard specification and are not part of
pthreads.
TABLE 8–2 Solaris Threads and POSIX pthreads Comparison
Solaris Threads pthreads
thr_create() pthread_create()
thr_exit() pthread_exit()
thr_join() pthread_join()
thr_yield() sched_yield() POSIX.1b
thr_self() pthread_self()
thr_kill() pthread_kill()
thr_sigsetmask() pthread_sigmask()
thr_setprio() pthread_setschedparam()
thr_getprio() pthread_getschedparam()
thr_setconcurrency() pthread_setconcurrency()

TABLE 8–2 Solaris Threads and POSIX pthreads Comparison (Continued)
thr_getconcurrency() pthread_getconcurrency()
thr_suspend() -
thr_continue() -
thr_keycreate() pthread_key_create()
- pthread_key_delete()
thr_setspecific() pthread_setspecific()
thr_getspecific() pthread_getspecific()
- pthread_once()
- pthread_equal()
- pthread_cancel()
- pthread_testcancel()
- pthread_cleanup_push()
- pthread_cleanup_pop()
- pthread_setcanceltype()
- pthread_setcancelstate()
mutex_lock() pthread_mutex_lock()
mutex_unlock() pthread_mutex_unlock()
mutex_trylock() pthread_mutex_trylock()
mutex_init() pthread_mutex_init()
mutex_destroy() pthread_mutex_destroy()
cond_wait() pthread_cond_wait()
cond_timedwait() pthread_cond_timedwait()
cond_reltimedwait() pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np()
cond_signal() pthread_cond_signal()
cond_broadcast() pthread_cond_broadcast()
cond_init() pthread_cond_init()
cond_destroy() pthread_cond_destroy()
rwlock_init() pthread_rwlock_init()
rwlock_destroy() pthread_rwlock_destroy()
Chapter 8 • Programming With Solaris Threads 175

rw_rdlock() pthread_rwlock_rdlock()
rw_wrlock() pthread_rwlock_wrlock()
rw_unlock() pthread_rwlock_unlock()
rw_tryrdlock() pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock()
rw_trywrlock() pthread_rwlock_trywrlock()
- pthread_rwlockattr_init()
- pthread_rwlockattr_destroy()
- pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared()
- pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared()
sema_init() sem_init() POSIX.1b
sema_destroy() sem_destroy() POSIX.1b
sema_wait() sem_wait() POSIX.1b
sema_post() sem_post() POSIX.1b
sema_trywait() sem_trywait() POSIX.1b
fork1() fork()
- pthread_atfork()
forkall(), multiple thread copy -
- pthread_mutexattr_init()
- pthread_mutexattr_destroy()
type argument in mutex_init() pthread_mutexattr_setpshared()
- pthread_mutexattr_getpshared()
- pthread_mutex_attr_settype()
- pthread_mutex_attr_gettype()
- pthread_condattr_init()
- pthread_condattr_destroy()
type argument in cond_init() pthread_condattr_setpshared()
- pthread_condattr_getpshared()
- pthread_attr_init()
- pthread_attr_destroy()

THR_BOUND flag in thr_create() pthread_attr_setscope()
- pthread_attr_getscope()
- pthread_attr_setguardsize()
- pthread_attr_getguardsize()
stack_size argument in pthread_attr_setstacksize()

thr_create()
- pthread_attr_getstacksize()
stack_addr argument in pthread_attr_setstack()

thr_create()
- pthread_attr_getstack()
THR_DETACH flag in thr_create() pthread_attr_setdetachstate()
- pthread_attr_getdetachstate()
- pthread_attr_setschedparam()
- pthread_attr_getschedparam()
- pthread_attr_setinheritsched()
- pthread_attr_getinheritsched()
- pthread_attr_setsschedpolicy()
- pthread_attr_getschedpolicy()
To use the Solaris threads functions described in this chapter for Solaris 9 and previous
releases, you must link with the Solaris threads library -lthread.
Operation is virtually the same for both Solaris threads and for pthreads, even though
the function names or arguments might differ. Only a brief example consisting of the
correct include file and the function prototype is presented. Where return values are
not given for the Solaris threads functions, see the appropriate pages in man pages
section 3: Basic Library Functions for the function return values.
For more information on Solaris related functions, see the related pthreads
documentation for the similarly named function.
Where Solaris threads functions offer capabilities that are not available in pthreads, a
full description of the functions is provided.

Unique Solaris Threads Functions
This section describes unique Solaris threads functions: suspending thread execution
and continuing a suspended thread.
Suspending Thread Execution

thr_suspend(3C) immediately suspends the execution of the thread specified by
target_thread. On successful return from thr_suspend(), the suspended thread is no
longer executing.
Because thr_suspend()suspends the target thread with no regard to the locks that
the thread might be holding, you must use thr_suspend() with extreme care. If the
suspending thread calls a function that requires a lock held by the suspended target
thread, deadlock will result.
thr_suspend Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_suspend(thread_t tid);
After a thread is suspended, subsequent calls to thr_suspend() have no effect.

Signals cannot awaken the suspended thread. The signals remain pending until the
thread resumes execution.
In the following synopsis, pthread_t tid as defined in pthreads is the same as

thread_t tid in Solaris threads. tid values can be used interchangeably either by
assignment or through the use of casts.
thread_t tid; /* tid from thr_create() */
/* pthreads equivalent of Solaris tid from thread created */

/* with pthread_create() */
pthread_t ptid;
int ret;
ret = thr_suspend(tid);
/* using pthreads ID variable with a cast */

ret = thr_suspend((thread_t) ptid);

thr_suspend Return Values
thr_suspend() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
thr_suspend() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ESRCH
Continuing a Suspended Thread

thr_continue(3C) resumes the execution of a suspended thread. Once a suspended
thread is continued, subsequent calls to thr_continue() have no effect.
thr_continue Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_continue(thread_t tid);
A suspended thread is not awakened by a signal. The signal remains pending until the
execution of the thread is resumed by thr_continue().
pthread_t tid as defined in pthreads is the same as thread_t tid in Solaris threads.
tid values can be used interchangeably either by assignment or through the use of
casts.
thread_t tid; /* tid from thr_create()*/
/* pthreads equivalent of Solaris tid from thread created */

/* with pthread_create()*/
pthread_t ptid;
int ret;
ret = thr_continue(tid);
/* using pthreads ID variable with a cast */

ret = thr_continue((thread_t) ptid)
thr_continue Return Values

thr_continue() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
thr_continue() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ESRCH

Similar Synchronization
Functions—Read-Write Locks
Read-write locks allow simultaneous read access by many threads while restricting
write access to only one thread at a time. This section discusses the following topics:
■ Initializing a readers/writer lock
■ Acquiring a read lock
■ Trying to acquire a read lock
■ Acquiring a write lock
■ Trying to acquire a write
■ Unlocking a readers/writer lock
■ Destroying readers/writer lock state
When any thread holds the lock for reading, other threads can also acquire the lock for
reading but must wait to acquire the lock for writing. If one thread holds the lock for
writing, or is waiting to acquire the lock for writing, other threads must wait to
acquire the lock for either reading or writing.
Read-write locks are slower than mutexes. But read-write locks can improve
performance when the locks protect data not frequently written but are read by many
concurrent threads.
Use read-write locks to synchronize threads in this process and other processes.
Allocate read-write locks in memory that is writable and shared among the
cooperating processes. See themmap(2) man page for information about mapping
read-write locks for this behavior.
By default, the acquisition order is not defined when multiple threads are waiting for a
read-write lock. However, to avoid writer starvation, the Solaris threads package tends
to favor writers over readers of equal priority.
Read-write locks must be initialized before use.
Initialize a Read-Write Lock

Use rwlock_init(3C) to initialize the read-write lock pointed to by rwlp and to set
the lock state to unlocked.
rwlock_init Syntax
#include <synch.h> (or #include <thread.h>)
int rwlock_init(rwlock_t *rwlp, int type, void * arg);

type can be one of the following values:
■ USYNC_PROCESS The read-write lock can be used to synchronize threads in this
process and other processes. arg is ignored.
■ USYNC_THREAD The read-write lock can be used to synchronize threads in this
process only. arg is ignored.
Multiple threads must not initialize the same read-write lock simultaneously.
Read-write locks can also be initialized by allocation in zeroed memory, in which case
a type of USYNC_THREAD is assumed. A read-write lock must not be reinitialized
while other threads might be using the lock.
For POSIX threads, see “pthread_rwlock_init Syntax” on page 123.
Initializing Read-Write Locks With Intraprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
rwlock_t rwlp;
int ret;

ret = rwlock_init(&rwlp, USYNC_THREAD, 0);
Initializing Read-Write Locks With Interprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
rwlock_t rwlp;
int ret;
/* to be used among all processes */

ret = rwlock_init(&rwlp, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
rwlock_init Return Values

rwlock_init() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL
Description: Invalid argument.
EFAULT
Description: rwlp or arg points to an illegal address.
Acquiring a Read Lock

Use rw_rdlock(3C) to acquire a read lock on the read-write lock pointed to by rwlp.

rw_rdlock Syntax
int rw_rdlock(rwlock_t *rwlp);
When the read-write lock is already locked for writing, the calling thread blocks until
the write lock is released. Otherwise, the read lock is acquired. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_rwlock_rdlock Syntax” on page 124.
rw_rdlock Return Values

rw_rdlock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL
EFAULT
Description: rwlp points to an illegal address.
Trying to Acquire a Read Lock

Use rw_tryrdlock(3C) to attempt to acquire a read lock on the read-write lock
pointed to by rwlp.
rw_tryrdlock Syntax
int rw_tryrdlock(rwlock_t *rwlp);
When the read-write lock is already locked for writing, rw_tryrdlock() returns an
error. Otherwise, the read lock is acquired. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock Syntax” on page 125.
rw_tryrdlock Return Values

rw_tryrdlock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL

EFAULT
EBUSY
Description: The read-write lock pointed to by rwlp was already locked.
Acquiring a Write Lock

Use rw_wrlock(3C) to acquire a write lock on the read-write lock pointed to by rwlp.
rw_wrlock Syntax
int rw_wrlock(rwlock_t *rwlp);
When the read-write lock is already locked for reading or writing, the calling thread
blocks until all read locks and write locks are released. Only one thread at a time can
hold a write lock on a read-write lock. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_rwlock_wrlock Syntax” on page 126.
rw_wrlock Return Values

rw_wrlock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL
EFAULT
Trying to Acquire a Write Lock

Use rw_trywrlock(3C) to attempt to acquire a write lock on the read-write lock
pointed to by rwlp.
rw_trywrlock Syntax
int rw_trywrlock(rwlock_t *rwlp);

When the read-write lock is already locked for reading or writing, rw_trywrlock()
returns an error. For POSIX threads, see “pthread_rwlock_trywrlock Syntax”
on page 126.
rw_trywrlock Return Values

rw_trywrlock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL
EFAULT
EBUSY
Description: The read-write lock pointed to by rwlp was already locked.
Unlock a Read-Write Lock

Use rw_unlock(3C) to unlock a read-write lock pointed to by rwlp.
rw_unlock Syntax
int rw_unlock(rwlock_t *rwlp);
The read-write lock must be locked, and the calling thread must hold the lock either
for reading or writing. When any other threads are waiting for the read-write lock to
become available, one of the threads is unblocked. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_rwlock_unlock Syntax” on page 127.
rw_unlock Return Values

rw_unlock() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return value
EINVAL
EFAULT

Destroying the Read-Write Lock State
Use rwlock_destroy(3C) to destroy any state that is associated with the read-write
lock pointed to by rlwp.
rwlock_destroy Syntax
int rwlock_destroy(rwlock_t *rwlp);
The space for storing the read-write lock is not freed. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_rwlock_destroy Syntax” on page 128.
Example 8–1 uses a bank account to demonstrate read-write locks. While the program
could allow multiple threads to have concurrent read-only access to the account
balance, only a single writer is allowed. Note that the get_balance() function needs
the lock to ensure that the addition of the checking and saving balances occurs
atomically.
EXAMPLE 8–1 Read-Write Bank Account
rwlock_t account_lock;
float checking_balance = 100.0;
float saving_balance = 100.0;
...
rwlock_init(&account_lock, 0, NULL);
...
float
get_balance() {
float bal;
rw_rdlock(&account_lock);
bal = checking_balance + saving_balance;
rw_unlock(&account_lock);
return(bal);
}
void
transfer_checking_to_savings(float amount) {
rw_wrlock(&account_lock);
checking_balance = checking_balance - amount;
saving_balance = saving_balance + amount;
rw_unlock(&account_lock);
}
rwlock_destroy Return Values

rwlock_destroy() returns zero after completing successfully. Any other return
value indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions occurs,

EINVAL
EFAULT
Similar Solaris Threads Functions

TABLE 8–3 Similar Solaris Threads Functions
Create a thread “thr_create Syntax” on page 187
Get the minimal stack size “thr_min_stack Syntax” on page 189
Get the thread identifier “thr_self Syntax” on page 190
Yield thread execution “thr_yield Syntax” on page 190
Send a signal to a thread “thr_kill Syntax” on page 190
Access the signal mask of the calling thread “thr_sigsetmask Syntax” on page 191
Terminate a thread “thr_exit Syntax” on page 192
Wait for thread termination “thr_join Syntax” on page 192
Create a thread-specific data key “thr_keycreate Syntax” on page 194
Set thread-specific data “thr_setspecific Syntax” on page 195
Get thread-specific data “thr_getspecific Syntax” on page 195
Set the thread priority “thr_setprio Syntax” on page 196
Get the thread priority “thr_getprio Syntax” on page 197
Creating a Thread
The thr_create(3C) routine is one of the most elaborate of all routines in the
Solaris threads interface.
Use thr_create(3C) to add a new thread of control to the current process. For
POSIX threads, see “pthread_create Syntax” on page 24.

thr_create Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_create(void *stack_base, size_t stack_size,

void *(*start_routine) (void *), void *arg, long flags,
thread_t *new_thread);
size_t thr_min_stack(void);
Note that the new thread does not inherit pending signals, but the thread does inherit
priority and signal masks.
stack_base. Contains the address for the stack that the new thread uses. If stack_base is
NULL, then thr_create() allocates a stack for the new thread with at least stack_size
bytes.
stack_size. Contains the size, in number of bytes, for the stack that the new thread uses.
If stack_size is zero, a default size is used. In most cases, a zero value works best. If
stack_size is not zero, stack_size must be greater than the value returned by
thr_min_stack().
In general, you do not need to allocate stack space for threads. The system allocates 1
megabyte of virtual memory for each thread’s stack with no reserved swap space. The
system uses the -MAP_NORESERVE option of mmap(2) to make the allocations.
start_routine. Contains the function with which the new thread begins execution. When
start_routine() returns, the thread exits with the exit status set to the value
returned by start_routine. See “thr_exit Syntax” on page 192.
arg. Can be any variable described by void, which is typically any 4-byte value. Any
larger value must be passed indirectly by having the argument point to the variable.
Note that you can supply only one argument. To get your procedure to take multiple
arguments, encode the multiple arguments as a single argument, such as by putting
the arguments in a structure.
flags. Specifies attributes for the created thread. In most cases a zero value works best.
The value in flags is constructed from the bitwise inclusive OR of the following
arguments:
■ THR_SUSPENDED. Suspends the new thread, and does not execute start_routine
until the thread is started by thr_continue(). Use THR_SUSPENDED to operate
on the thread, such as changing its priority, before you run the thread.
■ THR_DETACHED. Detaches the new thread so that its thread ID and other resources
can be reused as soon as the thread terminates. Set THR_DETACHED when you do
not want to wait for the thread to terminate.

Note – When no explicit synchronization is allocated, an unsuspended, detached
thread can fail. On failure, the thread ID is reassigned to another new thread before its
creator returns from thr_create().
■ THR_BOUND. Permanently binds the new thread to an LWP. The new thread is a
bound thread. Starting with the Solaris 9 release, no distinction is made by the
system between bound and unbound threads. All threads are treated as bound
threads.
■ THR_DAEMON. Marks the new thread as a daemon. A daemon thread is always
detached. THR_DAEMON implies THR_DETACHED. The process exits when all
nondaemon threads exit. Daemon threads do not affect the process exit status and
are ignored when counting the number of thread exits.
A process can exit either by calling exit() or by having every thread in the
process that was not created with the THR_DAEMON flag call thr_exit(3C). An
application or a library that the process calls can create one or more threads that
should be ignored (not counted) in the decision of whether to exit. The
THR_DAEMON flag identifies threads that are not counted in the process exit
criterion.
new_thread. When new_thread is not NULL, it points to where the ID of the new thread
is stored when thr_create() is successful. The caller is responsible for supplying
the storage pointed to by this argument. The ID is valid only within the calling
process.
If you are not interested in this identifier, supply a NULL value to new_thread.
thr_create Return Values

thr_create() returns zero when the function completes successfully. Any other
return value indicates that an error occurred. When any of the following conditions is
detected, thr_create() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EAGAIN
Description: A system limit is exceeded, such as when too many LWPs have been
created.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient memory was available to create the new thread.
EINVAL
Description: stack_base is not NULL and stack_size is less than the value returned by
thr_min_stack.()

Getting the Minimal Stack Size
Use thr_min_stack(3C) to get the minimum stack size for a thread.
Stack behavior in Solaris threads is generally the same as stack behavior in pthreads.
For more information about stack setup and operation, see “About Stacks” on page 63.
thr_min_stack Syntax
#include <thread.h>
size_t thr_min_stack(void);
thr_min_stack() returns the amount of space that is needed to execute a null

thread. A null thread is a thread that is created to execute a null procedure. Useful
threads need more than the absolute minimum stack size, so be very careful when
reducing the stack size.
A thread that executes more than a null procedure should allocate a stack size that is
larger than the size of thr_min_stack().
When a thread is created with a user-supplied stack, the user must reserve enough
space to run the thread. A dynamically linked execution environment increases the
difficulty of determining the thread minimal stack requirements.
You can specify a custom stack in two ways. The first is to supply a NULL for the stack
location, thereby asking the runtime library to allocate the space for the stack, but to
supply the desired size in the stacksize parameter to thr_create().
The other approach is to take overall aspects of stack management and supply a
pointer to the stack to thr_create(). This means that you are responsible not only
for stack allocation but also for stack deallocation. When the thread terminates, you
must arrange for the disposal of the thread’s stack.
When you allocate your own stack, be sure to append a red zone to its end by calling
mprotect(2).
Most users should not create threads with user-supplied stacks. User-supplied stacks
exist only to support applications that require complete control over their execution
environments.
Instead, users should let the system manage stack allocation. The system provides
default stacks that should meet the requirements of any created thread.
thr_min_stack Return Values

No errors are defined.

Acquiring the Thread Identifier
Use thr_self(3C) to get the ID of the calling thread. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_self Syntax” on page 33.
thr_self Syntax
#include <thread.h>
thread_t thr_self(void);
thr_self Return Values

No errors are defined.
Yield Thread Execution

thr_yield(3C) causes the current thread to yield its execution in favor of another
thread with the same or greater priority. Otherwise, thr_yield() has no effect.
However, calling thr_yield() does not guarantee that the thread yields its
execution.
thr_yield Syntax
#include <thread.h>
void thr_yield(void);
thr_yield Return Values

thr_yield() returns nothing and does not set errno.
Send a Signal to a Thread

thr_kill(3C) sends a signal to a thread. For POSIX threads, see “pthread_kill
Syntax” on page 37.
thr_kill Syntax
#include <thread.h>
#include <signal.h>
int thr_kill(thread_t target_thread, int sig);

thr_kill Return Values
Upon successful completion, thr_kill() returns 0. When any of the following
conditions is detected, thr_kill() fails and returns the corresponding value. When
a failure occurs, no signal is sent.
ESRCH
Description: No thread was found associated with the thread designated by thread
ID.
EINVAL
Description: The sig argument value is not zero. sig is an invalid or unsupported
signal number.
Access the Signal Mask of the Calling Thread

Use thr_sigsetmask(3C) to change or examine the signal mask of the calling
thread.
thr_sigsetmask Syntax
#include <thread.h>
#include <signal.h>
int thr_sigsetmask(int how, const sigset_t *set, sigset_t *oset);
thr_sigsetmask() changes or examines a calling thread’s signal mask. Each thread

has its own signal mask. A new thread inherits the calling thread’s signal mask and
priority. However, pending signals are not inherited. Pending signals for a new thread
will be empty.
If the value of the argument set is not NULL, set points to a set of signals that can
modify the currently blocked set. If the value of set is NULL, the value of how is
insignificant and the thread’s signal mask is unmodified. Use this behavior to inquire
about the currently blocked signals.
The value of how specifies the method in which the set is changed. how takes one of the
following values.
■ SIG_BLOCK. set corresponds to a set of signals to block. The signals are added to
the current signal mask.
■ SIG_UNBLOCK. set corresponds to a set of signals to unblock. These signals are
deleted from the current signal mask.
■ SIG_SETMASK. set corresponds to the new signal mask. The current signal mask is
replaced by set.

thr_sigsetmask Return Values
Upon successful completion, thr_sigsetmask() returns 0. When any of the
following conditions is detected, thr_sigsetmask() fails and returns the
corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: set is not NULL and the value of how is not defined.
Terminate a Thread
Use thr_exit(3C) to terminate a thread. For POSIX threads, see “pthread_exit
thr_exit Syntax
#include <thread.h>
void thr_exit(void *status);
thr_exit Return Values

thr_exit() does not return to its caller.
Wait for Thread Termination

Use thr_join(3C) to wait for a target thread to terminate. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_join Syntax” on page 25.
thr_join Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_join(thread_t tid, thread_t *departedid, void **status);
The target thread must be a member of the current process. The target thread cannot
be a detached thread or a daemon thread.
Several threads cannot wait for the same thread to complete. One thread will complete
successfully. The others will terminate with an ESRCH error.
thr_join() will not block processing of the calling thread if the target thread has
already terminated.

thr_join, Join Specific
#include <thread.h>
thread_t tid;
thread_t departedid;
int ret;
void *status;
/* waiting to join thread "tid" with status */

ret = thr_join(tid, &departedid, &status);
/* waiting to join thread "tid" without status */

ret = thr_join(tid, &departedid, NULL);
/* waiting to join thread "tid" without return id and status */

ret = thr_join(tid, NULL, NULL);
When the tid is (thread_t)0, then thread_join() waits for any undetached
thread in the process to terminate. In other words, when no thread identifier is
specified, any undetached thread that exits causes thread_join() to return.
thr_join, Join Any

#include <thread.h>
thread_t tid;
thread_t departedid;
int ret;
void *status;
/* waiting to join any non-detached thread with status */

ret = thr_join(0, &departedid, &status);
By indicating 0 as the thread ID in the Solaris thr_join(), a join takes place when
any non detached thread in the process exits. The departedid indicates the thread ID of
the exiting thread.
thr_join Return Values

thr_join() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is detected,
thr_join() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ESRCH
Description: No undetached thread is found which corresponds to the target thread
ID.
EDEADLK
Description: A deadlock was detected or the value of the target thread specifies the
calling thread.

Creating a Thread-Specific Data Key
thr_keycreate(3C) allocates a key that is used to identify thread-specific data in a
process. The key is global to all threads in the process. Each thread binds a value to the
key when the key gets created.
Except for the function names and arguments, thread-specific data is the same for
Solaris threads as thread-specific data is for POSIX threads. The synopses for the
Solaris functions are described in this section. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_key_create Syntax” on page 28.
thr_keycreate Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_keycreate(thread_key_t *keyp,

void (*destructor) (void *value));
keyp independently maintains specific values for each binding thread. Each thread is
initially bound to a private element of keyp that allows access to its thread-specific
data. Upon key creation, a new key is assigned the value NULL for all active threads.
Additionally, upon thread creation, all previously created keys in the new thread are
assigned the value NULL.
An optional destructor function can be associated with each keyp. Upon thread exit, if a
keyp has a non-NULL destructor and the thread has a non-NULL value associated with
keyp, the destructor is called with the currently associated value. If more than one
destructor exists for a thread when it exits, the order of destructor calls is unspecified.
thr_keycreate Return Values

thr_keycreate() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, thr_keycreate() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EAGAIN
Description: The system does not have the resources to create another
thread-specific data key, or the number of keys exceeds the per-process limit for
PTHREAD_KEYS_MAX.
ENOMEM
Description: Insufficient memory is available to associate value with keyp.
Setting the Thread-Specific Data Value

thr_setspecific(3C) binds value to the thread-specific data key, key, for the calling
thread. For POSIX threads, see “pthread_setspecific Syntax” on page 30.

thr_setspecific Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_setspecific(thread_key_t key, void *value);
thr_setspecific Return Values

thr_setspecific() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, thr_setspecific() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOMEM
EINVAL
Description: keyp is invalid.
Getting the Thread-Specific Data Value

thr_getspecific(3C) stores the current value bound to key for the calling thread
into the location pointed to by valuep. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_getspecific Syntax” on page 30.
thr_getspecific Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_getspecific(thread_key_t key, void **valuep);
thr_getspecific Return Values

thr_getspecific() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, thr_getspecific() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ENOMEM
EINVAL
Description: keyp is invalid.
Set the Thread Priority

In Solaris threads, a thread created with a priority other than the priority of its parents
is created in SUSPEND mode. While suspended, the thread’s priority is modified
using the thr_setprio(3C) function call. After thr_setprio() completes, the
thread resumes execution.

A higher priority thread receives precedence over lower priority threads with respect
to synchronization object contention.
thr_setprio Syntax
thr_setprio(3C) changes the priority of the thread, specified by tid, within the
current process to the priority specified by newprio. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_setschedparam Syntax” on page 35.
#include <thread.h>
int thr_setprio(thread_t tid, int newprio)
By default, threads are scheduled based on fixed priorities that range from 0, the least
significant, to 127, the most significant.
thread_t tid;
int ret;
int newprio = 20;
/* suspended thread creation */

ret = thr_create(NULL, NULL, func, arg, THR_SUSPENDED, &tid);
/* set the new priority of suspended child thread */

ret = thr_setprio(tid, newprio);
/* suspended child thread starts executing with new priority */

ret = thr_continue(tid);
thr_setprio Return Values

thr_setprio() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, thr_setprio() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ESRCH
EINVAL
Description: The value of priority makes no sense for the scheduling class associated
with tid.
Get the Thread Priority

Use thr_getprio(3C) to get the current priority for the thread. Each thread inherits a
priority from its creator. thr_getprio() stores the current priority, tid, in the
location pointed to by newprio. For POSIX threads, see “pthread_getschedparam

thr_getprio Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int thr_getprio(thread_t tid, int *newprio)
thr_getprio Return Values

thr_getprio() returns 0 if successful. When the following condition is detected,
thr_getprio() fails and returns the corresponding value.
ESRCH
Similar Synchronization
Functions—Mutual Exclusion Locks
■ Initializing a mutex
■ Destroying a mutex
■ Acquiring a mutex
■ Releasing a mutex
■ Trying to acquire a mutex
Initialize a Mutex
Use mutex_init(3C) to initialize the mutex pointed to by mp. For POSIX threads, see
“Initializing a Mutex” on page 84.
mutex_init(3C) Syntax
#include <synch.h>
#include <thread.h>
int mutex_init(mutex_t *mp, int type, void *arg));
The type can be one of the following values.

■ USYNC_PROCESS. The mutex can be used to synchronize threads in this process
and other processes. arg is ignored.
■ USYNC_PROCESS_ROBUST. The mutex can be used to robustly synchronize threads
in this process and other processes. arg is ignored.

■ USYNC_THREAD. The mutex can be used to synchronize threads in this process
only. arg is ignored.
When a process fails while holding a USYNC_PROCESS lock, subsequent requestors of

that lock hang. This behavior is a problem for systems that share locks with client
processes because the client processes can be abnormally killed. To avoid the problem
of hanging on a lock held by a dead process, use USYNC_PROCESS_ROBUST to lock
the mutex. USYNC_PROCESS_ROBUST adds two capabilities:
■ In the case of process death, all owned locks held by that process are unlocked.
■ The next requestor for any of the locks owned by the failed process receives the
lock. But, the lock is held with an error return indicating that the previous owner
failed while holding the lock.
Mutexes can also be initialized by allocation in zeroed memory, in which case a type of
USYNC_THREAD is assumed.
Multiple threads must not initialize the same mutex simultaneously. A mutex lock
must not be reinitialized while other threads might be using the mutex.
Mutexes With Intraprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
mutex_t mp;
int ret;

ret = mutex_init(&mp, USYNC_THREAD, 0);
Mutexes With Interprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
mutex_t mp;
int ret;

ret = mutex_init(&mp, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
Mutexes With Interprocess Scope-Robust

#include <thread.h>
mutex_t mp;
int ret;

ret = mutex_init(&mp, USYNC_PROCESS_ROBUST, 0);
mutex_init Return Values

mutex_init() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, mutex_init() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
Description: mp points to an illegal address.
EINVAL
Description: The value specified by mp is invalid.
ENOMEM
Description: System has insufficient memory to initialize the mutex.
EAGAIN
Description: System has insufficient resources to initialize the mutex.
EBUSY
Description: System detected an attempt to reinitialize an active mutex.
Destroy a Mutex
Use mutex_destroy(3C) to destroy any state that is associated with the mutex
pointed to by mp. The space for storing the mutex is not freed. For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_mutex_destroy Syntax” on page 91.
mutex_destroy Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int mutex_destroy (mutex_t *mp);
mutex_destroy Return Values

mutex_destroy() returns 0 if successful. When the following condition is detected,
mutex_destroy() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT

Acquiring a Mutex
Use mutex_lock(3C) to lock the mutex pointed to by mp. When the mutex is already
locked, the calling thread blocks until the mutex becomes available. Blocked threads
wait on a prioritized queue. For POSIX threads, see “pthread_mutex_lock Syntax”
on page 87.
mutex_lock Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int mutex_lock(mutex_t *mp);
mutex_lock Return Values

mutex_lock() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, mutex_lock() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
EDEADLK
Description: The mutex is already locked and is owned by the calling thread.
Releasing a Mutex
Use mutex_unlock(3C) to unlock the mutex pointed to by mp. The mutex must be
locked. The calling thread must be the thread that last locked the mutex, the owner.
For POSIX threads, see “pthread_mutex_unlock Syntax” on page 89.
mutex_unlock Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int mutex_unlock(mutex_t *mp);
mutex_unlock Return Values

mutex_unlock() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, mutex_unlock() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT

EPERM
Description: The calling thread does not own the mutex.
Trying to Acquire a Mutex

Use mutex_trylock(3C) to attempt to lock the mutex pointed to by mp. This
function is a nonblocking version of mutex_lock(). For POSIX threads, see
“pthread_mutex_trylock Syntax” on page 89.
mutex_trylock Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int mutex_trylock(mutex_t *mp);
mutex_trylock Return Values

mutex_trylock() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, mutex_trylock() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
EBUSY
Description: The system detected an attempt to reinitialize an active mutex.
Similar Synchronization Functions:

Condition Variables
■ Initializing a condition variable
■ Destroying a condition variable
■ Waiting for a condition
■ Waiting for an absolute time
■ Waiting for a time interval
■ Unblocking one thread
■ Unblocking all threads
Initialize a Condition Variable

Use cond_init(3C) to initialize the condition variable pointed to by cv.

cond_init Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_init(cond_t *cv, int type, int arg);
The type can be one of the following values:

■ USYNC_PROCESS. The condition variable can be used to synchronize threads in
this process and other processes. arg is ignored.
■ USYNC_THREAD The condition variable can be used to synchronize threads in this
process only. arg is ignored.
Condition variables can also be initialized by allocation in zeroed memory, in which

case a type of USYNC_THREAD is assumed.
Multiple threads must not initialize the same condition variable simultaneously. A
condition variable must not be reinitialized while other threads might be using the
condition variable.
For POSIX threads, see “pthread_condattr_init Syntax” on page 97.
Condition Variables With Intraprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
cond_t cv;
int ret;

ret = cond_init(cv, USYNC_THREAD, 0);
Condition Variables With Interprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
cond_t cv;
int ret;

ret = cond_init(&cv, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
cond_init Return Values

cond_init() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, cond_init() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT

EINVAL
Description: type is not a recognized type.
Destroying a Condition Variable

Use cond_destroy(3C) to destroy state that is associated with the condition variable
pointed to by cv. The space for storing the condition variable is not freed. For POSIX
threads, see “pthread_condattr_destroy Syntax” on page 97.
cond_destroy Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_destroy(cond_t *cv);
cond_destroy Return Values

cond_destroy() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, cond_destroy() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
EBUSY
Description: The system detected an attempt to destroy an active condition
variable.
Waiting for a Condition

Use cond_wait(3C) to atomically release the mutex pointed to by mp and cause the
calling thread to block on the condition variable pointed to by cv. The blocked thread
can be awakened by cond_signal(), cond_broadcast(), or when interrupted by
delivery of a signal or a fork().
cond_wait() always returns with the mutex locked and owned by the calling
thread, even when returning an error.
cond_wait Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_wait(cond_t *cv, mutex_t *mp);

cond_wait Return Values
cond_wait() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, cond_wait() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
EBUSY
Description: The wait was interrupted by a signal or fork().
Wait for an Absolute Time

cond_timedwait(3C) is very similar to cond_wait(), except that
cond_timedwait() does not block past the time of day specified by abstime. For
POSIX threads, see “pthread_cond_timedwait Syntax” on page 104.
cond_timedwait Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_timedwait(cond_t *cv, mutex_t *mp, timestruct_t abstime);
cond_timedwait() always returns with the mutex locked and owned by the calling
thread, even when returning an error.
The cond_timedwait() function blocks until the condition is signaled or until the
time of day specified by the last argument has passed. The timeout is specified as the
time of day so the condition can be retested efficiently without recomputing the
time-out value.
cond_timedwait Return Values

cond_timedwait() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, cond_timedwait() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
ETIME
Description: The time specified by abstime has expired.
EINVAL
Description: abstime is invalid.

Waiting for a Time Interval
cond_reltimedwait(3C) is very similar to cond_timedwait(), except for the
value for the third argument. cond_reltimedwait() takes a relative time interval
value in its third argument rather than an absolute time of day value. For POSIX
threads, see the pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np(3C) man page.
cond_reltimedwait() always returns with the mutex locked and owned by the
calling thread even when returning an error. The cond_reltimedwait() function
blocks until the condition is signaled or until the time interval specified by the last
argument has elapsed.
cond_reltimedwait Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_reltimedwait(cond_t *cv, mutex_t *mp,

timestruct_t reltime);
cond_reltimedwait Return Values

cond_reltimedwait() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following
conditions is detected, cond_reltimedwait() fails and returns the corresponding
value.
EFAULT
ETIME
Description: The time specified by reltime has expired.
Unblock One Thread

Use cond_signal(3C) to unblock one thread that is blocked on the condition variable
pointed to by cv. If no threads are blocked on the condition variable, cond_signal()
has no effect.
cond_signal Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_signal(cond_t *cv);

cond_signal Return Values
cond_signal() returns 0 if successful. When the following condition is detected,
cond_signal() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
Unblock All Threads

Use cond_broadcast(3C) to unblock all threads that are blocked on the condition
variable pointed to by cv. When no threads are blocked on the condition variable, then
cond_broadcast() has no effect.
cond_broadcast Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int cond_broadcast(cond_t *cv);
cond_broadcast Return Values

cond_broadcast() returns 0 if successful. When the following condition is detected,
cond_broadcast() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EFAULT
Similar Synchronization Functions:

Semaphores
Semaphore operations are the same in both the Solaris Operating Environment and
the POSIX environment. The function name changed from sema_ in the Solaris
Operating Environment to sem_ in pthreads. This section discusses the following
topics:
■ Initializing a semaphore
■ Incrementing a semaphore
■ Blocking on a semaphore count

■ Decrementing a semaphore count
■ Destroying the semaphore state
Initialize a Semaphore
Use sema_init(3C) to initialize the semaphore variable pointed to by sp by count
amount.
sema_init Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int sema_init(sema_t *sp, unsigned int count, int type,

void *arg);
type can be one of the following values:

■ USYNC_PROCESS. The semaphore can be used to synchronize threads in this
process and other processes. Only one process should initialize the semaphore. arg
is ignored.
■ USYNC_THREAD. The semaphore can be used to synchronize threads in this
process, only. arg is ignored.
Multiple threads must not initialize the same semaphore simultaneously. A semaphore
must not be reinitialized while other threads might be using the semaphore.
Semaphores With Intraprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
sema_t sp;
int ret;
int count;
count = 4;

ret = sema_init(&sp, count, USYNC_THREAD, 0);
Semaphores With Interprocess Scope

#include <thread.h>
sema_t sp;
int ret;
int count;
count = 4;

/* to be used among all the processes */
ret = sema_init (&sp, count, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
sema_init Return Values

sema_init() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, sema_init() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Description: sp refers to an invalid semaphore.
EFAULT
Description: Either sp or arg point to an illegal address.
Increment a Semaphore
Use sema_post(3C) to atomically increment the semaphore pointed to by sp. When
any threads are blocked on the semaphore, one thread is unblocked.
sema_post Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int sema_post(sema_t *sp);
sema_post Return Values

sema_post() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, sema_post() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
EFAULT
Description: sp points to an illegal address.
EOVERFLOW
Description: The semaphore value pointed to by sp exceeds SEM_VALUE_MAX.
Block on a Semaphore Count

Use sema_wait(3C) to block the calling thread until the count in the semaphore
pointed to by sp becomes greater than zero. When the count becomes greater than
zero, atomically decrement the count.

sema_wait Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int sema_wait(sema_t *sp);
sema_wait Return Values

sema_wait() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, sema_wait() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
EINTR
Description: The wait was interrupted by a signal or fork().
Decrement a Semaphore Count

Use sema_trywait(3C) to atomically decrement the count in the semaphore pointed
to by sp when the count is greater than zero. This function is a nonblocking version of
sema_wait().
sema_trywait Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int sema_trywait(sema_t *sp);
sema_trywait Return Values

sema_trywait() returns 0 if successful. When any of the following conditions is
detected, sema_trywait() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
EBUSY
Description: The semaphore pointed to by sp has a zero count.
Destroy the Semaphore State

Use sema_destroy(3C) to destroy any state that is associated with the semaphore
pointed to by sp. The space for storing the semaphore is not freed.

sema_destroy(3C) Syntax
#include <thread.h>
int sema_destroy(sema_t *sp);
sema_destroy(3C) Return Values

sema_destroy() returns 0 if successful. When the following condition is detected,
sema_destroy() fails and returns the corresponding value.
EINVAL
Synchronizing Across Process

Boundaries
Each of the synchronization primitives can be set up to be used across process
boundaries. This cross-boundary setup is done by ensuring that the synchronization
variable is located in a shared memory segment and by calling the appropriate init
routine with type set to USYNC_PROCESS.
If type is set to USYNC_PROCESS, then the operations on the synchronization variables

work just as the variables do when type is USYNC_THREAD.
mutex_init(&m, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
rwlock_init(&rw, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
cond_init(&cv, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
sema_init(&s, count, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
Example of Producer and Consumer Problem

Example 8–2 shows the producer and consumer problem with the producer and
consumer in separate processes. The main routine maps zero-filled memory that main
shares with its child process, into its address space. Note that mutex_init() and
cond_init() must be called because the type of the synchronization variables is
USYNC_PROCESS.
This example also shows the drivers for the producer and consumer. The
producer_driver reads characters from stdin and calls the producer. The
consumer_driver gets characters by calling the consumer and writes them to
stdout.

The data structure for Example 8–2 is the same as that used for the solution with
condition variables. See “Examples of Using Nested Locking With a Singly-Linked
List” on page 93.
EXAMPLE 8–2 Producer and Consumer Problem Using USYNC_PROCESS

main() {
int zfd;
buffer_t *buffer;
zfd = open(“/dev/zero”, O_RDWR);

buffer = (buffer_t *)mmap(NULL, sizeof(buffer_t),
PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_SHARED, zfd, 0);
buffer->occupied = buffer->nextin = buffer->nextout = 0;
mutex_init(&buffer->lock, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);

cond_init(&buffer->less, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
cond_init(&buffer->more, USYNC_PROCESS, 0);
if (fork() == 0)
consumer_driver(buffer);
else
producer_driver(buffer);
}
void producer_driver(buffer_t *b) {

int item;
while (1) {
item = getchar();
if (item == EOF) {
producer(b, ‘\0’);
break;
} else
producer(b, (char)item);
}
}
void consumer_driver(buffer_t *b) {

char item;
while (1) {
if ((item = consumer(b)) == ’\0’)
break;
putchar(item);
}
}

Special Issues for fork() and Solaris
Threads
Prior to the Solaris 10 release, Solaris threads and POSIX threads defined the behavior
of fork() differently. See “Process Creation: exec and exit Issues” on page 137 for a
thorough discussion of fork() issues.
Solaris libthread supported both fork() and fork1(). The fork() call has
“fork-all” semantics. fork() duplicated everything in the process, including threads
and LWPs, creating a true clone of the parent. The fork1() call created a clone that
had only one thread. The process state and address space are duplicated, but only the
calling thread was cloned.
POSIX libpthread supported only fork(), which has the same semantics as
fork1() in Solaris threads.
Whether fork() has “fork-all” semantics or “fork-one” semantics was dependent on

which library is used. Link with -lthread to assign “fork-all” semantics to fork().
Link with -lpthread to assign “fork-one” semantics to fork().
Effective with the Solaris 10 release, fork() has the same semantics in both Solaris
threads and POSIX threads. More specifically, fork1() semantics replicate only the
caller. A new function, forkall(), is provided for those applications that require
replicate-all semantics.
See “Linking With libthread or libpthread” on page 165 for more details.

CHAPTER 9
Programming Guidelines
This chapter provides some pointers on programming with threads. Most pointers
apply to both Solaris and POSIX threads, but where utility differs, the behavior is
noted. A change from single-threaded thinking to multithreaded thinking is
emphasized in this chapter. The chapter discusses the following topics:
■ “Rethinking Global Variables” on page 213
■ “Providing for Static Local Variables” on page 214
■ “Synchronizing Threads” on page 215
■ “Avoiding Deadlock” on page 218
■ “Some Basic Guidelines for Threaded Code” on page 220
■ “Creating and Using Threads” on page 221
■ “Working With Multiprocessors” on page 221
■ “Examples of Threads Programs” on page 226
Rethinking Global Variables

Historically, most code has been designed for single-threaded programs. This code
design is especially true for most of the library routines that are called from C
programs. The following implicit assumptions were made for single-threaded code:
■ When you write into a global variable and then, a moment later, read from the
variable, what you read is exactly what you just wrote.
■ A write into nonglobal, static storage, and moment later, a read from the variable
results in a read of exactly what you just wrote.
■ You do not need synchronization because concurrent access to the variable is not
invoked.
The following examples discuss some of the problems that arise in multithreaded
programs because of these assumptions, and how you can deal with the problems.
213
Traditional, single-threaded C and UNIX have a convention for handling errors
detected in system calls. System calls can return anything as a functional value. For
example, write() returns the number of bytes that were transferred. However, the
value -1 is reserved to indicate that something went wrong. So, when a system call
returns -1, you know that the call failed.
EXAMPLE 9–1 Global Variables and errno
extern int errno;
...
if (write(file_desc, buffer, size) == -1) {
/* the system call failed */
fprintf(stderr, “something went wrong, “
“error code = %d\n”, errno);
exit(1);
}
...
Rather than returning the actual error code, which could be confused with normal
return values, the error code is placed into the global variable errno. When the
system call fails, you can look in errno to find out what went wrong.
Now, consider what happens in a multithreaded environment when two threads fail at
about the same time but with different errors. Both threads expect to find their error
codes in errno, but one copy of errno cannot hold both values. This global variable
approach does not work for multithreaded programs.
Threads solve this problem through a conceptually new storage class: thread-specific
data. This storage is similar to global storage. Thread-specific data can be accessed
from any procedure in which a thread might be running. However, thread-specific
data is private to the thread. When two threads refer to the thread-specific data
location of the same name, the threads are referring to two different areas of storage.
So, when using threads, each reference to errno is thread specific because each thread
has a private copy of errno. A reference to errno as thread-specific is achieved in
this implementation by making errno a macro that expands to a function call.
Providing for Static Local Variables

Example 9–2 shows a problem that is similar to the errno problem, but involving
static storage instead of global storage. The function gethostbyname(3NSL) is
called with the computer name as its argument. The return value is a pointer to a
structure that contains the required information for contacting the computer through
network communications.
EXAMPLE 9–2 The gethostbyname() Problem
struct hostent *gethostbyname(char *name) {
static struct hostent result;

EXAMPLE 9–2 The gethostbyname() Problem (Continued)
/* Lookup name in hosts database */

/* Put answer in result */
return(&result);
}
A pointer that is returned to a local variable is generally not a good idea. Using a
pointer works in this example because the variable is static. However, when two
threads call this variable at once with different computer names, the use of static
storage conflicts.
Thread-specific data could be used as a replacement for static storage, as in the errno
problem. But, this replacement involves dynamic allocation of storage and adds to the
expense of the call.
A better way to handle this kind of problem is to make the caller of

gethostbyname() supply the storage for the result of the call. An additional output
argument to the routine enables the caller to supply the storage. The additional output
argument requires a new interface to the gethostbyname() function.
This technique is used in threads to fix many of these problems. In most cases, the
name of the new interface is the old name with “_r” appended, as in
gethostbyname_r(3NSL).
Synchronizing Threads
The threads in an application must cooperate and synchronize when sharing the data
and the resources of the process.
A problem arises when multiple threads call functions that manipulate an object. In a
single-threaded world, synchronizing access to such objects is not a problem.
However, as Example 9–3 illustrates, synchronization is a concern with multithreaded
code. Note that the printf(3S) function is safe to call for a multithreaded program.
This example illustrates what could happen if printf() were not safe.
EXAMPLE 9–3 printf() Problem
/* thread 1: */
printf("go to statement reached");
/* thread 2: */
printf("hello world");
Chapter 9 • Programming Guidelines 215

EXAMPLE 9–3 printf() Problem (Continued)
printed on display:
go to hello
Single-Threaded Strategy
One strategy is to have a single, application-wide mutex lock acquired whenever any
thread in the application is running and released before it must block. Because only
one thread can be accessing shared data at any one time, each thread has a consistent
view of memory.
Because this strategy is effectively single-threaded, very little is gained by this strategy.
Re-entrant Function
A better approach is to take advantage of the principles of modularity and data
encapsulation. A re-entrant function behaves correctly if called simultaneously by
several threads. To write a re-entrant function is a matter of understanding just what
behaves correctly means for this particular function.
Functions that are callable by several threads must be made re-entrant. To make a
function re-entrant might require changes to the function interface or to the
implementation.
Functions that access global state, like memory or files, have re-entrance problems.
These functions need to protect their use of global state with the appropriate
synchronization mechanisms provided by threads.
The two basic strategies for making functions in modules re-entrant are code locking
and data locking.
Code Locking
Code locking is done at the function call level and guarantees that a function executes
entirely under the protection of a lock. The assumption is for all access to data to be
done through functions. Functions that share data should execute under the same
lock.
Some parallel programming languages provide a construct called a monitor. The

monitor implicitly does code locking for functions that are defined within the scope of
the monitor. A monitor can also be implemented by a mutex lock.
Functions under the protection of the same mutex lock or within the same monitor are
guaranteed to execute atomically with respect to other functions in the monitor.

Data Locking
Data locking guarantees that access to a collection of data is maintained consistently.
For data locking, the concept of locking code is still there, but code locking is around
references to shared (global) data, only. For mutual exclusion locking, only one thread
can be in the critical section for each collection of data.
Alternatively, in a multiple reader, single writer protocol, several readers can be

allowed for each collection of data or one writer. Multiple threads can execute in a
single module when the threads operate on different data collections. In particular, the
threads do not conflict on a single collection for the multiple readers, single writer
protocol. So, data locking typically allows more concurrency than does code locking.
What strategy should you use when using locks, whether implemented with mutexes,
condition variables, or semaphores, in a program? Should you try to achieve
maximum parallelism by locking only when necessary and unlocking as soon as
possible, called “fine-grained locking”? Or should you hold locks for long periods to
minimize the overhead of taking and releasing locks, called “coarse-grained locking”?
The granularity of the lock depends on the amount of data protected by the lock. A
very coarse-grained lock might be a single lock to protect all data. Dividing how the
data is protected by the appropriate number of locks is very important. Locking that is
too fine-grained can degrade performance. The overhead associated with acquiring
and releasing locks can become significant when your application contains too many
locks.
The common wisdom is to start with a coarse-grained approach, identify bottlenecks,

and add finer-grained locking where necessary to alleviate the bottlenecks. This
approach is reasonably sound advice, but use your own judgment about finding the
balance between maximizing parallelism and minimizing lock overhead.
Invariants and Locks

For both code locking and data locking, invariants are important to control lock
complexity. An invariant is a condition or relation that is always true.
The definition is modified somewhat for concurrent execution: an invariant is a

condition or relation that is true when the associated lock is being set. Once the lock is
set, the invariant can be false. However, the code that holds the lock must reestablish
the invariant before releasing the lock.
An invariant can also be a condition or relation that is true when a lock is being set.
Condition variables can be thought of as having an invariant that is the condition.
EXAMPLE 9–4 Testing the Invariant With assert(3X)
mutex_lock(&lock);
while((condition)==FALSE)
cond_wait(&cv,&lock);

EXAMPLE 9–4 Testing the Invariant With assert(3X) (Continued)
assert((condition)==TRUE);
.
.
.
mutex_unlock(&lock);
The assert() statement is testing the invariant. The cond_wait() function does
not preserve the invariant, which is why the invariant must be reevaluated when the
thread returns.
Another example is a module that manages a doubly linked list of elements. For each
item on the list, a good invariant is the forward pointer of the previous item on the list.
The forward pointer should also point to the same element as the backward pointer of
the forward item.
Assume that this module uses code-based locking and therefore is protected by a
single global mutex lock. When an item is deleted or added, the mutex lock is
acquired, the correct manipulation of the pointers is made, and the mutex lock is
released. Obviously, at some point in the manipulation of the pointers the invariant is
false, but the invariant is re-established before the mutex lock is released.
Avoiding Deadlock
Deadlock is a permanent blocking of a set of threads that are competing for a set of
resources. Just because some thread can make progress does not mean that a deadlock
has not occurred somewhere else.
The most common error that causes deadlock is self deadlock or recursive deadlock. In a
self deadlock or recusive deadlock, a thread tries to acquire a lock already held by the
thread. Recursive deadlock is very easy to program by mistake.
For example, assume that a code monitor has every module function grab the mutex
lock for the duration of the call. Then, any call between the functions within the
module protected by the mutex lock immediately deadlocks. If a function calls code
outside the module that circuitously calls back into any method protected by the same
mutex lock, the function deadlocks too.
The solution for this kind of deadlock is to avoid calling functions outside the module
that might depend on this module through some path. In particular, avoid calling
functions that call back into the module without re-establishing invariants and do not
drop all module locks before making the call. Of course, after the call completes and
the locks are reacquired, the state must be verified to be sure the intended operation is
still valid.

An example of another kind of deadlock is when two threads, thread 1 and thread 2,
acquire a mutex lock, A and B, respectively. Suppose that thread 1 tries to acquire
mutex lock B and thread 2 tries to acquire mutex lock A. Thread 1 cannot proceed
while blocked waiting for mutex lock B. Thread 2 cannot proceed while blocked
waiting for mutex lock A. Nothing can change. So, this condition is a permanent
blocking of the threads, and a deadlock.
This kind of deadlock is avoided by establishing an order in which locks are acquired,
a lock hierarchy. When all threads always acquire locks in the specified order, this
deadlock is avoided.
Adherence to a strict order of lock acquisition is not always optimal. For instance,
thread 2 has many assumptions about the state of the module while holding mutex
lock B. Giving up mutex lock B to acquire mutex lock A and then reacquiring mutex
lock B in that order causes the thread to discard its assumptions. The state of the
module must be re-evaluated.
The blocking synchronization primitives usually have variants that attempt to get a
lock and fail if the variants cannot get the lock. An example is mutex_trylock().
This behavior of primitive variants allows threads to violate the lock hierarchy when
no contention occurs. When contention occurs, the held locks must usually be
discarded and the locks reacquired in order.
Deadlocks Related to Scheduling

Because the order in which locks are acquired is not guaranteed, a problem can occur
where a particular thread never acquires a lock.
This problem usually happens when the thread holding the lock releases the lock, lets
a small amount of time pass, and then reacquires the lock. Because the lock was
released, the appearance is that the other thread should acquire the lock. But, nothing
blocks the thread holding the lock. Consequently, that thread continues to run from
the time the thread releases the lock until the time the lock is reacquired. Thus, no
other thread is run.
You can usually solve this type of problem by calling thr_yield(3C) just before the
call to reacquire the lock. thr_yield() allows other threads to run and to acquire the
lock.
Because the time-slice requirements of applications are so variable, the system does
not impose any requirements. Use calls to thr_yield() to make threads share time
as you require.
Locking Guidelines
Follow these simple guidelines for locking.

■ Try not to hold locks across long operations like I/O where performance can be
adversely affected.
■ Do not hold locks when calling a function that is outside the module and might
reenter the module.
■ In general, start with a coarse-grained approach, identify bottlenecks, and add
finer-grained locking where necessary to alleviate the bottlenecks. Most locks are
held for short amounts of time and contention is rare. So, fix only those locks that
have measured contention.
■ When using multiple locks, avoid deadlocks by making sure that all threads
acquire the locks in the same order.
Some Basic Guidelines for Threaded

Code
■ Know what you are importing and know whether it is safe.
A threaded program cannot arbitrarily enter nonthreaded code.
■ Threaded code can safely refer to unsafe code only from the initial thread.
References to unsafe code in this way ensures that the static storage associated
with the initial thread is used only by that thread.
■ When making a library safe for multithreaded use, do not thread global process
operations.
Do not change global operations, or actions with global side effects, to behave in a
threaded manner. For example, if file I/O is changed to per-thread operation,
threads cannot cooperate in accessing files.
For thread-specific behavior, or thread cognizant behavior, use thread facilities. For
example, when the termination of main() should terminate only the thread that is
exiting main().
thr_exit();
/*NOTREACHED*/
■ Sun-supplied libraries are assumed to be unsafe unless explicitly documented as
safe.
If a reference manual entry does not explicitly state that an interface is MT-Safe,
you should assume that the interface is unsafe.
■ Use compilation flags to manage binary incompatible source changes. See
Chapter 7 for complete instructions.
■ -D_REENTRANT enables multithreading.
■ -D_POSIX_C_SOURCE gives POSIX threads behavior.

■ -D_POSIX_PTHREADS_SEMANTICS enables both Solaris threads and pthreads
interfaces. When the two interfaces conflict, the POSIX interfaces take
precedence.
Creating and Using Threads

The threads packages cache the threads data structure and stacks so that the repetitive
creation of threads can be reasonably inexpensive. However, creating and destroying
threads as the threads are required is usually more expensive than managing a pool of
threads that wait for independent work. A good example is an RPC server that creates
a thread for each request and destroys the thread when the reply is delivered.
Thread creation has less overhead than the overhead of process creation. However,
thread creation is not efficient when compared to the cost of creating a few
instructions. Create threads for processing that lasts at least a couple of thousand
machine instructions.
Working With Multiprocessors

Multithreading enables you to take advantage of multiprocessors, primarily through
parallelism and scalability. Programmers should be aware of the differences between
the memory models of a multiprocessor and a uniprocessor.
Memory consistency is directly interrelated to the processor that interrogates memory.

For uniprocessors, memory is obviously consistent because only one processor is
viewing memory.
To improve multiprocessor performance, memory consistency is relaxed. You cannot

always assume that changes made to memory by one processor are immediately
reflected in the other processors’ views of that memory.
You can avoid this complexity by using synchronization variables when you use
shared or global variables.
Barrier synchronization is sometimes an efficient way to control parallelism on

multiprocessors. An example of barriers can be found in Appendix B.
Another multiprocessor issue is efficient synchronization when threads must wait until
all threads have reached a common point in their execution.

Note – The issues discussed here are not important when the threads synchronization
primitives are always used to access shared memory locations.
Underlying Architecture
Threads synchronize access to shared storage locations by using the threads
synchronization routines. With threads synchronization, running a program on a
shared-memory multiprocessor has the identical effect of running the program on a
uniprocessor.
However, in many situations a programmer might be tempted to take advantage of

the multiprocessor and use “tricks” to avoid the synchronization routines. As Example
9–5 and Example 9–6 show, such tricks can be dangerous.
An understanding of the memory models supported by common multiprocessor

architectures helps to understand the dangers.
The major multiprocessor components are:

■ The processors that run the programs
■ Store buffers, which connect the processors to their caches
■ Caches, which hold the contents of recently accessed or modified storage locations
■ Memory, which is the primary storage and is shared by all processors
In the simple traditional model, the multiprocessor behaves as if the processors are
connected directly to memory: when one processor stores into a location and another
processor immediately loads from the same location, the second processor loads what
was stored by the first.
Caches can be used to speed the average memory access. The desired semantics can be
achieved when the caches are kept consistent with the other caches.
A problem with this simple approach is that the processor must often be delayed to
make certain that the desired semantics are achieved. Many modern multiprocessors
use various techniques to prevent such delays, which unfortunately change the
semantics of the memory model.
Two of these techniques and their effects are explained in the next two examples.
“Shared-Memory” Multiprocessors
Consider the purported solution to the producer and consumer problem that is shown
in Example 9–5.

Although this program works on current SPARC-based multiprocessors, the program
assumes that all multiprocessors have strongly ordered memory. This program is
therefore not portable.
EXAMPLE 9–5 Producer and Consumer Problem: Shared Memory Multiprocessors

char buffer[BSIZE];
unsigned int in = 0;
unsigned int out = 0;
void char
producer(char item) { consumer(void) {
char item;
do
;/* nothing */ do
while ;/* nothing */
(in - out == BSIZE); while
(in - out == 0);
buffer[in%BSIZE] = item; item = buffer[out%BSIZE];
in++; out++;
} }
When this program has exactly one producer and exactly one consumer and is run on
a shared-memory multiprocessor, the program appears to be correct. The difference
between in and out is the number of items in the buffer.
The producer waits, by repeatedly computing this difference, until room is available in
the buffer for a new item. The consumer waits until an item is present in the buffer.
Strongly-ordered memory makes a modification to memory on one processor

immediately available to the other processors. For strongly ordered memory, the
solution is correct even taking into account that in and out will eventually overflow.
The overflow occurs as long as BSIZE is less than the largest integer that can be
represented in a word.
Shared-memory multiprocessors do not necessarily have strongly ordered memory. A

change to memory by one processor is not necessarily available immediately to the
other processors. See what happens when two changes to different memory locations
are made by one processor. The other processors do not necessarily detect the changes
in the order in which the changes were made because memory modifications do not
happen immediately.
First the changes are stored in store buffers that are not visible to the cache.
The processor checks these store buffers to ensure that a program has a consistent
view. But, because store buffers are not visible to other processors, a write by one
processor does not become visible until the processor writes to cache.
The synchronization primitives use special instructions that flush the store buffers to
cache. See Chapter 4. So, using locks around your shared data ensures memory
consistency.

When memory ordering is very relaxed, Example 9–5 has a problem. The consumer
might see that in has been incremented by the producer before the consumer sees the
change to the corresponding buffer slot.
This ordering is called weak ordering because stores made by one processor can appear
to happen out of order by another processor. Memory, however, is always consistent
from the same processor. To fix this inconsistency, the code should use mutexes to
flush the cache.
Because the trend is toward relaxing memory order, programmers are becoming
increasingly careful to use locks around all global or shared data.
As demonstrated by Example 9–5 and Example 9–6, locking is essential.
Peterson’s Algorithm
The code in Example 9–6 is an implementation of Peterson’s Algorithm, which
handles mutual exclusion between two threads. This code tries to guarantee that only
one thread is in the critical section. When a thread calls mut_excl(), the thread
enters the critical section sometime “soon.”
An assumption here is that a thread exits fairly quickly after entering the critical
section.
EXAMPLE 9–6 Mutual Exclusion for Two Threads?

void mut_excl(int me /* 0 or 1 */) {
static int loser;
static int interested[2] = {0, 0};
int other; /* local variable */
other = 1 - me;
interested[me] = 1;
loser = me;
while (loser == me && interested[other])
;
/* critical section */
interested[me] = 0;
}
This algorithm works some of the time when the multiprocessor has strongly ordered
memory.
Some multiprocessors, including some SPARC-based multiprocessors, have store

buffers. When a thread issues a store instruction, the data is put into a store buffer. The
buffer contents are eventually sent to the cache, but not necessarily right away. The
caches on each of the processors maintain a consistent view of memory, but modified
data does not reach the cache right away.

When multiple memory locations are stored into, the changes reach the cache and
memory in the correct order, but possibly after a delay. SPARC-based multiprocessors
with this property are said to have total store order (TSO).
Suppose you have a situation where one processor stores into location A and loads
from location B. Another processor stores into location B and loads from location A.
Either the first processor fetches the newly-modified value from location B, or the
second processor fetches the newly-modified value from location A, or both. However,
the case in which both processors load the old values cannot happen.
Moreover, with the delays caused by load and store buffers, the “impossible case” can
happen.
What could happen with Peterson’s algorithm is that two threads running on separate
processors both enter the critical section. Each thread stores into its own slot of the
particular array and then loads from the other slot. Both threads read the old values
(0), each thread assumes that the other party is not present, and both enter the critical
section. This kind of problem might not be detected when you test a program, but
only occurs much later.
To avoid this problem use the threads synchronization primitives, whose

implementations issue special instructions, to force the writing of the store buffers to
the cache.
Parallelizing a Loop on a Shared-Memory Parallel

Computer
In many applications, and especially numerical applications, while part of the
algorithm can be parallelized, other parts are inherently sequential, as shown in the
following table.
TABLE 9–1 Table Caption
Sequential Execution Parallel Execution
Thread 1 Thread 2 through Thread n
while(many_iterations) { while(many_iterations) {
sequential_computation
--- Barrier --- --- Barrier ---
parallel_computation parallel_computation
} }
For example, you might produce a set of matrixes with a strictly linear computation,
and perform operations on the matrixes that use a parallel algorithm. You then use the
results of these operations to produce another set of matrixes, operate on these
matrixes in parallel, and so on.

The nature of the parallel algorithms for such a computation is that little
synchronization is required during the computation. But, synchronization of all the
threads is required to ensure that the sequential computation is finished before the
parallel computation begins.
The barrier forces all the threads that are doing the parallel computation to wait until
all involved threads have reached the barrier. When the threads have reached the
barrier, the threads are released and begin computing together.
Examples of Threads Programs

This guide has covered a wide variety of important threads programming issues.
Appendix A provides a pthreads program example that uses many of the features and
styles that have been discussed. Appendix B provides a program example that uses
Solaris threads.
Further Reading
For more in-depth information about multithreading, see Programming with Threads by
Steve Kleiman, Devang Shah, and Bart Smaalders (Prentice-Hall, published in 1995)

APPENDIX A
Sample Application: Multithreaded

grep
This appendix provides a sample program, tgrep, showing a multithreaded version

of find(1) combined with grep(1).
Description of tgrep
tgrep supports all but the -w word search options of the normal grep, and
exclusively available options.
By default, the tgrep searches are like the following command:

find . -exec grep [options] pattern {} \;
For large directory hierarchies, tgrep gets results more quickly than the find
command, depending on the number of processors available. On uniprocessor
machines tgrep is about twice as fast as find, and on four processor machines
tgrep is about four times as fast.
The -e option changes the way that tgrep interprets the pattern string. Ordinarily,
without the -e option, tgrep uses a literal string match. With the -e option, tgrep
uses an MT-Safe public domain version of a regular expression handler. The regular
expression method is slower.
The tgrep -B option uses the value of the TGLIMIT environment variable to limit the
number of threads that are used during a search. This option has no affect if TGLIMIT
is not set. Because tgrep can use a lot of system resources, using the -B option is a
way to run tgrep politely on a timesharing system.
227
Note – Source for tgrep is included on the Catalyst Developer’s CD. Contact your
sales representative to find out how you can get a copy.
Only the multithreaded main.c module appears here. Other modules, including
those modules for regular expression handling, plus documentation and Makefiles, are
available on the Catalyst Developer’s CD.
EXAMPLE A–1 Source Code for tgrep Program

/* Copyright (c) 1993, 1994 Ron Winacott */
/* This program may be used, copied, modified, and redistributed freely */
/* for ANY purpose, so long as this notice remains intact. */
#define _REENTRANT
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <assert.h>
#include <errno.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <dirent.h>
#include "version.h"
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <sys/uio.h>
#include <sched.h>
#ifdef MARK
#include <prof.h> /* to turn on MARK(), use -DMARK to compile (see man prof5)*/
#endif
#include "pmatch.h"
#define PATH_MAX 1024 /* max # of characters in a path name */

#define HOLD_FDS 6 /* stdin,out,err and a buffer */
#define UNLIMITED 99999 /* The default tglimit */
#define MAXREGEXP 10 /* max number of -e options */
#define FB_BLOCK 0x00001

#define FC_COUNT 0x00002
#define FH_HOLDNAME 0x00004
#define FI_IGNCASE 0x00008
#define FL_NAMEONLY 0x00010
#define FN_NUMBER 0x00020

EXAMPLE A–1 Source Code for tgrep Program (Continued)
#define FS_NOERROR 0x00040

#define FV_REVERSE 0x00080
#define FW_WORD 0x00100
#define FR_RECUR 0x00200
#define FU_UNSORT 0x00400
#define FX_STDIN 0x00800
#define TG_BATCH 0x01000
#define TG_FILEPAT 0x02000
#define FE_REGEXP 0x04000
#define FS_STATS 0x08000
#define FC_LINE 0x10000
#define TG_PROGRESS 0x20000
#define FILET 1
#define DIRT 2
typedef struct work_st {

char *path;
int tp;
struct work_st *next;
} work_t;
typedef struct out_st {

char *line;
int line_count;
long byte_count;
struct out_st *next;
} out_t;
#define ALPHASIZ 128

typedef struct bm_pattern { /* Boyer - Moore pattern */
short p_m; /* length of pattern string */
short p_r[ALPHASIZ]; /* "r" vector */
short *p_R; /* "R" vector */
char *p_pat; /* pattern string */
} BM_PATTERN;
/* bmpmatch.c */
extern BM_PATTERN *bm_makepat(char *p);
extern char *bm_pmatch(BM_PATTERN *pat, register char *s);
extern void bm_freepat(BM_PATTERN *pattern);
BM_PATTERN *bm_pat; /* the global target read only after main */
/* pmatch.c */
extern char *pmatch(register PATTERN *pattern, register char *string, int *len);
extern PATTERN *makepat(char *string, char *metas);
extern void freepat(register PATTERN *pat);
extern void printpat(PATTERN *pat);
PATTERN *pm_pat[MAXREGEXP]; /* global targets read only for pmatch */
#include "proto.h" /* function prototypes of main.c */
/* local functions to POSIX threads only */
Appendix A • Sample Application: Multithreaded grep 229

void pthread_setconcurrency_np(int con);

int pthread_getconcurrency_np(void);
void pthread_yield_np(void);
pthread_attr_t detached_attr;
pthread_mutex_t output_print_lk;
pthread_mutex_t global_count_lk;
int global_count = 0;
work_t *work_q = NULL;

pthread_cond_t work_q_cv;
pthread_mutex_t work_q_lk;
pthread_mutex_t debug_lock;
#include "debug.h" /* must be included AFTER the

mutex_t debug_lock line */
work_t *search_q = NULL;

pthread_mutex_t search_q_lk;
pthread_cond_t search_q_cv;
int search_pool_cnt = 0; /* the count in the pool now */
int search_thr_limit = 0; /* the max in the pool */
work_t *cascade_q = NULL;

pthread_mutex_t cascade_q_lk;
pthread_cond_t cascade_q_cv;
int cascade_pool_cnt = 0;
int cascade_thr_limit = 0;
int running = 0;
pthread_mutex_t running_lk;
pthread_mutex_t stat_lk;
time_t st_start = 0;
int st_dir_search = 0;
int st_file_search = 0;
int st_line_search = 0;
int st_cascade = 0;
int st_cascade_pool = 0;
int st_cascade_destroy = 0;
int st_search = 0;
int st_pool = 0;
int st_maxrun = 0;
int st_worknull = 0;
int st_workfds = 0;
int st_worklimit = 0;
int st_destroy = 0;
int all_done = 0;
int work_cnt = 0;
int current_open_files = 0;
int tglimit = UNLIMITED; /* if -B limit the number of

threads */
int progress_offset = 1;
int progress = 0; /* protected by the print_lock ! */
unsigned int flags = 0;
int regexp_cnt = 0;
char *string[MAXREGEXP];
int debug = 0;
int use_pmatch = 0;
char file_pat[255]; /* file patten match */
PATTERN *pm_file_pat; /* compiled file target string (pmatch()) */
/*
* Main: This is where the fun starts
*/
int
main(int argc, char **argv)
{
int c,out_thr_flags;
long max_open_files = 0l, ncpus = 0l;
extern int optind;
extern char *optarg;
int prio = 0;
struct stat sbuf;
pthread_t tid,dtid;
void *status;
char *e = NULL, *d = NULL; /* for debug flags */
int debug_file = 0;
struct sigaction sigact;
sigset_t set,oset;
int err = 0, i = 0, pm_file_len = 0;
work_t *work;
int restart_cnt = 10;
/* NO OTHER THREADS ARE RUNNING */

flags = FR_RECUR; /* the default */
while ((c = getopt(argc, argv, "d:e:bchilnsvwruf:p:BCSZzHP:")) != EOF) {

switch (c) {
#ifdef DEBUG
case ’d’:
debug = atoi(optarg);
if (debug == 0)
debug_usage();
d = optarg;
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Debug on at level(s) ");
while (*d) {
for (i=0; i<9; i++)
if (debug_set[i].level == *d) {
debug_levels |= debug_set[i].flag;
fprintf(stderr,"%c ",debug_set[i].level);
break;
}

d++;
}
fprintf(stderr,"\n");
break;
case ’f’: debug_file = atoi(optarg); break;
#endif /* DEBUG */
case ’B’:
flags |= TG_BATCH;
#ifndef __lock_lint
/* locklint complains here, but there are no other threads */
if ((e = getenv("TGLIMIT"))) {
tglimit = atoi(e);
}
else {
if (!(flags & FS_NOERROR)) /* order dependent! */
fprintf(stderr,"env TGLIMIT not set, overriding -B\n");
flags &= ~TG_BATCH;
}
#endif
break;
case ’p’:
flags |= TG_FILEPAT;
strcpy(file_pat,optarg);
pm_file_pat = makepat(file_pat,NULL);
break;
case ’P’:
flags |= TG_PROGRESS;
progress_offset = atoi(optarg);
break;
case ’S’: flags |= FS_STATS; break;
case ’b’: flags |= FB_BLOCK; break;
case ’c’: flags |= FC_COUNT; break;
case ’h’: flags |= FH_HOLDNAME; break;
case ’i’: flags |= FI_IGNCASE; break;
case ’l’: flags |= FL_NAMEONLY; break;
case ’n’: flags |= FN_NUMBER; break;
case ’s’: flags |= FS_NOERROR; break;
case ’v’: flags |= FV_REVERSE; break;
case ’w’: flags |= FW_WORD; break;
case ’r’: flags &= ~FR_RECUR; break;
case ’C’: flags |= FC_LINE; break;
case ’e’:
if (regexp_cnt == MAXREGEXP) {
fprintf(stderr,"Max number of regexp’s (%d) exceeded!\n",
MAXREGEXP);
exit(1);
}
flags |= FE_REGEXP;
if ((string[regexp_cnt] =(char *)malloc(strlen(optarg)+1))==NULL){
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: No space for search string(s)\n");
exit(1);
}

memset(string[regexp_cnt],0,strlen(optarg)+1);
strcpy(string[regexp_cnt],optarg);
regexp_cnt++;
break;
case ’z’:
case ’Z’: regexp_usage();
break;
case ’H’:
case ’?’:
default : usage();
}
}
if (flags & FS_STATS)
st_start = time(NULL);
if (!(flags & FE_REGEXP)) {

if (argc - optind < 1) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Must supply a search string(s) "
"and file list or directory\n");
usage();
}
if ((string[0]=(char *)malloc(strlen(argv[optind])+1))==NULL){
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: No space for search string(s)\n");
exit(1);
}
memset(string[0],0,strlen(argv[optind])+1);
strcpy(string[0],argv[optind]);
regexp_cnt=1;
optind++;
}
if (flags & FI_IGNCASE)

for (i=0; i<regexp_cnt; i++)
uncase(string[i]);
if (flags & FE_REGEXP) {

for (i=0; i<regexp_cnt; i++)
pm_pat[i] = makepat(string[i],NULL);
use_pmatch = 1;
}
else {
bm_pat = bm_makepat(string[0]); /* only one allowed */
}
flags |= FX_STDIN;
max_open_files = sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX);
ncpus = sysconf(_SC_NPROCESSORS_ONLN);
if ((max_open_files - HOLD_FDS - debug_file) < 1) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: You MUST have at least ONE fd "
"that can be used, check limit (>10)\n");
exit(1);

}
search_thr_limit = max_open_files - HOLD_FDS - debug_file;
cascade_thr_limit = search_thr_limit / 2;
/* the number of files that can be open */
current_open_files = search_thr_limit;
pthread_attr_init(&detached_attr);
pthread_attr_setdetachstate(&detached_attr,
PTHREAD_CREATE_DETACHED);
pthread_mutex_init(&global_count_lk,NULL);
pthread_mutex_init(&output_print_lk,NULL);
pthread_mutex_init(&work_q_lk,NULL);
pthread_mutex_init(&running_lk,NULL);
pthread_cond_init(&work_q_cv,NULL);
pthread_mutex_init(&search_q_lk,NULL);
pthread_cond_init(&search_q_cv,NULL);
pthread_mutex_init(&cascade_q_lk,NULL);
pthread_cond_init(&cascade_q_cv,NULL);
if ((argc == optind) && ((flags & TG_FILEPAT) || (flags & FR_RECUR))) {

add_work(".",DIRT);
flags = (flags & ~FX_STDIN);
}
for ( ; optind < argc; optind++) {
restart_cnt = 10;
flags = (flags & ~FX_STDIN);
STAT_AGAIN:
if (stat(argv[optind], &sbuf)) {
if (errno == EINTR) { /* try again !, restart */
if (--restart_cnt)
goto STAT_AGAIN;
}
if (!(flags & FS_NOERROR))
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Can’t stat file/dir %s, %s\n",
argv[optind], strerror(errno));
continue;
}
switch (sbuf.st_mode & S_IFMT) {
case S_IFREG :
if (flags & TG_FILEPAT) {
if (pmatch(pm_file_pat, argv[optind], &pm_file_len))
DP(DLEVEL1,("File pat match %s\n",argv[optind]));
add_work(argv[optind],FILET);
}
else {
add_work(argv[optind],FILET);
}
break;
case S_IFDIR :
if (flags & FR_RECUR) {
add_work(argv[optind],DIRT);
}

else {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Can’t search directory %s, "
"-r option is on. Directory ignored.\n",
argv[optind]);
}
break;
}
}
pthread_setconcurrency_np(3);
if (flags & FX_STDIN) {

fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: stdin option is not coded at this time\n");
exit(0); /* XXX Need to fix this SOON */
search_thr(NULL);
if (flags & FC_COUNT) {
pthread_mutex_lock(&global_count_lk);
printf("%d\n",global_count);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&global_count_lk);
}
prnt_stats();
exit(0);
}
pthread_mutex_lock(&work_q_lk);
if (!work_q) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: No files to search.\n");
exit(0);
}
pthread_mutex_unlock(&work_q_lk);
DP(DLEVEL1,("Starting to loop through the work_q for work\n"));
/* OTHER THREADS ARE RUNNING */

while (1) {
while ((work_q == NULL || current_open_files == 0 || tglimit <= 0) &&
all_done == 0) {
if (flags & FS_STATS) {
pthread_mutex_lock(&stat_lk);
if (work_q == NULL)
st_worknull++;
if (current_open_files == 0)
st_workfds++;
if (tglimit <= 0)
st_worklimit++;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&stat_lk);
}
pthread_cond_wait(&work_q_cv,&work_q_lk);
}

if (all_done != 0) {
DP(DLEVEL1,("All_done was set to TRUE\n"));
goto OUT;
}
work = work_q;
work_q = work->next; /* maybe NULL */
work->next = NULL;
current_open_files--;
tid = 0;
switch (work->tp) {
case DIRT:
pthread_mutex_lock(&cascade_q_lk);
if (cascade_pool_cnt) {
st_cascade_pool++;
}
work->next = cascade_q;
cascade_q = work;
pthread_cond_signal(&cascade_q_cv);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&cascade_q_lk);
DP(DLEVEL2,("Sent work to cascade pool thread\n"));
}
else {
err = pthread_create(&tid,&detached_attr,cascade,(void *)work);
DP(DLEVEL2,("Sent work to new cascade thread\n"));
st_cascade++;
}
}
break;
case FILET:
pthread_mutex_lock(&search_q_lk);
if (search_pool_cnt) {
st_pool++;
}
work->next = search_q; /* could be null */
search_q = work;
pthread_cond_signal(&search_q_cv);
pthread_mutex_unlock(&search_q_lk);
DP(DLEVEL2,("Sent work to search pool thread\n"));
}
else {

err = pthread_create(&tid,&detached_attr,
search_thr,(void *)work);
pthread_setconcurrency_np(pthread_getconcurrency_np()+1);
DP(DLEVEL2,("Sent work to new search thread\n"));
st_search++;
}
}
break;
default:
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Internal error, work_t->tp not valid\n");
exit(1);
}
if (err) { /* NEED TO FIX THIS CODE. Exiting is just wrong */
fprintf(stderr,"Could not create new thread!\n");
exit(1);
}
}
OUT:
if (flags & TG_PROGRESS) {
if (progress)
fprintf(stderr,".\n");
else
}
/* we are done, print the stuff. All other threads are parked */
if (flags & FC_COUNT) {
printf("%d\n",global_count);
}
prnt_stats();
return(0); /* should have a return from main */
}
/*
* Add_Work: Called from the main thread, and cascade threads to add file
* and directory names to the work Q.
*/
int
add_work(char *path,int tp)
{
work_t *wt,*ww,*wp;
if ((wt = (work_t *)malloc(sizeof(work_t))) == NULL)

goto ERROR;
if ((wt->path = (char *)malloc(strlen(path)+1)) == NULL)
goto ERROR;

strcpy(wt->path,path);
wt->tp = tp;
wt->next = NULL;
if (wt->tp == DIRT)
st_dir_search++;
else
st_file_search++;
}
work_cnt++;
wt->next = work_q;
work_q = wt;
pthread_cond_signal(&work_q_cv);
return(0);
ERROR:
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Could not add %s to work queue. Ignored\n",
path);
return(-1);
}
/*
* Search thread: Started by the main thread when a file name is found
* on the work Q to be serached. If all the needed resources are ready
* a new search thread will be created.
*/
void *
search_thr(void *arg) /* work_t *arg */
{
FILE *fin;
char fin_buf[(BUFSIZ*4)]; /* 4 Kbytes */
work_t *wt,std;
int line_count;
char rline[128];
char cline[128];
char *line;
register char *p,*pp;
int pm_len;
int len = 0;
long byte_count;
long next_line;
int show_line; /* for the -v option */
register int slen,plen,i;
out_t *out = NULL; /* this threads output list */
pthread_yield_np();
wt = (work_t *)arg; /* first pass, wt is passed to use. */

/* len = strlen(string);*/ /* only set on first pass */
while (1) { /* reuse the search threads */

/* init all back to zero */
line_count = 0;
byte_count = 0l;
next_line = 0l;
show_line = 0;
pthread_mutex_lock(&running_lk);
running++;
pthread_mutex_unlock(&running_lk);
tglimit--;
DP(DLEVEL5,("searching file (STDIO) %s\n",wt->path));
if ((fin = fopen(wt->path,"r")) == NULL) {

if (!(flags & FS_NOERROR)) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: %s. File \"%s\" not searched.\n",
strerror(errno),wt->path);
}
goto ERROR;
}
setvbuf(fin,fin_buf,_IOFBF,(BUFSIZ*4)); /* XXX */
DP(DLEVEL5,("Search thread has opened file %s\n",wt->path));
while ((fgets(rline,127,fin)) != NULL) {
st_line_search++;
}
slen = strlen(rline);
next_line += slen;
line_count++;
if (rline[slen-1] == ’\n’)
rline[slen-1] = ’\0’;
/*
** If the uncase flag is set, copy the read in line (rline)
** To the uncase line (cline) Set the line pointer to point at
** cline.
** If the case flag is NOT set, then point line at rline.
** line is what is compared, rline is what is printed on a
** match.
*/
if (flags & FI_IGNCASE) {
strcpy(cline,rline);
uncase(cline);
line = cline;
}
else {
line = rline;
}

show_line = 1; /* assume no match, if -v set */

/* The old code removed */
if (use_pmatch) {
for (i=0; i<regexp_cnt; i++) {
if (pmatch(pm_pat[i], line, &pm_len)) {
if (!(flags & FV_REVERSE)) {
add_output_local(&out,wt,line_count,
byte_count,rline);
continue_line(rline,fin,out,wt,
&line_count,&byte_count);
}
else {
show_line = 0;
} /* end of if -v flag if / else block */
/*
** if we get here on ANY of the regexp targets
** jump out of the loop, we found a single
** match so do not keep looking!
** If name only, do not keep searcthing the same
** file, we found a single match, so close the file,
** print the file name and move on to the next file.
*/
if (flags & FL_NAMEONLY)
goto OUT_OF_LOOP;
else
goto OUT_AND_DONE;
} /* end found a match if block */
} /* end of the for pat[s] loop */
}
else {
if (bm_pmatch( bm_pat, line)) {
if (!(flags & FV_REVERSE)) {
add_output_local(&out,wt,line_count,byte_count,rline);
continue_line(rline,fin,out,wt,
&line_count,&byte_count);
}
else {
show_line = 0;
}
if (flags & FL_NAMEONLY)
goto OUT_OF_LOOP;
}
}
OUT_AND_DONE:
if ((flags & FV_REVERSE) && show_line) {
add_output_local(&out,wt,line_count,byte_count,rline);
show_line = 0;
}
byte_count = next_line;
}
OUT_OF_LOOP:
fclose(fin);
/*

** The search part is done, but before we give back the FD,
** and park this thread in the search thread pool, print the
** local output we have gathered.
*/
print_local_output(out,wt); /* this also frees out nodes */
out = NULL; /* for the next time around, if there is one */
ERROR:
DP(DLEVEL5,("Search done for %s\n",wt->path));
free(wt->path);
free(wt);
notrun();
pthread_mutex_lock(&search_q_lk);
if (search_pool_cnt > search_thr_limit) {
DP(DLEVEL5,("Search thread exiting\n"));
st_destroy++;
}
return(0);
}
else {
search_pool_cnt++;
while (!search_q)
pthread_cond_wait(&search_q_cv,&search_q_lk);
search_pool_cnt--;
wt = search_q; /* we have work to do! */
if (search_q->next)
search_q = search_q->next;
else
search_q = NULL;
}
}
/*NOTREACHED*/
}
/*
* Continue line: Special case search with the -C flag set. If you are
* searching files like Makefiles, some lines might have escape char’s to
* contine the line on the next line. So the target string can be found, but
* no data is displayed. This function continues to print the escaped line
* until there are no more "\" chars found.
*/
int
continue_line(char *rline, FILE *fin, out_t *out, work_t *wt,
int *lc, long *bc)
{
int len;
int cnt = 0;
char *line;

char nline[128];
if (!(flags & FC_LINE))

return(0);
line = rline;
AGAIN:
len = strlen(line);
if (line[len-1] == ’\\’) {
if ((fgets(nline,127,fin)) == NULL) {
return(cnt);
}
line = nline;
len = strlen(line);
if (line[len-1] == ’\n’)
line[len-1] = ’\0’;
*bc = *bc + len;
*lc++;
add_output_local(&out,wt,*lc,*bc,line);
cnt++;
goto AGAIN;
}
return(cnt);
}
/*
* cascade: This thread is started by the main thread when directory names
* are found on the work Q. The thread reads all the new file, and directory
* names from the directory it was started when and adds the names to the
* work Q. (it finds more work!)
*/
void *
cascade(void *arg) /* work_t *arg */
{
char fullpath[1025];
int restart_cnt = 10;
DIR *dp;
char dir_buf[sizeof(struct dirent) + PATH_MAX];

struct dirent *dent = (struct dirent *)dir_buf;
struct stat sbuf;
char *fpath;
work_t *wt;
int fl = 0, dl = 0;
int pm_file_len = 0;
pthread_yield_np(); /* try toi give control back to main thread */

wt = (work_t *)arg;
while(1) {
fl = 0;
dl = 0;

restart_cnt = 10;
pm_file_len = 0;
running++;
tglimit--;
if (!wt) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Bad work node passed to cascade\n");
goto DONE;
}
fpath = (char *)wt->path;
if (!fpath) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Bad path name passed to cascade\n");
goto DONE;
}
DP(DLEVEL3,("Cascading on %s\n",fpath));
if (( dp = opendir(fpath)) == NULL) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Can’t open dir %s, %s. Ignored.\n",
fpath,strerror(errno));
goto DONE;
}
while ((readdir_r(dp,dent)) != NULL) {
restart_cnt = 10; /* only try to restart the interupted 10 X */
if (dent->d_name[0] == ’.’) {
if (dent->d_name[1] == ’.’ && dent->d_name[2] == ’\0’)
continue;
if (dent->d_name[1] == ’\0’)
continue;
}
fl = strlen(fpath);
dl = strlen(dent->d_name);
if ((fl + 1 + dl) > 1024) {
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Path %s/%s is too long. "
"MaxPath = 1024\n",
fpath, dent->d_name);
continue; /* try the next name in this directory */
}
strcpy(fullpath,fpath);
strcat(fullpath,"/");
strcat(fullpath,dent->d_name);
RESTART_STAT:
if (stat(fullpath,&sbuf)) {
if (errno == EINTR) {

if (--restart_cnt)
goto RESTART_STAT;
}
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Can’t stat file/dir %s, %s. "
"Ignored.\n",
fullpath,strerror(errno));
goto ERROR;
}
switch (sbuf.st_mode & S_IFMT) {

case S_IFREG :
if (flags & TG_FILEPAT) {
if (pmatch(pm_file_pat, dent->d_name, &pm_file_len)) {
DP(DLEVEL3,("file pat match (cascade) %s\n",
dent->d_name));
add_work(fullpath,FILET);
}
}
else {
add_work(fullpath,FILET);
DP(DLEVEL3,("cascade added file (MATCH) %s to Work Q\n",
fullpath));
}
break;
case S_IFDIR :
DP(DLEVEL3,("cascade added dir %s to Work Q\n",fullpath));
add_work(fullpath,DIRT);
break;
}
}
ERROR:
closedir(dp);
DONE:
free(wt->path);
free(wt);
notrun();
pthread_mutex_lock(&cascade_q_lk);
if (cascade_pool_cnt > cascade_thr_limit) {
DP(DLEVEL5,("Cascade thread exiting\n"));
st_cascade_destroy++;
}
return(0); /* pthread_exit */
}
else {
DP(DLEVEL5,("Cascade thread waiting in pool\n"));

cascade_pool_cnt++;
while (!cascade_q)
pthread_cond_wait(&cascade_q_cv,&cascade_q_lk);
cascade_pool_cnt--;
wt = cascade_q; /* we have work to do! */
if (cascade_q->next)
cascade_q = cascade_q->next;
else
cascade_q = NULL;
}
}
/*NOTREACHED*/
}
/*
* Print Local Output: Called by the search thread after it is done searching
* a single file. If any oputput was saved (matching lines), the lines are
* displayed as a group on stdout.
*/
int
print_local_output(out_t *out, work_t *wt)
{
out_t *pp, *op;
int out_count = 0;
int printed = 0;
pp = out;
pthread_mutex_lock(&output_print_lk);
if (pp && (flags & TG_PROGRESS)) {
progress++;
if (progress >= progress_offset) {
progress = 0;
fprintf(stderr,".");
}
}
while (pp) {
out_count++;
if (!(flags & FC_COUNT)) {
if (flags & FL_NAMEONLY) { /* Pint name ONLY ! */
if (!printed) {
printed = 1;
printf("%s\n",wt->path);
}
}
else { /* We are printing more then just the name */
if (!(flags & FH_HOLDNAME))
printf("%s :",wt->path);
if (flags & FB_BLOCK)
printf("%ld:",pp->byte_count/512+1);
if (flags & FN_NUMBER)
printf("%d:",pp->line_count);
printf("%s\n",pp->line);

}
}
op = pp;
pp = pp->next;
/* free the nodes as we go down the list */
free(op->line);
free(op);
}
pthread_mutex_unlock(&output_print_lk);
global_count += out_count;
return(0);
}
/*
* add output local: is called by a search thread as it finds matching lines.
* the matching line, its byte offset, line count, etc. are stored until the
* search thread is done searching the file, then the lines are printed as
* a group. This way the lines from more then a single file are not mixed
* together.
*/
int
add_output_local(out_t **out, work_t *wt,int lc, long bc, char *line)
{
out_t *ot,*oo, *op;
if (( ot = (out_t *)malloc(sizeof(out_t))) == NULL)

goto ERROR;
if (( ot->line = (char *)malloc(strlen(line)+1)) == NULL)
goto ERROR;
strcpy(ot->line,line);
ot->line_count = lc;
ot->byte_count = bc;
if (!*out) {
*out = ot;
ot->next = NULL;
return(0);
}
/* append to the END of the list; keep things sorted! */
op = oo = *out;
while(oo) {
op = oo;
oo = oo->next;
}
op->next = ot;
ot->next = NULL;
return(0);

ERROR:
fprintf(stderr,"tgrep: Output lost. No space. "
"[%s: line %d byte %d match : %s\n",
wt->path,lc,bc,line);
return(1);
}
/*
* print stats: If the -S flag is set, after ALL files have been searched,
* main thread calls this function to print the stats it keeps on how the
* search went.
*/
void
prnt_stats(void)
{
float a,b,c;
float t = 0.0;
time_t st_end = 0;
char tl[80];
st_end = time(NULL); /* stop the clock */

printf("\n----------------- Tgrep Stats. --------------------\n");
printf("Number of directories searched: %d\n",st_dir_search);
printf("Number of files searched: %d\n",st_file_search);
c = (float)(st_dir_search + st_file_search) / (float)(st_end - st_start);
printf("Dir/files per second: %3.2f\n",c);
printf("Number of lines searched: %d\n",st_line_search);
printf("Number of matching lines to target: %d\n",global_count);
printf("Number of cascade threads created: %d\n",st_cascade);

printf("Number of cascade threads from pool: %d\n",st_cascade_pool);
a = st_cascade_pool; b = st_dir_search;
printf("Cascade thread pool hit rate: %3.2f%%\n",((a/b)*100));
printf("Cascade pool overall size: %d\n",cascade_pool_cnt);
printf("Number of search threads created: %d\n",st_search);
printf("Number of search threads from pool: %d\n",st_pool);
a = st_pool; b = st_file_search;
printf("Search thread pool hit rate: %3.2f%%\n",((a/b)*100));
printf("Search pool overall size: %d\n",search_pool_cnt);
printf("Search pool size limit: %d\n",search_thr_limit);
printf("Number of search threads destroyed: %d\n",st_destroy);
printf("Max # of threads running concurrenly: %d\n",st_maxrun);

printf("Total run time, in seconds. %d\n",
(st_end - st_start));
/* Why did we wait ? */

a = st_workfds; b = st_dir_search+st_file_search;
c = (a/b)*100; t += c;
printf("Work stopped due to no FD’s: (%.3d) %d Times, %3.2f%%\n",
search_thr_limit,st_workfds,c);

a = st_worknull; b = st_dir_search+st_file_search;
c = (a/b)*100; t += c;
printf("Work stopped due to no work on Q: %d Times, %3.2f%%\n",
st_worknull,c);
if (tglimit == UNLIMITED)
strcpy(tl,"Unlimited");
else
sprintf(tl," %.3d ",tglimit);
a = st_worklimit; b = st_dir_search+st_file_search;
c = (a/b)*100; t += c;
printf("Work stopped due to TGLIMIT: (%.9s) %d Times, %3.2f%%\n",
tl,st_worklimit,c);
printf("Work continued to be handed out: %3.2f%%\n",100.00-t);
printf("----------------------------------------------------\n");
}
/*
* not running: A glue function to track if any search threads or cascade
* threads are running. When the count is zero, and the work Q is NULL,
* we can safely say, WE ARE DONE.
*/
void
notrun (void)
{
work_cnt--;
tglimit++;
current_open_files++;
if (running > st_maxrun) {
st_maxrun = running;
DP(DLEVEL6,("Max Running has increased to %d\n",st_maxrun));
}
}
running--;
if (work_cnt == 0 && running == 0) {
all_done = 1;
DP(DLEVEL6,("Setting ALL_DONE flag to TRUE.\n"));
}
pthread_cond_signal(&work_q_cv);
}
/*
* uncase: A glue function. If the -i (case insensitive) flag is set, the
* target strng and the read in line is converted to lower case before
* comparing them.
*/
void
uncase(char *s)

{
char *p;
for (p = s; *p != NULL; p++)

*p = (char)tolower(*p);
}
/*
* usage: Have to have one of these.
*/
void
usage(void)
{
fprintf(stderr,"usage: tgrep <options> pattern <{file,dir}>...\n");
fprintf(stderr,"Where:\n");
#ifdef DEBUG
fprintf(stderr,"Debug -d = debug level -d <levels> (-d0 for usage)\n");
fprintf(stderr,"Debug -f = block fd’s from use (-f #)\n");
#endif
fprintf(stderr," -b = show block count (512 byte block)\n");
fprintf(stderr," -c = print only a line count\n");
fprintf(stderr," -h = Do NOT print file names\n");
fprintf(stderr," -i = case insensitive\n");
fprintf(stderr," -l = print file name only\n");
fprintf(stderr," -n = print the line number with the line\n");
fprintf(stderr," -s = Suppress error messages\n");
fprintf(stderr," -v = print all but matching lines\n");
#ifdef NOT_IMP
fprintf(stderr," -w = search for a \"word\"\n");
#endif
fprintf(stderr," -r = Do not search for files in all "
"sub-directories\n");
fprintf(stderr," -C = show continued lines (\"\\\")\n");
fprintf(stderr," -p = File name regexp pattern. (Quote it)\n");
fprintf(stderr," -P = show progress. -P 1 prints a DOT on stderr\n"
" for each file it finds, -P 10 prints a DOT\n"
" on stderr for each 10 files it finds, etc...\n");
fprintf(stderr," -e = expression search.(regexp) More then one\n");
fprintf(stderr," -B = limit the number of threads to TGLIMIT\n");
fprintf(stderr," -S = Print thread stats when done.\n");
fprintf(stderr," -Z = Print help on the regexp used.\n");
fprintf(stderr,"Notes:\n");
fprintf(stderr," If you start tgrep with only a directory name\n");
fprintf(stderr," and no file names, you must not have the -r option\n");
fprintf(stderr," set or you will get no output.\n");
fprintf(stderr," To search stdin (piped input), you must set -r\n");
fprintf(stderr," Tgrep will search ALL files in ALL \n");
fprintf(stderr," sub-directories. (like */* */*/* */*/*/* etc..)\n");
fprintf(stderr," if you supply a directory name.\n");
fprintf(stderr," If you do not supply a file, or directory name,\n");

fprintf(stderr," and the -r option is not set, the current \n");

fprintf(stderr," directory \".\" will be used.\n");
fprintf(stderr," All the other options should work \"like\" grep\n");
fprintf(stderr," The -p patten is regexp; tgrep will search only\n");
fprintf(stderr," Copy Right By Ron Winacott, 1993-1995.\n");
exit(0);
}
/*
* regexp usage: Tell the world about tgrep custom (THREAD SAFE) regexp!
*/
int
regexp_usage (void)
{
fprintf(stderr,"usage: tgrep <options> -e \"pattern\" <-e ...> "
"<{file,dir}>...\n");
fprintf(stderr,"metachars:\n");
fprintf(stderr," . - match any character\n");
fprintf(stderr," * - match 0 or more occurrences of previous char\n");
fprintf(stderr," + - match 1 or more occurrences of previous char.\n");
fprintf(stderr," ^ - match at beginning of string\n");
fprintf(stderr," $ - match end of string\n");
fprintf(stderr," [ - start of character class\n");
fprintf(stderr," ] - end of character class\n");
fprintf(stderr," ( - start of a new pattern\n");
fprintf(stderr," ) - end of a new pattern\n");
fprintf(stderr," @(n)c - match <c> at column <n>\n");
fprintf(stderr," | - match either pattern\n");
fprintf(stderr," \\ - escape any special characters\n");
fprintf(stderr," \\c - escape any special characters\n");
fprintf(stderr," \\o - turn on any special characters\n");
fprintf(stderr,"To match two diffrerent patterns in the same command\n");
fprintf(stderr,"Use the or function. \n"
"ie: tgrep -e \"(pat1)|(pat2)\" file\n"
"This will match any line with \"pat1\" or \"pat2\" in it.\n");
fprintf(stderr,"You can also use up to %d -e expressions\n",MAXREGEXP);
fprintf(stderr,"RegExp Pattern matching brought to you by Marc Staveley\n");
exit(0);
}
/*
* debug usage: If compiled with -DDEBUG, turn it on, and tell the world
* how to get tgrep to print debug info on different threads.
*/
#ifdef DEBUG
void
debug_usage(void)
{

int i = 0;
fprintf(stderr,"DEBUG usage and levels:\n");

fprintf(stderr,"--------------------------------------------------\n");
fprintf(stderr,"Level code\n");
fprintf(stderr,"--------------------------------------------------\n");
fprintf(stderr,"0 This message.\n");
for (i=0; i<9; i++) {
fprintf(stderr,"%d %s\n",i+1,debug_set[i].name);
}
fprintf(stderr,"--------------------------------------------------\n");
fprintf(stderr,"You can or the levels together like -d134 for levels\n");
fprintf(stderr,"1 and 3 and 4.\n");
exit(0);
}
#endif
/* Pthreads NP functions */
#ifdef __sun
void
pthread_setconcurrency_np(int con)
{
thr_setconcurrency(con);
}
int
pthread_getconcurrency_np(void)
{
return(thr_getconcurrency());
}
void
pthread_yield_np(void)
{
/* In Solaris 2.4, these functions always return - 1 and set errno to ENOSYS */
if (sched_yield()) /* call UI interface if we are older than 2.5 */
thr_yield();
}
#else
void
pthread_setconcurrency_np(int con)
{
return;
}
int
pthread_getconcurrency_np(void)
{
return(0);
}

void
pthread_yield_np(void)
{
return;
}
#endif

APPENDIX B
Solaris Threads Example: barrier.c
The barrier.c program demonstrates an implementation of a barrier for Solaris

threads. See “Parallelizing a Loop on a Shared-Memory Parallel Computer” on page
225 for a definition of barriers.
EXAMPLE B–1 Solaris Threads Example: barrier.c
#define _REENTRANT
/* Include Files */
#include <thread.h>
#include <errno.h>
/* Constants & Macros *
/* Data Declarations */
typedef struct {
int maxcnt; /* maximum number of runners */
struct _sb {
cond_t wait_cv; /* cv for waiters at barrier */
mutex_t wait_lk; /* mutex for waiters at barrier */
int runners; /* number of running threads */
} sb[2];
struct _sb *sbp; /* current sub-barrier */
} barrier_t;
/*
* barrier_init - initialize a barrier variable.
*
*/
int
barrier_init( barrier_t *bp, int count, int type, void *arg ) {
int n;
253
EXAMPLE B–1 Solaris Threads Example: barrier.c (Continued)
int i;
if (count < 1)
return(EINVAL);
bp->maxcnt = count;
bp->sbp = &bp->sb[0];
for (i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {

#if defined(__cplusplus)
struct barrier_t::_sb *sbp = &( bp->sb[i] );
#else
struct _sb *sbp = &( bp->sb[i] );
#endif
sbp->runners = count;
if (n = mutex_init(&sbp->wait_lk, type, arg))

return(n);
if (n = cond_init(&sbp->wait_cv, type, arg))

return(n);
}
return(0);
}
/*
* barrier_wait - wait at a barrier for everyone to arrive.
*
*/
int
barrier_wait(register barrier_t *bp) {
#if defined(__cplusplus)
register struct barrier_t::_sb *sbp = bp->sbp;
#else
register struct _sb *sbp = bp->sbp;
#endif
mutex_lock(&sbp->wait_lk);
if (sbp->runners == 1) { /* last thread to reach barrier */

if (bp->maxcnt != 1) {
/* reset runner count and switch sub-barriers */
sbp->runners = bp->maxcnt;
bp->sbp = (bp->sbp == &bp->sb[0])
? &bp->sb[1] : &bp->sb[0];
/* wake up the waiters */

cond_broadcast(&sbp->wait_cv);
}
} else {
sbp->runners--; /* one less runner */
while (sbp->runners != bp->maxcnt)

cond_wait( &sbp->wait_cv, &sbp->wait_lk);

}
mutex_unlock(&sbp->wait_lk);
return(0);
}
/*
* barrier_destroy - destroy a barrier variable.
*
*/
int
barrier_destroy(barrier_t *bp) {
int n;
int i;
for (i=0; i < 2; ++ i) {

if (n = cond_destroy(&bp->sb[i].wait_cv))
return( n );
if (n = mutex_destroy( &bp->sb[i].wait_lk))
return(n);
}
return(0);
}
#define NTHR 4
#define NCOMPUTATION 2
#define NITER 1000
#define NSQRT 1000
void *
compute(barrier_t *ba )
{
int count = NCOMPUTATION;
while (count--) {
barrier_wait( ba );
/* do parallel computation */
}
}
main( int argc, char *argv[] ) {

int i;
int niter;
int nthr;
barrier_t ba;
double et;
thread_t *tid;
Appendix B • Solaris Threads Example: barrier.c 255

switch ( argc ) {
default:
case 3 : niter = atoi( argv[1] );
nthr = atoi( argv[2] );
break;
case 2 : niter = atoi( argv[1] );

nthr = NTHR;
break;
case 1 : niter = NITER;

nthr = NTHR;
break;
}
barrier_init( &ba, nthr + 1, USYNC_THREAD, NULL );

tid = (thread_t *) calloc(nthr, sizeof(thread_t));
for (i = 0; i < nthr; ++i) {

int n;
if (n = thr_create(NULL, 0,
(void *(*)( void *)) compute,
&ba, NULL, &tid[i])) {
errno = n;
perror("thr_create");
exit(1);
}
}
for (i = 0; i < NCOMPUTATION; i++) {

barrier_wait(&ba );
/* do parallel algorithm */
}
for (i = 0; i < nthr; i++) {

thr_join(tid[i], NULL, NULL);
}

Index
Numbers and Symbols allocating storage from heap, malloc, 26

__errno, 167 ANSI C, 170
__t_errno, 167 application-level threads, 16
32-bit architectures, 68 architecture
64-bit environment multiprocessor, 222-226
data type model, 21 SPARC, 68, 223, 224
/dev/kmem, 22 assert statement, 110, 218
/dev/mem, 22 Async-Signal-Safe
large file support, 22 signal handlers, 149
large virtual address space, 21 functions, 147, 160
asynchronous
libkvm, 22
event notification, 114
libraries, 22
I/O, 152, 153, 154
/proc restrictions, 22
semaphore use, 114
registers, 22
signal, 143
signals, 147
atomic, defined, 68
automatic, stack allocation, 63
A
accessing the signal mask, 37
Ada, 149
adding signals to mask, 38 B
aio_errno, 153 binary semaphores, 112
AIO_INPROGRESS, 153 binding
aio_result_t, 154 threads to LWPs, 188
aiocancel, 153, 154 values to key, 194
aioread, 153, 154 bottlenecks, 220
aiowait, 154 bound threads, 16
aiowrite, 153, 154 defined, 16
alarm, per thread, 139
algorithms
faster with MT, 18
parallel, 226 C
sequential, 226 C++, 170
257
cache, defined, 222 condition variables (Continued)
caching, threads data structure, 221 unblocking threads, 106
changing the signal mask, 37, 191 condition wait
circularly-linked list, example, 95 POSIX threads, 151
coarse-grained locking, 217 Solaris threads, 151
code lock, 216, 217 contention, 219, 220
code monitor, 216, 218 continuing execution, 179
compare thread identifiers, 34 counting semaphores, 16, 112
compile flag creating
-D_POSIX_C_SOURCE, 165 stacks, 64, 65, 187, 189
-D_POSIX_PTHREAD_SEMANTICS, 165 threads, 221
-D_REENTRANT, 165 creating a default thread, 23
single-threaded application, 165 critical section, 224
compiling a multithreaded application, 163 custom stack, 64, 189
completion semantics, 148
cond_broadcast
return values, 206
syntax, 206 D
cond_destroy daemon threads, 188
return values, 203 data
syntax, 203 lock, 216, 217
cond_init, 210 races, 157
return values, 202 shared, 20, 223
syntax, 202 thread-specific, 28
USYNC_THREAD, 210 dbx, 189
cond_reltimedwait dbx(1), 170
return values, 205 deadlock, 218, 219
syntax, 205 debugging, 168, 171
cond_signal asynchronous signals, 168
return values, 206 dbx, 189
syntax, 205 dbx(1), 170
cond_timedwait deadlocks, 168
return values, 204 hidden gap in synchronization, 168
syntax, 204 inadequate stack size, 169
cond_wait, 152 large automatic arrays, 169
return values, 204 long-jumping without releasing mutex
syntax, 203 lock, 168
condition variables, 68, 95-99, 111 mdb(1), 169
blocking for specified time, 105 no synchronization of global memory, 168
blocking on, 101 passing pointer to caller’s stack, 168
blocking until specified time, 104 recursive deadlock, 168
destroying state, 108 reevaluate conditions after return from
getting scope, 99 condition wait, 168
initializing, 100 deleting signals from mask, 38
intializing attributes, 96 destroying an existing thread-specific data
removing attribute, 97 key, 29
setting scope, 98 detached threads, 50, 187
unblocking one thread, 103 Dijkstra, E. W., 111

E interrupt, 143
errno, 31, 165, 214 invariants, 110, 217
errno, 167
errno, global variables, 214
event notification, 114
examining the signal mask, 37, 191 J
exec, 134, 136, 137 joining threads, 25, 40, 50, 192
exit, 137, 188
K
F key, binding value to key, 194
fair share scheduler (FSS) scheduling class, 142 keys, storing value of, 195
finding thread priority, 197 kill, 143, 145
fine-grained locking, 217
fixed priority scheduling class (FX), 142
flags to thr_create, 187
flockfile, 155 L
fork, 137 /lib/libc, 161, 163, 166
fork1, 135, 137 /lib/libC, 161
FORTRAN, 170 /lib/libdl_stubs, 161
funlockfile, 155 /lib/libintl, 161, 163
/lib/libm, 161, 163
/lib/libmalloc, 161, 163
/lib/libmapmalloc, 161, 163
G /lib/libnsl, 161, 163, 167
getc, 155 /lib/libpthread, 163, 166
getc_unlocked, 155 /lib/libresolv, 161
gethostbyname, 214 /lib/librt, 163
gethostbyname_r, 215 /lib/libsocket, 161, 163
getrusage, 140 /lib/libthread, 163, 166
getting thread-specific key binding, 30-31 /lib/libthread, 19
global /lib/libw, 161, 163
data, 217 /lib/libX11, 161
side effects, 220 /lib/strtoaddr, 161
state, 216
libraries, MT-Safe, 161
variables, 31, 213-214
library
C routines, 213
threads, 163
lightweight processes, 140
I
debugging, 169
I/O
defined, 16
asynchronous, 152, 153-154
limits, resources, 140
nonsequential, 154
linking with libpthread
standard, 155
-lc, 166
synchronous, 152
ld, 166
inheriting priority, 187
-lpthread, 166
initializing the mutex, 84
259
linking with libthread MT-Safe libraries (Continued)
-lc, 166 network name-to-address translation, 161
ld, 166 socket library for making network
-lthread, 166 connections, 161
ln, linking, 163 space-efficient memory allocation, 161
local variable, 215 static switch compiling, 161
lock hierarchy, 219 thread-safe form of unsafe interfaces, 161
locking, 216 thread-specific errno support, 161
coarse grained, 217, 220 wide character and wide string support for
code, 216 multibyte locales, 161
conditional, 93 X11 Windows routines, 161
data, 217 multiple-readers, single-writer locks, 185
fine-grained, 217, 220 multiprocessors, 221-226, 226
guidelines, 219-220 multithreading, defined, 16
invariants, 217 mutex, mutual exclusion locks, 218
locks, 68 mutex_destroy
mutual exclusion, 68, 95 return values, 199
read-write, 185 syntax, 199
readers/writer, 68 mutex_init, 210
longjmp, 140, 149 return values, 199
-lposix4 library, POSIX 1003.1 syntax, 197-199
semaphore, 167 USYNC_THREAD, 210
lseek(2), 154 mutex_lock
return values, 200
syntax, 200
mutex scope, 71
M mutex_trylock
malloc, 26 return values, 201
MAP_NORESERVE, 63 syntax, 201
MAP_SHARED, 137 mutex_trylock(3C), 219
mdb(1), 169 mutex type
memory PTHREAD_MUTEX_ERRORCHECK, 87
consistency, 221 PTHREAD_MUTEX_NORMAL, 87
ordering, relaxed, 224 PTHREAD_MUTEX_RECUSIVE, 87
strongly ordered, 223 mutex_unlock, 200
mmap, 137 return values, 200
mmap(2), 63 mutual exclusion locks, 68, 95
monitor, code, 216, 218 attributes, 70
mprotect, 189 deadlock, 92
-mt, 166 default attributes, 68
MT-Safe libraries destroying mutex, 70
alternative mmap(2)-based memory destroying mutex state, 91
allocation library, 161 getting mutex robust attribute, 83
C++ runtime shared objects, 161 getting mutex scope, 72
internationalization, 161 getting priority ceiling of mutex, 80
math library, 161 getting priority ceiling of mutex attribute, 78
network interfaces of the form getting protocol of mutex attribute, 76
getXXbyYY_r, 161 initializing, 84

mutual exclusion locks (Continued) priocntl(2), PC_GETPARMS, 141
locking, 87 priority, 20, 141
making consistent, 86 inheritance, 187, 197
nonblock locking, 89 and scheduling, 196
scope, Solaris and POSIX, 69 range, 196
setting mutex robust attribute, 81 setting for a thread, 196
setting priority ceiling of mutex, 79 priority inversion, 75
setting priority ceiling of mutex attribute, 78 producer and consumer problem, 118, 129, 222
setting protocol of mutex attribute, 74 producer/consumer problem, 210
setting type attribute, 73 profile, multithread program, 139
unlocking, 88 programmer-allocated stack, 64, 189
prolagen, decrease semaphore, P operation, 112
pthread_atfork, 136
return value, 136
N syntax, 38, 136
NDEBUG, 110 pthread_attr_destroy
netdir, 161 return values, 50
netselect, 161 syntax, 49
nice, 141 pthread_attr_getdetachstate
nice(2), 141 return values, 51
nonsequential I/O, 154 syntax, 51
null pthread_attr_getguardsize
threads, 64, 189 return values, 53
null procedures syntax, 53
/lib/libpthread stub, 166 pthread_attr_getinheritsched
/lib/libthread stub, 166 return values, 59
null threads, 189 syntax, 58-59
pthread_attr_getschedparam
return values, 61
syntax, 60-61
P pthread_attr_getschedpolicy
parallel, algorithms, 226 return values, 57
Pascal, 170 syntax, 57
PC, program counter, 20 pthread_attr_getscope
PC_GETCID, 141 return values, 55
PC_GETCLINFO, 141 syntax, 54-55
PC_GETPARMS, 141 pthread_attr_getstackaddr
PC_SETPARMS, 141 return values, 66
Peterson’s Algorithm, 224 syntax, 66
PL/1 language, 144 pthread_attr_getstacksize
portability, 68 return values, 63
pread, 153, 154 syntax, 62
printf, 149 pthread_attr_init
problem, 215 attribute values, 48
priocntl, 140, 141 return values, 49
PC_GETCID, 141 syntax, 48-49
PC_GETCLINFO, 141 pthread_attr_setdetachstate
PC_SETPARMS, 141 return values, 51
261
pthread_attr_setdetachstate pthread_cond_timedwait (Continued)
(Continued) return values, 105
syntax, 50-51 syntax, 104-105
pthread_attr_setguardsize pthread_cond_wait, 108, 109, 143
return values, 52 example, 103
syntax, 52 return values, 102
pthread_attr_setinheritsched syntax, 101-102
return values, 58 pthread_condattr_destroy
pthread_attr_setschedparam syntax, 97-98
return values, 59 pthread_condattr_getpshared
pthread_attr_setschedpolicy syntax, 99
return values, 57 pthread_condattr_init
syntax, 56-57 return values, 97
pthread_attr_setscope syntax, 97
return values, 54 pthread_condattr_setpshared
pthread_attr_setstackaddr syntax, 98
return values, 65 pthread_create
pthread_attr_setstacksize syntax, 24
return values, 62 pthread_detach
pthread_cancel syntax, 27
return values, 42 pthread_equal
pthread_cleanup_pop, syntax, 45 syntax, 34
pthread_cleanup_push, syntax, 44 pthread_exit
pthread_cond_broadcast, 102, 108, 143 return values, 39
example, 107 syntax, 39
return values, 107 pthread_getconcurrency
pthread_cond_destroy syntax, 56
return values, 108 pthread_getschedparam
pthread_cond_init syntax, 36
return values, 101 pthread_getspecific, syntax, 30-31
syntax, 100-101 pthread_join, 152
pthread_cond_reltimedwait_np return values, 25
return values, 106 syntax, 25
syntax, 105-106 pthread_join(3C), 63
pthread_cond_signal, 102, 108, 110, 143 pthread_key_create
example, 103 example, 32
return values, 104 return values, 29
syntax, 103-104 syntax, 28
pthread_cond_timedwait pthread_key_delete
example, 105 return values, 29

pthread_key_delete (Continued) pthread_mutexattr_gettype (Continued)
syntax, 29 syntax, 74
pthread_kill, 145 pthread_mutexattr_init
pthread_mutex_consistent_np pthread_mutexattr_setprioceiling
pthread_mutex_destroy pthread_mutexattr_setprotocol
pthread_mutex_getprioceiling pthread_mutexattr_setpshared
pthread_mutex_init pthread_mutexattr_setrobust_np
return values, 85 return valuea, 82
pthread_mutex_lock pthread_mutexattr_settype
example, 91, 94, 95 return values, 73
syntax, 87 pthread_once
pthread_mutex_setprioceiling return values, 34
syntax, 79 PTHREAD_PRIO_INHERIT, 75, 76
pthread_mutex_trylock, 93 PTHREAD_PRIO_NONE, 75
return values, 90 PTHREAD_PRIO_PROTECT, 75
syntax, 89 pthread_rwlock_destroy
pthread_mutex_unlock return values, 128
example, 91, 94, 95 syntax, 128
return values, 89 pthread_rwlock_init
pthread_mutexattr_destroy
syntax, 123-124
return values, 71
pthread_rwlock_rdlock
syntax, 70-71
return values, 125
pthread_mutexattr_getprioceiling
syntax, 124-125
return values, 79
pthread_rwlock_tryrdlock
syntax, 78
return values, 125
pthread_mutexattr_getprotocol
syntax, 125
return values, 77
pthread_rwlock_trywrlock
syntax, 76
return values, 127
pthread_mutexattr_getpshared
syntax, 126-127
return values, 72
pthread_rwlock_unlock
syntax, 72
return values, 128
pthread_mutexattr_getrobust_np
syntax, 127-128
return values, 83
pthread_rwlock_wrlock
syntax, 83
return values, 126
pthread_mutexattr_gettype
syntax, 126
return values, 74
263
pthread_rwlockattr_destroy read-write locks (Continued)
return values, 121 acquiring write lock, 126
syntax, 121 attributes, 119
pthread_rwlockattr_getpshared destroying, 128
return values, 122 destroying lock attribute, 121
syntax, 122 getting lock attribute, 122
pthread_rwlockattr_init initializing lock, 120, 123
return values, 120 locking read lock, 125
syntax, 120 locking write lock, 126
pthread_rwlockattr_setpshared releasing read lock, 127
return values, 122 setting lock attribute, 121
syntax, 121 readers/writer locks, 68
PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM, 53 realtime, scheduling, 141
pthread_self red zone, 63, 189
return values, 33 reentrant, 216
syntax, 33 described, 216-218
pthread_setcancelstate functions, 159
return values, 42 strategies for making, 216
syntax, 42 register state, 20
pthread_setcanceltype relaxed memory ordering, 224
return values, 43 remote procedure call RPC, 18
syntax, 43 replacing signal mask, 38
pthread_setconcurrency resuming execution, 179
return values, 55 RPC, 18, 161, 221
syntax, 55 RT,, See realtime
pthread_setschedparam rw_rdlock
syntax, 35-36 syntax, 182
pthread_setspecific rw_tryrdlock
example, 32 return values, 182
syntax, 30 rw_trywrlock
pthread_sigmask, 145
return values, 184
return values, 38, 39
syntax, 183-184
syntax, 37-38
rw_unlock
PTHREAD_STACK_MIN(), 64
return values, 184
pthread_testcancel, syntax, 43-44
syntax, 184
putc, 155
rw_wrlock
putc_unlocked, 155
return values, 183
pwrite, 153, 154
syntax, 183
rwlock_destroy
return values, 185
syntax, 185
R
rwlock_init
_r, 215
return values, 181
read, 154
syntax, 180-181
read-write locks, 185
USYNC_THREAD, 210
acquiring read lock, 124

S semaphores, 68, 111-119, 131
SA_RESTART, 152 binary, 112
safety, threads interfaces, 157-161, 161 blocking calling thread, 116
sched_yield counting, 112
return values, 35 counting, defined, 16
syntax, 35 decrement semaphore value, 112
scheduling decrementing count, 117
realtime, 141 destroying state, 117
system class, 140 increment semaphore value, 112
timeshare, 141 incrementing, 115
scheduling class initializing, 114
fair share scheduler (FSS), 142 interprocess, 115
fixed priority scheduler (FX), 142 intraprocess, 115
priority, 140 named, 113
timeshare, 141 unnamed, 113
sem_destroy sending signal to thread, 37
return values, 118 sequential algorithms, 225
syntax, 117-118 setjmp, 140, 148, 149
sem_init setting thread-specific key binding, 30
example, 118 shared data, 20, 217
return values, 115 shared-memory multiprocessor, 223
sem_post, 112 SIG_DFL, 143
example, 119 SIG_IGN, 143
return values, 116 SIG_SETMASK, 38
syntax, 116 sigaction, 142, 143, 151
sem_trywait, 112 SIGFPE, 143, 149
return values, 117 SIGILL, 143
syntax, 117 SIGINT, 144, 148, 151
sem_wait, 112 SIGIO, 144, 154
example, 119 siglongjmp, 149
return values, 116 signal, 142, 143
syntax, 116 signal
sema_destroy asynchronous, 143, 147
return values, 210 handler, 143, 147
syntax, 210 unmasked and caught, 151
sema_init signal.h, 190, 191
return values, 208 signals
syntax, 114-115, 207-208 access mask, 191
USYNC_THREAD, 210 adding to mask, 38
sema_post, 160 deleting from mask, 38
return values, 208 inheritance, 187
syntax, 208 masks, 20
sema_trywait pending, 179, 187
return values, 209 replacing current mask, 38
syntax, 209 sending to thread, 37, 190
sema_wait SIG_BLOCK, 38
return values, 209 SIG_SETMASK, 38
syntax, 209 SIG_UNBLOCK, 38
265
signals (Continued) swap space, 63
SIGSEGV, 63 synchronization objects
sigprocmask, 145 condition variables, 68, 95-99, 111
SIGPROF, interval timer, 138 mutex locks, 68, 95
sigqueue, 143 read-write locks, 185
SIGSEGV, 63, 143 semaphores, 68, 111-119, 206, 211
sigsend, 143 synchronous I/O, 152, 153
sigsetjmp, 149 system calls, handling errors, 214
sigtimedwait, 147 system scheduling class, 140
SIGVTALRM, interval timer, 138
sigwait, 146-147, 147, 149
single-threaded
assumptions, 213 T
code, 68 tape drive, streaming, 153
defined, 16 THR_BOUND, 188
processes, 137 thr_continue, 187
singly-linked list, example, 94 return values, 179
singly-linked list with nested locking, syntax, 179
example, 94 thr_create, 189
size of stack, 62, 64, 187, 189 return values, 188
stack, 221 syntax, 187-188
address, 65, 187 THR_DAEMON, 188
boundaries, 63 THR_DETACHED, 187
creation, 65, 187 thr_exit, 188
custom, 189 return values, 192
deallocation, 189 syntax, 192
minimum size, 64 thr_getprio
overflows, 63 return values, 197
pointer, 20 syntax, 197
programmer-allocated, 64, 189 thr_getspecific
red zone, 63, 189 return values, 195
returning a pointer to, 159 syntax, 195
size, 62, 64, 187 thr_join
stack_base, 65, 187 return values, 193
stack_size, 62, 187 syntax, 192
stack size thr_keycreate
finding minimum, 189 return values, 194
minimum, 189 syntax, 194
standard I/O, 155 thr_kill, 160
standards, UNIX, 17 return values, 191
start_routine(), 187 syntax, 190
static storage, 167, 213 thr_min_stack, 187, 189
stdio, 165 thr_self, syntax, 190
store buffer, 224 thr_setprio
storing thread key value, 195 return values, 196
streaming a tape drive, 153 syntax, 196
strongly ordered memory, 223 thr_setspecific
suspending a new thread, 187 return values, 195

thr_setspecific (Continued) threads (Continued)
syntax, 195 thread-specific data, 214
thr_sigsetmask, 160 user-level, 16, 19
return values, 192 yielding execution, 190
syntax, 191 threads defined, 15
thr_suspend time-out, example, 105
return values, 179 timer, per LWP, 138
syntax, 178 timeshare scheduling class, 141
thr_yield, 219 TLI, 161
syntax, 190 tools
thread create, exit status, 24 dbx, 189
thread-directed signal, 147 dbx(1), 170
thread identifier, 33 mdb(1), 169
thread-private storage, 20 total store order, 225
thread-specific data, 28 trap, 143
example, 31-33 default action, 144
getting, 195 TS,, See timeshare scheduling class
global into private, 32
new storage class, 214
setting, 194
thread-specific keys U
creating, 28, 194 unbound threads, 140
thread synchronization caching, 221
condition variables, 21 priorities, 140
mutex locks, 21 and scheduling, 140
mutual exclusion locks, 68 priocntl(2), 141
read-write locks, 119 user-level threads, 16, 19
read/write locks, 21 /usr/include/errno.h, 163
semaphores, 21, 111-119 /usr/include/limits.h, 163
threads /usr/include/pthread.h, 163
acquiring identifiers, 190 /usr/include/signal.h, 163
creating, 186, 188, 221 /usr/include/thread.h, 163
daemon, 188 /usr/include/unistd.h, 163
detached, 50, 187 /usr/lib, 32–bit threads library, Solaris 9, 168
identifiers, 188 /usr/lib/lwp, 32-bit threads library, Solaris
joining, 192 8, 168
key, 194 /usr/lib/lwp/64, 64-bit threads library,
library, 163 Solaris 8, 168
null, 64, 189 USYNC_PROCESS, 210
priority, 187 condition variable, 202
safety, 157, 161 mutex, 197
sending signal to, 190 read-write lock, 181
signals, 151 semaphore, 207
stack, 159 USYNC_PROCESS_ROBUST, mutex, 197
suspended, 179 USYNC_THREAD
suspending, 187 condition variable, 202
synchronizing, 68, 131 mutex, 198
terminating, 39, 192 read-write lock, 181
267
USYNC_THREAD (Continued)
semaphore, 207
V
variables
condition, 68, 95-99, 111, 130
global, 213-214
primitive, 68
verhogen, increase semaphore, V operation, 112
vfork, 135
W
write, 154
write(2), 154
X
XDR, 161

Multithreaded Programming Guide: Sun Microsystems, Inc. 4150 Network Circle Santa Clara, CA 95054 U.S.A

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Multithreaded Programming Guide: Sun Microsystems, Inc. 4150 Network Circle Santa Clara, CA 95054 U.S.A

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Multithreaded Programming Guide

Sun Microsystems, Inc.

Part No: 816–5137–10

1 Covering Multithreading Basics 15

2 Basic Threads Programming 23

4 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

4 Programming with Synchronization Objects 67

5 Programming With the Solaris Software 133

6 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

6 Safe and Unsafe Interfaces 157

8 Programming With Solaris Threads 173

8 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

9 Programming Guidelines 213

A Sample Application: Multithreaded grep 227

B Solaris Threads Example: barrier.c 253

10 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

The Multithreaded Programming Guide describes the multithreaded programming

To understand this guide, a reader must be familiar with concurrent programming

Chapter 3 covers creating a thread with nondefault attributes.

Chapter 4 covers the threads synchronization routines.

Chapter 5 discusses changes to the operating environment to support multithreading.

Chapter 6 covers multithreading safety issues.

Chapter 7 covers the basics of compiling and debugging multithreaded applications.

Chapter 9 discusses issues that affect programmers writing multithreaded

Appendix A shows how code can be designed for POSIX threads.

Appendix B shows an example of building a barrier in Solaris threads.

Accessing Sun Documentation Online

12 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

What Typographic Conventions Mean

TABLE P–1 Typographic Conventions

AaBbCc123 What you type, contrasted with on-screen machine_name% su

AaBbCc123 Command-line placeholder: replace with To delete a file, type rm

Shell Prompts in Command Examples

C shell prompt machine_name%

C shell superuser prompt machine_name#

Bourne shell and Korn shell prompt $

Bourne shell and Korn shell superuser prompt #

14 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

Covering Multithreading Basics

Defining Multithreading Terms

TABLE 1–1 Multithreading Terms

Thread A sequence of instructions executed within the context of a

POSIX pthreads A threads interface that is POSIX threads compliant.

Solaris threads A Sun Microsystems™ threads interface that is not POSIX

Single-threaded Restricted access to a single thread.

Multithreading Allows access to two or more threads.

User-level or Application-level Threads managed by threads routines in user as opposed to

Attribute object Contains opaque data types and related manipulation

Condition variables Functions that block threads until a change of state.

Counting semaphore A memory-based synchronization mechanism.

16 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

Subjects specific to Solaris threads are covered in the Chapter 8.

Benefiting From Multithreading

Multithreading your code can

Improving Application Responsiveness

Chapter 1 • Covering Multithreading Basics 17

Numerical algorithms and numerical applications with a high degree of parallelism,

Improving Program Structure

Using Fewer System Resources

Combining Threads and RPC

18 Multithreaded Programming Guide • January 2005

Concurrency and Parallelism

In the same multithreaded process in a shared-memory multiprocessor environment,

void fetch(struct phonebookentry arg)