A PRIMER OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY FOURTH EDITION Richard B. Primack Boston University Sinauer Associates, Inc. + Publishers Sunderland, MA 01375 U.S.A.THE COVER The Juruena River, flowing through Juruena National Park deep in Brazil ian Amazonia, has many waterfalls like those seen in the background. During the heat of the day, hundreds of butterflies of many species gather on the riverbank near the falls and feed on accumulated mineral salts. Photograph © Zig Koch, on an expedition organized by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), A Primer of Conservation Biology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2008 by Sinauer Associates Inc. All Fights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part without permission from the publisher. Inquiries and orders: Sinauer Associates, Inc 23 Plumtree Road Sunderland, MA 01375 USA www. sinauercom FAX; 413-549-1118, ordersi@sinauer.com; publish@sinauer.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicaion Data Primack, Richard By 198 A primer of conservation biology / Richard B,Primack.— th ed Inches bibliographical references and index ISBN 979-087085-092-2 (pL) 1. Conservation biology. ie Guim P7505 2008 3000816 ez? 2008009147 Printed in China 654321CONTENTS Chapter 1 Defining Conservation Biology 3 ‘The Nature and Origins of Conservation Biology 5 The philosophical roots of conservation biology 6 Conservation biology’s international scope 8 The interdisciplinary approach: A case study 10 Conservation Biology’s Ethical Principles 13 Achievements and Challe 4 Summary 15 Chapter 2 What Is Biodiversity? 19 Wem Species Diversity 20 What isa speci Mensuring specie rm dynamics 33 Biodiversity Worldwide 3 How many species e Where is the world’s biodiversity found? Summary 40Contents Chapter 3 The Value of Biodiversity 43 Beological Economics 45 Direct Economic Values 47 tue 47 ue 49 Indirect Economic Values 51 Consumptive use Productive use Ecosystem productivity’ 52 Water and soil protection 53 Climate regulation 54 Species interelationships and environmental moititors 35 Amenity value 56 ‘Multiple uses of a single resource: A case study 59 ‘The Long: ferm View: Option Value 60 Existence Value 62 Environmental Ethics 64 Ethical arguments supporting preservation 65 Deep ecology 68 Summary 69 Chapter 4 Threats to Biodiversity 73 Human Population Growth and its Impact 74 Habitat Destruction 77 Tropical forests 79 Temperate grasslands 83 Wetlands 83 Man Desertification 86 Habitat Fragmentation 86 ‘me coastal waters 84 ‘Threats posed by fragmentation 88 Edge effects 90 Environmental Degradation and Pollution 92 Pe v Air pollution 96 esticides 94 ter pollution 94ee ili Contents Global Climate Change 98 Chapter 6 Climate change and the marine environment 102 Conserving F a Overexploitation 104 Natural resource use in traditional societies 105 International wildlife rade 105 Commercial harvesting 107 overall effect of global parming 103 ecies 109 e species on islands 111 1 species in aquatic habitats 112 Invasive Invasi Troon The ability of Genetically modified organisms 116 Disease 117 Summary 120 pecies to become invasive 113 Chapter 5 Extinction Is Forever 125 ‘The Meaning of “Extinct” 127 Rates of Extinction 128 Extinction rates in aquatic environments 130 Extinction rates on islands 131 Island biogeography and extinction rate prediction 133 Local extinctions 135 Vulnerability to Extinction 137 The Problems of Small Populations 140 Loss of genetic variation 143 Chapter 7 Effective population size 148 Demographic and environmental stochastcity 151 Protected | The extinction vortex’ 153 Summary 154Contents ix Chapter 6 Conserving Populations and Species 157 Applied Population Biology 158 Backgrourid research 159 Monitoriiig populations in the field 159 Demographic studies 163 Population viability analysis 164 ‘Metapopulation models 165 Conservation Categories 168 Establishing New Populations 172 ‘Relocating individuals to establish new populations 172 Considerations for successful establishment programs 173 Establishing new plant populations 177 ‘The status of new populations 179 Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 180 Zoos 182 Aquariums 186 Botanical gardens 188 Seed banks 189 Legal Protection of Species 191 National laws 191 ‘The U.S. Endangered Species Act 192 International agreements 196 Summary 198 Chapter 7 Protected Areas 201 Establishment and Classification of Protected Areas 202 ‘The Effectiveness of Protected Areas 205 Prioritization: What should be protected? 206 Measuring effectiveness: Gap analysis 212 Designing Protected Areas 214 ‘The debate over size 215 Minimizing edge and fragmentation effects 219 Networks of protected areas 219 Landscape Ecology and Park Design 224x Contents Managing Protected Areas 226 ‘Monitoring 228 Maintaining habitat 0p Zoning as a solution to conflicting demands Management Challenges to Park Management 236 Summary 237 Chapter 8 Conservation Outside Protected Areas 241 Unprotected Public and Private Lands 241 Human-Dominated Landscapes 242 Working with Local People 245 servation 248 Con:munity-bas Payment for eco Eval Restoring Damaged Eo The need f0 restore ec Approaches to ecosyst ‘Targets of major restoration The future of re Summary 264 Chapter 9 The Challenge of Sustainable Development 267 Sustainable Development at the Local and National Levels 269 Local con: Nation ion regulations 269 lation 271 Enforcement and other issues 274 International Approaches to Sustainable Development 275 International agreement The Earth SummitContents Funding for Conservation 280 Environmental trust funds’ 281 Debt-for-nature swaps 281 Loans and grants 282 Private funding 284 The dilemma of conseroation funding 285 Challenges of funding 286 Conservation Education 287 The Role of Conservation Biologists 289 Summary 291 ‘Appendix: Selected Environmental Organizations and Sources of Information . 295 Glossary 299 Chapter Opening Photograph Credits 307 Bibliography 309 Index 337 About the Author 351CHAPTER 1 Defining Conservation Biology are living in a period of unprecedented loss of biological Wess Around the globe, biological communities that took millions of years to develop—including tropical rain forests, coral reefs, old-growth forests, prairies, and, coastal wet- lands—have been devastated as a result of hiaman actions. Biolo- gists predict that tens of thousands 6f species and millions of unique populations will go extinct in the coming decades (Mille- nium Ecosystem Assessment 2005a; Brown and Laband 2006). ‘The overwhelming cause of all this loss is the rapidly expanding human population. During the last 150 years, the human population has exploded. It took more than 10,000 years for the number of Homo sapiens to reach 1 billion, an event that occurred sometime around the year 1850. Estimates for 2008 put the number of humans at 6.6 billion; at this size, even a modest rate of population increase adds tens of millions of individuals each year (Figure 1.1). The threats to biodi- versity are accelerating due to the demands of the rapidly increas- ing human population and its rising material consumption. People use natural resources such as firewood, coal, oil, timber, fish, and game, and they convert natural habitats to land dominated by agri- culture, cities, housing developments, logging, mining, industrial plants, and other human activities. Worsening the situation is the fact that as countries develop and industrialize, the consumption of resources by its citizens increases. For example, the average citizen of the United States4 Chapter FIGURE 1.1 The human population in. 2008 stands at around 6.6 billion. The World Resources Institute estimates current annual ‘population growth at 1-19, but even this modest growth rate will add more than 72 million people ta the planet in the next year ‘This number wil escalate each year as the increase is compounded. (Data from US. Census Bureau, wwvw.census gov/ipclwuw/ |dbworldpopinfoshtm) 1) 185) 2000-2050 (estimated uses 17 times more energy and 79 times more paper products than the aver age citizen of India (WRI 2000, 2005). The ever increasing number of human. beings and their intensifying tse of natural resources have direct and harm- ful consequences for the diversity of the living world. The mass extinctions now underway are unlike the mass extinctions of the geological past, in which tens of thousands of species died out fotlow- ing catastrophes such as asteroid collisions, widespread volcanicand earth- quake activity, and sudden dramatic temperature changes (see Chapter 5). Today’s extinctions have a human face, Never before has such devastation been caused by beings who claim reason, a moral sense, and free will as their unique and defining characteristics. Unless something is done to reverse the trend of human-caused extine- tions, species that exemplify the natural world for us—animals like giant pandas, whales, and many kinds of songbirds—will be lost forever from, ‘what remains of their wild habitats, Many thousands, possibly millions, of less conspicuous bacteria, fungus, and invertebrate species will join them in extinction unless their habitats are protected. The loss of these seemingly inconspicuous species may prove to be devastating to the planet and its human inhabitants because of the role such species play in recycling nutri- ents and maintaining a healthy balance of species. Many of the threats to biodiversity are synergistic, which means that the negative effects of several separate factors—such as logging, overhunting,Defining Conservation Biology 5 drought, fire, climate change, and poverty—combine additively or even multiplicatively to destroy biodiversity (WRI 2005). Threats to biodiver tity will almost certainly threaten human populations as well, because humans depend on the natural environment for raw materials, food, med- icines, and even clean air and water. Although many of us feel discouraged by the approaching avalanche of species extinctions and the wholesale habitat destruction taking place in the wrorld today, it is possible—indeed, it is necessary—to feel challenged to find ways to stop the destruction (Orr 2007). The actions taken or not taken. during the next few decades will determine how many of the world’s species, ecological communities, and natural areas will survive, People may someday look back on the early decades of the twenty-first century as a time when a handful of determined people saved numerous species and entire biological communities. Examples of such conservation efforts are described later in this chapter and throughout this book. The Nature and Origins of Conservation Biology Conservation biology is an integrated, multidisciplinary scientific field that hhas developed in response tothe challenge of preserving species and ecosys- tems (Robinson 2006). It has three goals: # To document the full range of biological diversity on Earth «+ To investigate human impact on species, communities, and ecosystems « To develop practical approaches to prevent the extinction of species, maintain genetic diversity within species, and protect and restore bio- Jogical communities and their associated ecosystem functions ‘The first two of these goals involve the dispassionate search for factual knowledge typical of scientific research. The third goal, however, defines conservation biology as ipline—thatis, it embraces certain Values and attempts to apply scientific methods to achieving those values. Like medical science, which applies knowledge gleaned from physiology, anatomy, biochemistry, and genetics to the goal of achieving human health. and eliminating illness, conservation biologists intervene to prevent the hhuman-enthanced loss of biodiversity because they believe the preservation of species and natural communities to be an ultimate good. ‘The modern science of conservation biology arose in the 1980s because by themselves the traditional applied disciplines of resource management, include ing forestry, agriculture fisheries biology, and wildlife management, were not comprehensive enough to address the rapidly escalating threats to biological Giversity. Conservation biology complements the applied disciplines and pro- ‘vides a more general theoretical approach to protecting the entire range of bio~ diversity. It differs from the applied disciplines in its emphasis on long-term6 Chapter preservation of the entie biological community accompanied by economic vistainability. The academic disciplines of population biology, taxonomy, ecol ogy, evolution, and genetics merge withthe applied disciplines to form the sax et conservation biology, and many conservation biologists have been Grawn from these ranks. In addition, many leaders in conservation biology have come from 200s, aquariums, and botanical gardens, bringing with them experience in maintaining and propagating species in captivity (Conservation biology’ is also closely associated with environmentalism, a widespread movement characterized by politcal and educational activism With the goal of protecting the natural environment from destruction and pollution, Conservation biology, however, i a scientific discipline whose FPoclings often contribute to the environmentalist movement but differ from itby being based in biological esearch. Because much ofthe biodiversity crisis has arisen from human pressures, conservation biology also incorporates ideas and expertise from a broad vange of other fields For example, environmental law and policy provide the basis for government protection of endan- gered species and critical habitats. Environmen- falethics provides a rationale for preserving; bio- dlvesity. Ecological economists provide analyses of the economic value of various aspects of bio dlivesity to support arguments for preservation, Ecologiss, environmental scientists and clima- tologists monitor the biological and physical characteristics of the environment and develop models to predict environ- fe sacred 5, mental responses to disturbance, especially climate change. Social sciences, ama Jewish le: including anthropology, sociology, and geography, provide methods to apart of hur lnderstand the actions of local people and involve them in protecting their Tenth Uni jnmediate environment, Conservation education links academic study and Kameron and Fieldwork to solve environmental problems by teaching people about science meat in hus dnd helping them realize the value of the natural environment, Because it fe viewpoit dirawe onthe ideas and skills of so many separate fields, conservation biol; ‘School Sees Shaly mulsatxiplinay scence gute 12) {eer Ried” (Cole The philosophical roots of conservation biology Naame CE Conservation biology can be grounded in religious and philosophical beliefs weal anescap that describe the relationship between human societies and the natural world Tn the latte (Berkes 2001; McNeely 2001). In many of the world’s religions, people are Sering, whict Seen as both physically and spiritally connected tothe plants and animals in wildlife, v in the surrounding environment. In Eastern philosophies such as Taoism, movement. [ Shinto, Hinduism, and Buddhism, wilderness areas and natural settings are Gaia hypott protected and valued for their capacity to provide intense spiritual experi- “superorgan eves. These philosophies see a direct connection between the natural world interact 0 and the spiritual world, a connection that breaks when the natural world is. 1968). Mode: Sere on destroyed by human activity. In Islamic teachings, people are given ogy moveme Conservation biology merges applied and theoretical biology and incorporates ideas and expertise from a broad range of fields out- side the natural sclences, toward the goal of preserving biodiversity.Defining Conservation Biology 7 conomie FIGURE 1.2 Conservation ay ecol biology represents a synthets form the Basi Sciences Resource Management of many basic sciences ef) that ave been Anthropology Agricul Li biology Biogeography (Community education approaches for the applied ‘ihe — pee felis oftesource management ‘ith then Ecology Fisheries management (tight). Experience gained in the ‘Community ecology Forestry field in turn influences the direc- ntalism, pe Landateplaningerd _onof te bs soences Aer abroad pebkey 2 Sustainable developinent vonayaes wotbie, Stim physi thods © dupart of humanity's mora duties eee Inthe United Sat inctceth-century philosophers such as Ralph Waldo ea Emerson and Henry David Thoreau saw will notre asa impestant ele aera ment in human moral and spiritual development (Merchant 2002). Sharing, River School (Figure 1.3). These painters were noted for their romantic depic- Yions of “scenes of solitude from which the hand of nature has never been lifted” (Cole 1835). In a more scientific approach, wilderness advocates John Muir (1838-1914) and Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) argued for preserving nat- al beliefs ural landscapes and maintaining the health of natural ecosystems. ralworld In the later halfof the twentieth century, Rachel Carson’s 1962 book Silent eople are Spring, which described the linkages between pesticide use and the decline Tanimals in wildlife, was instrumental in triggering the modem environmentalist 3 Taoism, movement. Later, metaphysical and scientific perspectives merged in the tings are Gaia hypothesis, which views the Earth as having the properties of a alexperi- “superorganism” whose biological, physical, and chemical components ralworld interact to regulate characteristics ofthe atmosphere and climate (Lovelock [world is 1988). Moder wilderness proponents, such as members of the deep ecol- ze given ogy movement discussed in Chapter 3, often advocate the reduction or com-8 Chapter FIGURE 1.3. Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park was a favorite subject of Albert Bierstadt, one of the most noted of the Hudson River School of “wilderness” atists. This scene was completed in 1875, Forty yeas later pioneer envi- ronmentalist John Muir led a protracted but ult- ‘mately losing legal battle to stop the construction fof a dam that, inthe 1920s, submerged Hetch Hetchy beneath a reservoir that provides water and clectric power for the city of San Francisco. {Courtesy of Mount Holyoke College Art Museurn) Discussions of natural resources, ecosystem management, and sustainable developm are major themes throughout this textbook for the greatest good of the greatest number of and industries that disrupt the natural interac- plete cessation of practices hed wilderness tion of Earth's components. This American focus on unto\ Stands in contrast to conservation efforts in other countries that seck to pro- fect nature within a landscape that encompasses traditional uses by humans. Paralleling these preservationist and ecology-focused orientations was an influential forester, Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946), the first head of the U.S. For- ‘cat Service, Pinchot defined natural resources as the commodities and qual- ities found in nature—including timber, fodder, clean water, wildlife, and even beautiful land chot believed that the goal of land natural resources scapes. Pi management is to use the: t people for the longest time. Pinchot’s and Leopold's ideas have been combined and extended in the concept of ecosys- tem management, which places the highest management priority on the health of ecosystems and wild species. The current paradigm of sustainable development also advocates an integrated approach, calling for develop ment that meets present and future human needs without damaging the envi- ronment or diminishing biodiversity, Conservation biology’s international scope In Europe, expression of concer for the protection of wildlife began to spread widely in the late nineteenth century, when many species began to go locally extinct (Galbraith et al. 1998). The combination of both an increasing area of Tand under cultivation and more widespread use of firearms for hunting led fo eerie aan Spee mater (0 + wectore (lo) MASS 1 ogram (kg) pram) 1 migra (m4 ‘TEMPERATUL degree Cokie:Defining Conservation Biology 9 toa marked reduction in the numbers of wild aniinals. In the United King. dom, one of the early leaders in nature conservation, these dramatic changes stimulated the formation of the British conservation movement, leading to the founding of the Commons, Open Spaces and Footpaths Preservation Soci ety in 1865, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest of Natural Beauty in 1895, andl the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in 1899, Altogether, these groups have preserved over 500,000 hectares (ha) of open land. (For an explanation of the term hectare and other metric measurements used in the natural sciences, see Table 1.1.) In the twentieth century, government action in Great Britain produced laws such as the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act, passed in 1949 for the “protection and public enjoyment of the wider countryside,” and the Wildlife and Countryside Act, passed in 1981, for the protection of endangered species, their habitats, and the marine environment, Many other developed countries also have strong traditions of nature conservation and land protection, most notably Austria, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Australia, and Japan. In these countries as well, con- servation is both enacted by the government and supported by private con- servation organizations. Over the last two decades, regional initiatives to protect species, habitats, and ecosystem processes have been coordinated. by the European Union and, increasingly, by international organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund, TABLE 1 eee aera’ 1 meter (x) ‘Lm = 994 inches = ~93 feet 1 kilometer (km) km = 1000 m = 0,62 mile 1 centimeter (cm) Lem = 1/100 m= 0.39 inch 1 millimeter (mm) 1mm = 1/1000 m = 0.099 inch AREA ‘square meter (ax?) ‘Area encompassed by a square, each side of ‘which is I meter 1 hectare (ha) {ha = 10,000 m? = 247 acres 100 ha = I square kilometer (km) Mass: T kilogram (kg) 1 kg =22 pounds 1 gram 1 g= 1/1000 kg = 0.035 ounce 1 milligram (eng) I mg = 1/1000 g = 0.000035 ounce TEMPERATURE degree Celsius (C) sC=%(F-22) O°C = 3P Fahrenbeit (he fezing point of water) 100°C =212 Fahrenkit (the boing point of water) 20°C = 65" Fahrenheit (“room temperature”)rr 10 Chapter “Awareness of the value of biological diversity greatly increased following Brazilian governmen the international Earth Summit held in Rio de Janciro; Brazil in 1992. At this Program, called Proj necting, representatives of 178 countries formulated and eventually signed covaldi and Chaloot the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which obligate Brazil's 6000 Kilome protec their biodiversity but also allows them to obtain a share in the prof combined with hu fis of new products developed from that diversity. Tropical Countries such as in these efforts by & Brazil, Costa Rica, and Indonesia have responded to the CBD and related water (see p- 2). Thi international initiatives by expanding the numbers and areas of theirnational many conservation parks, The economic value of these protected areas is constantly increasing The TAMAR sure Because oftheir importance for tourism and for the valuable ecosystem serv zones along, 1100.km ices they provide, such as purifying water and absorbing carbon dioxide (see loggerhead turtles ( Chapter), Many tropical countries have established agencies to egulate the species also present exploration and use oftheir biodiversity. A related movement works to pro- esting on Brazil's vile benefits to the indigenous peoples who have developed the knowledge Interviews with ea vate aR Ys er sett dtaroe = If th The interdisciplinary approach: A case study esorts Irouses, CO” Our ability to protect biological diversity has been strengthened in part [and reduced the a because conservation biology has spearheaded a wide range of local, {ldings changed rational, and international efforts to promote scientific research and policy which biologists ne Changes that support conservation. Certain endangered species are recov a developing turth tring a8 a result of such measures. We can point to an expansion of our were females, affec Knowledge base and the science of conservation biology, the developing essfully. Addition linkages with rural development and social sci- ences, and our increased ability to restore ee Serie cme eile heen eral Se ies reine tet hed ee progress in the science of conservation BiS!O9)- Throughout the world, scientists are using the 1986 in Brazil t approaches of conservation biology to address challenging problems, as illustrated by a Brazilian program for the conser- vation of highly endangered sea turtles. Sen turtles are in desperate trouble, Many sea turtle populations have shrunk to less than 1% of their original sizes, devastated by a combination of factors that includes destruction of their nesting habitat, hunting of adult turtles and collecting turtle eggs for food, and high mortality due to entan- glement in ishing gear. The nation of Brazil's comprehensive approach fo faving these fascinating, mysterious creatures provides an illustration of the interdisciplinary nature of conservation biology: Sea turtles spend their ives at sea, with only the females returning to land to lay eggs on remote sandy beaches: When the Brazilian government set out to design a conservation program, planners discovered that no one Iknew exactly which species of sea turtles were found in Brazil, how many turtles there were, where they laid their eggs, and how local people were affecting them. To overcome this lack of basic information, in 1980 theDefining Conservation 8 Brazilian government established the National Marine Turtle Conservation Program, called Projeto TAMAR® (Marcovaldi and Marcovaldi 1999; Mar- covaldi and Chaloopka 2007). The project began with a 2-year survey of Brazil's 6000 kilometers of coastline, using boats, horses, and foot patrols, combined with hundreds of interviews with villagers. TAMAR divers aided in these efforts by tagging and monitoring sea turtle populations in the water (see p. 2) This data-gathering phase is an important inital step in many conservation projets The TAMAR survey found that turtle nesting beaches fll nto three main zones along, 1100 km ofthe coastline between Rio de Janeiro and Recife with Toggethead turtles (Carta cnreta) the most abuindant species and four other species also present. The green turtle (Cheloma mya) was the only species nesting on Brazil's offshore islands, Interviews with villagers and observations of beaches revealed that adult turtles and turtle eggs were being harvested intensively, with people often collecting virtually every turtle egg laid. In many areas, the construction of resorts, houses, commercial developments, and beach roads had damaged and reduced the available nesting area on beaches. Shadows cast by the buildings changed the temperature of the sand in which the eggs incubated, "which biologists now know to be a critical factor in determining the sex of a developing turtle. On some beaches, almost al ofthe emerging turt were females affecting the ability ofthe species asa whole to reproduce suc- cessfully. Additionally, the light from the buildings at night disoriented emerging hatchlings; instead of heading straight to the ocean, they often wandered in wrong directions and became exhausted. Ofthe young turtles that did make ito sea, many were caught in the nets of fishermen, where they suffocated and died. information from the TAMAR survey was critical to legislation passed in 1986 in Brazil that led to the complete protection of sea tutles and the establishment of two new biological eserves and a marine national park to protect nesting beaches on the islands. While creating protected areas is Important in conservation efforts, ongoing management activities are also needed. Projeto TAMAR chose an innovative and comprehensive approach to protecting the turtles on the ground. They established conservation sta- tions at each of 21 main nesting beaches. The Brazilian government grants TAMAR complete responsibility for and control of the beaches within these stations. Each station has a manager, several university interns, and loca “employees. More than 85% of TAMAR's 1000 employees live on the coast; many are former fishermen who bring their knowledge of sea turtles to bear on conservation. These local employees have become strong advocates for the turtles because their wages ftom Projeto TAMAR and the related tourist industry are linked to the continuing presence of these animals, TAMAR isan acronym for “TAdaruges MARinas” which s Portuguese for “marine tutes.”12° Chapter rhe stations’ personnel regularly patrol the conservation areas on foot “and hy vehiele, measuring turtles for size and permanently flipper tagi% ares ebserved on the beach. In places where predators are abundant aad are covered with wire mesh fitted with small gaps t protest We tgge and then allaw movement of the baby turfles afer ey hatch, Alter SBS ane fo cays ae collected and brought to nearby hatchery areas, Where Haaren reburied (Almeida and Mendes 2007). These measures alloys baby Ae are eging from protected nests or hatcheries to enter the ocean just a hoy hed emerged from natural ness. TAMAR protects over 4000 WF ei tets each year and has protected around 100,000 nests and apPro nately 7 million hatchlings in the years since its inception, te TAR is also working withthe Brazilian government to protect and manage the nesting beaches on the offshore islands. The project has mana tg mission to include preventing turtles from getting caught 1° fishing nets while feeding in coastal waters, TAMAR provides fishermen Feri Fermation about the importance of turtles and about fishing g¢9" Mosigned to prevent turtle capture. Fishermen are also tight techniques for seeing turtles caught in their nets so the turtles will not suffocse Their ‘pewacing appreciation of turtles and their awareness of the news Ja lead a teen to cooperate with these polices. However, accidental caP~ ture remains a leading cause of turtle mortality Projeto TAMAR plays a positive role in the villages wher it operates, ate eas, TAMAR isthe primary source of income forthe local Peo” ple, often providing child care facilities and small meet a] and dental clin- Me villagers are employed in making turtle-themed crafts 6 sell to tourists. Be evapcace awareness ofthe program atthe local level, TAMAR personnel five talks about marine conservation in village schools and organize hhatch- Ting release ceremonies (Figure 14). She project reaches a wide audience in Brazil through covers © PoP ilar articles and on television programs. In addition, TAMAR operates So! tat cedueational centers where hundreds of thousands of tourists vist each are ne tourists get to see conservation inaction and receive a large dos Peers vation esucation; in turn, they support the project through thei ‘purchase of souvenirs. Projeto TAMAR has tried to involve the next generation of concerned conzervationists in current projects, helping student intems experienc® “2% Sede with a real-life conservation project. Hopefully, the awareness raised ty Projeto TAMAR will extend gradually to other conservation preg Pie tof Pojeto TAMAR'S efforts in protecting thousands of adult turtles tens of thousands of nests, and millions of hatchlings, sea turte nuk a rail have stabilized and even show signs of increasing. The PPT” ee Ghanged people's attitudes, both in coastal villages and inthe wider ravilian society, By integrating conservation goals with community edu- araritatnd development, Projet TAMAR has improved the future for turtles and for local people involved with their conservation.Defining Conservation Biology 13, FIGURE 1.4 Projeto TAMAR ‘generates publicity for sea turtle conservation by staging festive ‘events involving tourists, school ‘groups, and local people, such as. this release of hatchlings that were incubated in the safety of a protect: ed hatchery (Courtesy of Projeto ‘TAMAR image Bank) Conservation Biology’s Ethical Principles Earlier in the chapter, we mentioned that conservation biology'is a norma- tive discipline in which certain value judgments are inherent. The field rests onan underlying set of principles that is generally agreed on by practition- ; ers of the discipline (Soulé 1985) and can be summarized as follows: 1. The diversity of species and biological communities shouild be preserved. In ‘general, most people agree with this principle simply because they appreciate biodiversity. The hundreds of millions of visitors each year to zoos, national parks, botanical gardens, and aquariums testify to the general public’s interest in observing different species and iological communities. Ithas even been suggested that humans may have a genetic predisposition, called biophilia, to feel an affinity for biodiver- sity (Kellert and Wilson 1993). In addition, many people acknowledge the economic value of biodiversity (see Chapter 3) 2. The untimely extinction of populations and species should be prevented. The ordinary extinction of species and populations as a result of natural processes is an ethically neutral event. In the past, the local loss of a population was usually offset by the establishment of a new popula- tion through dispersal, However, as a result of human activity, the loss of populations and the extinction of species has increased by more than a hundredfold with no simultaneous increase in the generation of new populations and species (MEA 3005; see Chapter 5). This set of ethical and ideological statements forms the philosophical foundation of the discipline and suggests research approaches and practical applications.14° Chapter 1 3, Ecological complexity should be maintained. Many of the most valuable properties of biodiversity are expressed only in natural environments. For example, plants with unusual flowers are pollinated by special- ized insects. These relationships would no longer exist if the animals and plants were housed separately and in isolation at zoos and botani- cal gardens. Although the biodiversity of species may be partially pre- served in zoos and gardens, the ecological complexity that exists in natural communities will be lost without the preservation of wild lands, . Evolution should continue. Evolutionary adaptation eventually leads to new species and increased biodiversity. Therefore, continued evolu- tion of populations in nature should be supported. Likewise, human processes that limit or prevent populations from evolving should be Avoided. Although preserving endangered species in captivity is important, these species are cut off from the natural evolutionary processes and may not be able to survive if returned to the wild. Biological diversity has intrinsic value. Species and the biological com- munities in which they live possess value of their own, regardless of their economic, scientific, or aesthetic value to human society. This value is conferred not just by their evolutionary history and unique ecological role, but by their very existence. (See Chapter 3 for a more ‘complete discussion of this topic.) Not every conservation biologist accepts every one of these principles, and there is no hard-and-fast requirement to do so. Individuals or organizations who agree with even two or three of these principles are often willing to support conservation efforts. Achievements and Challenges In many ways, conservation biology is a crisis discipline. Decisions about park design, species management, and other aspects of conservation are Inade every day under severe time pressure. Conservation biologists and scientists in related fields are well suited to provide the advice that gov- ‘ernments, businesses, and the general public need in order to make crucial decisions, but because of time constraints, scientists are often compelled to make recommendations without thorough investigation. Decisions must be made, with or without scientific input, and conservation biologists must be ‘willing to express opinions and take action based on the best available evi- dence and informéd judgment (Marris 2007; Chan 2008). They must also articulate a long-term conservation vision that extends beyond the imme- diate crisis (Redford and Sanjayan 2003; Grenak et al. 2005). “The field of conservation biology has set itself some imposing—and absolutely crtical—tasks: to describe the Earth's biological diversity; to pro- tect what is remaining; and to restore what is degraded. The field is grow-Defining Conservation Biology 15 ing in strength, as indicated by increased governmental paticipa- ‘organizations and projects, and an expanding professional society, a the ciety for Conservation Biology (igure 1.5), The prominence of . tenvironmental concems was highlighted by the award ofthe 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change for bringing the iste Of global climate change to public attention. Beverly has declined over the last few decades, and the rate of. Gnet etn eae wean" Femar population growth has slowed Sachs 2008) The number of there oie wich ability to preserve biodiversity. When conservation biologists can logo can also be viewed as 2 confidently point to species and biological communities that have bird whose wings are rustling been protected and restored successfully using their methods—< leaves. (Courtesy of Society for rot simply the methods of the field’s parent disciplines—only then Conservation Biology) Should conservation biology be considered a success FIGURE 1.5 The Society for Summary 1. Thousands of species are going extinct, genetic variation is being lost, millions of populations are disappearing, and entire ecosystems are being destroyed as a result of human activiti 2. Conservation biology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines. It describes biodiversity, identifies the threats biodiversity faces from human activities, and develops methods to protect and restore biodi- versity. Most conservation biologists accept a set of ethical principles that help to guide their practice. 3. Conservation biology drawis on scientific, religious, economic, and, philosophical ideas and traditions to accomplish its goals, The current paradigm of sustainable development advocates an integrated approach to development of natural resources that meets present and future human needs without damaging either the environment or bio- logical diversity For Discussion 1. How is conservation biology fundamentally different from other branches of biology, such as physiology, genetics, or cll biology? How is it different from environmentalism?16 Chapter 1 2. What do you think are the major conservation and environmental problems facing the world today? What are the major problems facing your local community? What ideas for solving these problems can you Suggest? (Iry answering this question now, and once again when you have completed this book.) How would you characterize your own viewpoint about the conserva- tion of biodiversity and the environment? Which of the religious or philosophical viewpoints of conservation biology stated here do you Agree or disagree with? How do you, or could you, put your view point into practice? Suggested Reading Chan, K.M. A. 2008, Value and advocacy in conservation biology: Crisis disc pline or discipline in crisis? C ian Biology 22: 1-3. Conservation biolo- Fists should be discussing how to most effectively advocate on behalf of biodiversity Diamond, J. 2005, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Viking Press, ‘New-York. An evolutionary biologist and professor of biogeography ‘desclibes patterns of environmental catastrophe that have destroyed human societies in the past and that threaten us today. ‘Leopold, A. 1949. A Sard County Almanac. Oxford University Press, New York. Many print editions of ths classic and influential work are availabe. Leopold's evocative essays mix memoir and polemic as they describe his ‘experiences in the natural world and urticulate is “land ethic,” defining a hhuman duty to conserve the land and the animals and plants that thrive upon it Marris, E2007. What to let go. Nature 450: 152-155. In this time of crisis, scientists ‘are identifying species and ecosystems that are the highest priorities for fund- ing and conservation action. (Ot, D. W. 2007. Optimism and hope in a hotter time, Conseroation Biology 21 1392-1395, Hope means to learn the truth and then have the courage to act accordingly, Redford, K.H. and M. A. Sanjayan. 2003, Retiring Cassandra. Conseroation Biology 17. 1473-1474. Ina short but highly influential essay, the authors argue that conservation biology needs to develop a long-term, positive vision. Robinson, J. G.2006, Conservation biology and real-world conservation. Conseraa rio Biology 20: 658-669. In order to achieve its goals, conservation biology needs to increase its impact beyond the profession itself and become more relevant to people and to society as a whole. KEY JOURNALS IN THE FIELD Biodiversity and Conseronton, Biological Consercation, Science, Conseroation Biology, Ecological Applications, Journal of Applied ology,