NGN (Next Generation

Networks) – Selected Topics

Pavol Podhradský, Ján Dúha, Peter Trúchly, Juraj Blichár
 Authors: Pavol Podhradský, Ján Dúha, Peter Trúchly, Juraj Blichár
Title: NGN (Next Generation Networks) – Selected Topics
Published by: Czech Technical University in Prague
Compiled by: Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Contact address: Technicka 2, Prague 6, Czech Republic
Phone Number: +420 2 2435 2084
Print: (only electronic form)
Number of pages: 126
Edition: 1st Edition

ISBN 978-80-01-05294-5

Reviewed by: Stanislav Marchevský

Innovative Methodology for Promising VET Areas

http://improvet.cvut.cz

This project has been funded with support from the

European Commission.
This publication reflects the views only of the author, and
the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use
which may be made of the information contained therein.
 EXPLANATORY NOTES

Definition

Interesting

Note

Example

Summary

Advantage

Disadvantage
 ANNOTATION

Mutual cooperation of the various types of networks and their gradual integration into one
universal broadband multimedia network (next generation network, NGN) creates conditions
for a transmission of all types of media and provision of broad spectrum of the multimedia
services and applications. NGN concept has been evolving for a number of years either within
ITU or ETSI and this process still continues particularly based on a challenge to provide the
new services such as e.g. television (IPTV). This course offers selected topics covering
various technologies which can be integrated within next generation networks relating to new
communication technologies as well as technologies for digital video delivery.

OBJECTIVES

Main objective of this course is to acquire basic knowledge in the area of Next Generation
Network architectures and network components from point of current and future platforms.
Participants also become familiar with mobile and optical communication technologies as
well as with technologies for digital video delivery such as DVB and IPTV systems.
Moreover, they will dispose with knowledge about state of the art technologies like content
delivery networks (CDN) and hybrid broadband broadcast television (HBB TV) systems.

LITERATURE

[1] Podhradský, Pavol - Mikóczy, Eugen - Lábaj, Ondrej - Londák, Juraj - Trúchly, Peter. at
al. NGN Architectures and NGN Protocols, LdV IntEleCT, Educational publication,
210 pages, Published by ČVUT Praha, ISBN: ISBN:978-80-01-04949-5, September
2011, CD version

[2] Mikóczy, Eugen - Podhradský, Pavol - Matejka, Juraj - Lábaj, Ondrej - Tomek, R. -
Kadlic, Radoslav - Schumann, Sebastian - Massner, Schuman - Dungel, M. - Kotuliak,
Ivan - Mikula, J.: NGN Protocols, Handbook, LdV projekt Train2Cert, 2008, electronic
version

[3] Dúha, J., Galajda, P., Kotuliak, I., Levický, D., Marchevský, S., Mikóczy, E.,
Podhradský, P. at al.: Multimedia ICT technologies network platforms and multimedia
services, Published by STU Bratislava, 2005, ISBN 80-227-2310-X

[4] Ferkl, L., Šmejkal, L., Sládek, O., Podhradský, P., Dúha, J.: Teleinformatics in
Industrial Automation, LdV ELefANTC, Educational publication, Published by Vydal
AGROGENOFOND Nitra, 2007, ISBN 978-80-89240-14-2

[5] Mueller, M.S. : APIs and Protocols for Convergent Network Services, McGraw-Hill,
2002
[6] 3GPP TS 29.163; V6.7.0 „Interworking between the IP Multimedia (IM) Core Network
(CN) subsystem and Circuit Switched CS) networks“ (2005-06)

[7] Q.1912.5 “Interworking between Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) and Bearer
Independent Call Control Protocol or ISDN User Part”

[8] ETSI ES 283 027 V1.1.1 „Endorsement of the SIP-ISUP Interworking between the IP
Multimedia (IM) Core Network (CN) subsystem and Circuit Switched (CS)“(2006-07)

[9] http://www.etsi.org/tispan/tispan.htm

[10] EN 383001 V1.1.1 “Telecommunications and Internet converged Services and

Protocols for Advanced Networking (TISPAN) - Interworking between Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP) and Bearer Independent Call Control (BICC) Protocol or ISDN
User Part (ISUP) [ITU-T Recommendation Q.1912.5, modified]“ (2006-06)

[11] ITU-T Focus Group NGN, WG1, NGN Services and capabilities

[12] H.323 Tutorial: http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/h323/topic09.html

[13] ITU-T Recommendation H.323-1996, Visual telephone systems and equipment for area
networks which provide a non-guaranteed quality of service

[14] RFC3550: RTP: A Transport Protocol for Real-Time Applications, July 2003

[15] RFC2326: Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP)

[16] Wilkinson, N.: Next Generation Network Services, John Wiley & Sons, 2002

[17] ETSI TISPAN : TISPAN _NGN; Release 1: Release Definition

[18] O'Driscoll, Gerard. The Essential Guide to Digital Set-Top Boxes and Interactive TV. :
Prentice Hall, 2000. 320 pp. ISBN 0130173606

[19] DVB Standards & BlueBooks, http://www.dvb.org/technology/standards/

[20] Benoit, Hervé. Digital Television: Satellite, Cable, Terrestrial, IPTV, Mobile TV in the
DVB Framework. : Focal Press, 2008. 305 pp. ISBN 978-0-240-52081-0

[21] Sarginson, P.A. MPEG-2: Overview of the systems layer. : BBC Research &
Development Department, 1996.

[22] Bruin, Ronald – Smits, Jan. Digital Video Broadcasting: Technology, Standards, and
Regulations. : Artech House, 1999. 315 pp. ISBN 0-89006-743-0

[23] ETSI TS 102 034 Technical Specification. Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB);
Transport of MPEG-2 TS Based DVB Services over IP Based Networks. : ETSI,
2009.229 pp.
[24] SAUVOLA, D. HOWIE: Features in Future: 4G Visions From a Technical Perspective.
In: GLOBECOM 2001.

[25] POLITIS, Ch. - DIXIT, S.-HONG-YON LACH-USKELA, S.: Cooperative Networks

for the Future Wireless World. In: IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 42, No. 9,
September 2004, pp. 70-79.

[26] LEE, W.C.Y.: Mobile Communications Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Company,

USA, 1982.

[27] LEONARDO-IntEleCT (Internationalisation of Electronic Communications Training),

Action: Multilateral Projects-Transfer of Innovation 2009, LdV-
CZ/09LLP/LdV/TOI/134001, 2009-2011, Transfer of LdV-Train2Cert and InCert
projects results to IntEleCT consortium members countries

[28] DOBOŠ, L., DÚHA, J., MARCHEVSKÝ, S., WIESER, V.: Mobilné rádiové siete,
Žilinská Univerzita 2002, ISBN 80-7100-936-9.

[29] LEONARDO-InCert (International Certificates of Excellence in Selected Areas of ICT),

Action:Pilot Projects, Language Competences, Transnational Networks. LdV -
PL/06/B/F/PP/174 070, 2006-2009

[30] PATEL, G. - DENNETT, S.: The 3GPP and 3GPP2 Movements Toward an All-IP
Mobile Network. In: IEEE Personal Communications, August 2002, pp. 62-64.

[31] UMTS Forum Report No. 11: Enabling UMTS Third Generation Services and
Applications. Oct. 2000

[32] European Telecommunication Standard (ETS 300 392) TETRA

[33] GSM 95 – GSM Technical Specification, ETSI, Sophia Antipolis, 1995

[34] ETSI TISPAN NGN Release 2/3 specifications

[35] ETSI TISPAN Release 3 work item WI3208: TS 183 064 “NGN integrated IPTV stage
3” and WI6061: TS 186 020 “IMS-based IPTV interoperability test specification”

[36] M. O. van Deventera, P. Noorena, R. Kadlic, E. Mikoczy.:” Interconnection of NGN-

based IPTV systems”, Chapter in book “Fixed Mobile Convergence Handbook”, Eds.
by M. Ilyas, S. A. Ahson , plan to be published by CRC Press in July - September 2010,
ISBN: 9781420091700 (30 pages in English).”

[37] http://protocolbase.net/protocols/

[38] Alan B. Johnston, “SIP: Understanding the Session Initiation Protocol”, ARTECH
HOUSE, 2004

[39] Mikóczy, E., Podhradský, P.: ”Converged NGN based IPTV Architecture and
Services”, Chapter in book “Fixed Mobile Convergence Handbook”, Eds. by M. Ilyas,
 S. A. Ahson, published by CRC Press in 2010, ISBN: 9781420091700 (30 pages in
English).

[40] HbbTV Consortium – http://www.hbbtv.org

[41] http://www.hbbnext.eu

[42] EdgeCast Eyes CDN Federation,

http://www.lightreading.com/document.asp?doc_id=216113

[43] Level 3 Communications expands CDN capacity in Asia, CBR Networking, 2008,
http://networking.cbronline.com/news/level_3_communications_expands_cdn_capa
city_in_asia_311008

[44] Draft-previdi-cdni-footprint-advertisement, IETF/CDNI WG, 2012

http://www.potaroo.net/ietf/idref/draft-previdi-cdni-footprint-advertisement/

[45] MediaCloud Connect for Telcos, ISPs and MSOs, http://www.mediamelon.com/isp-

mediacloud.html

[46] Insight for Federated CDNs, http://www.skytide.com/products/insight-federated-cdns

[47] Dúha,J., Marchevský,S., Róka, R., Trúchly, P., Wieser, V.: Technológie v prístupových
sieťach a procesy ich integrácie do NGN, Vydavateľstvo STU v Bratislave, 2007, 76 s,
ISBN 978-80-227-2608-5

[48] IEEE Draft P802.17/D3.3, Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) Access Method & Physical
Layer Specifcations, 2004.

[49] ITU-T Recommendation X.87/Y.1324, Multiple Services Ring Based on RPR, October
2003

[50] ITU-T Recommendation G.872, Architecture of Optical Transport Networks, November

2001.

[51] ITU-T Recommendation G.709/Y.1331, Interfaces for the Optical Transport Network
(OTN), March 2003.

[52] Dúha, J., Kotuliak, I., Medvecký, M., Róka, R.: Technológie v transportných sieťach
a procesy ich integrácie do NGN, Vydavateľstvo STU v Bratislave, 2007, 81 s, ISBN
978-80-227-2609-2

[53] KRAUSS, O.: DWDM and Optical Networks, Siemens, Berlin and Munich, Publicis
Corporate Publishing, Erlangen, 2002.

[54] KARTALOPOULOS, S. V.: DWDM – Networks, Devices and Technology, IEEE Press
and Wiley, October 2002.
Index
1 NGN ..................................................................................................................................... 11
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 11
1.2 Requirements for NGN ............................................................................................ 12
1.3 Next Generation Network Concept .......................................................................... 13
1.4 NGN Softswitch Based Architectures ...................................................................... 17
1.5 IMS Based Architecture ........................................................................................... 19
1.6 IMS Based Architecture – P-CSCF .......................................................................... 21
1.7 IMS Based Architecture – I-CSCF ........................................................................... 22
1.8 IMS Based Architecture – S-CSCF .......................................................................... 23
1.9 IMS Based Architecture – Other Entities ................................................................. 24
1.10 IMS Based Architecture – Self-SIP in IMS ............................................................. 25
1.11 SIP in Service SS ...................................................................................................... 27
1.12 TISPAN .................................................................................................................... 28
1.13 Multimedia Services in NGN Environments............................................................ 30
1.14 NGN Service Capabilities ........................................................................................ 33
1.15 NGN Protocols ......................................................................................................... 34
1.16 Fundamental NGN Protocols ................................................................................... 36
1.17 Supporting NGN Protocols ...................................................................................... 41
1.18 Multimedia Services Control Protocol ..................................................................... 44
2 Digital Video Broadcasting Technology ........................................................................... 47
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 47
2.2 DVB Services ........................................................................................................... 48
2.3 DVB Standards ......................................................................................................... 50
2.4 DVB System ............................................................................................................. 52
2.5 DVB System - MPEG-2 systems layer .................................................................... 53
2.6 DVB System - Elementary streams .......................................................................... 54
2.7 DVB System - Packetized elementary stream .......................................................... 56
2.8 DVB System - Stream multiplexing ......................................................................... 57
2.9 Digital Video Broadcasting via Satellite .................................................................. 59
2.10 Digital Video Broadcasting via Terrestrial .............................................................. 61
2.11 Digital Video Broadcasting over IP (DVB-IPTV) ................................................... 62
3 Mobile Access Network Technologies .............................................................................. 63
3.1 Terrestrial Mobile Access Networks ........................................................................ 64
3.2 Public Mobile Cellular Networks ............................................................................. 65
3.3 GSM ......................................................................................................................... 66
 3.4 HSCSD and GPRS ................................................................................................... 67
3.5 3G and 4G Mobile Radio Networks ......................................................................... 68
3.6 Cordless Telephone (DECT) .................................................................................... 70
3.7 Private Mobile Networks.......................................................................................... 71
3.8 Ad-hoc Networks ..................................................................................................... 73
4 IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) ................................................................................. 75
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 75
4.2 Architecture of non-NGN Based IPTV .................................................................... 77
4.3 Architecture of NGN Based IPTV ........................................................................... 79
4.4 NGN Integrated IPTV (non-IMS) Architecture ....................................................... 82
4.5 IMS Based NGN IPTV Architecture........................................................................ 84
4.6 NGN Based IPTV Services ...................................................................................... 86
4.7 Protocols Used for IPTV .......................................................................................... 88
5 HbbTV (Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV) ................................................................... 89
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 89
5.2 Services .................................................................................................................... 92
5.3 HBB–NEXT ............................................................................................................. 93
5.4 Multiple-User Environment ..................................................................................... 94
5.5 Multiple Devices ...................................................................................................... 95
5.6 Identity And Trust .................................................................................................... 96
5.7 Standardization ......................................................................................................... 97
6 CDN (Content Delivery Network) .................................................................................... 98
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 98
6.2 Nowadays CDNs in World ..................................................................................... 100
6.3 Content Flow .......................................................................................................... 101
6.4 Control Layer ......................................................................................................... 102
6.5 Distribution Layer .................................................................................................. 103
6.6 Federated CDNs ..................................................................................................... 106
7 Optical Technologies ........................................................................................................ 107
7.1 Optical Networks .................................................................................................... 107
7.2 Optical Access Networks ....................................................................................... 108
7.3 Optical Access Networks – PON Concept ............................................................. 109
7.4 Metropolitan Optical Access Networks ................................................................. 113
7.5 Optical Transport Networks ................................................................................... 115
7.6 All-optical Transport Network Architectures......................................................... 117
7.7 Synchronous Optical Network ............................................................................... 119
7.8 Burst Switched Network ........................................................................................ 121
7.9 The WDM Technologies ........................................................................................ 122
7.10 The WDM Architectures ........................................................................................ 124
7.11 Development Trends in Transport WAN ............................................................... 125
 1 NGN

1.1 Introduction
Opinions on NGN definition may differ in some ways, but the main principles of
the NGNs (Next Generation Networks) were formed when the idea of NGN itself
emerged. The next two definitions from ETSI and ITU-T describe NGN in
substance.

According to ETSI NGN is a concept for the defining and establishing of the
networks, allowing a formal distribution of functionalities into separate layers and
planes by using open interfaces, making it possible for the service providers and
operators to create a platform which can be gradually developed thanks to
creation, implementation and effective management of innovative services [1],
[2]. ITU-T defines NGN as a network based on packet transfer, enabling to
provide services, including telecommunication services, and is capable of using
several broadband transmission technologies allowing guaranteeing QoS [1], [2].
The functions related to services are at the same time independent of the basic
transmission technologies. NGN provides unlimited user access to different
service providers. It supports general mobility providing the users with
consistency and availability of services.

11
1.2 Requirements for NGN

That is what definitions say, but probably eventual NGN advantages are of bigger
importance. Worth mentioning are some requirements for NGN it should conform
to [3]:

• High-capacity packet transfer within the transmission infrastructure, however,

with a possibility to connect existing and future networks (be it the networks
with packet switching, circuit switching, connection-oriented or
connectionless, fixed or mobile).

• Separation of managing functions from transmission features. Separation of

service provisioning from the network and ensuring the access via an open
interface and thus a flexible, open and distributed architecture.

• Support for a wide range of services and applications by using the

mechanisms based on the modular and flexible structure of elementary service
building blocks

• Broadband capabilities, while complying with the requirements for QoS

(Quality of Services) and transparency. Possibility of a complex network
management should be available.

• Various types of mobility (users, terminals, services). Unlimited access to

a variety of service providers.

• Various identification schemes and addressing which can be translated to the

target IP address for the purposes of routing in the IP network. (Flexible
addressing and identification, authentication).

• Converged services between fixed and mobile networks (as well as voice, data
and video convergence). Various categories of services with the need of
different QoS and classes of services (CoS).

• Conformance to the regulation requirements, such as emergency calls and

security requirements in terms of personal data protection.

• Cheaper and more effective technologies if compared to the current

technologies.

12
1.3 Next Generation Network Concept

Within the NGN concepts the standardization institutions are solving the
following issues and problems:

• existing networks migration towards NGN,

• development in the field of access technologies,

• connection of other networks to IP networks,

• provision of services and development of new ones,

• interworking in the area of addressing,

• interworking of signaling systems,

• roaming a mobility.

There are many conceptual models and reference architectures for both the
converged networks and VoIP architectures. Therefore, we have tried to find
common features and to define a suitable conceptual model for NGN.

An objective of the conceptual model [4] is to determine functional layers

(covering similar functionalities), their entities, reference points (interfaces) and
information flows between them. Such a model then can be mapped more easily
into the physical reference architecture (and it is independent of the physical
entities, i.e. components of the architecture).

In most analyzed cases the NGN conceptual model layers are from the point of
view of functionalities divided into independent parts as follows: access (some
reference architectures do not include it directly into the NGN model or replace it
by the adaptation one), transport (transmission, switching), control (call/sessions
control) and application (services).

13
 NGN applications and services,
Services and applications application server, features server,
Standardized media server
layer Open Interfaces
API, e.g. Parlay/OSA

nt
me
ge
Control MGC, Softswitch, Call Agent,

na
layer Gatekeeper
Ma
NGN layers

Standardized
Open Interfaces
er Transmission packet network,
Transport VOP, Media gateways (MG,
lay

layer TGW, RGW, AGW), Signalling

gateway (SG), Core packet network
Access to NGN

Access networks Fixed, Data, Cable, Wireless fixed,

layers Mobile, Satellite

Terminal Equipment

NGN conceptual model and its functional layers

Conceptual model layers

The access layer provides the infrastructure, for example an access network
between the end user and the transport network. The access network can be both
wireless and fixed and it can be based on various transport media.
The transport layer ensures the transport between the individual nodes (points)
of the network, to which are connected access networks. It connects physical
elements deployed in the individual layers It also enables the transport of different
types of traffic, media (signaling, interactive data, real-time video, voice
communication, etc.)
The control layer includes the control of services and network elements. This
layer is responsible for set-up/establishing, control and cancelling of the
multimedia session. It ensures the control of sources as well, depending on the
service requirements. One of the fundamental NGN principles is the separation of
control logic from the switching hardware.
The service layer offers the basic service functions, which can be used to create
more complex and sophisticated services and applications. It controls the progress
of the service based on its logic.

In the NGN it is required that the network control is not determined only by the
terminal equipment applications, but that the network intelligence may carry out
control over the network at all levels of the reference model. The network
management reference model implies the following tasks for the network
intelligence it has to ensure:

• Resource management (capacity, ports, and physical elements) and QoS in

access to the network and in the transport network, as necessary.

14
• Various media processing, encoding, data transfer (information flows).

• Management of calls and connection. Management and interworking of all

elements of the reference architecture.

• Service control.

NGN evolutional scenarios and multimedia services

As it has already been stated, the next generation networks are a vision of
a converged network, meeting all the requirements for a converged universal
packet network of the future. The main aim is to explain the deployment and
functions of the individual components within the network intelligence and to
give a brief characteristic of the individual layers of an NGN conceptual model.
After introducing the first real solutions, the next generation networks are
becoming a reality, not just a concept. That is why it is appropriate to look into
their evolution and to outline their future trends and the open issues to be solved
as well. Migration scenarios of different types of networks platforms are based on
the idea to integrate TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) and IP (Internet
Protocol) platforms into one converged NGN platform (from the point of network
infrastructure, as well as services, Figure below) [4], [5]. The separation of
processes of service control and providing from the physical network architecture
and extension of telephone and multimedia services are two different NGN
aspects.

New concepts and architectures of new generation of ICT (Information and

Communication Technology) based on converged ICT and NGN offer to operators
new opportunities to implement and provide wide spectrum of multimedia
services and applications [6].

PSTN &
Inteligent Networks

Hybrid Next
Internet & Data Internet VoIP
Networks
Networks telephony Networks Generation
Networks
(NGN)
VoCATV
Cable Networks

GPRS
Wireless & UMTS
Mobile Networks GSM

Migration scenarios

Therefore operators can move from vertical silo architecture where each type of
service has dedicated access, transport, control and application infrastructure per
service to horizontally oriented architecture more independent from provided
services. The main idea of NGN based IPTV is to include functionalities and

15
infrastructure required for any of multimedia NGN services specially here the
IPTV type of services to NGN architecture.

Vertical silo architecture Horizontal layered

per service multi-service architecture
Services
Existing and newly
Application emerging services
Mobile networks

Data/IP Networks
Services & Network Control

Terrestrial TV
Service

PSTN/ISDN
control (QoS, Security, IP Mobility)

Cable/
Transport Multi-Service IP
Backbone

Access Wireless Wireline

Access Access
End points

From vertical silos to horizontal NGN architecture

Table shows some of the main parameters and features of network concepts:
NGN, PSTN/IN (Public Switched Telephone Network/Intelligent Network) and
Internet (simplified and generalized interpretation).
Comparing the features of PSTN/IN, Internet and NGN

PSTN/IN Internet NGN

Multimedia
NO YES YES
services
QoS support YES (Voice) NO YES
Network
YES NO YES
intelligence
Intelligent
terminal NO YES YES
equipment
Integrated
supervision and YES NO YES
control
Reliability high low high
Service creation complex ad-hoc systematic
Simplicity of
medium high high
services use
Modularity low medium high
Time of service
long short short
introduction
Openness of
small high high
architecture

16
1.4 NGN Softswitch Based Architectures
NGN architecture based on software switching technology (softswitch) can be
supposed as first and unique evolution step in NGN, although there are more
modern architecture available nowadays (for example see chapter IMS based
architecture). However, it has built up philosophy of building of new NGN
networks and validated principles and features of NGN architecture and its
components towards its next evolution [3]. This architecture was the first which
drive was significantly motivated by telecommunication vendors, naturally
reflecting on massive development of VoIP protocol family and by
telecommunication providers demand to implement services more modern and
more efficient way. Due to this fact it is not strictly standardized and we can see
there several different attitudes of telecommunication vendors how to provide
some features, how to distribute components across network including distribution
of functional entities inside control element plane. Knowledge of this architectural
approach is important for understanding of next evolved architectures and
principles. Components of softswitch based architecture you can see in next
Figure.

SIP-T, BICC Media

Media Gateway
Gateway Controller
Controller
SIP

M SIP
Sigtran Media
Signaling server
MGCP
Gateway H.248 Application
server

SIG
MGCP MGCP
SS7 H.248 H.323
SIP

VoIP
Access
PSTN / IN TDM T RTP / RTCP IP / MPLS Gateway
Trunking
Gateway
(MGW) RTP MGCP Access
RTCP H.323 network
SIP

IP phone

Components of softswitch based architecture

Media Gateway Controller/call agent/softswitch: generally serves as

components for controlling of communication relations of users and other network
components; provides call routing, network signaling, billing, and other logical
functions.
Media Gateway: operate within transport plane, perform all function related to
media physical transport between different networks, media processing functions
(transcoding, echo cancellation, jitter managing), tones processing and
management of information transport

17
• Trunking gateways: interface between the PSTN/PLMN and VoIP network

• Residential gateways: provide traditional analog (RJ11) interface to VoIP

network

• Access gateways: provide traditional analog or PBX interface to VoIP

network

• Signaling network: provide change of signalization systems between PSTN or

PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) network to VoIP network
Application Server: it is obviously implemented to perform functionalities
specific to certain service, perform specialized service logic call control, also
includes more functionalities in terms of user web interface, end-points
management, etc. For example it can provide specific videoconferencing service,
Call Centre service or IP Centrex service.
Media Server: provides functionalities allow interaction between calling party
and application using end-point device. It provides Media Resource Functions
(tones detection, speech synthesis and recognition, compressions, media mixing,
etc.) and Media Control Functions – control of media functions (voice message
play management, conference bridge, fax messages management, etc.).

18
1.5 IMS Based Architecture
The initiative of organization institutions 3GPP within the specifications of
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) architecture (3GPP
within the UMTS architecture 5/6) has defined two domains:

• Circuit switching domain,

• Packet switching domain.

The packet switching domain extends the existing GSM network and other mobile
2nd generation (2G) networks by the CDMA-based access, while the packet
switching domain extends the abilities of the GPRS and other systems of 2.5
generation.

The subsystem for supporting multimedia services, telephony and IP-based

message sending, designed in the framework of the packet switching domain is
called IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem). IMS is based on the IP architecture for
multimedia and it was placed as a supporting network element to provide
standardized and universal services for mobile users. As it was one of the first
concepts on which all the standardizations institutions agreed and which
conformed to the NGN principles, it is becoming one of the reference concepts for
the fixed networks as well.

The 3GPP adopted SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) [7], which was originally
standardized by the IETF. In time, the 3GPP discovered that there were gaps
between the SIP, as initially defined by the IETF, and the features that were
required to provide full support for IMS networks. Because SIP did not address all
the requirements of IMS networks, the 3GPP subsequently defined dozens of new
SIP extensions that are specific to IMS networks, e.g. [8]. Collectively, these
extensions comprise the IMS SIP protocol, which is defined in the 3GPP
TS.24.229 standard. IMS SIP extensions, such as extended call control, presence
and instant messaging, extend the functionality of SIP on IMS networks.
By definition, SIP is not a protocol designed for a specific network or application.
To use SIP, you can define the usage profile. Usage profiles work much like
templates, and provide a varied, flexible environment for application development
in which you can easily develop an application suited to your particular
requirements can be easily developed. In effect, this is what IMS SIP did. The
IMS SIP usage profile is the most important in the telecommunications industry,
as it affects the entire telecom industry and not only mobile networks. The usage
profile used by IMS SIP is actually the most appropriate for NGN networks.
There are numerous IMS SIP extensions. The figure below illustrates a typical
IMS network. Note that all SIP interfaces are shown in orange and specify the
name of the interface between two adjoining entities. For example, the AS uses
the ISC interface.

19
 H.248
RTP
SIP
Diameter
Dh
Sh, Si
AS HSS SLF
Ut
IP ISC Cx Dx
Connectivity
Access
Network I-CSCF
Mw Mm
Mw

UE P-CSCF S-CSCF MRFC IP Multimedia

Gm Mw Mr Network
Gq Mg Mi Mw
Other IMS
GGSN PDF MGCF BGCF Network
Go Mj Mk Mb
Mp
SGSN Mn
SGW
CS Domain
RAN IMMGW
Mb
MRFP
Mb

SIP in IMS

20
1.6 IMS Based Architecture – P-CSCF
Proxy Call State Control Function (P-CSCF) performs the following functions:

• is the first contact point for UE within IM CN subsystem, forwards the

registration to the I-CSCF to find the S-CSCF and after that forwards the SIP
messages between UE and I-CSCF/S-CSCF,

• behaves as like a proxy in RFC 2543, i.e. accepts requests and services the
internally or forwards them possibly after translation,

• may behave also like a user agent (in RFC 2543), i.e. in abnormal conditions it
may terminate and independently generate SIP transactions,

• is discovered using DHCP during registration or the address is sent with PDP
context activation,

• may modify the URI of outgoing requests according to the local operator rules
(e.g. perform number analysis, detect local service numbers),

• detect and forward emergency calls to local S-CSCF,

• generation of charging information,

• maintains security association between itself and UE (User Equipment), also

provides security towards S-CSCF,

• provides the policy control function (PCF),

• authorization of bearer resources, QoS management and Security issues are

currently open in standardization.

21
1.7 IMS Based Architecture – I-CSCF
Interrogating Call State Control Function (I-CSCF) performs the following
functions:

• is the contact point within an operator’s network for all connections destined
to a subscriber of that network operator, or a roaming subscriber currently
located within that network operator’s service area. It can be regarded as
a kind of firewall between the external IMSS and the operator’s internal IMSS
network. There may be multiple I-CSCFs within an operator’s network.

• assigns a S-CSCF to a user performing SIP registration,

• routes a SIP request received from another network towards the S-CSCF,

• obtains from HSS the Address of the S-CSCF,

• charging and resource utilization,

• in performing the above functions the operator may use I-CSCF to hide the
configuration, capacity, and topology of the its network from the outside,

• additional functions related to inter-operator security are for further study.

22
1.8 IMS Based Architecture – S-CSCF
Serving Call State Control Function (S-CSCF) performs the following functions:

• performs the session control services for the terminal. Within an operator’s
network, different S-CSCFs may have different functionality.

• maintains session state and has the session control for the registered endpoint's
sessions,

• acts like a Registrar defined in the RFC2543, i.e. it accepts Register requests
and makes its information available through the location server (e.g. HSS),

• may also behave as a proxy or as a user agent as defined by RFC 2543,

• interacts with services platforms for the support of services,

• obtain the address of the destination I-CSCF based on the dialed number or
SIP URL,

• on behalf of a UE forward the SIP requests or responses to a P-CSCF or an I-

CSCF if an I-CSCF is used in the path in the roaming case,

• generates charging information,

• security issues are currently open in standardization.

23
1.9 IMS Based Architecture – Other Entities
Media Gateway Control Function (MGCF) provides the following functions:

• protocol conversion between ISUP and SIP,

• routes incoming calls to appropriate CSCF,

• controls MGW resources.

Media Gateway (MGW) provides the following functions:

• transcoding between PSTN and 3G voice codecs,

• termination of SCN bearer channels,

• termination of RTP streams.

Transport Signaling Gateway (TSG) provides the following functions:

• maps call related signaling from/to PSTN/PLMN on an IP bearer,

• provides PSTN/PLMN <-> IP transport level address mapping.

Multimedia Resource Function (MRF) provides the following functions:

• performs multiparty call and multimedia conferencing functions.

The S-CSCF, possibly in conjunction with an application server, shall determine
that the session should be forwarded to the PSTN. The S-CSCF will forward the
Invite information flow to the Breakout Gateway control function (BGCF) in the
same network. The BGCF selects the network in which the interworking should
occur based on local policy. If the BGCF determines that the interworking should
occur in the same network, then the BGCF selects the MGCF which will perform
the interworking, otherwise the BGCF forward the invite information flow to the
BGCF in the selected network. The MGCF will perform the interworking to the
PSTN and control the MGW for the media conversions.

24
1.10 IMS Based Architecture – Self-SIP in IMS
SIP and SDP as a protocol has been selected to some and IPv6 as the only solution
to all of the IP Multimedia Subsystem interfaces.
As shown by the figure below the basic SIP has been selected as the main
protocol on the following interfaces:

• Gm: P-CSCF – UE

• Mw: P-CSCF – S-CSCF and P-CSCF – I-CSCF

• Mm: S/I-CSCF – external IP networks & other IMS networks

• Mg: S-CSCF – BCGF Mk: BCGF – external IP networks & other IMS
networks
Eventually there may be differences in the SIP procedures of Gm and Mw
reference points. This implies that there is a difference in UNI and NNI interfaces.
The following procedures have been defined for the 3GPP IM subsystem in:

• Local P-CSCF discovery: Either using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol) or carrying address in the PDP context

• S-CSCF assignment and cancel

• S-CSCF registration

• S-CSCF re-registration

• S-CSCF de-registration (UE or network initiated)

• Call establishment procedures separated for

o Mobile origination; roaming, home and PSTN
o Mobile termination; roaming, home and PSTN

• S-CSCF/MGCF – S-CSCF/MGCF; between and within operators, PSTN in

the same and different network

• Routing information interrogation

• Session release

• Session hold and resume

• Anonymous session establishment

• Codec and media flow negotiation (Initial and changes)

• Called ID procedures

25
• Session redirect

• Session Transfer

SLF HSS AS

Dx Cx Cx

Gm Mw Mw
User End P-CSCF I-CSCF S-CSCF
SIP SIP SIP

Mg SIP

Mg
BCGF MGCF

Mc

MGW

SIP protocol in IMS

26
1.11 SIP in Service SS

The service subsystem and its connections to IM subsystem is shown in the

Figure. The S-CSCF interfaces the application development servers with SIP+
protocols. The SIP application server can reside either outside or within operator’s
network. The OSA capability server and Camel refer to already standardized 3G
and GSM based service generation elements.

SIP Application
Server

SIP

Cx SPx OSA API

Home Subscriber OSA Service OSA Application
Server S-CSCF
Capability Server Server

SIP

M
A
P
IM SSF

CAP

CAMEL Service
Enviroment

Service Subsystem connections with IMS

27
1.12 TISPAN

The TISPAN network architecture is based on 3GPP IMS, which is a basis for
control and provision of the real-time conversation services (based on SIP
protocol) [2], [9], [10]. 3GPP IMS architecture is extended in TISPAN NGN to
support various types of access networks, such as xDSL, WLAN, etc.

TISPAN architecture is extended mainly by:

• Access networks control (QoS, access control and authentication),

• Co-ordination of various control subsystems via one transport network to

control resources,

• Interworking and interoperability with public networks (legacy networks),

• Separation of the application layer from the connection control layer and the
transport layer,

• Independence of access technologies from the call control layer and the
application layer.

For services on other than SIP basis, the TISPAN NGN architecture can include
other subsystems defined in TISPAN. Figure illustrates the NGN components and
functionalities.

28
 Applications
Based on
3GPP IMS
IP Connectivity
Other Multimedia
Access Network User Components
and related functionality Profiles
Streaming Services
(RTSP based)
PSTN/ISDN Emulation

Other networks
(SIP-I based)
IP Multimedia
Component (Core IMS)
(SIP based)

Network Attachment Resource and Admission

Functionality Control Functionality
GW
Legacy NASS RACS
Terminals

Customer
Networks Core Transport
Access Transport Network
Network
NGN
Terminals
3GPP IP-CAN
3GPP Terminals

Architecture of a TISPAN NGN

29
1.13 Multimedia Services in NGN
Environments
NGN Service Categorization
In parallel with standardization processes in the area of NGN architectures, the
working groups of standardization institutions concentrate their work also to
standardization activities in the area of new multimedia services and applications,
like:

• categorization of NGN services and applications,

• service development processes, service implementation, service control and

provisioning in the NGN environment, etc.

ITU-T Service Categorization

In the FGNGN WG1 Services and capabilities document the NGN services and
applications categorization structure is introduced [11]. Actual set of services
defined by ITU-T is introduced in this document:

1. Interactive-based services

• Real-time Conversational Voice services,

• Point to Point interactive multimedia services, including interactive real-time

voice, video, white board and other media,

• Collaborative interactive communication services – multimedia conferences

with files and applications sharing, e-learning, games, etc.

• Push to talk over NGN – PoN,

• Instant messaging (IM) and Messaging services (SMS, MMS, etc.),

• Group Messaging,

• Existing PSTN/ISDN emulation and simulation services,

• Data communication services (data transmission, fax, e-mail box, etc.),

• Data retrieval applications – telesoftware,

• Online applications (e.g. E-business),

• Voice control services.

30
2. Non Interactive-based Services

• Content delivery services (audio video streams creation, digital TV

distribution services, financial information distribution, distribution of
professional and medical images, e-publishing, etc.),

• Sensor Network services,

• Push services,

• Remote control/tele-action services, such as home applications control,

telemetry, alarms etc.),

• Broadcast/Multicast Services,

• Over-the-Network Device Management.

3. Both Interactive-based and Non Interactive-based Services

• Virtual Private Network (VPN) services,

• Hosted and transit services for enterprises) – IP Centrex, etc.,

• Information services (e.g. traffic services-situation on the road, train/buss

tickets, advanced push services, etc.),

• Presence and general notification services,

• 3GPP Release and 6/3GPP2 Release A OSA-based services.

4. Network Services

• Basic Transport Service (BTS),

• Enhanced Transport Service (ETS).

5. Regulated Services

• Emergency Telecommunication Services – citizen-department, department-

department, department-citizen,

• Lawful Intercept Services,

• Broadcast Emergency Alerting Services.

31
ETSI Service Categorization
1. IP multimedia services

• IP multimedia applications,

• PSTN/ISDN simulation services – 3rd class,

• Instant messaging service,

• Presence service,

• Location service,

• Video Telephony service.

2. PSTN/ISDN Emulation services

3. Regulated services for both IP multimedia and PSTN/ISDN emulation

• Lawful Intercept Services,

• Emergency Call Services,

• Malicious Communication Identity Services,

• Anonymous Communication Rejection Services.

32
1.14 NGN Service Capabilities
NGN platform should be able to provide the capabilities (infrastructure, protocols,
etc.), so that it should be possible to develop, deploy/implement and manage all
types of services (known and expected) [1], [12]. This involve the possibility to
apply different types of media (audio, video, text, data), different types of
encoding techniques, data services, conversation services, user and group
transmission services, messaging services, real-time and Non-real time
Conversational Voice services, data communication services, delay sensitive
services, delay non sensitive services, etc. These types of services required the
different speed of communication connection (from some kbps till hundreds of
Mbps), which are required for the given service. These requirements have to be
supported by the capabilities of the transport technologies.

One of the expected advantages of the NGN platform is the user comfortable and
flexible access and control of multimedia services. At some time the NGN should
provide the effective interface for service development, service providing and
service management.

33
1.15 NGN Protocols
NGN protocol stack
The best way to show the functions of individual protocols in the hierarchy of
NGN protocols platforms supporting voice transport over the packet networks or
controlling of elements in NGN architecture is shown on Figure below with
depicting the individual protocols and the OSI reference model layers they belong
to.

application daemon
signaling quality of services media transport
media encapsulation
(H.261, MPEG)
H.232 SIP RTSP RSVP RTCP
RTP

TCP UDP transport

IPv4,IPv6 network

kernel
PPP AAL3/4 AAL5 PPP link

Sonet ATM Ethernet V.34 physical

Protocols for NGN

The protocols for the converged technologies and NGN platform can be divided
into the following groups [4], [10], [12], [13], [14]:

• call control protocols (VoP signaling from the telecommunication point of

view): SIP/SDP, H.323 [10], [12], [13],

• media gateway control protocols (components of the distributed VoP

architecture): MGCP, Megaco/H.248 (protocol approved by both IETF and
ITU-T),

• protocols for signaling transport: SIGTRAN, BICC, SIP-T, SIP-I,

• transport protocols: RTP, RTCP (in the sense of media transfer not RM OSI,
as otherwise TCP/IP or UDP/IP is used for all),

• protocols for QoS support: RSVP, RTCP (RTCP is a transport one, but allows
QoS support as well).
Other support protocols:

• DHCP, ENUM, DSN, COPS,

34
• RTSP (Real-Time Streaming Protocol) – protocol for creation of streams in
the real time,

• IGMP/MLD.

35
1.16 Fundamental NGN Protocols
SIP protocol
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is an application-layer control protocol that
handles the setup, modification, and tear-down of multimedia sessions. Media can
be added to (and removed from) an existing session. SIP is used in combination
with other protocols to describe the session characteristics to potential session
participants. SIP is based on a request and response transaction model similar to
HTTP. Each transaction consists of a request that invokes a particular method or
a function on the server and at least one response.
SIP supports five facets of establishing and terminating multimedia
communications:

• User location: determination of the end system to be used for communication;

• User availability: determination of the willingness of the called party to

engage in communications;

• User capabilities: determination of the media and media parameters to be

used;

• Session setup: "ringing", establishment of session parameters at both called

and calling party;

• Session management: including transfer and termination of sessions,

modifying session parameters, and invoking services.

SIP is a text-based protocol suggested and standardized in RFC 3261. SIP has
been proposed as a part of a unit based of following protocols.

36
 Conference Shared Conference Remote
Audio Video Discovery & Setup
Control Application Control

Reliable SDP HTTP HTTP

SCCP RTP/RTCP Multicast SIP SAP SMTP RTSP
RSVP
UDP TCP

IP / IP Multicast

Underlying technologies

SIP protocol stack

Consequential protocols

A lot of SIP functions depend from other protocols. SIP defines establishment,
termination and call modification and SIP use other protocols as Real-time
Transport Protocol (RTP) for transporting real-time data and providing QoS
feedback, the Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) for controlling delivery of
streaming media, the Media Gateway Control Protocol (MEGACO) for
controlling gateways to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and the
Session Description Protocol (SDP) for describing multimedia sessions.
Therefore, SIP should be used in conjunction with other protocols in order to
provide complete services to the users. However, the basic functionality and
operation of SIP does not depend on any of these protocols.

SDP
SDP (Session Description Protocol) [4] is intended for describing multimedia
sessions for the purposes of session announcement, session invitation, and other
forms of multimedia session initiation.

When initiating multimedia teleconferences, voice-over-IP calls, streaming of

video, or other sessions, there is a requirement to convey media details, transport
addresses, and other session description meta data to the participants. SDP
provides a standard representation for such information, irrespective of how that
information is transported. SDP is intended to be general purpose so that it can be
used in a wide range of network environments and applications. However, it is

37
not intended to support negotiation of session content or media encodings: this is
viewed as outside the scope of session description.

An SDP session description includes the following:

• Session name and purpose

• Time(s) the session is active

• The media comprising the session

• Information needed to receive those media (addresses, ports, formats, etc.)

As resources necessary to participate in a session may be limited, some additional
information may also be desirable:

• Information about the bandwidth to be used by the session,

• Contact information for the person responsible for the session.

RTP
The goal of this part is to present RTP (Real Time Transport Protocol) [14] in the
way that it will be easily understandable also by a beginner. It contains deeper
description of the main RTP protocol, but also protocols that stand next to RTP,
cooperate with it and fill its gaps. The structure of RTP will be shown, to
introduce the protocol body to the reader with a close view of its parts and theirs
functions.

RTP provides end-to-end delivery services suitable for applications transmitting

real-time data, such as audio, video or simulation data, over multicast or unicast
network services. Real-time means that not only correct results are required, but
also a sufficient time in which the result is delivered. That is why the delivery of
the audio or video data is typically delay sensitive. According to this RTP use
timestamp and control mechanisms for synchronizing different streams with
timing properties.

RTCP
RTCP (Real-time Transport Control Protocol) [4] is an application layer protocol
designed to control of data delivery in real-time and to measure the QoS. It is
defined in RFC 3550 published in July 2003. RTP protocol uses the RTCP
protocol, which transports the following additional information for the
management of the session. RTCP is based on the periodic transmission of control
packets to all participants in the session. The underlying protocol must provide
multiplexing of the data and control packets, like UDP protocol that allows the
multiplexing of RTP data packets and RTCP control packets. RTCP protocol
requires the sending of information periodically by the participants of the session.

38
RTP packets only transport user’s data, whereas RTCP packets only transport in
real time the supervision.

Protocol RTCP performs these principal functions:

• Provide the information about the quality of the session (QOS) by means of
feedback, which include the number of lost packets, the time return ticket and
the gigue.

• Keep a trace of all the participants by a persistent transport-level identifier

called CNAME (Canonical Name). Because SSRC (Synchronization Source
Identifier) may change if a conflict or program restart occurs.
Control the media flow and adapt it to all the participants of the RTP session. By
having each participant send its control packets to all the others, each can
independently observe the number of participants. This information is used to
calculate the rate at which the packets are sent.

DIAMETER
DIAMETER [4] is a member of “AAA” protocols collection, derived from its
predecessor RADIUS protocol. It is a peer to peer protocol , used for handling
service requests such as user validation, network resource control, connection and
session management, wireless or roaming charging, billing applications etc.

Diameter sessions consist of exchange of commands and AVPs between servers

and clients and unlike Radius, uses peer to peer architecture rather than more
classic client/server scheme. Each node may initiate a message (request) at any
time, as example, server may abort a service to specific user. Diameter is defined
in terms of base protocol and a set of applications. This design allows protocol to
be extended for new access technologies. The base protocol provides basic
mechanism for reliable transport, delivery and error handling.

MEGACO/H.248
This protocol has been established to cover the need of IP networks and services
to interoperate with traditional networks (e.g. PSTN) and provide the same
services over both types of networks (IP, Traditional). This enables separation of
call control from media conversion. Megaco/H.248 is defined as master / slave
architecture based protocol which is used for communication between MGC
(Media Gateway Controller, sometimes called a call agent or softswitch, which
dictates the service logic of that traffic) and one or more decomposed MGs
(Media Gateways), which converts circuit-switched voice to packet-based traffic.

39
Megaco/H.248 instructs an MG to connect streams coming from outside a packet
or cell data network onto a packet or cell stream such as RTP. Megaco/H.248 is
similar to MGCP from an architectural standpoint and the controller-to-gateway
relationship, but Megaco/H.248 supports a broader range of networks, such as
ATM.

SIGTRAN
In view of functionality and performance the user make high demands on modern
telecommunication networks. Using IP (Internet Protocol) signaling messages
will be transmitted over TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) or UDP (User
Datagram Protocol). These transport protocols are not designed to meet the
requirements given by a signaling system used in a circuit switched network like
PSTN/ISDN (Public Switched Telephone Network/Integrated Services Digital
Network). So the working group SIGTRAN was founded by the IETF (Internet
Engineering Task Force) to develop a new protocol, based on IP, in consideration
of given requirements by the existing switched telephone network.

This protocol, named SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) has some
advantages in comparison to TCP. The SCTP offers a fundament to initiate and
run secured transport connections using IP networks to transmit signaling
information. Based on SCTP, several adaptation layers enable the transmission of
upper layer protocols, i.e. ISUP (ISDN User Part), SCCP (Signaling Connection
Control Part) and DSS1 (Digital Subscriber System No. 1).

40
1.17 Supporting NGN Protocols
DHCP
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) evolved from the BOOT protocol
(BOOTP). Both protocols are described in RFC 2131 (DHCP) and RFC 951
(BOOTP).

DHCP includes all features known from BOOTP, that means an Internet Software
Consortium (ISC) DHCP includes a BOOTP server and additional features along
with a dynamic address assignment. Both protocols act for IP address assignment
to nodes.

Therefore, the un-configured IP node sends a request for an IP address to a DHCP

server. Then this DHCP server assigns an IP address to the client. Furthermore,
this answer includes e.g. domain-name, IP address of the name-server or IP
address from a router. The transmission of all configuration parameters will be
proceeded automatically, depending of the chosen method.

DNS
The DNS (Domain Name System) protocol is used to link IP addresses with
domain names. Usually, it is more convenient for people to remember names
(ngnlab.eu) than IP addresses (147.175.103.213). IP addresses are required by the
third layer of the network model to deliver the application data through networks.
This chapter will highlight SIP/IMS specific use of DNS and not introduce the
protocol itself.
Besides only storing a mapping between IP address and domain name, DNS
contains additional information using various record types. DNS can handle for
example certificate records, location information records, service information
records and much more.

HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is application protocol using the
request/response mechanisms and is one of the most used protocols on Internet for
web services.

A client sends a request to the server in the form of a request method, URI, and
protocol version, followed by a MIME-like message (Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions) containing request parameters and body content over a TCP
connection with a server (HTTP session). Server is replay with response
containing status line including the message's protocol version and a success or
error code, followed by a MIME-like message containing server information,
metadata and body content.

41
XML
In the following sections, XML (Extensible Markup Language) and its concept
will be introduced. The protocol has been standardized by the W3C (World Wide
Web Consortium). This section will not go into the very details of the protocol
itself. It will rather provide the basics to understand the protocols which are based
on XML. XML is a main mechanism for representing structured data. The data in
XML documents is represented by a tree with nested elements. Each note in the
tree represents an element.

Elements can have attributes, but they are not mandatory. Furthermore, so called
“leaf” elements can contain text content. XML documents require a declaration
with version and encoding mandatory at the beginning. After this declaration, the
elements and the XML encapsulated data itself follow. The elements, which can
be used, are defined by the XML schema or DTD (Document Type Definition). As
different and more definitions can be used within one document, XML is
extensible.

XCAP
XCAP (XML Configuration Access Protocol) allows clients to read, write and
modify data stored in XML format on a server. This can be done by mapping
XML document sub-trees and element attributes to HTTP URIs which grants
direct access, as for the reason that all content discussed so far is held in XML
“containers”. The XML files are stored on a so called XDMS (XML Document
Management Server), which is usually a normal HTTP server. The standard
describes the interface between client application and the server managing the
XML data (e.g. presence resource lists or authorization data for presence
management).

SOAP
SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) is also an application layer protocol. The
protocol is used for the communication between applications over the internet.
SOAP uses HTTP as lower transport layer protocol.

The advantage using HTTP is its support by many applications (browsers, servers,
mobile phones) and its easy and cheap implementation. Other protocols for
remote communication do not join this advantage.

42
CORBA
CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture) is also a standard that
defines a protocol for remote procedure communication. It is defined by the OMG
(Object Management Group). The core of CORBA is the so called ORB (Object
Request Broker). The ORB is the middle-ware that describes the client/server
relationship for the communication. The ORB is responsible to:

• Intercept a call from the client

• Find the correct object

• Pass it the parameters

• Invoke its method

• Return the results to the client

Thus, the process seems transparent to the client. It uses only the communication
via CORBA. The realization of the actual distributed application does not need to
be specified any further. The only standard required for the actual communication
is the communication standard.

VoiceXML
VoiceXML is designed for creating audio dialogs that feature synthesized speech,
digitized audio, recognition of spoken and DTMF (Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency)
key input, recording of spoken input, telephony, and mixed initiative
conversations. Its major goal is to bring the advantages of Web-based
development and content delivery to interactive voice response applications.

The top-level element is of the XML description file is the <vxml> tag. It can
contain two types of dialogues:

• Forms – To present information and gather input

• Menus – To choose the next step

43
1.18 Multimedia Services Control Protocol

MPEG is a standard for "the generic coding of moving pictures and associated
audio information. The function of MPEG is to take analogue or digital video
signals and convert them into packets of digital information that are more
efficiently transported on modern networks This process of converting audio and
video signal to digital form is called compression (or coding). Opposite process is
called decompression (or decoding) when digital audio and video signal is
converted to analog form. MPEG is a system for compression and encoding of
digital multimedia content. MPEG standard compresses the video and audio into
much less information as it needed before, consuming less transmission
bandwidth. Level of compression depends on bandwidth requirements and also on
level of quality.

MPEG 1
The default size for an MPEG-1 video is 352x240 at 30 fps for NTSC (352x288 at
25 fps for PAL sources). These were designed to give the correct 4:3 aspect ratio
when displayed on the rectangular pixels of TV screens. For a computer-based
viewing audience, 320x240 square pixels give the same aspect ratio. MPEG-1
delivers roughly VHS quality at 30 frames per second at 1.5 Mbps. It can be
scaled up or down in size or bit rate, but range between 1.2 – 1.5 Mbps is the
optimal bit rate.

MPEG 2
MPEG-2 needs about 6 Mbps to provide the quality movie on DVDs, although
data rates up to 15 Mbps are supported. 720x480 is the typical 4:3 default
resolution, while 1920x1080 provides support for 16:9 high-definition television.
MPEG-2 is now arguably the most successful new consumer standard ever
relative to its acceptance in the marketplace. Presently it is the predominant
standard for existing digital video equipment worldwide. Based on MPEG-2,
digital television (both standard definition, SD, and high definition, HD) has
become the norm for broadcasting, replacing analog broadcast in all but standard
terrestrial and cable television.

MPEG 4
MPEG-4 and H.264 have a common heritage within the ISO and ITU standards
committees. As a result the overall coding approach is quite similar. Both
algorithms are based on a common heritage of DCT based, hybrid image coding,
first used in H.261 and MPEG-1. A number of comparison tests have been
performed between H.264 and MPEG-2/MPEG-4 on standard MPEG test
material. For standard resolution (704x480, 60 Hz interlaced) video sequences to

44
achieve a PSNR level of 28, NBA must be coded at a rate of 5 Mbps using
MPEG-2, but only 1.8 Mbps using H.264.

MPEG Audio Compression

MP3 is actually part of the MPEG-1 standard. The audio portion of the MPEG-1
specification contains three different compression schemes called layers. Of the
three, Layer 3 provides the greatest audio quality and the greatest compression. At
8 kbps, MP3 will sound like a phone call – intelligible, but nothing that would
ever be called high-fidelity. Good-quality music starts at about 96 kbps, but
generally 128 or 160 kbps to would be closer to "CD quality".

RTSP
RTSP (Real-Time Streaming Protocol) is an application-level protocol for control
over the delivery of data with real-time properties and its goal is streaming of
multimedia over multicast and unicast in "one to many" applications. RTSP
provides an extensible framework to enable controlled, on-demand delivery of
real-time data, such as audio and video.

Sources of data can include both live data feeds (e.g. Live TV channels) and
stored clips (e.g. Video On Demand). RTSP establishes and controls single or
several data delivery time synchronized media sessions, provide a means for
choosing delivery channels such as UDP, multicast UDP and TCP, and provide
a means for choosing delivery mechanisms based upon RTP and control
mechanism of streams upon RTCP. RTSP is not tied to RTP and RTCP. There is
no notion of an RTSP connection – instead, a server maintains a session labeled
by an identifier. An RTSP session is in no way tied to a transport level connection
such as a TCP connection.

During an RTSP session, an RTSP client may open and close many reliable
transport connections to the server to issue RTSP requests. Alternatively, it may
use a connectionless transport protocol such as UDP. The streams controlled by
RTSP may use RTP, but the operation of RTSP does not depend on the transport
mechanism used to carry continuous media. The protocol is intentionally similar
in syntax and operation to HTTP/1.1 so that extension mechanisms to http can in
most cases also be added to RTSP.

IGMP
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP), allows Internet hosts to
participate in multicasting. IGMP allows users to announce their intention to join
particular multicast groups. These groups are identified by their unique Class-D IP
addresses.

45
When a workstation wants to participate in a multicast group, it sends an IGMP
“join” message to its local router. If multiple routers exist on a single segment,
they can mutually elect a “Designated Router (DR)” to manage all of the IGMP
messages for that segment. After a router receives one or more “joins” for
a specific group, the router will forward any packets destined for that group to the
appropriate interface. The router should only forward one copy of the data packet
per interface.
If multiple receivers exist on a single interface they will all receive the same
information by monitoring common multicast MAC and IP addresses. If the
multicast group has receivers spread over several router interfaces, the router must
replicate the packet and deliver a copy to each interface that contains registered
users. This type of transmission activity can be immense, which is why IGMP is
highly useful as a stateful protocol. The designated router regularly verifies that
the attached workstations want to continue to participate in their respective
multicast groups. The designated router sends periodic “queries” to the receivers.
These queries are transmitted to a well-known multicast address (224.0.0.1) that is
monitored by all systems. If the receivers are still interested in that particular
multicast group, they will respond with a “membership report” message. When
the router stops seeing responses to queries, it will delete the appropriate group
from its forwarding table.

MLDv2
MLD (Multicast Listener Discovery) is de facto derivate of IGMP used in IPv6
networks. It is control layer protocol used to control multicast stream flow in IPv6
network. MLD and MLDv2 protocols are designed for use only in IPv6 network.
This protocol is follower of IGMP in IPv4 networks used for joining some
network node to multicast group. Multicast groups are separated by IP addresses.
Procedure of joining some multicast group on network is to announce next routing
point, which must be directly attached to some of the requester interfaces.

Node asks it need packets provided for some particular group. If router point have
not access to some multicast group data, it must also join it on other interface(s)
and forward this data to requester. Router point is sending request to next router
point. This process must recursively continue to router point, where source of
multicast group data is connected. Note that a multicast router may itself be
a listener of one or more multicast addresses; in this case it performs both the
"multicast router part" and the "multicast address listener part" of the protocol, to
collect the multicast listener information needed by its multicast routing protocol
on the one hand, and to inform itself and other neighboring multicast routers of its
listening state on the other hand.

46
 2 Digital Video Broadcasting Technology

2.1 Introduction
Television (TV) has undergone a lot of important milestones throughout the years
of its evolution starting with a primitive mechanical television (1884) through
electronic analog (black and white, color) televisions to digital television (in
standard and high definition resolutions). Digital television provides a new way of
video distribution and broadcasting. It is a new media that offers a lot of
innovations with a new operation model. The advent of digital television
significantly contributes to a convergence of computers, television and Internet.
Benefits for customers are noticeable: a treat from a picture in high definition
resolutions, audio in CD (Compact Disc) quality, hundreds of TV channels and
plumbless access to a wide range of new services. These digital technologies
allow various companies, operators, providers and distributors to offer a variety of
useful and profitable services such as a high data rate Internet access, offline as
well as online games, video on demand, video and audio (songs) streaming,
electronic newspapers and others.

Digital television utilizes a big advantage it offers a high speed data transmission
enabling it to provide a rich multimedia content. In comparison to analog
television one analog TV channel can carry a group of digital TV channels
including radio and data channels. How is it possible? Thanks to digital video
compression techniques and modulations.

In order to allow digital television come into being cooperation among a several
companies was required. Some of the best-known companies are: the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), Digital Video Broadcasting
(DVB) consortium (project), the Advanced Television Systems Committee
(ATSC) and other.

Digital video broadcasting project originated in years 1991 to 1993 and grouped
about 80 members. Currently, about 300 organizations and companies form this
project (consortium) in more than 30 countries. Project member portfolio covers
electronic device producers, network operators, broadcasters, software companies
and regulatory bodies [18].

47
2.2 DVB Services
From the end user point of view every new technology is interesting when it
offers a lot of new more quality services in comparison with existing
technologies. DVB technology is not more the passive medium. It enhances an
analog TV technology by a picture quality, data services and interactivity.

The DVB technology provides three basic (core) services:

• video broadcasting (television in standard or high definition resolutions),

• audio broadcasting,

• data broadcasting.

However, except a TV program distribution the DVB technology also allows to

distribute to users varied data services. These services can be divided into two
groups: interactive and pseudo-interactive. In case of pseudo-interactive (or one-
way interactive) services data for such services are transmitted via transmission
channels along with TV channels and after decoding they are stored in a memory
of the end user device (set-top-box). The user has options to select and browse
information in a memory. In case of interactive (fully or two way interactive)
services a return channel is used by the user to choose and control data services
provided by operator. The return channel is realized by a separate transmission
medium.
Among classic pseudo-interactive services we can include:

• electronic news (news agencies, text and graphical information),

• webcasting (data service providing information from selected Internet sites;

usually public interest information),

• weather forecasts,

• information from reservation systems (hotels, time-tables, city public

transport, etc.) without options of an active access,

• information from betting systems,

• software and games distribution,

• exchange information systems (stock, commodity and option exchanges,

financial inter-bank markets, etc.),

• auction systems,

• advertisement information,

• distance learning and trainings.

48
The interactive services cover:

• Internet access,

• interactive distance learning,

• electronic business, interactive advertisements,

• reservation systems with active access (control),

• video-services (video on demand, video rental services),

• games,

• electronic banking,

• betting, quizzes, contests, voting.

49
2.3 DVB Standards

DVB represents a set of open standards maintained by DVB Project (consortium)

covering broadcasting of digital video or in general digital TV.

These standards are published by a Joint Technical Committee (JTC) of

standardization organizations ETSI, CENELEC (European Committee for
Electrotechnical Standardization) and EBU (European Broadcasting Union).
Therefore, they are internationally accepted. DVB was first adopted in Europe
(United Kingdom).

Currently, except Europe DVB is also used in Australia, Asian, African and
American countries. In addition to DVB, there are other standards for digital
television, such as ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee) employed
e.g. in Canada, US or Mexico or ISDB (Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting)
implemented in Japan [18].

DVB standards cover all aspects related to broadcasting and processing of digital
video and audio at a physical and data link layer of a communication model. In
details, these standards define modulations and forward error coding, multiplexing
of several services into one transport stream, interfaces, etc. A lot of these aspects
closely relate to transmission media used for broadcasting (terrestrial, satellite or
cable). Some of standards that can be found within DVB are as follows [19]:

• DVB-S – broadcasting digital TV via satellite (S)

• DVB-S2 (satellite 2nd generation) – broadcasting high definition TV via

satellite

• DVB-SH – broadcasting IP based media to handhelds (mobile, PDA) via

satellite

• DVB-T – broadcasting digital TV via terrestrial (T) environment

• DVB-T2 (terrestrial 2nd generation) – broadcasting high definition TV via

terrestrial

• DVB-C – broadcasting digital TV via cable (C) systems

• DVB-RCS/RCT/RCC – return (interaction) channel via

satellite/terrestrial/cable

• DVB-H – broadcasting digital TV to handhelds (H) via terrestrial

• DVB-MC/MS – broadcasting digital TV via microwave systems

• DVB-Data – transmission of high speed data services

• DVB-SI – defines a service information (SI), i.e. data structures (so called
metadata)

50
• DVB-CSA – defines a common scrambling algorithm (CSA)

• DVB-CI – defines a common interface (CI) between a removable conditional

access module and receiver

• DVB-NIP – defines Network Independent Protocols (NIP) to support

interactive services

• DVB-MHP – definition of a java-based Multimedia Home Platform (MHP)

for development of end user applications
There are also other DVB standards not mentioned in the list above covering
a subtitling, measurement, multiplexing, 3D-TV, IPTV, source coding, etc. but
most of them are out of scope of this chapter.

51
2.4 DVB System
DVB-S, DVB-T and DVB-C are best known as well as most used technologies for
accessing the digital content. As was already mentioned, those standards define
the physical and data link layer of an entire distribution system. All multimedia
content is grouped and transmitted through MPEG transport streams (TS).

If we talk about the multimedia content namely its video and audio content it is
good to realize that source video and audio signals are analog signals and they
have to be converted into a digital form (analog-to-digital converter) to utilize
benefits of a digitization. However, the analog video signal that needs
a bandwidth of 5 MHz in case of a standard European 625-line TV signal with
720 pixels per line amounts to 414,720 (576 x 720) pixels per picture (frame).
After digitization a black and white video signal (with 25 pictures per second)
would require a rate of about 83 Mbps (or about 250 Mbps for color video). Those
bit rates are too high and almost inapplicable in real communications (e.g. over
satellite). Fortunately, video signals as well as audio signals contain a lot of
redundant information that can be removed via suitable compression technique.

Using the compression the original rate can be decreased (based on quality and
resolutions) to several Mbit/s. For this purpose the Moving Pictures Experts
Group (MPEG) was formed with a task to develop efficient compression
techniques for a work with moving clips in computers and their transport between
computers or other devices. DVB technology adopted an MPEG-2 compression
standard [20]. It supports several video qualities and resolutions as well as it
provides high flexibility.

As was already said above DVB is set of standards covering not only video/audio
compressing but all functions of an entire DVB system for digital video delivery
to end users or other providers. Such DVB system has to multiplex all input
streams (video, audio, data signals) into one final transport stream and send it via
given transmission medium in a proper form. Next parts of this chapter will deal
more with this stream processing.

52
2.5 DVB System - MPEG-2 systems layer

MPEG-2 systems layer defines how various elementary streams representing one
or multiple programmes are multiplexed together. The elementary streams can
carry video, audio, data, and other information. This multiplexing process creates
a single (multi-programme transport) data stream that can be stored or transmitted
via a physical medium. In general, the MPEG-2 systems layer performs more
functions:

• multiplexing,

• packetization,

• timing and synchronization,

• conditional access.

First two functions are described below the characterization of other two can be
found in [22]. In this chapter we use a term “programme”. It has a lot of meanings
but we will think of it as a single broadcasting service or channel.
Figure below shows a block diagram illustrating all main operations that have to
be done at a transmitter side to broadcast a digital content to users [20]. At first all
programmes have to be encoded and multiplexed. The resulting transport stream
is equipped by error protecting codes and modulated to a carrier. At a last phase
the signal is amplified and sent to the transmission medium.

Programme 1 MPEG
coding

Forward
Multiplexing error Filtering, Up-converting,
(+ scrambling) correction modulation amplification

MPEG
Programme N
coding
Sending via
broadcasting
Source coding and Channel coding and network
multiplexing modulation

Main operations performed at transmitter side

53
2.6 DVB System - Elementary streams

The elementary streams can carry the MPEG-2 compressed video and audio, data,
timing and system information, conditional access information and other
programme related data. They represent components of the programme.

The simplest type of a programme is a radio service that consists of a single

elementary audio stream. On the other hand a classical television service consists
of three elementary streams: one stream carries coded video, second stream
carries coded stereo audio and third contains teletext.

However, there is no problem to offer a television service containing one stream

with video in the standard definition, one stream with high definition video,
a several audio streams in different languages and even more streams for teletext
in different languages [21].
Let’s consider an uncompressed digital video stream that consists of a sequence of
frames. Each frame (e.g. 830 kB for 625 lines) representing an uncompressed
video picture is called a presentation unit. MPEG-2 coder encodes and compresses
every presentation unit making an access unit. The access units as can be seen in
Figure below are not of the same size. Their size depends on original picture
complexity and a type of each frame whether it is an I, P or B frame [20]:

• I (Intra) frames/pictures are coded in similar way like JPEG pictures without
any reference to other video pictures. They contain all information needed to
reconstruct original pictures.

• P (Predicted) picture is coded in reference to a preceding (I or P) picture. This

picture only carries information about a change (motion) between preceding
and actual picture.

• B (Bi-directional) picture is similar to the P picture but it is also coded in

reference to a picture which follows.
An output of the MPEG-2 coder is a sequence of the access units and this
sequence constitutes the elementary video stream. In the similar way an
uncompressed audio stream of audio presentation units is encoded by the MPEG
coder to a sequence of audio access units forming so the audio elementary stream.

54
uncompressed digital video stream presentation units

Frame/picture Frame/picture Frame/picture Frame/picture

MPEG-2
coding

access
units
compressed compressed compressed compressed
I frame B frame B frame P frame

Principle of video sequence coding

55
2.7 DVB System - Packetized elementary stream

The MPEG-2 multiplexer does not directly multiplex sequences of the access
units from its inputs. All elementary streams consisting of the access units are
transformed into so called packetized elementary streams (PES). Each PES
consists of PES packets as can be seen in next Figure [21].

elementary stream consisting of access units (video, audio, etc.)

packetized elementary stream (PES)

PES payload PES packet
PES header

Principle of forming the packetized elementary stream

Every PES packet contains a header and a payload. The payload is a field where
data of the original elementary stream are grouped in one after another. There is
no limitation on synchronization of PES starts and access unit starts. That means
a starting byte of the access unit can occupy any place (byte) of the PES packet
payload. Several small-sized access units can even be put in the payload of one
PES packet. PES packets can have a variable length but up to 64 kB in size. There
is certain freedom for designers of the MPEG-2 multiplexer to utilize this
flexibility. They can decide to apply PES packets of a fixed size or variable size to
ensure that first byte of any PES packet payload will carry first byte of some
access unit. Every PES packet header contains a start code (to identify a start of
the PES packet), an identifier of stream (within programme), a length of the PES
packet and its header, optional header subfields and flags (indicators of subfields).

56
2.8 DVB System - Stream multiplexing
When the elementary streams are in a form of packetized elementary streams they
are multiplexed (grouped) by the MPEG-2 multiplexer with all other special
information to form a resulting contiguous byte data stream. Figure below depicts
a principle of multiplexing in the MPEG-2 systems layer.

elementary streams
for one (more)
programmes

service
information MPEG-2 Forward modulator/
multiplexer error channel
protection adapter
private
information

conditional
access
control

synchronization

The principle of multiplexing

As can be seen from Figure an output multiplexed signal contains a lot of other
information [21]:

• Time stamps – time stamps allow to ensure a synchronization among

elementary streams (e.g. video and audio streams of one programme have to
be synchronized).

• Tables – tables contain service information (SI) data which identify

programmes within a multiplexed signal (multiplex) as well as their
elementary streams, network parameters, etc. There are also tables for
a conditional access related to scrambling but this type of control was not
defined by MPEG (or DVB).

• Other support data – support data for additional data streams whose content is
not specified by MPEG. These data streams can carry contents of various data
services, other system information (e.g. modulation) or e.g. teletext.

The MPEG-2 multiplexer can produce two types of multiplex streams:

a programme or transport stream. The programme stream (PS) is intended for the

57
storage and retrieval purposes of digital content from storage medium (e.g. DVD)
and it relies on error-free environments. Unlike the programme stream the
transport stream (TS) enables to multiplex more programmes and is not so much
susceptible to errors because it is protected by FEC (Forward Error Correction)
code. Therefore, TS is suitable for broadcasting via terrestrial or satellite
environments. The other difference is that TS consists of transport packets with
fixed length of 188 bytes.

58
2.9 Digital Video Broadcasting via Satellite

Satellite systems provide the operators with a lot of benefits in offering services to
end users. A natural ability of satellites to distribute signals to large areas of the
Earth surface has been utilized for broadcasting of analog television and radio for
decades. This ability mainly relates to geostationary satellites that are placed in
a geostationary orbit i.e. in latitude about 36000 km (over the equator).

Each geostationary satellite appears for Earth user fixed in the sky so there is no
need for an antenna tracking system.

On the other hand satellite transmissions suffer from error prone satellite links
therefore every signal before transmitting has to be adapted for such difficult
propagation conditions [20].

A communication payload of satellites consists of transponders. Their function is

to receive, restore, amplify, process, re-modulate and sent signal back to Earth.

Currently, the conventional geostationary satellite contains about 20 to 30

transponders and a single transponder can most often have a bandwidth ranging
from 26 to 72 MHz (e.g. 36 MHz on the ASTRA 3A satellite).

In case of the satellite analog television a single transponder took care of one TV
channel. Applying the DVB technology to the satellite systems a single 33 MHz
satellite transponder can carry 4 to 8 TV channels or 150 radio channels. A noisy
satellite channel required from DVB project to define for the DVB-S systems
efficient modulation techniques and error correction codes [22].

59
 Satellite

HPA LNB

Video
DVB-S
U/C Receiver Audio

DVB-S DVB-IP IP Data

Modulator Receiver

Video
MPEG
Audio Multiplexor
encoder

IP Data
IP Gateway

Simplified block diagram of DVB-S system (platform)

Figure above depicts a block diagram of a general DVB-S system. The MPEG-2
multiplexer multiplexes video and audio PES streams from the MPEG-2 coder
with data in PES data streams coming from an IP gateway in the same way as was
written in previous section. The multiplexed transport stream is randomized to
spread its spectrum within its bandwidth. The randomized transport stream is
equipped by an outer code (Reed Solomon code with a coding rate 188/204),
interleaved (to make it more resistant to block errors) and encoded by an inner
FEC code (convolutional code with a coding rate from 1/2 to 7/8). In the next
phase the encoded transport stream is modulated on a carrier. DVB-S uses QPSK
(Quaternary Phase Shift Keying) modulation, DVB-S2 uses 8-PSK, 16-APSK or
32-APSK (Amplitude and Phase Shift Keying) modulation. Afterwards, the signal
is up-converted to a carrier from Ku band, amplified by a HPA (High Power
Amplifier) and radiated by an antenna system to the satellite. The receiver
performs opposite actions to demultiplex particular video, audio and data streams
and to provide them to users using some end device (e.g. TV set, PC).

60
2.10 Digital Video Broadcasting via Terrestrial

The first commercial DVB-T service was implemented by the Digital TV Group
in United Kingdom in 1998. Currently, digital TV broadcasting replaces classical
analog TV broadcasting all over the world.

The DVB-T technology utilizes the same signal processing as was already
described above to prepare the multiplexed transport stream. Differences that are
relating to DVB-T standard are due to terrestrial transmission medium used for
broadcasting and can be summarized as follows [18]:

• Transmission medium – DVB-T services are aired terrestrially within the

ultra-high frequency (UHF) band covering frequencies in a range from 300
MHz to 3 GHz. DVB-T shares the same band with analog TV therefore its
implementation is based on releasing of frequencies occupied by analog
television channels. An 8 MHz channel carrying single analog TV channel can
carry within DVB-T several digital TV and radio channels with other
information.

• Transmitting and receiving platform – DVB-T technology can reuse the same
infrastructure used by analog terrestrial television (the existing broadcasters
and transmitters). At the receiving side users have to buy a new end receiver
that can be in the form of a standalone device – set-to-box – or as an
integrated receiver decoder (IRD) in TV set.

• Modulation schemes – a DVB-T transmitter (as well as a receiver) realizes

almost the same operations on the transport stream so as was already
described in chapter about the DVB-S system. The transport stream is also
randomized, protected by error correction codes (RS and convolutional),
interleaved, modulated (mapped into a base band). Valid modulation schemes
are QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). Because
a terrestrial environment is characterized by a multipath propagation, i.e.
transmitted signals travel to destination (a receiver antenna) via several paths
(due to reflections on various geographical objects: buildings, trees, hills,
ground, etc.) another modulation/multiplexing method was defined for DVB-
T. It is OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing). This method
transmits a signal on a number of carrier frequencies [20].

61
2.11 Digital Video Broadcasting over IP (DVB-
IPTV)

DVB-IPTV means a delivery of DVB-Services over IP-based networks [23].

DVB-IPTV standard (formerly DVB-IPI as DVB – Internet Protocol
Infrastructure) provides a set of technical specifications to cover the delivery of
DVB MPEG-2 based services over bi-directional IP networks, including
specifications of the transport encapsulation of MPEG-2 services over IP and the
protocols to access such services.

Another important issue is the specification of the Service Discovery and

Selection (SD&S) mechanism for DVB MPEG-2 based audio/video services over
bi-directional IP networks to define the service discovery information and its data
format and the protocols.

Content
Provider

Home Network
Gateway

Service Internet Home

(Broadband Network
Provider
IP Network)

IPTV Set-top-box

Basic IPTV architecture

A basic IPTV architecture can be seen in Figure above. The IPTV architecture and
technology in detail will be characterized in IPTV section.

62
 3 Mobile Access Network Technologies
In this part, there is introduced basic technology specification of the mobile
wireless access networks, which provide access to a communication network by
radio channel.

In term of used technology and radio channel, mobile access networks can be
divided into two main units:

• Terrestrial access networks – access points are situated in the surface of the
Earth and the communication with them is realized over radio channel in the
lower part of the atmosphere.

• Satellite access networks – access points are either terrestrial stations or

satellites in their orbits. Communication is realized by passing of radio signal
through different layers of the atmosphere.

Mobile communication networks were taken as a part of wired telecommunication

networks since the beginning of the mobile communication networks
development. For this reason communication protocols and interfaces were solved
to satisfy requirements of networks interconnection. Characteristic element of the
public and private radio communication networks is mobile switching center,
which is the gateway to the wired telecommunication network [24], [25].

63
3.1 Terrestrial Mobile Access Networks

In the present there are used for this type of the networks so called trunking radio
networks – the pack of channels is conjugate into common pool. The pool of
channels is used together by several users [26], [27]. Trunking principle is the
basic principle of all modern radio communication networks. These networks are
divided into:

• Public radio networks (e.g. GSM, UMTS).

• Private radio networks (e.g. MPT 1327, SMARTNET, TETRA, TETRAPOL).

Besides this division, radio networks can be divided according to their coverage:

• Large coverage radio networks (full-area public networks),

• Medium coverage radio networks (local private networks),

• Small coverage radio networks (local ad-hoc networks).

64
3.2 Public Mobile Cellular Networks
Public mobile cellular networks are typical representatives of large coverage radio
networks. The basic communication principle is the individual connection
(dispatching type of network traffic is not considered). This type of network is
designed as a network with a big throughput (a lot of parallel connections). The
representatives of these networks are cellular mobile networks, e.g. GSM and
UMTS. Mobile communication system is created of two basic networks types.

MS Mobile communication system

Access Support External

network network systems
MS

Mobile communication system

Radio Access Network (RAN) performs basic functions of connection control with
a mobile terminal. RAN consists of fixed base stations (access points), which are
interconnected by fixed or radio relay links.

Support networks of the mobile communication systems are divided into two
classes:

• Core Network. This is the part of the system, which provides an

interconnection. Support network of the first and the second generation is
created only by this core network.

• Backbone Network. This network provides the interconnection of several

networks and consists of equipment and transmission paths to offer high-speed
data transfer rates. For this reason, backbone network is often called as high-
speed data network. In 3G-support network, core network and backbone
network are usually used together.

65
3.3 GSM

GSM standard (Global System for Mobile Communication) is, at the present, the
most extended public mobile communication system of the second generation
(2G), which has almost global coverage [28], [29]. GSM standard uses for
creation of multiple accesses the combination of FDMA and TDMA technology
(frequency division and time division multiple access) where one carrier signal is
divided in time domain to eight time slots. Combination of frequency duplex and
time duplex (FDD/TDD) is used for assurance of the duplex transmission and for
uplink (from mobile to base station) and downlink (reversal way) directions
separation. The width of channels is 200 kHz. Two frequency bands are devoted
to GSM system, with width of 25 MHz (890 – 915 MHz for downlink and 935 –
960 MHz for uplink), i.e. the system provides up to 124 FDMA channels or 992
transmission channels. Between upper and lower band is the guard band, but this
band is usually not used. Besides GSM 900 standard, the standard called GSM
1800 (before DCS 1800) is also used in Europe. GSM 1800 is a derivate of GSM
900 standard and it is used as a complement system of GSM 900 for providing the
huge intensity traffic in hot spots (shopping centers, administrative centers, bus
and railway stations, airports and moreover).

Um Abis
databases
OMC
BSC
GMSC

MS MSC
EIR
BTS
SMSC VLR
BTS BSC AUC
MS BTS Other
BTS PLMN
HLR
GMSC

BSC MSC
MS
SMSC VLR
BTS BTS

GSM network architecture

66
3.4 HSCSD and GPRS

GSM common data services are based on the circuit switching technology with
maximum transmission data rate 9.6 kbps. In the upgrade of GSM network (phase
2+) ETSI defined new and faster style of data transfer. One of the main characters
of GSM phase 2+ is GPRS and HSCSD standard. While the HSCSD standard
represents application of circuit switching in data transfer, GPRS standard is the
technology, which uses packet switching. Both standards represent 2.5-generation
standard.

In HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data) standard is the data transfer
realized without error correction code. This makes possible to increase data rate
from 9.6 kbps to 14.4 kbps per channel. HSCSD standard also supports time slots
combination and final data rate is a combination of 9.6 kbps or 14.4 kbps
channels. Operators will be able to provide variant data rates from 9.6 kbps to
57.6 kbps. Operators can achieve data rates up to 200 kbps with the data
compression. HSCSD standard has possibility to provide an asymmetric and
symmetric data traffic. In term of resource allocation, HSCSD standard is not
effective for packet data transfer, because resources are allocated only in time
when the packet transfer is required.

ETSI made a standardization of a new service in GSM phase 2+. This service is
based on a packet switching and it is called GPRS (General Packet Radio
Service). GPRS speeds up data rates in GSM network, provides a better
compatibility with LAN and WAN networks and with Internet. GPRS network
uses radio resources only in a case when the data are received or sent. GPRS
network provides immediate connection and high level of throughput. Whereas
GSM system was originally designed for voice services, the main goal of GPRS
network is to offer the access to standard data networks, working under TCP/IP
protocol. GPRS network is a sub network of such networks.

67
3.5 3G and 4G Mobile Radio Networks
The main reason for 3G systems application it is the tendency of worldwide
standard, which can provide convergence of the wired and mobile networks. The
idea lies in elimination of 2G systems incompatibility by using of existing wired
and mobile networks infrastructure. We expect, that system should be global,
which could be achieved by using enhanced cellular system. All types of networks
(satellite – global coverage, terrestrial – macro-, micro- and picocell) will be
covered by mentioned 3G system [27], [28].

The development of UMTS standard tended to such a solution, that revolution

tendency of UMTS network development was abandoned. Evolution steps from
2G to 3G systems were preferred, especially the use of a high developed GSM
standard [30], [31], [27]. There were three crucial decision accepted with creation
of infrastructure:

• To use the multiple accesses based on CDMA (Code Division Multiple

Access) for radio interface.

• To create the UMTS terrestrial mobile access network by ATM transfer mode.

• To use the enhanced GSM 2+ network elements for UMTS core network.

Because the GSM standard is widespread global world standard of 2G networks,

in the first step it is expected to use a connection of UMTS Terrestrial Radio
Access Network (UTRAN) to existing but newly regenerated core GSM network.
That means that GSM network will serve users of both technological standards in
parallel. Radio subsystem of GSM network and UTRA network will work as two
different, but cooperating and subsidiary access networks in generic network
infrastructure, which can be regarded as GSM and also UMTS core network. The
difference between them lies in the modernization of the some nodes of GSM
network for UMTS network. In the second step the core network will be changed
to IP network. 3G network architecture is on Figure below.

In different prognosis of 2G to 3G networks evolution, there exists standard,

which is often marked as intermediate step between GSM and IMT-2000
networks – standard EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution). EDGE
belongs to 3G standards, but on the contrary to UMTS standard, it needs
essentially minor changes in radio access network and core network. For this
reason, EDGE represents a simpler solution for operators of existing GSM
networks. The EDGE actually represents 2nd generation of HSCSD and GPRS
systems. This standard is not able to provide transfer rates up to 2 Mbps. The
advantage of this standard lies in its simpler application without requirement to
change the infrastructure. For this reason a lot of operators consider IMT-2000
like ideal standard for newly built 3G networks.

68
The 4th generation of mobile communication systems (4G) probably won’t be
based on the creation of a new standard, because it is clear, that neither 2G nor 3G
networks were successful in enforcing the worldwide global standard. The main
motive for building a 4G system, which is often called as system beyond 3G
(B3G), will be probably tendency of economic success based on users’
requirements for new and advanced services with high security and reliability.
Also, there will be a tendency for budget-priced and easy terminals with long
lifetime of batteries.

CS CN
Node B
UE RNC 3G MSC GMSC PSTN
databases
VLR HLR/EIR/AUC
UE Node B

Node B
RNC 3G SGSN GGSN PDN
PS CN
UE Node B

G3 network architecture

69
3.6 Cordless Telephone (DECT)

DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone) standard is a boundary milestone

of the long-term development. Since from beginning, this system was designed
for wireless telephony in consideration of GSM standard and with connections to
other networks. It is not proper to consider this system as a replacement of already
existing networks, but as creation of a bridge between wireless and cellular
technologies.

DECT is full digital system, transparent for PSTN services, providing mobility in
user’ premise (home, work). Coverage is realized by picocells with small cells
(radius approximately 50 m), channel selection and channel allocation is dynamic
(DCS/DCA), handover of calls is without interruption, provides roaming. Data
transmission rate is 24 to 522 kbps (2 Mbps in the future). System has big
capacity (10 000 Erl/km2). This system is very flexible, because of predefined
profiles, which enable cooperation with other networks. Primarily, DECT system
was prepared for radio coverage of small areas and for cooperation with GSM
network, which is not constructed for such small areas.

databases
PP FP VDB HDB

PP PABX ISDN G GSM

PP FP

PP
DECT network structure

70
3.7 Private Mobile Networks

A lot of financial resources for building of an infrastructure by means of base

stations and antenna towers were often required to invest for necessity of radio
communication coverage in the case of the classical radio networks by little and
major users. Public cellular networks have a certain specifications, which support
team works of subscribers, but with certain restrictions. This absence is mostly
sensitive in work of some organizations like Police, Customs Service, emergency
teams [27], [28].

The solution of these problems lies in private radio trunking networks, which are
able to use the same network for several organizations with preserving of secrecy
and guarding of data and voice transfer. These networks provide an access to
radio channel without great investment because they are able to join one or more
systems and to invest to necessary mobile and portable terminals.

Standard for analog private radio networks in Europe represents the group of
standards MPT 1317. This group consists of four standards, from which the best
known is MPT 1327 one. TETRA (Trans–European Trunked Radio) is the first
European opened digital radiotelephony standard defined by ETSI in 1995 [32].
The same way, as public mobile networks were progressively substituted by GSM
network in a mobile radiotelephony, digital networks based on new standard will
substitute today’s analog terrestrial mobile private networks. TETRA network
architecture is in following Figure.

71
 Central
BS Network
BS Management
TETRA
infrastructure DXT NMS

DXTc DXT

Another
BS
TETRA
BS BS BS
Network

PSTN Remote line

ISDN station
PDN (Dispatcher)

TETRA network architecture

Among basic services of the network belongs the distribution of information for
specific group or for each network user (analogy to paging networks). The other
services include: e-mails, fax and SMS messages, transfer of data files, and safe
access to databases or transport of information from GPS system.
From technological aspect, TETRA consists of two base standards:

• TETRA Voice + Data,

• TETRA Packet Data Optimized (TETRA PDO).

TETRA V + D is a radio trunking network standard for voice and data transfer.
TETRA PDO is special version of packet transfer in radio channel, permitting of
high effective using of limited radio spectrum. TETRA PDO can realize quite
high transfer rates (36 kbps), and with superior methods of compression, system
can transfer video sequences (for example: police can send signal of video record
from the place of accident to police station, where it can be analyzed). System
TETRAPOL, like TETRA is a digital private communication network, but it
works on different multiple access method (TETRA – FDMA/TDMA,
TETRAPOL – FDMA). Standards are not compatible.

72
3.8 Ad-hoc Networks

Ad-hoc network is a network created without any central control or management.

This network is based of mobile nodes, which use wireless interface to transfer of
data packets. Nodes in network are able to work as routers and they can route
packets for other nodes. Ad-hoc connection is based on peer-to-peer type of
communication. To provide a connection among mobile units it is not used any
cable infrastructure and there is no central control to manage a creation of
connections and to support the coordination and communication. Furthermore,
there is no intervention from operators.
In general, in ad-hoc networks all devices, which share a common space, will also
share common channel and they will be equivalent in this sharing each other.

These networks can be applied for network creation in such areas, where there is
no infrastructure available, for example by emergency operations in far-away
areas and for wireless public access in metropolitan areas – access nodes can serve
as fixed relay stations for packet routing among each other [27]. On local level
they are used for connection of notebooks, palmtops, e.g. at the conference,
creation of home network, creation of personal networks and also for
surroundings monitoring and realization of WLAN networks.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) as a main representative of Ad-hoc

networks can operate in two configurations, either as independent configuration
(ad-hoc) – stations communicate directly and there is no necessity to install any
supporting infrastructure, or as distributive system configuration – configuration
expects existence of access point (AP), which at the same time works as a base
radio station and as a data bridge. Wireless local networks can be divided into
radio technology networks and infrared (IR) technology networks. IEEE 802.11
(WiFi), HIPERLAN and Home RF standards belong to radio technology networks
[28].

73
Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology represents the next radio technology of a short range, it has
to be able to work in ad-hoc networks, which can be either independent, or works
like a part of IP networks in all over the world, eventually as combination of both
possibilities. The goal of this technology is to replace the cable connection among
electronic devices by radio channel by means of cheap radio chip. The key
characteristics of this technology are robustness, small complexity, low power and
small price. Bluetooth works in ISM (Industrial-Scientific-Medical) band of 2.4
GHz and uses frequency hopping to eliminate of interference and fading.
Coverage is about 10 meters (possible connection through walls of building),
transmission rate is 780 kbps (one-direction transmission is 721 + 57.6 kbps,
symmetric transmission is 432.6 kbps).

The following table presents bit rates survey, which networks technologies of
particular generations can ensure.
Mobile technologies and their bit rates

Maximal bit rate

Distribution of technology downlink/uplink
[Mbit/s]
2G/2.5G/2.75G GPRS 0.080/0.040
EDGE 0.236/0.236
EDGE Evolution 1.9/0.9
3G/3.5G/3.9G UMTS 0.384/0.384
HSPA 14.4/5.75
HSPA+ 56/22
LTE 360/80
Flash – OFDM 15.9/5.4
WiMAX 144/35
1 Gbit/s fixed
4G LTE Advanced connections and 100
Mbit/s mobile
WiMAX IEEE 802.16m
Others WiFi 802.11b,g 54/54
WiFi 802.11n 600/600

74
 4 IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)

4.1 Introduction
The end user finally percepts the quality and IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)
service portfolio, as well as the usability in order to satisfy his requirements.
Several actors are responsible for the delivery of the content from their originators
such as TV stations and studios but probably also from other users. In this section
the IPTV domains and services are described together with the explanation of how
the standardization develops from requirements to architecture.

End to end chain for delivery of the IPTV content to the end user usually contains
these 4 main domains that are involved in the provision of an IPTV service
(Figure below):

• Content provider,

• Service provider,

• Network provider,

• End-user.

User Network IPTV Service Content

Equipment Infrastructure Platform Source

Network Service Content

End user
Provider Provider Provider

IPTV Domains

The four IPTV domains definitions could be provided by the ITU-T or ETSI
TISPAN specification [34], [35], [9]. Most of the standardization bodies follow
the same schema to produce end to end solution specifications that apply also to
the IPTV. First of all it is necessary to specify all requirements for the service but
also from the UE and network capabilities point of view (stage 1). Secondly it is
the specification of the functional architecture, functional entities and their task,
relevant reference point among the functional entities as well as high level
procedures for services (this is done usually in stage 2). In the final stage 3 it is

75
required to conclude all details needed from the implementation perspective as for
example the protocol models and detailed protocol procedures.

There are two main aspects of the IPTV. First one is technological one resulting to
the IPTV architecture and second one is the user’s perspective aspect which can
be seen from the provided IPTV services and user experience.

From the user’s perspective is not really important what architecture the IPTV
service provider selects, but it is surely more important which services are
provided. Most of the existing non-NGN solutions provide only basic set of
services like linear TV (live TV channels), video on demand (VoD), and some of
them also PVR (Personal Video Recording).

New NGN based IPTV solution should therefore provide much more services,
features but most important also new user experience in watching TV with more
interactivity, personalization, mobility and last but not least comfort in
consumption of the right content in the right time and right way.

76
4.2 Architecture of non-NGN Based IPTV

The general Triple Play architecture (Figure below) usually consists of the
following parts [4]:

• Service platform domain including IPTV middleware (non-NGN)

• Transport network

• Access network

• Home network and CPEs

Triple play
General IPTV Architecture Service Platform

VoIP PSTN
platform

Mobile TV Access &

Core Network
Home Network Internet
Mobile Internet
Gateway
Application Content
TV
servers Aquisition
STB
DSLAM/
MSAN/
FFTx
VoD Terrestrial
Phone Server
HAG

PC IPTV
WLAN Headend Satellite
IPTV
Middleware
VoD Content
Server originator
Database
(User & service data)
PDA/
Video Portable Network Service Content
End-user equipment Provider Provider Provider

General IPTV architecture

The Triple Play service platform usually contains several less independent parts of
complex service architecture:

• Content acquisition subsystem which allows to receive, process, and encode

content from external sources to defined media coding and encapsulation
(receiver and decoders infrastructure, IPTV headend, VoD import and pre-
processing).

• Content distribution subsystem responsible for retrieving, protecting,

distributing, storing and delivering of the content by preferred way to the end
user’s system (user equipment).

77
• IPTV middleware contains the application servers which control and manage
the whole IPTV infrastructure (servers, databases, frontend, backend systems,
interfaces to external systems e.g. OSS/BSS), users and services. Part of the
application platform could also be additional IPTV applications or gateways
allowing limited interaction with other systems (e.g. VoIP, NGN).

• Service selection and discovery subsystem which allow the user to browse and
find via user TV portal an appropriate content or service information
(metadata) which he would like to watch (could be part of IPTV middleware).

• VoD, nPVR or other subsystems – specialized subsystem infrastructure

required for dedicated services (Video on Demand or network based personal
video recording service).

For the Triple Play contains tree type of services – video, voice, data – the
connection to internet services and voice service platform is required (e.g. over
VoIP gateway).
There is no single approach to the IPTV service provisioning. Due to huge costs
involved in the network equipment, operators usually follow incremental
approaches to network upgrading, always relying on existing premises and
procedures. Therefore the way a new NGN service is provisioned, it clearly
depends on the history of the operator. Therefore there are a lot of differences
from solution to solution and also to operator specific transport, access and home
network design.

78
4.3 Architecture of NGN Based IPTV
The major players in any IPTV delivery chain consist of content providers, service
providers, network providers, end-users. Content provider is a source of content as
for example TV stations, studios, content aggregators, etc. The IPTV platform
usually own by service provider has to provide all functions necessary for control
and delivery of IPTV services over network infrastructure (network provider) to
end user.

Main blocks NGN based IPTV platforms are following (Figure below):

• Application functions

• Service control functions and User profiles

• Media control and delivery functions

• Supporting, management and security functions

• End user function

Application Functions Security Functions

End-User Service Control Media Control and

Functions Functions Delivery Functions Content
Management
Provider
Functions
Functions

Transport/Network Functions

High-level architecture of NGN based IPTV functional

Application functions can include several service logics of the IPTV services,
mechanisms for service discovery and selection to find right services and content,
also help to interact with other application and external systems.
Service Control Functions provides functionality for authentication,
authorization of service requests. This function is also responsible for the setup
and control of all the IPTV services. It can also reserve resources towards
transport control functions.
User Profiles contain user data and user profiles related to user’s services.

79
Media Control and Delivery functions has received content and media streams
from content provider and then control and provide media processing, media
delivery, content storing, transcoding and relaying of content.
End-User Functions represent home network and user equipment as for example
end devices (e.g. TV with set-top-box, mobile, etc.) but also home networking
part including Home Access Gateways.

The greatest advantage of NGN based IPTV architecture is possibility integrate

IPTV services with other NGN services, reused existing NGN capabilities, better
utilized resources, personalization of services and mobility.

NGN/IMS function which can be re-used for providing IPTV:

• User registration and authentication,

• User subscription management,

• Session management, routing, service triggering, numbering,

• Interaction with existing NGN service enablers (presence, messaging, group

mng.,etc.),

• QoS and bearer control,

• Mobility, FMC capability,

• Charging and billing,

• Security and management mechanisms.

There are IPTV specific functions which have to be additionally described:

• Service discovery & selection, presentation, e.g. EPG,

• Service & Content protection, e.g. DRM and CAS,

• Service & Content management, managing the services and contents in the
Content Provider domains and/or the Service Provider domains,

• Content distribution, delivery and locating control,

• Multicast support and control,

• VCR control, e.g. play/pause/fast-forward/rewind.

The producing of specification is usually defined by standardization bodies in 3
stages:

• Collect Service and system requirements, service use cases,

80
• Define functional entities and architecture, reference points, service
procedures,

• Specify the implementation, signaling flows, protocols details.

The producing of specification is usually defined by standardization bodies in 3

stages:

• Collect Service and system requirements, service use cases,

• Define functional entities and architecture, reference points, service

procedures,

• Specify the implementation, signaling flows, protocols details.

81
4.4 NGN Integrated IPTV (non-IMS)
Architecture
The Concept of NGN integrated IPTV subsystem architecture (formerly in
Release 2 called NGN dedicated IPTV subsystem) describes how to integrate
IPTV functions into the NGN architecture. TISPAN NGN Integrated IPTV
subsystem is what ITU-T or ATIS call non-IMS NGN based IPTV. The proposed
architecture focuses on closer integration between IPTV services and features
with NGN network and its subsystems (NASS, RACS, UPSF) but also migration
scenarios from existing solutions (i.e. DVB-IPI, ATIS-IIF) into TISPAN NGN
and common components (Figure below). Several parts of system are complied
and based on existing standard like those from DVB-IPTV and in fact DVB
recognizes this solution as potential architecture for easier implementation and
interworking as with IMS based IPTV [36].

Core IPTV function:

• Service Discovery & Selection (SD&S)

• IPTV Control (IPTV-C)

• Client Facing IPTV Application (CFIA)

• IPTV User Data Function (IUDF)

• Media Control Function (MCF)

• Media Delivery Function (MDF)

• User Equipment (UE)

82
 Service Selection Application &
& Discovery Ss’ IPTV Service
Function Control Functions
Tr
SD&S Customer Facing Media Delivery
IPTV Applications Distribution &
Tr CFIA Storage
Sh
Sh Ud IPTV Media
UPSF IUDF Control Functions
Ss
Sh Ud MCF
Sa
UE IPTV Control Function Xp
Ct2 IPTV-C
IPTV Media
e2 Gq’ Delivery Functions
MDF
NASS RACS
e4

Xc Transport Processing

Xd Functions

Simplified TISPAN NGN dedicated IPTV subsystem functional architecture

The user can have (using his user equipment – UE, like a set-top-box STB) access
to the service description (e.g. Electronic Program Guide) via SD&S service
selection and discovery procedures follow DVB IPTV specification and use http
protocol over the Tr reference point. The same Tr interface can be used by UE for
accessing the user interface and service selection over Customer Facing IPTV
application (CFIA). CFIA provides over Tr http based interface IPTV service
provisioning, selection and authorization. IPTV control (IPTV-C) is enabled over
Ct2 interface (http or RTSP control). Media (e.g. content on demand – CoD) can
be streamed by unicast or multicast over Xd from Media Delivery Function
(MDF). For media control, as for example the trick play command, RTSP
protocol is used via Xc by Media Control Function (MCF).

83
4.5 IMS Based NGN IPTV Architecture

Second concept for providing IPTV services over NGN architecture is described
in TISPAN IMS based IPTV [36], [1]. Main difference as name said that IP
Multimedia Subsystem is used to service and session control of IPTV services.
Main advantage is reusing existing capabilities (IMS registration, authentification,
session management, routing, service trigger, identity management,
personalization, mobility, charging) of IMS and possibility to integrate service
control layer to unified service control platform by utilization for IMS.

Disadvantage of IMS based IPTV is higher complexity and less backward

compatibility with existing standards (beside that several part of concept reused
existing standard and protocols).

Service
Ut Service Selection Control
& Discovery Functions
SSF Function Media Delivery
Xa Ss’ SCF Distribution &
SDF Application & Storage
Sh IPTV Service
Sh
Control
Functions IPTV Media
UPSF Control Functions

ISC Cx ISC
MCF
y2
UE IPTV Control Function Xp
Gm IPTV-C
IPTV Media
e2 Gq’ Delivery Functions
MDF
NASS RACS
e4

Xc Transport Processing

Xd Functions

Simplified TISPAN IMS based IPTV functional architecture

IMS based IPTV functional entities (see Figure above):

• Service Discovery Function (SDF)

• Service Selection Function (SSF)

• Service Control Function (SCF)

84
• Core IMS elements (P-CSCF, S-CSCF, I-CSCF)

• Media Control Function (MCF)

• Media Delivery Function (MDF)

• User Equipment (UE)

The IMS based IPTV has number of advantages because IMS can act as unified
service control subsystem for all NGN services instead of establishing an
additional specialized subsystem (case of NGN dedicated IPTV subsystem).
Additionally IMS can more naturally support mobility, interaction with NGN
service enablers (like messaging or presence), service personalization or
quadruple play services (voice, data, video, mobile).

85
4.6 NGN Based IPTV Services
Main goal of NGN based IPTV is to provide to end user a comprehensive list of
converged IPTV services [2]. New generation IPTV services have to provide
service personalization, interactivity, blending of services, user targeting,
enhanced accessibility and mobility.

IPTV services can be split to three groups:

• Basic IPTV services

• Advance IPTV services

• Converged IPTV services

Basic IPTV services consist of minimal set of IPTV services which are expected
from NGN based IPTV service provider:

• Broadcast TV (with or with trick modes) – delivery of linearly broadcasted

TV channels.

• Trick Modes – enable control playback and pause, forward, rewind content.

• Pay Per View (PPV) – user pays for example only for particular show or time
period not whole TV channel or TV package.

• Content on Demand (CoD) – user requests content consumption on demand

(e.g. Video on Demand or Music on Demand).

• Personal Video Recording (PVR) – user can record content in network

(network or n-PVR) or locally in STB (client or c-PVR).

• Electronic Program Guide (EPG) – provides service selection information

required by the viewer to find and select the programmes to be watched.

• Parental Control – protection mechanism to limit access to television content

for children’s in age below rating of programme.

Advance IPTV services:

• Profiling and personalization – feature which enable personalized IPTV

services based on user preferences and user profile. Provider can also use the
information about user’s behavior and content consumptions.

• User Generated Content (UGC) – content produced by the end user with the
intention to share it with other users.

• Content Recommendation (CR) – service advisory for favorite shows based on

user’s preferences and behaviors.

86
• Time Shift TV (TsTV) – user can browse and play from past broadcasted
content pre-recorded by provider.

• Personalized channel (PCh) – user specific list of programs that are scheduled
as playlist for personalized preview.

• Targeted advertising (TAI) – advertising mechanism which is targeted to

specified group of user based on his user profiles.

• Interactive TV (iTV) – service providing interactivity between

provider/broadcaster and end user or between several users.

Converged IPTV services:

• Convergence of the IPTV and other NGN Service and their interaction (e.g.
presence based game, incoming call notification, sharing the remote control).

• Interaction with 3rd Party application (e.g. Parlay) enable interworking with
3rd party developed applications

• Interaction with Internet Services (e.g. convergence of IPTV with web 2.0
services and social media)

• Service Continuation between IPTV UEs allows park service on one device
and pick up and continue with service consumption on other one.

• Service Continuation between Fixed-Mobile and support for

mobility/roaming, service accessibility cross different access networks and
terminals

• Remote control of IPTV services for example control of recordings or content

recommendations.

• Hybrid IPTV services (combination of Satellite/Terrestrial delivery with

IPTV)

87
4.7 Protocols Used for IPTV
In IPTV networks are used standard protocols SIP, SDP, RTP, RTCP, HTTP
and DIAMETER for NGN and their combinations [14], [37], [38]. Their
performance charts are listed in first section (NGN). Specific protocols IGMP,
MLD and FLUTE are used too.

The Internet Group Management Protocol allows hosts or UE to participate in

multicasting (by joining the stream) and describes the basic of multicasting IP
traffic, including the format of multicast IP addresses, multicast Ethernet
encapsulation, and the concept of a host group.
MLD and MLDv2 protocols are designed for use only in IPv6 network. This
protocol is follower of IGMP in IPv4 networks used for joining some network
node to multicast group. Multicast groups are separated by different IP addresses.
The File deLivery over Unidirectional Transport (FLUTE) protocol (RFC3926)
is a protocol for the unidirectional multicast delivery of files over the Internet.

88
 5 HbbTV (Hybrid Broadcast Broadband
TV)

5.1 Introduction

HbbTV (Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV) is a new industry standard providing

an open and business neutral technology platform that seamlessly combines TV
services delivered via broadcast with services delivered via broadband and also
enables access to Internet only services for consumers using connected TVs and
set-top boxes [40].

You can find a full range of connected TVs nowadays. Every major brand has its
own IPTV platform, such as Panasonic has VieraConnect or Samsung has Smart
TV, they are offering a mixture of catch-up services and additional content, such
as movie trailers, YouTube access, and other applications.

HbbTV is similar to MHEG (Multimedia and Hypermedia Expert Group) it

means, that an application can be delivered to the TV using a data carousel, too.
That application can later work with or load additional content from the internet.
HbbTV is also an ETSI standard (TS 102 796).

Broadcast Internet
corporation services

Broadcast Online Portal /

services services Gateways

HbbTV doesn't depend on a particular broadcast link or on a particular IP link – it'll work with
either [40]

89
HbbTV applications, however, can be downloaded from an application portal in
the TV and delivered solely over the internet. So it can support content services
from providers who don't own broadcast channels.
Other advantage is that, it is based on technologies that are well known to web
developers, mainly CE-HTML, a specification that includes XHTML, Ajax, CSS,
and Javascript (jQuery). Because of that, content providers can build and release
their apps more quickly.

HbbTV's Javascript API was extended to provide TV functionality, such as

handling channel changes. This standard expects that host TVs have a minimum
display resolution of 1280x720.

The HbbTV specification corrals standards and technologies, including CE-HTML, DVB and
JavaScript, from many existing organizations, such as the Open IPTV Forum and the W3C [40]

The HbbTV specification also contains a contribution from the Open IPTV
Forum, which has defined a set of audio and video formats that should be
supported. HbbTV relies on the AVC (H.264) codec for both standard and high-
definition video, with either E-AC3 or HE-AAC for audio. Audio streaming
services use either MP3 or HE-AAC.

90
91
5.2 Services
Services delivered through HbbTV include

• enhanced teletext,

• catch-up services and video-on-demand (VOD),

o Catch up TV is a term used to describe VOD in which TV shows are
available for a period of days after the original broadcast.

• Electronic program guides (EPG),

o provide users of television, radio, and other media applications with
continuously updated menus displaying broadcast programming or
scheduling information for current and upcoming programming

• interactive advertising,

• personalisation

• personal video recording (PVR),

o similar to a VCR but records television data in digital format

• voting and games,

• social networking, other multimedia applications

Example of HbbTV service

92
5.3 HBB–NEXT

HBB-NEXT seeks to facilitate the marriage of the broadcast and Internet world by
researching user-centered technologies for enriching the TV-viewing experience:
Multi-user tailored content recommendations, access via multiple devices, social
media features, or user generated content [41].

Personal & group

recommendations + Multi-sourced
content
Internet Internet
Social + AV synchronisation
Gaming networking + Face recognition &
Web video Video on + Community gesture control
demand
Network & groups
Social TV
PVR
Internet Hybrid HBB-Next
on TV Television IPTV
+ Multi-device
Targeted TV + Identity management apps
Advertising & trust
Broadcast + Group-aware content
Television tailoring
Television
+ Cloud assisted
3D
services

2005 2011 THE FUTURE

Evolution of HbbTV

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5.4 Multiple-User Environment
In the area of catering for multiple users, the HBB-NEXT Service Personalization
Engine will be developed. It will provide multi-user content recommendations,
multimodal interaction and content awareness. The concept foresees a front-end
functionality with a multi-modal user interface for a multi-user environment and
a back-end providing context-aware multi-user content recommendations.

Multimodal interfaces promise to allow users to enter requests and information

using any of input modes such as a mouse, keyboard, handwriting, speech, and
gestures. Speech and gestures are great candidates to fulfil many operation tasks
which have been previously possible only by using controller. Multi-speaker
identification aims to identify more speakers based on a recorded signal that may
contain utterances of more individual.

Using multilevel authentication the user can be authenticated by face (2D, 3D,
Iris), speech, gestures and not only by using personal code (pin code, password,
etc.). 3D face detection has more possibilities than 2D detection. In 3D detection
face curves are very important as the technology is virtually "touching your face".
It is far more difficult to cheat the 3D technology.

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5.5 Multiple Devices
The synchronization and presentation of different audio and video sources on
single and multiple devices are required. HBB-NEXT will provide solutions to
this.

Furthermore, resource/computing limitations of mobile devices need to be

overcome. This will be done by employing an offloading mechanism and cloud
computing solutions so that low performance video devices may serve all HBB-
NEXT features also on heterogeneous devices.

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5.6 Identity And Trust
HBB-NEXT will enhance multimodal and multilevel user identification
technologies. The project will also focus on developing a trust management
framework for HBB applications. This framework will be defined by
a comprehensive trust and reputation management solution. All these objectives
aim to maintain a high level of security and protection for end-user, service
developers and the platform itself.

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5.7 Standardization
The founding members of the HbbTV consortium together with a large group of
supporters jointly developed the HBBTV specification to create a global standard
for hybrid entertainment services. Version 1.1.1 of this specification has been
approved by ETSI as ETSI TS 102 796 in June 2010.
The HbbTV specification is based on existing standards and web technologies
including OIPF (Open IPTV Forum), CEA, DVB and W3C. The standard
provides the features and functionality required to deliver feature rich broadcast
and internet services. Utilizing standard Internet technology it enables rapid
application development. It defines minimum requirements simplifying the
implementation in devices and leaving room for differentiation, this limits the
investment required by CE manufacturers to build compliant devices. HBB-
NEXT is the next step that will enhance existing standard by multiple – user
environment, use of multiple devices (even mobile devices), new ways of
interactions and security.

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 6 CDN (Content Delivery Network)

6.1 Introduction

Content Delivery Network (CDN) is a network, which consists of huge number of

distribution points (called nodes). This network is running over the Internet
network and can defectively deliver huge amount of content to huge amount of
recipients.

The most popular usage of these networks is distribution of software updates.

CDN is owned by a CDN provider, which is responsible for content distribution,

which is ingested by a CDN customer.

The advantage of CDN is in resource sharing, because if every software developer

wants to distribute updates over his customers in Internet, he must build system of
servers, maintain and operate its. Then there will be numbers of parallel systems
to the same point. This overlap and low utilization of nodes will increase the
price/usability ratio. Distribution from one central point will use huge amount of
capacity for transferring the same thing many times.

CDN network is organized in two layers:

• control layer – mostly central node, which is used for content ingestion and
distribution over the distribution layer. It is also responsible for Authentication
and Authorization functionality if implemented.

• distribution layer – forest of nodes, distributed over many locations.

CDN distribution is split in two methods:
1. on-line – is the same as multicast, all recipients get the same data at same time.

Good example is sport match, when every customer wants to see the match with
minimal delay (acceptable value is tens of seconds).

2. off-line – information which generation has started and ended in the past. Off-
line distribution can be split in two types of delivery methods: download,
streaming.

Example can be well known video stream (YouTube) or distribution of updates.

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 Control node

Control
layer
Distribution
Distribution Distribution
node
layer
node

Distribution
node

Client Client
CDN Architecture

99
6.2 Nowadays CDNs in World
CDNs are now currently implemented as a separate commercial product. To
provide unique functionality and effective operation, CDN operators have
implemented their own algorithms and transfer protocols. There also exists
commercial software for CDN creation at own premises of Telecommunication
operators and other companies interested in own CDN implementation, e.g.
EdgeCast [42].

Open-source projects are based on activities of single projects, which have

developed their own CDN networks based on open source software. Every
volunteer can join this network with his own server or cluster. This new server
will became a new node of open CDN and will be controlled by this open CDN
network management.

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6.3 Content Flow
Nowadays, the Internet content based service are being split in main parts:
Content, Service, Network (Transport), Consumer. All these entities have clear
relations among them, which defines clear content flow from a content originator
(author) to a content consumer. These parts are provided and represented by
adequate entities. Content is originated from the author. Then the author passes
content with right to a content provider. The content provider will then provide
content to service operators. Service operators are offering service consisting of
content to the end customer via network. Network is provided by a network
operator. Not all the entities are necessarily separated from each other. Mostly, the
service provider and network operator are the same entity or the content provider
also operates the service.

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6.4 Control Layer

This layer is responsible for a management of content distribution, content

ingestion, reporting, logging, request routing function.

Every CDN have some capabilities for content delivery methods, content
adaptation and content security. All these information are very important for
content transfer from a source to the consumer.

• Delivery methods – by delivery methods, we understood different methods for

content transfer from distribution node to end consumer.

• Content adaptation – is set of methods, which can be used to change original

information to form, which is more useful for transfer over real-time channel.

• Content security – is set of rules and mechanisms for protection of content

including access authorization, digital rights management, copy protection,
watermarking, …

It is very important to map, which area can be served from which distribution
node or network. In IP network this is done by a routing table, where every item –
subnet is described by a network address and network mask. In CDN networks the
address and size is defined in one parameter called a footprint. The footprint can
be potentially any information about coverage like geographical area [43], Internet
provider [44], etc. There exists a footprint table which contains list of all
footprints with their distribution nodes.

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6.5 Distribution Layer

This layer is responsible for content delivery to the consumer. It consists of huge
number of delivery nodes, which can be organized also in clusters. We can call
these nodes or clusters as distribution points.

Every distribution point contains big storage capacity on local or external disk
arrays. This capacity is used for the content storage.

File based content

File based content is sequence of bytes which have started and ended in the past.

File based content can be downloaded without QoS, but almost always requires
zero tolerance to change or modification at any level of content.

This type of content is majority of all content delivered over the Internet and also
over the CDNs. For this purpose the ideal transfer protocol is HTTP, which is
widely used in current Internet.

Stream based content

A stream is sequence of bytes which started and ended in the past.

The stream based content contains useful information per parts, so it can be
transferred continuously and during the transfer it can be also consumed.
Streaming content is mostly sensitive to QoS of transfer channel, especially to
delay and jitter.

Typical content of this type is a media stream. In contrast to data transfers in

Internet the video and audio content is becoming more and more popular. CDN
like part of Internet is helping to fulfill these requirements by spreading the
content and the load over more location and distribution points.
Media consumers are sensitive to audio information, because every country is
using different language. To save resources in the network it is effective to
transfer only that audio stream which contains required language. To do this
a distribution point can contain content with video stream and multiple audio
streams. Only one audio stream (elementary stream) is transferred to consumer in
a session according consumer set up. Every elementary stream can be transferred
over different paths from source to destination.

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The same concept can be also used for multiple angle content, where single
content is recorded from more video cameras from different angles (views). Again
only video is transferred from distribution point to consumer.

Live stream based content

This stream is a sequence of bytes which have started in the past and is not
finished until now and continues.

Because this stream is live, it cannot be cached for further streaming and all the
efficiency in content distribution is in single transfer over the same parts of
network.

Consumer 1

Consumer 2
Content source

Live stream distribution without CDN and with CDN distribution

Consumer 1

CDN
Consumer 2
Content source

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More clear explanation would be on simple example: imagine that two consumers
in Europe want to see live video show from China Olympic Games. In a normal
unicast network, which Internet is, the stream will be duplicated at China at
a streaming platform and transferred to consumers in two separate streams
(Figures above).
By redirection of consumers to CDN, CDN can join the video stream from China
Streaming server, transfer it to its location in Europe (Figures above). The
consumers then connect to CDN and stream is duplicated in CDN distribution
point and transferred to the consumers in two separate streams, but only inside the
European network. This concept can save Internet connectivity from Europe to
China. In this case bandwidth is 1/2 of previous concept. If there are three
consumers of same content saving is 1/3 of previous concept, etc.

105
6.6 Federated CDNs

It is very hard to deploy global international network, which is split over the
whole globe. CDN benefits from huge number of delivered content (bytes). More
bytes delivered by certain platform are increasing utilization of network; therefore
the price of one transferred byte is lower. Lower price per byte brings more
customers, which brings more number of content which is delivered to the
customers. More content will consume more bytes for delivery. As we can see the
pricing process is rounded in one loop without small external impact. This loop is
“responsible” for creation of big CDN players, which are controlling the market.

Telecommunication operators are losing market share day by day and

international global service providers (Akamai, Globix, Limelight ...) are
overtaking the service market. Telecommunication operators are pushed to role of
a network provider “cable owner”. This situation is unwanted for
Telecommunication operator and therefore they are investing afford to value add
services like CDNs.

Under CDN federation, there is huge number of initiatives driven by CDN owners
and mostly by telecommunication operators [45], [46]. Federation is way of CDN
interconnection, where content can be copied from one CDN to another. Then, the
end user can be served by both CDNs by content originated network or by
federated network.

Few federated networks act and look like one robust CDN from user perspective
and from content provider perspective.

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 7 Optical Technologies

7.1 Optical Networks

A development of single-mode optical fibers with nearly unlimited bandwidth

opens a massive development of long-haul and metropolitan optical networks of
the point-to-point type. Using optical cables allows tremendous decreasing of
costs to network facilities and maintenance and dramatically increases a quality of
services. Many business companies have now an access to services providing
through optical fibers. In spite of their advantages, optical cables were not very
used in access networks – in a network segment that starts in the central point and
finishes at subscribers. Because this segment was usually based on utilizing of
metallic homogeneous lines, high-speed services available for residential
subscribers and small businesses are limited by possibilities of xDSL and HFC
technologies.

107
7.2 Optical Access Networks

A main barrier of service provisioning by means of optical fibers directly to

residential and business customers are costs of connecting subscribers to the
central office. A large number of point-to-point connections could require many
active components and a large number of optical fibers. This leads to enormous
increasing of installation and maintenance costs. An attractive solution of these
problems is the FTTx (Fiber To The x) architecture. The Passive Optical Network
(PON) together with the FTTx allows some customers to share the same
connection without any active components.

Optical access network architectures should be simply and the network should be
simply from a viewpoint of the activity and services. It means that passive
architectures without any switching and controlling are preferred to active
architectures. Moreover, the optical network unit (ONU) should be very simply
for decreasing of costs and for improving of the reliability. Components used in
the ONU should be able to operate without any temperature controlling. These
rules exclude a using of more sophisticated lasers and other optical components in
the ONU. An equipment of the optical line termination (OLT) can be a little bit
more sophisticated, because it is places in the controlling environment and costs
are amortized between many subscribers.

Optical networks suggested for this application are together called passive optical
networks PON. They use a particular form of passive components as the remote
node. Their main advantages are reliability, simplicity of maintenance and an
absence of power supplies. The passive optical networks PON divide a signal
from one central transmitter between various outgoing fibers, each forwarding to
the separated receiver in the particular customer location. Separated receivers
from customer locations send signals to the central distribution point, so user
share a total transmission capacity of the system. A key advantage of this
approach is using only passive components in the outdoor distribution network.

108
7.3 Optical Access Networks – PON Concept

The PON is essentially a two-way point-to-multipoint system [1], [47]. The

downstream data signal originates at a central point with a single transmitter.
Passive optical couplers divide this signal among output fibers that distribute the
same signal to all customers. The receiver at the customer end selects only the
data directed to that terminal, discarding data directed to other users. Thus the data
stream from the transmitter is divided among users. Each customer terminal has
its own transmitter, all of which can return upstream signals to the central
distribution point. The upstream transmission may go through the same fibers as
the downstream transmission, or through.

Because all the signals go back to a single receiver, separate time slots are
assigned to the transmitters at each subscriber terminal so they don’t interfere with
each other. The feeder cable transmits optical signals between a central office and
a splitter that allows a number of ONTs to be connected to the same feeder cable.
The ONT is required for each subscriber and provides connections for various
services. Because the one FTTx infrastructure usually provides a service for up to
32 subscribers, many of such networks are required for the community service
provisioning. There exist different architectures for connecting of subscribers to
the PON. The simplest one uses only one splitter, but in others also more splitters
can be used.

Optical terminals
The central distribution terminal serves as the central controller for the passive
optical network and provides an interface with the outside world. Many of these
terminals can be assembled in one location, each serving its own group of
subscriber terminals. The FSAN standard calls this controller and transmitter
jointly as an optical line terminal OLT. Terminal at the subscriber end are called
optical network terminals ONTs and they provide interfaces between the network
and the subscriber’s equipment. Losses inherent in the signal splitting limit one
OLT to serving no more than maximum 32 ONTs.

The downstream transmission

The standard PON works at two or three wavelengths. The OLT includes
a distributed-feedback laser transmitting downstream at 1550 nm, which couples
more than a miliwatt into the output fiber. Each cell or packet in the downstream
signal carriers the address of its destination terminal. Passive splitters divide the
light among all terminals, but each terminal only reads those packets addressed to
it. The downstream data transmission also provides timing signals needed to
control the upstream transmission. The OLTs can use relatively expensive
1550nm transmitters, because each PON requires only one of them. However, the
PON requires many more ONTs, so they must be relatively inexpensive, and
operate in the less-controllable environment of the customer site. This led to the

109
choice of lower-cost1310 nm transmitters for the upstream channels. The FSAN
standard also provides for a third wavelength channel at 1490 nm.

In a central office (a head end) for the PSTN and data networks, interfaces to the
optical distribution network ODN through the optical line terminal OLT are
located. The downstream 1490 nm and upstream 1310 nm wavelengths are used
for the data and audio transmission. An optical transmitter of video signals
converts signals of video services to the optical format at the 1550 nm
wavelength. The WDM (Wavelength-Division Multiplexing) coupler and together
transmitting by the downstream combine the 1550 nm and 1490 nm wavelengths.
Summary, three wavelengths transmit different information signal simultaneously
and in various directions over the same optical fiber. The transmission rates
depend on the chosen applications, software allocates a transmission capacity to
each terminal dynamically, and so it can be changed as necessary.

The upstream transmission

In the upstream transmission, the PON is the multipoint-to-point type. For
avoiding of data collisions from different ONT signals incoming to a splitter in
the same time, the TDMA approach is used. The TDMA can transmit data bursts
from each ONT back to the OLT in a concrete, specified time. Each ONT
transmission time slot is legitimate by the OLT so that packets from different
ONT don't overlap with others. The upstream transmission goes through
a network of fibers that are combined with passive couplers, so all transmitters
send their signals to one receiver in the OLT. To keep these signals from
interfering with each other, the PON uses a time-division multiple-access protocol
TDMA that assigns different time slots to each ONT.

Each subscriber terminal turns on and transmits signals upstream during its
assigned time slot, then switches off so the next can begin transmitting. The
control software allocates these time slots and the downstream transmission
provides the clock signals to synchronize the upstream transmission by all
subscriber terminals.

The fiber architecture

All PONs utilize single-mode fibers with signals divided by splitters. The
placement and number of splitters depend on a system design – 1x8, 1x4 and
1x8... The splitters are purely passive devices that require no power, so they can
be placed in spliced cases or enclosures anywhere between the distribution center
and the subscribers. The FSAN standard provides for both single- and dual-fiber
systems and each have their attractions.

A single-fiber system reduces fiber costs by transmitting upstream and

downstream signals through the same fibers. The trade-off is that it requires
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) optics on both ends of the system. A
dual-fiber (two-fiber) system is avoiding the added cost and complexity of
a WDM optics, utilizes the ability to dedicate the first fiber to a downstream

110
distribution of analog video signals for a cable television and the second fiber to
a digital transmission of audio, data and digital video signals.

FTTx Architecture
The PON technology can be involved in all architectures of the FTTx type that
offer a mechanism for allowing of sufficient network bandwidth to deliver of new
services and applications. The PON network can be common for all these
architectures. A question is a placement of active electronic in the outdoor
environment. Only in the case of the FTTH/B configuration, all active
components are apart from the outdoor environment. The FTTCab and FTTC
architectures require active electronics in the outside environment to be placed in
a cabinet or in a curb [2].

Equipment at the central office are connected to the PSTN network, equipped by
ATM or Ethernet interfaces, and connected to a cable interface or to a satellite
receiver. All these signals are then combined for inputting onto the one fiber by
using of WDM elements and transmitted to end customers through a passive
optical splitter. A splitter ratio can be in a range up to 32 subscribers without
using active components in a network. A signal is then delivered to the house over
the individual optical fiber. In equipment at the users end, an optical signal is
converted into an electrical form by using of OEC converters and at the same time
the OEC transforms a signal in service demanding by end users. Ideally, the OEC
should have standard user interfaces without requiring special set-top boxes. Main
advantages of next FTTx architectures are above all facts that they are passive
networks without any active components between a central office and users, they
are using only one optical fiber per end user, they have local battery backups and
low power consumption, they are reliable, scalable and secure.

Various implementations of the FTTx

Multimedia and Internet services drive the need for higher bit rates (some Mbps)
to the home. To ensure that the loop plant of the future will be and remain
bandwidth-scalable, fiber-optic cables are replacing metallic cables wherever
possible.

Depending on where the fiber is terminated, this technology is known by different

names such as:

• Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) – if the fiber reaches the premises of the end user
where it is also terminated

• Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC) – the optical fiber is situated from the central office
to the optical splitter and then to a small cabinet at the curb that is close
approximately 200 m to the subscriber and where a signal is converted back to
its electrical form.

111
• Fiber-to-the-cabinet (FTTCab) – the optical fiber is situated from the central
office to the optical splitter and then to a cabinet at the neighborhood that is
close around 1 km to the subscriber and where a signal is converted back to its
electrical form for a signal transmission over metallic homogeneous lines to
the subscriber.

• Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD) – if the fiber is terminated directly at the desk or

even at the PC.

112
7.4 Metropolitan Optical Access Networks

Metropolitan network is important part of NGN. Such a network serves for

concentration of traffic from several local networks and switches it into core
network. Looking on contemporary networks, metropolitan networks are
bottleneck. Traditionally, these networks are based on simple topologies, like
circle or star. They deploy optical fiber in conjunction with WDM technology to
provide sufficient transport speed.

STARNET is one of the well-known examples of star topology. This network is

based on broadcast of data from central point. Such data are sent and receiver
selects only data addressed to it. Ring based networks are even more interesting,
particularly RPR (Resilient Packet Ring), which has biggest potential of
application, are certainly most important.

RPR
RPR has been proposed to respond to the problems of both SONET and Ethernet
in MAN environment. Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) is the technology proposed for
packet oriented MAN network established over ring architecture using optical
fiber. RPR has been standardized by IEEE as 802.17 standard [48], [49].

RPR architecture (Figure below) is composed of two rings oriented in different

directions. Advantage is that each node can communicate with both neighbors
directly without necessity for whole ring way. Each packet controls traffic passing
through the node. In the case, when the packet is aimed at it, the node drops it
from the ring. Otherwise, it passes transparently through this node. In the case,
when the node wants to add a new packet to the ring, it can do that only in the
case, if there is enough long gap on the ring. The gap can be created also by
dropped packet.

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 RPR architecture

RPR can be characterized by following properties:

• ADM (Add Drop Multiplexer) architecture. Each RPR equipment behaves like
add/drop member, what means that it can add and also drop packets to the
ring.

• Universality of physical layer. RPR defines only 2nd layer of ISO OSI model.
The physical layer is not defined within the standard, what allows possible
interoperability with other solutions like Ethernet, SONET, or DWDM.

• Resiliency – thanks to the deployed technologies, RPR reaches extremely low

protection times (lower than 50ms). In this case, the packets are routed in the
opposite direction. In such case, the packets reach their destination.

• Equity in bandwidth distribution. RPR contains algorithms regulating

bandwidth use and medium access.

• Broadcast and multicast. Ring topologies are ideal for multicast and broadcast
implementation.

• Service provisioning without extensive configuration. Comparing to SONET

no pre-configured circuits are necessary.

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7.5 Optical Transport Networks
On present days, optical technologies utilizing optical transmission media
dominate in the transport level of telecommunication networks. Except an
evolution of low-loss optical fibers, various optical components needed to realize
optical-fiber transmission systems have been developed. The penetration of
optical technologies into the various network levels is schematically illustrated in
Figure below.

Year

Service OpS Photonic 20xx

Switch Fabric
Customers Premises Customers Premises
Network (CPN) Network (CPN)
Photonic LAN
Service Network
TS TS
LS LS
Optical Paths into
Transport Network
2000

Optical Fibers into

Access Network
(FTTC/FTTH)

1990

Access Network Access Network

Transit Network
Transport Network

Optical Fibers
Transport into Transit 1980
Network OpS
Network

Penetration of photonic technologies into network levels

Optical technologies were first applied to transport networks, because these

technologies are best suited to this application, which requires long-distance and
wide-bandwidth transmission. Moreover, costs of the system are shared by many
users (connections). Thus, the transport transmission cost per bit is much lower
with optical media than with metallic media. Primary applications of optical
technologies realize only point-to-point connection [50], [51]. However, to create
large-bandwidth end-to-end connections cost-effectively, it is essential to reduce
not only a transmission cost, but also a transport node cost. A key role in reducing
both costs is playing by optical technologies that can be developed also in local
area networks, in optical networks of the type Ethernet, FDDI or Fiber Channel.
From first introduced optical-fiber transmission systems in 1981, a transmission
capacity has been increased more than one order of magnitude per decade. This
has resulted in a more than 90% reduction on a cost in this decade. The continued
enhancement of electronic devices has also driven research into a high-speed
transmission, so a rapid progress to multi-Gbps transmission systems is allowed.
Another technology that must be emphasized is a technology of optical amplifiers.

115
Their advantages including a wide bandwidth, a low noise, a high gain/power
ratio and an easy connection to single-mode fibers greatly increase an application
range of optical transmissions by overcoming the optical loss of signal
transmission, devices and optical components. Furthermore, new optical
technologies – a soliton transmission, a dense wavelength-division multiplexing
DWDM, an optical frequency-division multiplexing OFDM and a high-speed
optical signal processing – have the potential to enable further expansion of the
transmission capacity and the network flexibility.

1G and 2G optical networks

In first-generation networks, the electronics at a node must not only handle all the
data intended for that node, but also all the data that is being passed through that
node on to other nodes in the network. If the latter data could be routed through in
the optical domain, the burden on the underlying electronics at the node would be
significantly reduced. This is one of key drivers for second-generation optical
networks. Examples of these networks are the OTDM and WDM networks. WDM
networks are expected to be deployed in the next few years, not only in
interexchange networks and undersea networks, but also in local-exchange and
access networks. OTDM networks constitute a longer-term approach.

116
7.6 All-optical Transport Network Architectures
Previously we have discussed that current transport systems are coming to their
limits. New perspectives are focusing mainly on optical packet switching
networks, which integrate high bandwidth availability and ability of switching in
transport layer [52]. While proposed technology isn't mature yet, intermediate step
between current networks and all-optical networks has been proposed. This step
combines advantages of optical switching and electronic memories and will be
discussed later. All-optical network should deploy WDM multiplex on physical
layer (Figure below).

LAN

ROM/LAN
ROM/ATM
router ROM/IP
IP ATM

ROM

Frame
SDH
Relay
Network
ROM/FR ROM/SDH

Model of optical multiservice network (ROM)

To reflect described drawbacks of the optical technology, special structure of

optical switch has been proposed. The outgoing port of the switching matrix
chooses which packets are sent to the optical fiber. Therefore, it receives packets
from all delay lines and using filters, it chooses right packets. The number of
packets is equal or inferior to the number of wavelengths. This choice is made by
control unit, which see global state of the node. Proposed switching matrix is
general and can be used in various ways. The next step is to parameterize it,
mainly the delay lines.

The most important is the length of one delay line. This parameter can be different
in synchronous and in asynchronous networks. A synchronous network requires
this value to be set equal to the length of optical packet. On the contrary, an
asynchronous network sets this constant to the inferior values so that it is possible
to order packets one after another.

117
As it was said previously, two approaches exist in optical packet switching:
synchronous and asynchronous switching. It is obvious that they are different in
their approach to the switching in each node. Synchronous switching takes
advantage from switching of constant length packets, which are synchronized in
the nodes. An asynchronous network supports packets of different lengths and
these are switched without synchronization. In the next subsections, both
approaches are examined in details.

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7.7 Synchronous Optical Network

As we have stated above, synchronous optical packet switching network is based

on switching of constant length optical packets. The architecture of such network
should take into account this fact. Ingress node into proposed network transforms
incoming flows into optical packets with format depicted. Optical packet is
composed of header and of load. Header and payload are separated by guard time
fields. These fields allow us secure delimitation of the header from payload and
payload from next header. The beginning of both header and load is composed of
synchronization bits used for synchronization in nodes.

Optical Packet Switch

Fiber 1

Fiber N-1 Optical Convertors

...
Outgoing Fibers
Incoming Fibers
...
Fiber 1
Fiber N-1

Feedback Lines Feedback Lines

Fixed delay line (FDL)

Synchronous optical packet switch

Header contains routing information and is 64 ns long. Guard times are 50 ns long
each, yielding in 100 ns per packet. The rest of the packet is composed of data.
Switching node is depicted in Figure above. Optical packets enter to the node and
are firstly synchronized. Header is afterwards delimited from payload. Payload
enters delay lines, where it waits until the header is processed and switching
matrix is parameterized. Afterwards, payloads enter the switching matrix and are
routed to the outgoing port. Before sending packets, new header is generated and
concatenated to the header to the beginning of the optical packet. Optical packets
are of the fixed length and therefore they are transported within fixed length time-
slots. In the same time, it is impossible to guarantee that packets enter the node
synchronized. Delay variation is affected by many variables, and the most
important is the temperature. Therefore, there is a need for synchronizations.
Synchronization can be divided into two groups: coarse and fine. Another
important issue is the performance of optical switching matrix, when there are no
optical memories. To improve this parameter, recirculating lines are used.
Recirculating lines are intended for packets, which do not succeed to find free

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outgoing port. Such packets enter recirculating lines and they appear at the node
entry several time-slots later.

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7.8 Burst Switched Network
Alternative to the synchronous network is burst switched network. This approach
is similar to contemporary Internet, where packets are of various lengths.
Therefore, they can enter the node anytime and there is no necessity for
synchronization.

Control packets

Switch Control Unit

Control O/E E/O Control

Channel Channel

Data Burst
2 3 2 2 1
Input Fiber Output Fiber

Input Fiber 3
Output Fiber

1 Optical 3
Switch
Fabric
DEMUX MUX

Burst switch architecture

Comparing to synchronous switching, burst switching introduces more flexibility

but also new problem. This problem is temporal concurrence, which should be
resolved.

In synchronous networks, only spatial (which fiber) and spectral (which lambda)
problems were to be solved in each time-slot. In burst network, there is no notion
of time-slot and consequently packets should be ordered one after another. Even
more, packets are of variable length. In the situation when one packet is blocking
outgoing port, another one should wait in the delay lines. From this point of view,
delay lines should be significantly smaller than mean packet length. Several
enhancements have been proposed to improve performance of burst network.
Majority of them consists in introducing new protocol for path reservation.

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7.9 The WDM Technologies

With progresses in lasers and optical-electrical equipment technologies, it is

possible to transmit one or more wavelengths on the same fiber. This is known as
the wavelength-division multiplexing WDM. By adding of wavelengths into the
same fiber, a transmission capacity and a bandwidth of the optical fiber are
increasing and, therefore, a need for installation of additional optical fibers is
decreased. In WDM systems, each used wavelength presents an independent
channel. From a viewpoint of the WDM deployment in various network types and
from a viewpoint of the channel spacing, three basic WDM network type are
distinguished – long-haul, metropolitan, access [53].

Early broadband WDM (BWDM) systems operated with an overall broad channel
spacing, because two wavelengths were separated and were located in two
different transmission windows – at the 950 and 1300 nm or at the 1300 and 1550
nm. Latter wide WDM (WWDM) systems utilized more wavelengths in the
transmission window and optical channels were usually separated a few of nm –
the 1275.7, 1300.2, 1324.7 and 1349.2 nm. In present days, these systems can be
employed in the PON networks with three wavelengths – the 1310, 1490 and 1550
nm. The most preferable recent dense WDM (DWDM) systems have a channel
spacing usually not more than couple of nm in a range 1530 – 1625 nm of the
erbium-fiber transmission window and use necessarily cooled lasers to prevent the
wavelengths from drifting outside this window or from interfering with each other
[54]. Latest coarse WDM (CWDM) systems utilize optical channels extended in
a range 1270 – 1610 nm with a large channel spacing of 20 nm and therefore they
use uncooled (non-thermally controlled) lasers.

Both – CWDM and DWDM – systems are the WDM types: the dense WDM is an
implementation in long-haul networks distances and the coarse WDM is an
implementation in metropolitan and access networks. Different demands for these
two implementations require different architectures and determine performance
demands for system components. The goal of DWDM systems is to maximize
a bypassed distance without an electrical regeneration at amplifier costs spread
over a maximum number of wavelengths. The goal of CWDM systems is
minimize a components cost in the system, where a distance is shorter and
amplifiers are not necessary.
DWDM systems – wavelengths in the 1530 – 1625 nm range; expensive cooled
lasers to prevent wavelengths from drifting outside this region and from
interfering with each other. Increasing of the channel number requires a narrowing
of the channel spacing in filters, an extended spacing and a using of translators for
reaching narrower channel spacing and an opening of the new spectral area –
except a common C-band also a new L-band.
CWDM systems – wavelengths in the entire 1280 – 1625 nm band; less expensive
uncooled lasers (cost savings are a direct reflection of the packaging differences
between DWDM and CWDM lasers). Medium distances without amplifiers, an
elimination of the EDFA amplifier bandwidth limit allows distributing of

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wavelengths over a broad region and locating of them sufficiently far between,
a need for cheap multiplexers, demultiplexers, add/drop and switches (not simply
retrofitted from DWDM systems) with a low loss, a high isolation and proper
channel spacing.
The DWDM and CWDM systems have different sources operating at given
wavelengths and have different filter for combining of wavelengths onto the same
fiber at the transmitting end and for separating of wavelengths at the receiving
end. However, technologies of used filter can be the same. Also, the adding and
the dropping of wavelengths in midpoints of the system can be performed by the
same technology for both systems. A main difference is in channel spacing – the
DWDM channel spacing can be nearly 0.2 nm, the CWDM channel spacing is
usually 20 nm. Therefore, it is possible to consider about a practical utilization of
the CWDM/DWDM combination.
The CWDM is an alternative to expensive and complex DWDM-based
architectures because it provides an occasion to continue in a direction given by
the DWDM technology to all optical networks. An advantage of the DWDM in
eliminating of expensive regenerators is not used in metropolitan networks, where
optical amplifiers are not required or where block modules with cheap uncooled
laser pumps easy satisfy demands on distances in a majority of metropolitan
circuits and paths.
The CWDM varies from the DWDM in broader optical channel spacing between
light sources that are multiplexed into the same fiber. As well, CWDM
transmitters/receivers use an optical multiplexing technique for reaching serial
equivalent data rates, whereas the DWDM multiplexes many serial data streams
for reaching a bandwidth up to hundreds of Gbps. This is reached by using of
a thermal control in the DWDM channel spacing. This exact spacing control
allows combining a large number of separated channels. The typical CWDM
system has spacing in order of some nm (some THz) and doesn’t require a thermal
control. So, CWDM transmitters/receivers without a thermal control have directly
modulated lasers and include lower-speed components for reaching of higher data
rates.

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7.10 The WDM Architectures

WDM network architectures [53] can be classified into two broad categories:
broadband and select architectures and wavelength routing architectures.

A broadband and select (B&S) WDM network has different nodes transmitting at
different wavelengths. Their signals are broadcasting by a passive device in the
middle of the network to all the nodes. In this case, this device is a passive optical
star coupler. The coupler combines signals from all nodes and delivers a fraction
of the power from each signal on to each output port. Each node employs
a tunable optical filter to select the desired wavelength for reception.

This form of a network is simple and suitable for use in local- or metropolitan-
area networks, such as access networks. The number of nodes in these networks is
limited because the wavelengths cannot be reused in the network and because the
transmitted power from a node must be split among all the receivers in the
network.

A more sophisticated and practical architecture today is that employs

a wavelength routing. The nodes in the wavelength routing (WR) WDM network
are capable of routing different wavelengths at an input port to different output
ports. This enables us to set up many simultaneous light paths using the same
wavelength in the network; that is, the capacity can be reused spatially. These
light paths all use the same wavelength on every link in their path. This is
a constraint that we must deal with if we do not have wavelength conversion
capabilities within the network. This architecture also avoids broadcasting the
power to unwanted receivers in the network. Thus these networks are suitable for
deployment in metropolitan- and wide-area networks, such as local-exchange and
interexchange networks.

Ideally, all the functions inside the node would be performed in an optical domain,
but in practice, certain functions, such as a processing the header and a controlling
the switch, get relegated to an electronic domain. This is because of the very
limited processing capabilities in an optical domain. The header itself could be
sent at a lower bit rate than the data so that it can be processed electronically.

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7.11 Development Trends in Transport WAN
Contemporary technologies are coming to their limits in bandwidth provisioning.
Therefore, evolution trends in transport networks use more intensive new
technologies deployment. These new technologies concern mainly optical
networks latest research: WDM circuit switching networks and optical packet
networks.

No wavelength conversion Fixed wavelength conversion

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Limited wavelength conversion Full wavelength conversion

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optical switch fixed wavelength convertor

Various levels of wavelengths conversion

Few decades ago, metallic cables were used for long distance data transport. They
were replaced by optical fibers characterized by better quality parameters (error
ratio, attenuation and higher bandwidth). Results of the research allowed even
more efficient bandwidth use thanks to WDM multiplex.

WDM means that several wavelengths can be transported in parallel via one
optical fiber. It is similar to frequency multiplex in classical networks. WDM is
based on parallel transport of data on different wavelengths using one fiber.
Therefore, wavelength can be used as supplementary information concerning
packet routing. Data can be transported using one wavelength between end-points,
but it is possible to use wavelength conversion in the nodes. Level of wavelength
conversion in the nodes expresses also level of flexibility of WDM networks. It is
possible to have WDM network without possibility of wavelength conversion,
partial conversion and full conversion (Figure above). Event more, conversion can
be implemented only in some nodes. Such approach leads us to serious problem,
which is known as RWA (Route Wavelength Assignment). This problem is
formulated how to optimize wavelength use between points in the network, which

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topology is known to maximize transported data and minimize PLR. Well-
resolved RWA problem can also help with network topology design by
minimizing degree of conversion. Let us stress that with increasing level of
conversion in the network also management complexity and price increases.
WDM is relatively new technology, but researchers are already preparing next
step, which is optical packet switching network. In this case, we are talking about
all-optical network, where data are transported via proposed network without
being converted into electrical form.

Optical packets are created at the ingress node and original electronic packets are
formed at egress node of the optical network. As we show later, all-optical packet
technology is too revolutionary. Therefore, an intermediate step has been
proposed. This step uses optical switching matrix, but includes electronic
memories.

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