Freezing range = TL -Ts.

lt can be seen in Fig. 10.3 that pure metals have a freezing range that approaches zero, and that the
solidification front moves as a plane front without forming a mushy zone. Eu’ ‘ gectirs (Section 4.3)
solidify in a similar manner, with an approximately plane front.

The type of solidification structure developed depends on the composition of the eu‘ tactic. in alloys
with a nearly symmetrical phase diagram; the structure is generally lame" tan with two or more solid
phases present, depending on the alloy system. When the volum‘

fraction of the minor phase of the alloy is less than about 25%, the structure generally W comes lihrous.
These conditions are particularly important for east irons. For alloys, although it is not precise. a short
freezing range generally involves a ten? perature difference of less than 50 °C (90 °F), and a long freezing
range greater than 110 ° (200 °F). Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones, whereas
aluminum and nu? nesium alloys have wide mushy zones. Consequently, these alloys are in a mushy Sta“
Woughout most of the soliditication process.

Effects of Cooling Retest Slow cooling rates (on the order of 102 K/s) or long teed 5omiftcation times
result in coarse dendritic structures with large spacing between the den/

drite arms. For faster cooling rates (on the order of 104 K/s) or short local solidification times, the
structure becomes finer with smaller dendrite arm spacing. For still higher coolv ing rates (on the order
of from 106 to 108 K / s) the structures developed are amorphous, as described in Section 6.14.

The structures developed and the resulting grain size influence the properties of the casting. As grain size
decreases, the strength and the ductility of the cast alloy increase, microporosity (interdendritic
shrinkage voids) in the casting decreases, and the tendency for . the casting to crack (hot tearing, see Fig.
10.11) during solidification decreases. Lack of uniformity in grain size and grain distribution results in
castings with anisotropic properties.

A criterion describing the kinetics of the liquid-solid interface is the ratio G R, where G is the thermal
gradient and R is the rate at which the liquid-solid interface moves. Typical values for G range from 102
to 103 K/m and for R from 10-3 to 10-4 m/s. Dendritic type structures (Figs. 10.5a and b) typically have
an R ratio in the range of 105 to 107, whereas ratios of 10“ to 1012 produce a plane-front, nondendritic
liquid-solid interface (Fig. 10.6).

HEAT TRANSFER

An important consideration in casting is the heat transfer during the complete cycle from pouring to
solidification and cooling to room temperature. Heat flow at different locations in the system is a
complex phenomenon, and depends on many factors relating to the casting material and the mold and
process parameters. For instance, in casting thin sections, the metal flow rates must be high enough to
avoid premature chilling and solidification. However. the flow rate must not be so high as to cause
excessive turbulence with its detrimental effects on the casting process. Fig.
l8;Y§;::lf:::l>;feaglr:igi:;it:rtion. at the mold liquid-metal interface is shown in ing air. The {em ram d? h
1§glven off through the mold wall and the surroundPe It 0p at t e air-mold and mold-metal interfaces is
caused by the

55:11:: ofsmundhary layers and imperfect contact at these interfaces. The shape of the pen 5 on e
thermal Properties of the molten metal and the mold

plTY O

The surface has a higher concentration of alloying elements than does the core of the dendrite. on ing to
solute reicction from the core toward the surface during solidification of the dendrite
(titlerttsegiegtttlon). The darker shading in the interdendritic liquid near the den, drite roots in Fig. 10.5
indicates that these regions have a higher solute concentration; mg, cnmcgregation in these regions is
much more pronounced than in others.

There are se\ eral types of segregation. in contrast with microsegregation, macroseg~ tegntion involves
ditt‘erences in composition throughout the casting itself. in situations uhcre the solidifying front moves
away front the surface of a casting as a plane from (Fig. 10.0), lower-melting point constituents in the
solidifying alloy are driven toward the center (normal segregation). Consequently, such a casting has a
higher concentration of at. lo) ing elements at its center than at its surfaces.

in dendritic structures such as those found in solid-solution alloys (Fig. 10. lb). the 0p. posite occurs: the
center of the casting has a lower concentration of alloying elements (in. Verse segregation). The reason is
that liquid metal (having a higher concentration of alloying elements) enters the cavities developed from
solidification shrinkage in the dendrite arms, which have solidified sooner. ‘

Another form of segregation is due to gravity. Gravity segregation describes the process whereby higher-
density inclusions or compounds sink, and lighter elements (such as antimony in an antimony-lead alloy)
float to the surface.

Atypical cast structure of a solid-solution alloy with an inner zone of cquiaxed grains is shown in Fig. 10.
lb. This inner zone can be extended throughout the casting. as shown in Fig. 10.1c, by adding an
inoculant (nucleating agent) to the alloy. The inoculant induces nucleation of the grains throughout the
liquid metal (heterogeneous nucleation).

Because of the presence of thermal gradients in a solidifying mass of liquid metal. and because of gravity
and the resultant density differences, convection has a strong intluence on the structures developed.
Convection promotes the formation of an outer chill zone: refines grain size; and accelerates the
transition from columnar to equiaxed grains. The structure shown in Fig. 10.5b can also be obtained by
increasing convection within the liquid metal, whereby dendrite arms separate (dendrite multiplication).
Conversely. reducing or eliminating convection results in coarser and longer columnar dendritic grains.

The dendrite arms are not particularly strong and can be broken up by agitation or mechanical vibration
in the early stages of solidification (semisolid metal forming and rheocasting; see Section 11.142). This
process results in finer grain size, with equia‘trd nondendritic grains distributed more uniformly
throughout the casting (Fig. 10.5c). Convection can be enhanced by the use of mechanical or
electromagnetic methods.

Experiments are now being conducted during space flights concerning the effects of gravity on the
microstructure of castings. Lack of gravity (or microgravity, as it is now called in regard to space travel)
means that, unlike on Earth, there are no significant density differences or thermal gradients (and
therefore no convection) during solidification. This lack of convection affects solidification structure and
distribution of impurities. Recent experiments involve the growth of crystals for production of cadmium-
zinc telluride. mer‘ cury’zinc telluride, and selenium-doped gallium arsenide semiconductor samples.

3 Hum FLOW
To emphasize the importance of fluid flow, let’s briefly describe the basic casting system 35 shown in Fig.
10.7. The molten metal is poured through a pouring basin or cup. it then flow-‘3 through the gating
system (sprue. runners and gates) into the mold cavity. As described i“ Section 1 1.2.2 and illustrated in
Fig. 11.3, the sprue is a vertical channel through which the.' molten metal flows downward in the mold.

Runners are the channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold cavv ity, or connect
the sprue to the gate. The gate is that portion of the runner through which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity. Risers serve as reservoirs to supply the molten metal necessary to prevent shrinkage during
solidification.

Although such a gating system appears to be relatively simple, successful casting requires proper design
and‘control of the solidification process to ensure adequate fluid flow in the system. For example, one of
the most important functions of the gating system in sand casting is to trap contaminants (such as oxides
and other inclusions) in the molten metal by having the contaminants adhere to the walls of the gating
system, thereby preventing them from reaching the actual mold cavity.

Furthermore, a properly designed gating system avoids or minimizes problems such as premature
cooling, turbulence, and gas entrapment. Even before it reaches the mold cavity, the molten metal must
be handled carefully to avoid the formation of oxides on molten metal surfaces from exposure to the
environment or introduction of impurities into the molten metal.

Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design: Bernoulli’ s theorem and the law of mass
continuity.

Bernoulli’s Theorem. This theorem is based on the principle of conservation of energy and relates
pressure, velocity, the elevation of the fluid at any location in the system, and the frictional losses in a
system that is full of liquid according to the equation

2, h + ~13+ l)= constant, (10.2)

pg 28 where h is the elevation above a certain reference plane, p is the pressure at that elevation, v is
the velocity of the liquid at that elevation, r is the density of the fluid (assuming that 1t

is incompressible), and g is the gravitational constant Conservation of energy requires that at a particular
location in the system, the relationship

’02 ’02

hl+£L+__h2+£3+-+f (10.3)

pg 2g pg 28 be satisfied, where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent two different elevations, respectively,
and f rePresents the frictional loss in the liquid as it travels downward through the system. The

frictional loss includes such factors as energy loss at the liquid-mold wall interfaces and turbulence in the
liquid.

Continuity. The law of mass continuity states that for incompressible liquids and in a system with
impermeable walls, the rate of flow is constant. Thus,

Q a At”! 3 A3”). (10“)

is hem Q is the rate of How (such as tu‘/s), A is the erosvsectional area of the liquid siren.h had t‘ is the
awrage \eloctty ol‘ the liquid in that cross-sectional location. The subscripn l “lid 3 refer to two dttl‘erent
locations in the system.

Awonltng to this law. the llow rule must be maintained anywhere in the system. Th henneahility ot‘the
walls of the system is important because otherwise some liquid will pQr tueate through the walls (such
as in sand molds) and the flow rate will decrease as the liqx hid moves thmugh the system. \
An application of the two principles just stated is the traditional tapered design (it sprues (shown in Fig.
10.7): we can determine the shape of the sprue by using Eqs. (I03) and t I04). Assuming that the pressure
at the top of the sprue is equal to the pressure at thQ bottom and that there are no frictional losses. the
relationship between height and crow hectional area at any point in the sprue is given by the parabolic
relationship

Al [12 \

""”’3 10. A: it”. ‘ 5i

\thene. for example. the subscript 1 denotes the t0p of the sprue and 2 denotes the bottom. Moving
downward from the top, the cross-sectional area of the Sprue must decrease. De\ pending on the
ahsumptions made, expressions other than Eq. (10.5) can also be obtained‘ For example, we may
assume a certain molten-metal velocity Vl at the top of the sprue, Then. using Eqs. (10.3) and (l0.4), we
can obtain an expression for the ratio A, /A3 of the cross-sectional areas as a function of hl , 112, and
V1.,

Recall that in a free-falling liquid (such as water from a faucet) the cross-sectional area of the stream
decreases as it gains velocity downward. If we design a sprue with a constant cross-sectional area and
pour the molten metal into it, regions may develop where the liq. uid loses contact with the sprue walls.
As a result aspiration, a process whereby air is sucked in or entrapped in the liquid, may take place. On
the other hand, tapered sprues are now re. placed in many systems by straight-sided sprues with a choke
to allow the metal to flow smoothly. ‘

Flow Characteristics. An important consideration in fluid flow in gating systems is the presence of
turbulence, as opposed to the Iaminarfiow of fluids. We use the Reynolds number, Re, to quantify this
aSpect of fluid flow; it represents the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces in fluid flow, and is defined
as ‘
vD Re = ‘17:) , (10.6)

where v is the velocity of the liquid, D is the diameter of the channel, and p and n are the density and
viscosity. respectively, of the liquid. The higher this number, the greater the ten! dency for turbulent
flow. In ordinary gating systems, Re ranges from 2,000 to 20,000.

An Re value of up to 2.000 represents laminar flow; between 2,000 and 20,000, it represents a mixture
of laminar and turbulent flow. Such a mixture is generally regarded a9 hamiless in gating systems. Re
values in excess of 20,000, however, represent severe tur’ bulence, resulting in air entrainment and the
formation of dross (the scum that forms on th( surface of molten metal) from the reaction of the liquid
metal with air and other gases. Tech’ niques for minimizing turbulence generally involve avoidance of
sudden changes in flow di’ rection and in the geometry of channel cross-sections in gating system design.
‘

Dress or slag can be almost completely eliminated only by vacuum casting (Section l 1.8)' Conventional
atmospheric casting mitigates dross or slag by skimming, by using properll/

FMOLTEN METAL

Th5 capability of the molten metal to fill mold cavities is called fluidity; it consists of two basic factors: (1)
characteristics of the molten metal, and (2) casting parameters. The folv lowing characteristics of molten
metal influence fluidity:

g. Viscosity. As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature (viscosity index) increase, fluidity decreases.

13. Surface tension. A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces fluidity. Because of this, oxide
films on the surface of the molten metal have a significant adverse ef
feet on fluidity; for example, an oxide film on the surface of pure molten aluminum triples the surface
tension.

c; Inclusions. As insoluble particles, inclusions can have a significant adverse effect on fluidity. This effect
can be verified by observing the viscosity of a liquid such as oil with and without sand particles in it; the
former has a higher viscosity.

(1. Solidification pattern of the alloy. The manner in which solidification takes place, as described in
Section 10.2, can influence fluidity. Moreover, fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing range. The
shorter the range (as in pure metals and eu

tectics), the higher the fluidity. Conversely, alloys with long freezing ranges (such as solid-solution alloys)
have lower fluidity.

The following casting parameters influence fluidity and also influence the fluid flow and themial
characteristics of the system: '

a. Mold design. The design and dimensions of the sprue, runners, and risers all influence fluidity. ‘

b. Mold material and its surface characteristics. The higher the thermal conductivity of the mold and the
rougher the surfaces, the lower the fluidity of the molten metal. Although heating the mold improves
fluidity. it slows down solidification of the metal and the casting develops coarse grains and hence has
lower strength.

6Degree of superheat. Defined as the increment of temperature above the. melting point of an alloy,
superheat improves fluidity by delaying solidification.
9‘

Rate of pouring. The slower the rate of pouring molten metal into the mold, the lower the fluidity
because of the higher rate of cooling.

9. Heat transfer. This factor directly affects the viscosity of the liquid metal (see below).

Although the interrelationships are complex, we use the general term castability to

flescribe the ease with which a metal can be cast to obtain a part with good quality. This term Includes
not only fluidity but casting practices as well.

Shrinkage

Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metals shrink (co _ fication and cooling. Shrinkage,
which causes dimensional changes and. some“

ing, is the result of the following three events:

a. contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior to its solidification. b. contraction of the metal during
phase change from liquid to solid (latent

c. contraction of the solidified metal (the casting) as its temperature drops to temperature. .

heat of f“

The largest amount of shrinkage occurs durin ' ' WM?“ traction during solidification of various metals is
si§§§§§§ggeigafugity§at gray cw “all enpands. The reason is that graphite has a relatively high S .15 ’ ‘ ‘
me and when it 9" eipttates as graphite flakes during solidification. it causes a rig?“ c V0 u {the metal SM
age is funher discussed in Section 12‘2.l in connection With (12:33? ggiderations in aw“;

Defects

As viii be seen in this section as well as other sections throughout Parts II-VI, various defects can develop
in manufacturing processes, depending on factors such as materials, part design, and processing
techniques. While some defects affect only the appearance of parts. others can have major adverse
effects on the structural integrity of the parts made (see also Staplers ll and 12).

Several defects can develop in castings (Figs. 10.11 and 10.12). Because different names have been used
in the past to describe the same defect, the International Committee of Foundry Technical Associations
has developed a standardized nomenclature consisting of seven basic categories of casting defects
identified vvith boldface capital letters:

A. Metallic projections, consisting of fins, flash, or massive projections such as swells and rough surfaces.

B. Cavities, consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities, including blowholes, pinholes,
and shrinkage cavities (see “porosity,” below).

C. Dineontlnultlee, such as cracks. cold or hot tearing, and cold shuts. if the solidifying metal is
constrained from nhrinking freely, cracking and tearing can occur. Although many factors are involved in
tearing, coarse grain size and the presence of low melting point segregates along the grain boundaries
(lntergranular) increase the tenden cy for hot tearing. Cold shut in an interface in a casting that lack:
complete {union because of the meeting of two streams of liquid metal from different gates.

D. Defective surface, such as surface folds, laps, scars, adhering and layers, and oxide scale.

E. Incomplete carting. such as misrunn (due to premature solidification). insufficient vol ume of the
metal poured, and mnout (due to loan of metal from mold after pourinzli

incomplete castings can result from the molten metal being at too low a temperaturt or from pouring
the metal too slowly.
F. broom dimemrionu or shape, owing to factors such an improper shrinkage allowance pattem
mounting error, irregular contraction. deformed pattern, or warped casting.

G. lnclunlone, which form during melting. aolidilication and molding. Generally non“ metallic, they are
regarded an harmful because they act as strobe miners and reduce thi ntrenuth of the casting. Particles
as small as 30 not can be filtered out during pro“ conning of the molten metal. inclusion: may form
during melting when molten metal reatts with the environment (usually oxygen) or with the crucible or
mold mteritl' Chemical reactions among components in the molten metal may produce irnelunionti sings
and other foreign material entrapped in the molten metal also become incia/ sinus. Spoiling of the mold
and core aurtitces also produces inclusions, indicating th‘ importance of the quality of molds and of their
maintenance.

Porosity

Porosity in a casting may be caused by shrinkage or gases or both. Porosity is detrimental to the ductility
of a casting and its surface finish, making it permeable and thus affecting pressure tightness of a cast
pressure vessel.

Porous regions can develop in castings because of shrinkage of the solidified metal. Thin sections in a
casting solidify sooner than thicker regions; as a result, molten metal cannot be fed into the thicker
regions that have not yet solidified. Porous regions may develop at their centers because of contraction
as the surfaces of the thicker region begin to solidify first. Microporosity can also develop when the
liquid metal solidifies and shrinks be tween dendrites and between dendrite branches (Section 10.2.3).

Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or eliminated by various means. Adequate liquid metal
should be provided to avoid cavities caused by shrinkage. Internal or external chills, used in sand casting
(Fig. 10.13), also are an effective means of reducing shrinkage porosity. The function of chills is to
increase the rate of solidification in critical regions. Internal chills are usually made of the same material
as the casting and are left in the casting. However, there may be problems involved in proper fusion of
the internal chills With the casting; foundries try to avoid use of internal chills for this reason. External
chills may be made of the same material or may be iron, copper, or graphite.
. With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated by making the temperature gradient steep. For
example, mold materials that have higher thermal conductivity may be used. Subjecting the casting to
hot isostatic pressing is another method of reducing porosity (Section 17.3.2).

Liquid metals have much greater solubility for gases than do solid metals (Fig. 10.14). When a metal
begins to solidify, the dissolved gases are expelled from the solution. Gases may also result from
reactions of the molten metal with the mold materials. Gases either accumulate in regions of existing
porosity (such as in interdendritic regions) or they cause microporosity in the casting, particularly in cast
iron, aluminum, and copper.