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    Guide To The Laboratory PDF

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    Guide to the Laboratory on insulation co-ordination by: Francisco Roman Campos UURIE 267-95 UPPSALA UNIVERSITET _ INSTITUTIONEN FOR HOGSPANNINGSFORSKNING Uppsala 1995 ISSN 049-8352 PREFACE This Guide to the Laboratory on insulation co-ordination has been conceived to give the students the basic concepts involved in the process of insulation co- ordination. The generation and measuring circuits are included in the first part of this work. Afterwards, the correction factor for etmospheric conditions are presented. The reference publication IEC-60 is followed. The statistical Up-and- own method to calculate the breakdown voltage is also discussed following the work of Drs. Mosch and Hauschild. This guide finishes with an introduction to the Insulation co-ordination theory following the work of Prof. Zaengel. ‘Two appendices are included: One containing the answers to the questions formulated along the guide. The second is a solved example of the Insulation Co- ordination lab. The guide has been prepared under the direction of Prof. Viktor Scuka during the year 1994 in the Institute of High Voltage Research at Uppsala University, Sweden, Special thanks are giving to Rolf Hégberg for reading the manuscript and suggest the necessary corrections. Special thanks are also given to the Inte-national Electrotechnical Commission IEC, to Prof W. Zaengl, to Dr. Hausckild and to Peter Peregrinus Ltd. for the permission to reproduce some of the Figures included in this text. T want to give my thanks for the necessary support for my stay in this Institute to Prof. Viktor Scuka, to the Swedish Institute and to the Colombian Institutions Universidad Nacional de Colombia and Colciencias. M. Se. Tekn, Lic, Francisco Roman Campos Universidad Nacional de Colombia Postgraduate student at Uppsala University. Uppsala, November 1995, INDEX Index Figures Tables Questions Introduction 1. Objectives 2. High Voltage Impulse generator 3. Measuring System 4. Atmospheric Conditions 4.1. Calculation of the air density factor ky 4.2. Calculation of the humidity correction factor ka 4.3. Calculation of the exponents m, w of equations 5. The normal distribution and the breakdown probability 6. Up-and-down method to determine the breakdown voltage [3] 6.1. Description of the Up-and-down method 6.2. Example of the Up-and-down method 7. Impulse voltage-time characteristic 8. Insulation co-ordination 9, Procedure 10. Report References Appendix 1. Answer to the questions in the lab on insulation co-ordination Appendix 2. Example on lab on insulation co-ordination FIGURES Figure 1, HVIG circuit Figure 2. HVIG used in our laboratory. Figure 3: Standard lightning impulse 1,2/50 ps Figure 4: Equivalent HVIG-c Figure 5: Equivalent HVIG circuit for the calculation of T;, T Figure 6. HVIG measuring system, Figure 7. Factor K as a function of the ratio h /8 Figure 8 Values of exponents m and w as a function of g Figure 9 Absolute humidity of air Figure 10. Up-and-down method of Dixon and Mood. Figure 11' Co-ordination of insulation in a 138-kV substation Figure 12_Distribution functions of breakdown voltages for gaps Figure 13 Thévenin equivalent of the voltage source Figure 14. Paschen curve for the air Figure 15. Breakdown on front of a applied voltage wave Figure 16 Breakdown under dynamic or impulse voltage Figure 17 Impulse voltage time characteristic Figure 18 Reference probability for overvoltage Figure 19 Reference probability for insulation withstand Figure 20. Method of describing the risk of failure Figure 21 Distribution function of breakdown voltages Figure 22 Determination of absolute humidity 3 page 32 page 54 Page 6 Page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 9 page 13 page 14 page 15, page 18 page 21 page 22 page 41 page 43, page 48 page 49 page 49 page 50 page 51 page 51 page 52 page 55 Figure 23. Determination of k Figure 24 Determination of exponents m and w Figure 25 Up-and-down method applied to the rod-gap Figure 26 Up-and-down method applied to the insulator Figure 27 Normal paper and breakdown probability Figure 28 Example of measurement of time-to-breakdown Figure 29 Impulse voltage-time characteristic Figure 30 Impulse voltage-time characteristic TABLES Table 1. Normal distribution Table 2 —_Up-and down method for the rod-gap arrangement Table 3 Up-and down method for the insulator Table 4 Data of breakdown voltage and time-to-breakdown Up-and-down method for the insulator Up-and-down method for the rod-gap. Impulse-volt-time characteristic Up-and-down calculation table for insulator and rod Probability paper QUESTIONS Question 1. Question 2. Question 3. Question 4. Question 5. Question 6. Question 7. Question 8. Question 9. Question 10. page 56 page 57 page 60 page 62 Page 63, page 64 Page 65 page 65 page 17 page 59 page 61 page 64 page 26 page 27 page 28 page 29 page 30 page 6, 32 page 7, 34 page 7, 36 page 9, 37 page 10, 40 page 11, 43 page 12, 46 page 20, 48 page 22, 50 page 23, 53 Lab On Insulation Co-Ordination Introduction This laboratory on Insulation co-ordination consist of two parts: 1. Theoretical background needed for the experiment, including 10 self study questions, 2. Experimental part. The first part includes an instruction on the following subjects: - The impulse voltage generator. - The impulse voltage measuring circuit ~ Determination of atmospheric conditions influence in the laboratory - Calculation of statistical parameters of the experiment ~ The statistical Up-and-down method to calculate the breakdown voltage - Introduction to the Insulation co-ordination theory The second part includes the tables that must be filled in during the laboratory session. The theoretical background of the first pert is examined during the first laboratory session. Students must study this guide and answer the questions before coming to the laboratory. 1. Objectives The main objectives of present laboratory are the following: * To become familiar with the operation of the high voltage impulse generator (HIG): operation, stored energy, equivalent circuit, wave form, * To become familiar with the measuring system. * To become familiar with a high voltage laboratory test procedure to obtain the breakdown probability diagram and the impulse voltage-time characteristic of an insulator and a rod-rod gap arrangement, * To become familiar with the up-and-down method for calculating the withstand level and the 50% breakdown probability voltage (Vsoq) of a high voltage equipment. * To become familiar with the standard procedure to estimate the influence of the atmospheric conditions in the experiment, and to determine the correction factor to refer the results to the atmospheric standard conditions. * To correlate insulation and protection levels of two devices by adjusting the margin of safety in order to obtain a surge protected system e.g, an insulator with a protective spark gap, insulation co-ordinatior of two devices. 2. High Voltage Impulse Generator -HVIG- Figure | presents the basic circuit of the HVIG that will be used in the laboratory to generate the standard lightning impulse 1,2/50 us. Oo O° R, Re a Figure 1. HVIG circuit. Cy= tail capacitor, C2 = front capacitor, Ry = Sront resistor, Rz = tail resistor, OUT = object under test, V = voltage. Question 1: If the capacitance of C; is 9,35 nF and the maximum charge voltage 1500 kV, calculate the maximum stored electrical energy. The mechanical equivalence of this energy could be a cubic meter of water located at a height h over earth level. Please calculzte h. Because the engineering problems associated with the construction of high- voltage capacitors and resistors, Cy consists of n = 15 capacitors C’y and the resistor Rj is also distributed in a chain of resistors R' as is indicated in Figure 2 uo) Lee . Figure 2. HVIG used in our laboratory. Here we show only 4 of the 15 stages of the generator. C"; = distributed tail capacitor C, of Figure 1, C7 = front capacitor (this capacitor includes all capacitors that form the capacitive voliage divider used as a measuring device as explained in following paragraphs), Ry = distributed front resistors, R' = tail resistor, OUT = object under test, V = voltage. Notice that R' is in parallel connection with R therefore an equivalent resistor R2 will be used in Figure 5 and in equations (1) 10 (3). 6 Question 2: Explain the operation of the Marx generator as shown in Figure 2 during the charge and discharge process? Calculate what charge you get out from the high voltage capacitor C,, see figure 1, at the ‘maximum generator voltage of 1500 KV and how much charge you get out from each of the 15 series capacitors C', which form the capacitor C; ? ‘The generated voltage wave-form in our present experiment is called the "standard lightning impulse voltage” or" 1,2/50 impulse". In the international standard IEC 60-1 [7] the following definitions are included: Impulse: is an intentionally applied aperiodic transient voltage or current which usually rises rapidly to a peak value and then falls slowly to zero. Impulses with front duration up to 20 ps are defined as lightning impulses and those with longer fronts are defined as switching impulses. The standard lightning impulse voltage or 1,2/50 impulse (or 1,2/50 us impulse) is the full lightning impulse wave form shown in Figure 3 having a front time T = 1,2 us and a time to half-value of T, = 50 us. Figure 3: Standard lightning impulse 1,2'50 jis. Ty is the front time of 1,2 us and T;is the time to half-value of 50 ys. T, is also obtained as follows: T; = 1.67T and 0.37; =0.5T =T" Question 3: How are the times T; and Tzand the virtual origin 0; of a lightning impulse voltage defined in the international standard IEC-60-1, 17]? Hilgarth [5] gives the following equation to calculate the efficiency n, Ty and T: =a in} RR) (C+G) =k Gee a (R, +R) -(G+G) T, =h(R +R) (G+G) Bl where the units are: T{s]; R[Q]; C[F] for the 1,2/50ps lightning impulse, k,=2,96 and k,=0,73 [4] To calculate 1, Ty and Ty it is necessary to evaluate the capacitor C2 as the resultant value of the parallel coupling of the capacitive divider low-voltage capacitor C3 with the measuring cable capacitance C,; both in series with the capacitive divider high-voltage capacitor C2, Equally Ro is obtained as the parallel connection of R'z and the parallel charging resistor R, as explained in Figure 2 and in Figure 4. Figure 4: Circuit including resistors: Ry 750 kQ parallel to R'y; and the measuring system capacitance: Cy = 9,35 nF, C's = 1027.3 pF; C's = 0,8488 uF; Cable capacitance C; 67 pF im and 25 m of cable. OUT = object under test, V = voltage, OSt oscilloscope. The modified values of the equivalent circuit are shown in Figure 5. = af ~<. Figure 5: Equivalent HVIG circuit for the caleulation of T),Tz and the efficiency n, (The efficiency of the high volage impulse generator is the ratio of Vous (the voltage across the OUT) to V; (the voltage across the capacitor Cy; n= Voy! Vj, OUT is the object under test, Question 4: Calculate T;,T and 7 using the equations (1) to (4) Calculate 1 using the equation given in Kujfel - Zaengl (2), page 61. Recalculate the Values or Ry and Rz using the equations in the same reference, page 63 and establish the percentual difference between calculated and physical parameters of the high-voltage impulse generator. 3. Measuring system As a measuring device we use the capacitive voltage divider shown in Figure 6 Schwab [4] gives the dividing ratio or Scale Factor (SF) of this divider including the measuring cable as: Crt+Cst+Cr SF Cr © ~< ck | ReZ VIG) ou] Vou ¢ vo V3 ch, | 3 ? Figure 6. HVIG measuring system. Vour is the voltage applied to the abject under test: OUT. V, is the voltage across the measuring capacitor C3, Vosc is the voltage measured by the oscilloscope, Z is a resistor equivalent to the characteristic impedance of the cable, As an important comment you must notice tha: the voltage Vose measured by the oscilloscope is in reality identical to the values of V3. The reason for that is that voltage V3 is an impulse travelling along a transmission line (cable) with the characteristic impedance Z. The travelling wave with the amplitude (V3/2) is reflected at the end of the cable with the high terminating impedance 1 MQ at the oscilloscope input giving the final value 2(V3/ 2) = V3. Condition: no cable matching resistor at the oscilloscope. Question 5: With the values for the capacitive divider C’p = 1027,3 pF; C's=0,8488 UF; Cy= 67 pFim with a cable length of 25m; Z = 75 Q and using equation (5), calculate the scale factor SF of the measuring system. (The dividing ratio’) ‘The voltage at the oscilloscope Vogc times the scale factor SF of equation (5) gives the applied voltage to the object under test Von: Vout = SF * Vose © The efficiency of the high voltage impulse generator is the ratio of the voltage across the OUT, Vgyp to the voltage Vi across the capacitor Cy, as shown in Figure 1: n= Vout! Vi M From our measurements of Vout we can calculate 1) because we read the voltage across Vi from the HVIG control board instrument. (Notice that the control board instrument measures the voltage of the parallel connection of all the 15 capacitors, which in the series connection form capacitor C;). The voltage Vj of the high voltage generator in Figure 1 is the voltage measured on the control board instrument multiplied by 15. The voltage across the test object is the voltage measured by the oscilloscope Voge multiplied by the scale factor (SF) of the voltage divider calculated using equation (5). The main source of error in the measuring system is the radiated do/at associated with the difdt produced by the process of charging and discharging of the capacitors and also during the breakdown of the OUT. In our calculations we do not consider these influences because we measure the voltage impulse before the breakdown occurs. Thus we may assume that d6/dt is negligible. Another source of error is the conductor inductances present in the connecting circuit between the HVIG and the OUT. We do not consider this influence either, but we must be aware of the presence of error sources in the circuit. Changes in pressure, temperature and humidity affect the results of our experiment. In order to avoid problems with this type of influence we present in the following paragraph the corresponding correction factors which gives us the possibility to recalculate the measured breakdown values for normalised atmospheric conditions. 10 4, Atmospheric conditions The impulse breakdown voltage is influenced by the atmospheric conditions: temperature, air pressure and humidity. The International standard IEC 60-1 shall be used to obtain the correction factors for standard atmosphere. Question 6: How can you explain the infiuence of the air pressure and temperature on the breakdown Voltage of a spark gap in air ? By applying correction factors, a breakdown voltage measured in given test conditions (temperature t, pressure b, and humidity h) may be converted to the value which would have been obtained under standard (reference) atmospheric conditions: to= 20 C; bo= 101,3 kPa (1013 mbar = 1013 hPa); hy = 11 g/m? absolute humidity. ‘The total correction factor; kak tk, (8) includes the correction factor k; for air density and ky for air humidity, The breakdown voltage V is corrected to breakdown voltage at standard atmospheric conditions Vo as follows: 0) 4.1, Calculation of the air density correction factor ky k, depends on the relative air density 8: ky=5™ (10) where = by 23tty i bg < 27340 Following the "normal air" parameters used: tg = 20 C, by = 101,3 kPa, h= 11 g/m. The variables b and t are measured values of pressure and temperature in the laboratory. The correction exponent m will be considered in the following paragraphs. 1 4.2. Calculation of the humidity correction factor kz, ‘The humidity correction factor ky is expressed as follows: =e” ky =k (12) where the factor k depends on the type of test voltage. It can be evaluated using Pa 7 in page 11, or it can be calculated according to the IEC 60-1 using the following equation: k=1+0,010 (41) (13) 4.3, Calculation of the exponents m and w of equations (9) and (11) The exponents m and w depend on the type of pre-discharge involved in the breakdown mechanism in air. This fact can be taken into account by considering the parameter g, which is a function of Vp: the 50% breakdown voltage (measured or estimated) at the actual atmospheric conditions, in kilovolts, L: which is the minimum discharge path in meters (equivalent to the inter-clectrode distance), the relative air density 5, and the factor k taken from the diagram in Figure 7. ¥, 00-1 -5-k a4) The exponents m and w as a function of the parameter g, can be obtained from Figure 8 of IEC 60-1 The absolute humidity is obtained using Figure 9 of IEC-60-1 and the measured values of the temperature of the ventilated wet and the dry thermometers of a psychrometer. A psychrometer is a hygrometer in which a strong draught is obtained past the wet and dry bulbs cither by whirling on a sling or by a fan. The most common type is the Assmann psychrometer in which veatilation is provided by a clockwork driven fan [9]. In this device, the wet and dry thermometers are parallel located in front of the forced current of air. The wet thermometer is covered with a muslin. This cloth is moist with water, and the evaporation of the moisture from the mustin lowers the temperature of this thermometer, A knowledge of the temperatures of the wet and dry thermometers enables one to deduce the relative and absolute air humidity in grams per cubic meter [g/m*] from the diagram in Figure 9. Question 7: Calculate the correction factor kj, ky and the standard reference voltages Vo for the following conditions: The 50 % breakdown voltage Vp = 300 kV; L= 0.8m; (740 mbar), wet bulb temperature 16 C. = 22 C; b=74 kPa; 12 1,2 11 1,0 0,9 0,8 T T T T- FA Altemating voltage oa y el = Impulse voltage “ “oy or. a “ 4 Voltage 3 Humidity Range, g/m> Impulse 1+0,010(h/ 8-11} 1h <15 Altemating | 1+ 0,012(h/8-11) igh/8 <5 | Direct 1+-.0,014 (hh /5-11) 1 he ou 140 o 3 3 Tutiber oF voltage application | Figure 10 Up-and-down method of Dixon and Mood a Test plan bande Evaluation n Size of sample k Number of breakdowns D Breakdown N Non-breakdown) 18 Dixon and Mood determine the 50% breakdown probability voltage (Vso) and the sample standard deviation s on the basis of the event (breakdown or non breakdown) occurring more rarely at the 7 applied voltages. This event occurs k times in the course of the n tests, and the complementary event g times (n = k + q). To evaluate the test, n voltage values are classified according to magnitude. (Figure 10c). The index i = 0 is assigned to step V; at which the (rarer) event concerned first occurs. The subsequent higher steps are given the indices i= 1, 2, soa 1. The Vso9, breakdown voltage can now be estimated using Vou = Vo a(S +) (16) where: a vk; (17) ky is the number of events concerned at the it step. If the events concerned are breakdowns, the sign in equation 14 is negative; in case of non-breakdowns it is positive. The stardard deviation is estimated using 2 = 1.62* AV| Bf +00 (18) where: (19) 6.2. Example of the Up-and-down method ‘The test procedure is presented in Figure 10, with Voo= 120 kV, AV = SV and n= 20 is to be evaluated. 9 breakdowns and 11 non-breakdowns are obtained: thus k= 9 and q = 11 (kis the namber of rarer events). The lowest breakdown occurs at 140 kV; this voltage step is given the notation V, (i= 0) Setting up the table in Figure 10c, we find the number of breakdowns per voltage step k; and from them the quantities A =1*3+2*44+3*1=14 as well as BaP¥342? 4443241528, According to equation (16), V,,,, = 145.3 kV, and according to equation (18) s=5.8kV. In our insulation co-ordination lab we will use equations (16) and (18) to calculate the Vsoq and the sample standard deviation "s". We will use these results to evaluate other quantiles using equation (15) explained in chapter 5. 19 7. Impulse voltage-time characteristic A very important way to understand the behaviour of protection devices is use the impulse voltage-time characteristic. Question 8: What is an impulse voltage-time characteristic and how can ‘you obtain it ? (See Figure 5.46 in Kuffel; Zaengl) In our insulation co-ordination lab we will obtain the impulse voltage-time characteristic of both the protected and the protection device: the insulator and the rod-rod gap. By using the voltage oscillogram of the breakdown events, we will have the required data necessary to draw the impulse voltage-time characteristic: The breakdown voltage’ and the time to breakdown for each individual event. This characteristic shows us the general philosophy which is applied for overvoltage protection of devices. 8- Insulation co-ordination The aim of our present laboratory is to understand the main concepts and practical actions involved in an insulation co-ordination process. As mentioned in [1], [2], [8], insulation co-ordination is the correlation of the insulation of electrical equipment and circuits with the characteristics of protective devices such that the insulation is protected from excessive overvoltages. Ina substation, for example, the insulation of transformer, circuit breakers, bus supports, etc., should have insulation strength in excess of voltage levels that can be provided by protective devices, such as lightning arresters and gaps. The insulation co-ordination is performed in such a way that protective devices, which would limit overvoltages, are installed in the sensitive points of the system, The increment in the number of protective devices reduces the overvoltages in the system but increases its cost. The main task of the insulation co-ordination process is the determination of the economic relationship that exists between insulation level and protection level. The insulation level is the impulse strength of equipment insulation: more insulation increases the cost but reduces the risk of failure, The protection level is the protective voltage level provided by protective devices. As it was mentioned before, the overvoltage reduction increases the cost of the system. The best way to protect systems is to install protection devices whose v-t characteristic is lower than the characteristic of the protected devices, as indicated in Figure 11. Figure 11 shows the general protection philosophy used in the so called deterministic insulation co-ordination, The most important and expensive equipment in the substation is the transformer (1). For this reason the v-t characteristic of the protecting device: arrester (6) is and should be under the relatively low v-t characteristic (1) of the transformer. Other less expensive element in the substation: (2), with higher v-t cheracteristics installed in the entrance of the substation, limit the amplitude of the incoming transient wave. This figure becomes more and more complicated if the probability of occurrence 20 of certain events - like certain values of lightning currents that can generate different values of induced voltages- are included in a more complete simulation. To analyse some other aspects of the problem, like reflections and operation of non linear protecting devices, it is necessary t) perform a numerical simulation of the problem. For those reasons, two different insulation co-ordination methods had been used: the "conventional" or "deterministic’ method, and the "probabilistic" method. The deterministic or conventional insulation co-ordination method provides a margin of protection between electrical stress and electrical strength, based on the predicated maximum strength being allowed by the protective devices, as indicated in Figure 11. In the deterministic practice of insulation co-ordination the used method was to determine the 50% flashover values for all insulators and providing sufficiently high withstand levels for all insulators. For economical reasons this, practice is not useful for insulation co-ordination in extra and ultra high-voltages (chv and uhv), where it is necessary to introduce the probabilistic procedure for insulation co-ordination. Peak value (kV) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 time in microseconds Figure 11, Co-ordination of insulation in a 138-kV substation for 1,2150 us positive wave. (1) Transformer with 550 kV BIL (BIL = Basic Insulation Level), (2) Line insulation with 9 suspension units, (3) discharge of 121-kV arrester for maximum 1,2/50 ys full wave, (4) Maximum 1,2/50 us wave permitted by line insulation. The probabilistic insulation co-ordination method relies on a statistical approach which directly relates the electrical stress and the electrical strength: This approach requires knowledge of the distribution of both the anticipated stress and the electrical strength, as indicated in Figure 12. These stat Properties of the insulation are considered in the concepts “statistical overvoltage” and "statistical withstand voltage". 21 In the present insulation co-ordination lab we will determine the margin of safety of an air gap -the protective device- refereed to the insulation characteristics of the insulator -the protected device-. The margin of safety is defined as the voltage difference between the 50% breakdown probability of the protective and the protected device, as indicated in Figure 12. Question 9: Define the terms: a) statistical overvoltage, b) statistical withstand voltage, d) risk of failure of a system Insulation Overvoltage Po(Vl 05) Gap breakdown probability aw) ‘of safety CH Risk of failure of protective gap BBR Risk of failure of proweted gap Figure 12. Distribution functions of breakdown voltages for protective ap and protected insulation both subjected to an overvollage po(V). Pp Risk of failure of protective gap; po Risk of failure of protected gap. (See page 457, Kuffel, Zaengl [2]. For economical reasons, in the engineering practice insulation co- ordination is performed with the probability distribution curve of all the possible overvoltages which can appear in the system called statistical overvoltage, and with the withstand probability curve of the insulation, called statistical withstand voltage of the insulation. If the mathematical expression of the probability characteristics of the protective and the protected devices are well known, it is possible to evaluate the risk of failure of the system. The following question lets us calculate this value. 22 Question 10: The probability density function of an over-voltage distribution that will be experienced by a system is Volv). The cumulative probability distribution function of the breakdown voltage of the system is Vi(v). If: Vo(v) = ae and V4) =(I-e"™) where = 10 Calculate the risk of failure of the system. 9-Procedure Siarting from our previous knowledge of the general aspects of the insulation co- ordination process, e.g. the generation of high voltage impulse voltages, the measurement system, the atmospheric correct.on factors, the statistical method "up-and-down", and the theory of insulation co-ordination, we can initiate our insulation co-ordination lab. This section describes the procedure which will be followed in the lab. The procedure in the lab is the following: 1- Instructions about security rules. 2- Measurement of atmospheric constants: femperature, pressure, humidity. 3- Description of the impulse generator and control board operation 4- Description of the measurement system end the LeCroy oscilloscope. 5- Organisation of working groups. + 6- Oral questions about the experiment. Questions 1 to 10 + 7- Insulation co-ordination procedure for the insulator and the rod-rod gap: + Apply the Up-and-down method with a minimum of 50 lightning impulses to the insulator and to the rod-rod gap. + Calculate the 50% breakdown voltage (Vsos,) and the standard deviation (S) using equations (16) to (19) and the formats in pages 26 to 29. Calculate also the 10% and the 90% probability voltages using equation (15) and following equations (20) to (22): som t 52825 (20) Vow =Ys0% ~35 (21) (22) Vroom =soq, +35 + Draw the breakdown probability curve by calculating 10%, the 50% and the 90% probability breakdown voltages using the atached probabilistic chart in e 30. «With the obtained data for breakdown events plot the impulse voltage-time characteristic of the arrangement, using the voltage values corrected to the standard atmospheric conditions. + Compare the results obtained for the insulator and the rod-rod gap and give your conclusions and comments. 23 10. Report After the experiment you will have to give the report to one of the lab assistants. The report shall contain the following: 1- Written answers to the questions. 2- Measured atmospheric constants and the correction factors for air pressure, humidity and temperature. 3- The 50% probability breakdown voltage and the standard deviation of the insulator and the rod-tod gap arrangement referred to the standard atmospheric conditions. Include also the drawing of the breakdown probability curve for both test objects. Calculate the margin of safety of the gap/insulator arrangement. 4- The withstand level of the insulator and the rod-rod gap arrangement. (The withstand level is the 10% breakdown probability of the test object). Calculate also the standard deviation of both series of measurements. Include your comments. 5- The Impulse voltage-time characteristic for the insulator and the rod-rod gap arrangement. Include your comments. 6- The following table summarises the results obtained in the lab. Please fill it up. humidity | k= (/m3)= efficiency(n)= Be eee wil VO! Re ne UsowLape(kV)= S(kV)= S(%)= Usos n.c+(kV) oo 7p OM UsomLape(kV)= S(kV)= S@)= Usoznce(kV) * Values obtained in the lab. ** Values corrected to normal conditions 24 References 1, Westinghouse. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book. Chapter 18, Monteith, A. C.; Vaughan, H. R. Insulation co-ordination, pages. 610-642, 2, E. Kuffel,; W. Zaengl. High Voltage Engineering. Fundamentals. Pergamon Press International library. 1984 3. W. Hauschild; W. Mosch. Statistical techniques for high voltage engineering. Peter Peregrinus Lid. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. 1992, page 165. 4, A. Schwab. Hochspannungsmesstechnik. Zweite bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Springer Verlag 1981, page 68 5. G. Hilgarth. Hochspannungstechnik. B. G. Teubner Verlag. Stuttgart. 1981 pages 108-113 6. E. Kreyzig. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Wiley International Edition pages 736 and 838-839 7. TEC 60-1, International standard. High Voltage Test Techniques. Part |: General definitions and test requirements, Second edition 1989-11. Second Impression 1991, Pages. 37-41; 81-85; 91-101 8. IEC 71 International standard. Recommendations for insulation co- ordination Third edition 1960. 9. H. J. Gray, Dictionary of physics. Longmans, Green and Co.; London, New York, Toronto, 1958. 10. W. Boeck, Gasférmige Isolierstoffe, chapter 7 of the book: M. Beyer; W. Boeck; K. Miller; W. Zacngl. Hochsparnungstechnik. Theoretische and praktische Grundlagen, Springer Verlag, 1986, 11. L. L. Alston. High-Voltage Technology. Harwell Postgraduate Series. Oxford University Press, 1968. 25 9% 0) | Os |6y| 8p cp | ov Ish | oy ler | ey lvl ov] oe [sel celoel ce lve lee [ze rel oe loc! sz [ze 9c A Weio | se | ve | €c} ee | loc for [st] ctfor| stl +t fer|erlitlor] 6! sf 2} 9! s| vw] el zit A {UVa SoowpNs = soueIstp des =doys-adeOK Soper Saeifon SKouBIS Sap = == = Seer =u ae =y =(eu/3) =Aip [-wonpxsd =yom [-wompossd | =Q ~~ Sameroduay =[sequijomnssarg Tmo TuaAa Uy oy) Joy poujour Lo mor] os |6r| 8h [zr | ov [sp | vb ler | zy lth ov ee [se [ce loc | cele [ee [ze] te Loe |6z| sz [Zz | 97 A wij oe |e] ec [ee lic [oc | 6r | sr zt orl st[orler[ziiiilorl 6] si] 2} ot si vl ef zl i] A — jubaps soovyans | = douRysIp dei =dajs-a8e]{OA =ONBI 980A =AsuSIOaye = 3 =F =X = sa su =8 = i} =aap [-umoapxsd | — Sjoan J -mionppasd =qymiprmamg =9 =amnjeroduay ‘=[aequijaimssarg ZnO] calep — squaAa *deS-por oy) 10} poqjoul Unop-pue- IMPULSE VOLTAGE-TIME CHARACTERISTIC INSULATOR ROD-ROD GAP — S a yl ee 28 Up-and-down calculation table for insulator be _ : 6 5 4 a 2 1 o a he | “aa 1k; is the number of events A,l Vso = Vo sav +3) where:A = ¥} concerned at the i* step . a10+ay| =A 0.029 sek ye 70.029) where: = SF _ yi Up-and-down calculation table for rod-rod gap ooo. 1 JofH}ro}oofale}a}af- ae an ae 29 994 93.9 99. 29 ve. 97 95 90 20. 70 60 50 40. 30 20 ou Ow or APPENDICES APPENDIX 1. ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS IN THE LAB ON INSULATION CO-ORDINATION APPENDIX 2. EXAMPLE OF A SOLVED LAB. 31 APPENDIX 1 ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS IN THE LAB ON INSULATION CO-ORDINATION Introduction This appendix is included as a complement of the Laboratory on Insulation co- ordination. The questions included in the first part are here solved. To answer the questions some figures and equations from the previous section are used following the given numbers. The new Figures in this appendix will start with number 13 and the new equations with the number (24). Question 1: If the capacitance of C, is 9,35 nF and the maximum charge voltage 1500 kV, calculate the maximum stored electrical energy. The mechanical equivalence of this energy could be a cubic meter of water located at a height h over earth level. Please calculate h. Figure 1 shows the equivalent circuit of the high-voltage impulse generator. Oo O° { si V, 1 CG Ry Figure 1. HVIG circuit. Cy= tail capacitor, C = front capacitor, Ry = front resistor, Rz = tail resistor, OUT = object under test, V = vollage. The question is related to the mechanical equivalent of the electrical energy Wm stored in capacitor C). The following equation lets us relate electrical and mechanical energy and derive the equivalent height of a cubic metre of water: (24) 32 Where: Wm p= 2285107404510? (25) =1,07[m] (26) 2107498 the energy stored in the capacitor that is equal to the energy stored in the electric field height h over earth surface mass of water acceleration of gravity capacitance of the HVIG tail capacitor maximum charge voltage of capacitor Cy. 33 oO [m] kg] m/s? [Vv] Question 2: Explain the operation of the Marx generator as shown in Figure 2 during the charge and discharge processes? Calculate what charge you get out from the high voltage capacitor C), see Figure 1, at the maximum generator voltage 1500 kV and how much charge you get out from each of the 15 series capacitors C’; which form the capacitor Cy ? 2.1 Operation of the Marx generator ‘The Marx generator was developed by Marx to generate in the laboratory high voltage impulses using a circuit that works according to the following principle: A number of capacitors is charged in parallel, with a relatively low voltage and is discharged in series generating a very high voltage that is the sum of the individual voltages of each capacitor that composes the generator. For that reason the output voltage of the generator is the voltage of each unit CC}, multiplied by the number of them, In our laboratory we use a 15 stage impulse generator. << Figure 2. HVIG used in our laboratory, Here we show only 4 of the 15 stages of the generator, C’ ; = distributed tail capacitor C; of Figure 1, Cy front capacitor), R', = distributed front resistors, R',= tail resistor, OUT = object under test, V = voltage. charge and disch: SS. In the following the charge and discharge process are explained. Charging process: When the voltage Voc is applied to the high-voltage impulse generator, the capacitors C'; are charged through the resistors R. in a parallel circuit. Notice that every capacitor in the generator has a different charging resistor R. The 34 last stage has the highest equivalent charging resistance. All capacitor are theoretically charged to the same voltage. Discharge process: ‘The discharge process starts when the external trigger pulse is applied to the first sphere in the generator, sphere-gap Gy. The trigger pulse is normally a high-voltage impulse of some kilovolts that initiates the discharge process in the first stage, The rest of the sphere-gaps discharge after the first one. It is a type of domino effect that is facilitated by the generated photons in each sphere-gap breakdown. When the breakdown process initiates, all capacitors are linked in a series connection. They charge the capacitor Cz through the resistors Ry. In that way the charging process of capacitor C2 forms an RC circuit with resistor Ry, see Figure 1, The charging process of the circuit RiC2 is directly related to the front time T; of the generated lightning impulse. This front time Tj is short because of the relatively low value of the time constant of this circuit and also because R; is almost 10 times bigger than Ro. ‘When capacitor C2 is charged, a discharge process initiates through the relatively high value resistor R') The mos: important contribution to the discharge process is given by the relatively high capacitance capacitor C; -the series connection of all individual capacitors C'-, and the mentioned high ohmic resistor Rp. The relatively long discharge time constant of the RC circuit formed by C; and Ro, see Figure I, explains the long tail of the generated lightning impulse known as "the time to half-value T;" shown in figure 3. 2. Chi iv the load. The equivalent capacitor C, is the series connection of the n capacitors Cy. The relation between them is the following: Cenc (27) Where nis the number of stages of the impulse generator = 15 Cy is the equivalent capacitance of the generator = 9,35 nF C1 is the capacitance per stage = 140 nF ‘The total voltage V given by the generator is the summation of the voltage V'; per stage: V=nV; (28) ‘The total charge given by the generator is the following: Q=C,-V=9,3510-1500103= 14 [mC] 29) and the total charge Q'; given by each capacitor, replacing equations (27) and (28) is: = CY =(nC)(Vin)= (CV FO=14 [mc] (30) From equation (30) it is concluded that the total charge given by the impulse generator is equal to the charge given by each unit. In the present problem the total charge is equal to 14 mC. 35 Question 3: How are the times T, and Ty and the virtual origin 0, of a lightning impulse voltage defined in the international standard TEC-60-1. [7] ? The front and the tail times are defined in the IEC standard IEC 60-1 in accordance with Figure 3. Figure 3: Standard lightning impulse 1,2/50 ys. T, is the front time of 1,2 us and Tis the time to half-value of 50 ys. T, is also obtained as follows: T; = 1,67 T and 03T,=0ST=T Front time Ty. The Front time T; of a lightning impulse is a virtual parameter defined as 1,67 times the interval T between the instants when the impulse is 30% and 90% of the peak value. (Points A and B in Figure 3). Time to half-value T2. The time Tp of a lightning impulse is a virtual parameter defined as the time interval between the virtual origin O; and the instant when the voltage has decreased to half the peak value. Virtual Origin 0). The Virtual Origin of a lightning impulse is the instant preceding that corresponding to point A(see Figure 3) by a time 0,3T;. For records having linear time scales, this is the intersection with the time axis of a straight line drawn through the reference points A and B on the front. 36 Question 4: Calculate T;, T and 1 using the equations (1) to (4). Calculate 7 using the equation given in Kuffel - Zaengl (2), page 61. Recalculate the values or Ry and R2 using the equations in the same reference, page 63 and establish the percentual difference between calculated and physical parameters of the high-voltage impulse generator. 4.1 Calculation of T;, Tz and 7 using the given equations. Hilgarth [5] gives the following equation to calculate the efficiency n, T, and Ty: Q) Q) T,=k(R, +R, {C, +C,) Q) where the units are: T[s]; R[Q]; C[F] for the 1,2/ 50s lightning impulse, k,= 2,96 and k, = 0,73[4] To calculate 1, T, and Ty it is necessary to evaluate the capacitor C2 as the To calculate 1, T, and T, it is necessary to evaluate the capacitor Cz as the resultant value of the parallel coupling of the capacitive divider low-voltage capacitor C’; and the measuring cable capacitance C, ; both in series with the capacitive divider high-voltage capacitor C;. Rz is obtained as the parallel connection of R’> and the charging resistor R, as explained in Figure 2 and in Figure 4. [|r Vose Figure 4. Circuit including resistors: Ry= 391,50, R'; = 8.96 kQ, R= 750 ka parallel to R's ; and the measuring system capacitance: C', = 1027.3 pF; C's = 0,8488 uF; Cable capacitance Cy= 67 pF/m and 25 m of cable. OUT = object under test, V = voltage, OSC = oscilloscope. 37 The modified values of the equivalent circuit are shown in Figure 5. O=O- Figure 5: Equivalent HVIG circuit for the calculation of T,,T, and the efficiency 7. (The efficiency of the high voltage impulse generator is the ratio of Veus(the voltage across the OUT = object under test) to V, (the voltage across the capacitor C, in Figure 1; n= Vout! V), To calculate 1, Ti and T2 it is necessary to obtain the values for the different capacitor and resistor in Figure 4 and 5. R, has a value of 391.5 Q Rz has a value of 8.85 kQ. Cy has a value of 9.35 nF. Cz has a value of 1026,3 pF. : coy is calculated as the series connection of C2 with the parallel equivalent of C’3 and the measuring cable capacitance Cy, see Figure 4: \ Cy= 67 pF/m #25 m= 1675 pF C3 = 0,8488 LF Cn = 1027,3 pF The parallel equivalent of these capacitors is 0,850475 [UF ~ 0,8505 1F. The series connection of the later with the capacitor C’2 gives the resultant value for C2 as 1026,3 pF. Replacing those values in equations 1 to 4 following values are obtained: Efficiency n= 0.87 Front time Ti= 1,04 ps Time to half-value T2=70,0 is The tolerances for the front time is +30 % and for the time to half-value is +20%. and for the peak value is +3 %. This means that values between 0,84 [ts and 1,56 [is are accepted for the front time and values between 40 is and 60 jis are accepted for the time to half-value. 4.2 Calculation of Ty, Tz and 7 using equations in pages 61 and 63 of the book High - Voltage Engineering, Fundamentals of Kuffel-Zaengl [2]. The equations given by Kuffel Zaengl [2] to solve the circuit shown in Figure 1 are the following: 38 1 ( & % (31) G+G)(R+R) (1+C,/C,)(1+R,/R,) tifait 1,1) 4+) wee"d)- Ee ae eo 1 eee 11) _AG+G) wactallea tera) ace] © Where: 168,25 (34) a, and 0,405 p18 (35) Oy ‘The calculated values are de following: n = 087 Ri = 4650 R2 = 61930 ‘The difference in percent between physical parameters and calculated values are the following: nis the same value Ris the calculated value is 19% bigger than the physical parameter Ro= the calculated value is 30% bigger than the physical parameter. By adjusting the different resistance values of Resistors Ry and Ro itis possible to obtain the normalised Lightning impulse 1,2/50 ss. 39 Question 5: With the values for the capacitive divider C’z = 1027,3 pF; C’'3=0,8488 uF; Cy= 67 pF/m with a cable length of 25m; Z = 75 Qand using equation (5), calculate the scale factor SF of the measuring system. (The dividing ratio ) Figure 6 presents the measuring system. Figure 6. HVIG measuring system. Vour is the voltage applied to OUT (object under test). V; is the voltage across the measuring capacitor Cy 5 Voscis the voltage measured by the oscilloscope, Z is a resistor equivalent to the characteristic impedance of the cable. Solving the equations for the capacitive voltage divider C’2, C's, in Figure 6, V3 can be obtained in terms of Cs, C’ and Vour as: Ce Vi=Vour 36 TCC s (36) ‘The "scale factor" SF=Vs/Vour, is given as the following capacitance ratio: Vs _C2+Cs is. i Stiga eer G7) As Schwab [4] indicates in page 80, this scale factor is valid only for very fast phenomena and high frequencies. But, after 2 times the transit time of the wave in the cable, the cable capacitance C; is connected in parallel to the low voltage capacitance C’3 of the divider. For that reason the scale factor changes for slow changing phenomena and low frequencies, increasing the scale factor as indicated in the equation (5) that we use in our experiment: aeCats Gs ® The capacitive divider is connected to a coaxial cable. The coaxial cable is in general connected directly to the vertical plates of the oscilloscope, that means that the cable is connected in open circuit in one end. To avoid the generation of travelling waves the cable must be matched with its characteristic impedance Z in one end, as indicated in Figure 6. SF = 40 To calculate the voltage at the oscilloscope is necessary to obtain the Thévenin equivalent of the divider, under the assumption that the cable is "electrically long”; that means that the cable can be represeated by distributed parameters. ‘The equivalent circuit is presented in following figure 13. REZ 2 1 v3 ary 2 Figure 13. Thévenin equivalent of the voltege source V's. R is a resistor with a ohmic value equal to Z, the characteristic impedance of the electrically long cable Cy. Schwab in [4] page 14 considers a cable as "electrically long” when the transit time 1 is more than 0,0125 times the rise time Ta: Ta >5...107, where 7 is equal to: @8) v transmission velocity 1 cable length c light velocity Eel = electric permittivity Replacing the capacitance values: C= 1027,3 pl C’3=0,8488 UF; C= 67 pF/m with a cable length of 25 m of the actual divider in equation (5), the scale factor SF is obtained as: SF = 828,87 = 828,9 The voltage at the oscilloscope Vosc times the scale factor SF of equation (5) gives the applied voltage to the object under test Vour: 41 Vou = 5F XV ooo (6) Vour=828,9%V ose Notice that from Figure 13 the voltage wave travelling through the cable is V'3/2, but the voltage measured by the oscilloscope Vosc is in reality identical to the values of V'3, The explanation is that the impulse voltage (V'3/2) travelling along a transmission line, the cable, with the characteristic impedance Z, is reflected and doubled in amplitude at the end of the cable. The reflection occurs because the cable is not terminated with a parallel impedance Z. Instead the cable is connected to the oscilloscope input impedance of 1 MQ. ‘The reflection factor is close to 2, giving the final value. 2(V'3/2) = V's. ‘At the beginning of the cable the reflected wave finds the impedance Z and it will be absorbed without reflections, under the consideration that the capacitance of the low voltage capacitor practically represents a short circuit for the considered frequencies of the travelling impulse wave. 42 Question 6: How can you explain the influence of the air pressure and temperature on the breakdown voltage of a spark gap in air ? Pressure: The influence of the air pressure on the breakdown voltage of a spark gap can be explained by means of the Paschen curve. Figure 14 of the book High - Voltage Engineering, Fundamentals of Kuffe-Zaengl (2], page 360 shows the Paschen curve for air in log-log scale. 1034 Temperature : 20°C 108 z F of $ Publication No. 52 de ‘s CE! (1960) {1} : roienaase ash" i WORSE Utetaeo, 7 (Pebsmarene sans 688-0 ft i setae sa a)" 2 el : toeed & * os” ° o g.sersn i oa oka ° orale Hh 0 io io 10° 10" 10 10> Prerture eoseing product». bar mm Figure 14. Paschen curve for air in log-log scale. Temperature 20 C. ((¢ calculated Vp =6.724/pd + 24.4(pd) ) see Kuffel; Zaeng! [2] page 360, Figure 5.23 The Paschen Law implies that the breakdown voltage of a uniform gap is a unique function of the product of pressure and the electrode separation for a particular gas and electrode material. In the right hand side of the characteristic the breakdown process is dominated by gas particles decreasing the mean free path of the particles with increasing pressure. At very low pressure the breakdown mechanism ceases to be influenced by the gas particles because of the increment of the mean free path and becomes electrode dominated (vacuum, breakdown), In our experiment we are located at p.d. values higher than the minimum of the Paschen curve, for that reason we consider only the gas breakdown process, and not the vacuum processes. In accordance with Boeck [10] page 93, a decisive process in gas discharges is the designated "a. process", where the ionisation is produced by electron collisions, Electron collisions are strongly dependent on the mean free path, because the kinetic energy that electrons need to ionise is a direct function of the electric field intensity and the mean free path, as indicated by the following expression: 43 WeeEa (39) where 4* is the effective free path of an electron. Any change in .* affects the energy W. Temperature and pressure affects A* as indicated in the followings Paragraphs. ature: ‘The temperature of a gas is directly related to the kinetic energy of the particles. The distribution of velocities depend on both: the temperature and the molecular weight of the gas. According to the Maxweil-Boltzmann distribution for an ideal gas, the average kinetic energy Wsia of a particle with mass m is given by the expression: Wo -Lemy? Ser (40) kin 2 of “2 where: 23 ®] &=1,38-10 = | K Veg= is the effective velocity T= is the absolute temperature This expression is valid when the molecules or particles in the gas are in thermal equilibrium and in the absence of particles acceleration by external fields, diffusion, ionisation or excitation. The gas is represented by the model of elastics spheres, From this equation can be concluded that the distribution of particle velocities depends on both: the temperature and the masses of the particles, ‘The mean molecular velocity of an electron is then higher than other particles in the gas: for example the electron velocity at 20 °C and 101,3 kPa (760 Torr), as indicated in Kuffel, Zaengl [2], page 303, is 100x103 [m/s] or 100 [mm/us} in comparison with'0,465 [mmijus} for air, 0,556 [mm/us} for water vapour, 0,45 [mm/us] for Nz or 0,42 [mm/s] for Op Additionally the free path of an electron is a function of gas temperature and gas pressure as indicated in following expression, see Boeck [10], page 84: (4) where: @, = _ is the effective cross-section or collision cross section. of two particles. k = __Boltzsman constant: = 1,38.1023 [Ws/K] T = _ absolute temperature b= _ pressure. 44 Increments of temperature keeping the pressure constant increases the mean free path. From the previous statement and equation (39) we can conclude that in general the pressure and the temperature affects the breakdown mechanism in an opposite way: Temperature increments decreases the breakdown voltage; and pressure increments increases the breakdown voltage. ‘We can also affirm that temperature and pressure affects the gas density 8, for that reason the air density correction factor includes the opposite effecis of temperature and pressure in the mentioned parameter k, from equations (9) and (10) in section 4.1: 8m 0) where: 5-2 273+t, (ao) 2" D3 From equation (10), we obtain an important relationship between air density, pressure b and temperature T: 5 =const-& (42) 45 Question 7: Caleulate the correction factor k, ky and the standard reference voltages V. for the following conditions: The 50 % breakdown voltage Vp = 300 kV; L= 0.8 m; t = 22C; b=74 kPa ; (740 mbar), wet bulb temperature 16 C. Data: Atmospheric conditions in the laboratory: vB 300 KV; L 0.8 m; t 220; b 74 kPa ; (740 mbar), wet bulb temperature 16C, Correction equations: The breakdown voltage V measured at a given laboratory condition of temperature t, pressure b, and humidity h, can be corrected to the standard (reference) atmospheric conditions of temperature: {= 20C; pressure: b,= 101,3 kPa (1013 mbar = 1013 hPa); and absolute humidity: hy = 11 g/m3. The corrected breakdown voltage V, is obtained as follows: vy “A, (8) where: k, = ky * ky is the correction faccor that includes following factors: k, correction factor for air density. ky correction factor for air humidity. Air density factor ki: k, depends on the relative air density 5: ys” (9) where: where tp=20C, bo = 101,3 kPa, in our present problem, replacing the given values, 8 is equal to 0,726 The variables b and t are measured values of pressure and temperature in the laboratory. The correction exponent m is calculated with the humidity correction exponent w that is explained in the following paragraphs. Humidity correction factor k2: Figure 9 lets us obtain the absolute temperature as a function of the wet and dry bulb temperature. In our problem tar = 22 C and tw = 16 C; and from Figure 9 we obtain the absolute humidity h=11 g/m?. 46 The humidity correction factor is expressed as: kg=k” (uy where: The factor k depends on the type of test voltage and can be evaluated using Figure 7 in page 13, or can be calculated according to IEC 60- 1 using the following equation: k=1+0,010 4a) (43) in our present problem, replacing the given values, k is equal to 1,04. See Figure 7. ‘The exponents m and w depend on the type of pre-discharges that are involved in the breakdown mechanism in air. This fact can be taken into account by considering the parameter g, that is a function of Vp: the 50% breakdown voltage (measured or estimated) at the actual atmospheric conditions, in Kilovolts, L: that is the minimum discharge sath in meters (equivalent to the inter-electrode distance), the relative air density 8, and the factor k calculated from the diagram in Figure 7. Vy, ah (12) 500-L-6-k Replacing the given values in our present problem, g is equal to 0,99 Exponents m and w are obtained using parameter g and Figure 8. The values are: m=w=1,0 ‘The final values for are: 8" = 0,726! 726 ky=k" =1,041=104 Ky Xk =0,73x1.04=0,76 The standard reference voltage is then calculated as: =¥ev _ 200, Vem, = 0,76 = 0.16095 ‘The measured value in the lab is lower than the measured value would be under standard conditions. 47 Question 8: What is an impulse voltage-time characteristic and how can you obtain it ? (See Figure 5.46 in Kufjel; Zaeng!) The impulse voltage-time characteristic is a property of any insulating device or structure that relates the time-to-breakdown and the breakdown voltage. It provides the basis for establishing the impulse strength of the insulation as well as for the design of the protection level against overvoltages. The impulse voltage-time characteristic is obiained under dynamic stress of the gap and the breakdown behaviour can be explained as follows: ‘The breakdown process under impulsive fields or dynamic fields differs from that under slow varying fields ot static fields. For the later there is no difficulty in finding an initiatory electron from natural sources: cosmic rays, detachment from gaseous ions, etc. In the case of impulsive voltages there is a time lag between the application of a voltage sufficient to cause breakdown and the actual breakdown. The two basic processes of concern are the appearance of avalanche-initiating electrons and the temporal growth of current after the criterion for static breakdown is satisfied. The static breakdown voltage Vs is the breakdown voltage obtained under the application of slowly varying fields or static fields, e.g. AC voltage 50 or 60 Hz or DC voltage. The total time 1 that elapses between the application of a voltage higher than the static voltage V« of the gap and the breakdown voltage V in Figure 15 from Alston [11], page 36 is the sum t, + ty; where f,, the statistical time lag of the gap which is the time that elapses between the application of a voltage bigger than the static breakdown voltage of the gap and the appearance of a suitably placed initiatory electron; and t, the formative time lag, that is the time required by the ionization process to generate a current of a magnitude which may be used to specify the breakdown of the gap. The statistical time lag is related to the statistical appearance of a free electron that can initiate the discharge. For that reason, this time can be reduced by irradiating the gap or the electrodes with a u. v. light or by increasing the applied overvoltage. ov Ccottapse of valiage Tine Figure 15. Breakdown on front of an applied vollage wave. t is the time that elapses between the application of a voltage bigger than the static breakdown voltage and the dynamic breakdown voltage. 48 Figure 16 taken from Kuffel, Zaengl, page 385 indicates the mentioned times t, +, and the overvoltage (Vp -Vs). vin Figure 16. Breakdown under dynamic or impulse voltage. t is the sum of t, + ty the statistical time lag t, and the formative time lag t;The time lag t, can be reduced by increasing the overvoltage (V, -V,). See Kuffel, Zaengl (2). (Figure reproduced by permission of the author) ‘The impulse voltage-time characteristic, "v-t characteristic", is obtained by applying a number of impulses of increasing amplitude and measuring the time lag with oscilloscope. Figure 17 is a schematic plot of such a characteristic. To construct this characteristic, the peak value of any impulse voltage wave is plotted with the correspondent time-to-breakdown. In the event of a breakdown in the tail the peak value is also plotted with the correspondent time-to- breakdown, as indicated in Figure 17. vie) Figure 17. Impulse voltage-time characteristic represents the dynamic breakdown behaviour of a gap. This characteristic relates the applied impulse voltage (1 to 5) and the time to breakdown (T; to T;.). The impulse voltage 1 does not produce breakdown. Notice that curve 2, the voltage value used in the v- characteristic is the peak value of the impulse voltage and not the voltage at the breakdown point. See Kuffel, Zaengl [2], page 387. (Figure reproduced by permission of the author) 49 Question 9: Define the terms: a) statistical overvoltage, b) statistical withstand voltage, d) risk of failure of a system a) Statistical overvoltage Two types of overvoltages can appear in a electrical system: External overvoltages produced by lightning and Internal overvoltages produced by switching procedures in the electrical system. Both are of statistical nature. For that reason, to characterise the overvoltages it is necessary to simulate the system and to compute a large number of overvoltages in order to determine, with some degree of confidence, the statistical overvoltage on a system. For the purpose of co-ordinating the electrical stress with the electrical strength it is convenient to represent the overvoltage distribution function in form of the probability density function and the insulation breakdown probability by the cumulative distribution function. The calculation of these characteristic takes a lot of computer and laboratory hours, and it is uneconomic to use the complete distribution function for the occurrence of overvoltages and for the withstand of insulation. For that reason, in insulation co-ordination calculations only the overvoltages that have 2% probability to produce breakdown are used, For the insulation the withstand level is assumed to be the 10% breakdown probability. Pol) Reference probat 2% Statistical (max) overvoltage V Figure 18. Reference probability for overvoltage. V, is the statistical overvoltage. The probability of occurrence of an overvoltage larger than V, és equal to 2%. See Kuffel, Zaengl [2], page 484. (Figure reproduced by permission of the author) ‘The "statistical overvotage” is known asthe voltage Ve, The probability of occurrence of an overvoltage larger than V, is equal to 2%. Figure 1 represents the probability of occurrence of overvoliages of such amplitude that only 2% (shaded area) has a chance to cause breakdown. It is important to mention that it is assumed that the overvoltages follow a Gaussian or normal distribution, b) Statistical withstand voltage The "statistical withstand voltage" represents the 10% breakdown probability of an insulation to have breakdown, Figure 19 represents the statistical withstand voltage Vw. The voltage Vy is so low that in 90% of applied impulses, breakdown does not occur. In our insulation co-ordination lab the voltage Vw is obtained using the probability paper. The 50% proba 50 breakdown voltage and its standard deviation are calculated with the up-and- down method. v Stotistical withstand voltege Figure 19. Reference probability for insulation withstand strength. Vy is the statistical withstand voltage. The probability of occurrence of a breakdown in the insulation is equal to 10%. See Kuffel, Zaengl [2], page 484, (Figure reproduced by permission of the author) d) Risk of failure of a system ‘The risk of failure of a system takes into account the probability functions mentioned before: the insulation withstand strength and the distribution of overvoltages. tu) PM) Insulation breakdown probability Overvottage disteibution Figure 20. Method of describing the risk of failure, Lis the probability density function: 7 {v-ve)20?| P(V)= 0)" Bae Va average value of overvoltage; Vx Kt value of overvoltage ; 0 standard deviation. 2) cumulative distribution function: ma(v= IPs) See Kuffel, Zaengl {2}, page 483. 51 Figure 20 lets us understand the concept of tisk of failure. At a certain overvoltage Vi. the probability of occurrence of a overvoltage is: p,(V,)du. ‘The probability that the insulation will break down due to a voltage between Vj and V; + du is the product: P,(V,)- po(V,)du. The "risk of failure" is obtained as the total probability of failure for the total voltage range as the integral: Re frn)nlvie —ae The risk of failure given by the shaded area under curve R in Figure 20. Figure 21 lets us understand the application cf the concept of correlation between insulation and protection levels in a similar case of our insulation co- ordination lab: an insulator of characteristic P;(V) protected by a spark gap of characteristic P,(V). The spark gap of lower breakdown strength protects the insulation string. The “risk of failure” of the insulator remains in the area R. ‘The breakdown probability of the gap or its ‘risk of failure" is obtained by integrating the product: Po(V,)- po(V av. This probability is denoted in Figure 21 as Fp(V). Notice the difference between this probability area and the probability of insulation damage: area R. The margin of safety corresponding to the voltage difference between the 50% breakdown values of the protecting and the protected gap can be seen in Figure 21. Poh. a) 10) 10 cop Inwuleton osk os cup breakdown probabiy AM Riskof favre A ° v or afery 7 wl of fale of protective gap BBE isk of filure of protected gop Figure 21. Distribution functions of breakdown voltages for protective gap and protected insulation both subjected to an overvoltage po(V). Pp Risk of failure of protective gap; R risk of failure of protected gap. 52 Question 10: The probability density junction of an over-voltage distribution that will be experienced by a system is Vo(v). The cumulative probability distribution function of the breakdown voltage of the system is Vi(v). If: Calculation of the risk of failure of the system. The risk of failure of the system is given by equation (44): R= | P(V,)-po(Ys)au (aa) The statistical overvoltage is described by the given equation: Vo(v)= ae which represents the curve that covers the shaded area in Figure 18. The cumulative probability distribution function of the breakdown voltage or the 90% withstand voltage of the system is: V0) = (rere which corresponds to a similar characteristic of that shown in Figure 20. The risk of failure is calculated by integrating the product: R= [PyVgdPQVg) da =f ove (1-0) 0 a ay = fle 622) ay 0 Hee eel 53 APPENDIX 2 EXAMPLE OF LAB ON INSULATION CO-ORDINATION Introduction ‘The present appendix includes an example of the calculations performed in the insulation co-ordination lab. This appendix has three parts. The first part contains the calculation of the correction factors for atmospheric conditions; the second the calculation of the breakdown voltage using the up-and-down method, and the third includes the results of the insulation co-ordination process, indicating the margin of safety that correlates insulation and protection levels. The equations used in this appendix follow the same numerical-order used in the first part of the present report. Figures used in the present appendix are numbered in a increasing order beginning with Figure 22. 1, Atmospheric condition and correction factors in the experiment. 1.1 Measuring devices Following instruments are used to measure the atmospheric conditions in the laboratory: - Temperature and humidity: Humidity and temperature indicator HMI 31, VAISALA, Finland. Ranges: Humidity: 0 - 100% relative humidity, Temperature: +5-+55 C. ‘This measurement is checked using an Aspiration Psychrometer, Assmann type No. 761 produced by the company Wilh, Lambrecht KG, Gottingen, Germany with wet and dry thermometers. - Pressure: Is measured with a conventional barometer with scales in millibars and millimetres of Hg. 1.2 Input data Gap length 08m Standard reference atmospheric conditio ‘Temperature Measured atmospheric conditions: Pressure 1037 mbar = 103,7 kPa Temperature (dry bulb) 5,0.C (wet bulb) tw= 10,8 C 54 1.3 Calculation of the absolute air humidity From the wet and dry temperature given inthe previous paragraph and Figure 22, itis possible to obtain the absolute air humidity as: h = 8 g/m: s/n? Re os © § » 8 BW 3 % ‘Ambient temperature - dry bulb temperature Figure 22. Caleulation of the absolute air humidity using Figure 9. 1.4 Air density correction factor ky k, depends on the relative air density 5 as indicated in equations (10) and (11): =6m (10) where: 273- 20C, 101,3 kPa, 15C, 103,7 kPa and: ty from these values: 3 = 1,04 [non dimensional] The exponent m will be obtained in paragraph 1.6. 3S 1.5 Calculation of the humidity correction factor ky ‘The humidity correction factor ky is expressed as follows: ky =k (12) where the factor k depends on the type of test voltage and it can be evaluated using Figure 7, see Figure 23. It can also be calculated aczording to the TEC 60-1 using the following equation: k=1+0,010 (441) (3) where: oh == 8 g/m 6 1,04 [non dimensional] From these values: k = 0,97 [non dimensional] ‘The exponent w will be obtained in paragraph 1.6. qa a 10 097) | J {vera ¥ Hui Range, gin? r Impae |t+on10 cays-1)] —tgh/8 as A Aerating] woo12 (h/8-1)| ag h/B ais i Diner fisoo (a/-1)] _agh/b.

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