Iv. ‘THE DISCUSSION BETWEEN ABU BISHR MATTA AND ABU SA‘ID AL-SIRAFI ON THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. By D. 8. MARGOLIOUTI. "LN his notice of the philosopher Abii Bishr, of Dair Kuni, Ibn al-Kifti? mentions that he had a public discussion with tho grammurian Abii Su‘id al-Ifusin ul-Sirifi, famous for his commentaries on Sibawaihi’s grammur.? ‘This dis- cussion is reported at length by Yakiit in his invaluable Ma‘jam al-udabi,? on the authority of Abii Hayyan, from whose works derives much that is interesting, though he accuses Abii Mayydn of habitually romuncing, Abi Hayydn, whose full name was ‘Ali Ibn Muhammud al- Tauhidi, was un eminent writer of the fourth century of Islam, of whose works only three (to the best of my Knowledge) have as yct been published : his treatises on Friendship and the Sciences, printed at the ib press in 1301 A.4—without the very important treatise on the lives of the two viziers Ibn al-‘Amid and Ibn ‘Abbid, which had been promised in advertisements, but which is suid to bo uw book that brings ill-luck; und a work lithogruphed in India called Mukibasit.t A brief account of hin is given by Ibn Khillikin in his life of Tbn al-‘Amid (translated by De Slane, iii, 264); a lengthier one by Safadi, which Mr. Amedroz hus kindly copied for me, and which is given inpert, p. 323. utilized hy Jaho for his translation, aud have been yublished in ireue edition of Sibawail Or. 7 fe of Abit Su‘id. + Towe my scqutintanee with this work to Mr. A. G. Eis,80 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRANMAR. in u note;! and w very lengthy ono by Yakiit, in the fifth volume of his dictionary. An extract from one of his works, which occurs in ul-Kifl’s dictionary, is translated into German by Dieterici (“ Philosophie der Aruber,” i, 144). hay Sled are gell ole gl Usladl ay deer uy le! alley 8 easily JU Magy eal dye loots ady ceils Bee IONS ol pall Get SU ae are Bi de Ltlly nt set J asda ae ut leally sped UNIS, Sagi (ie, Dhahabi, Or. 48, 2696) ,.alt OES El el JE Ceballos oie ga GIF Sale, Gi ye g lly yall Ji LISS US day all, Say,2)1 debe Spills derptll oS carl ayo alec yyall spe) kyl BIS ye desks lb be pay de SLL EK Co Lal Ua, 43S Lady picche Gbsy Toc! JN bsttl, Gd asi adhd LG dee Coyed coal paiglt aad OSS de deals te etl GS pL IG; Cals SE sige yt JB Ea g cae rath opel El oy sree yell gle yrly ssiyhl LEM BLM oye php pA pty Lape La lm pil olla! bem gol Lael ube ob sygll gall geet gat SLE Ay Cer SSE AN S12 ape apntnall Luar pe ee gall ett sjlocke gol Geli ade atily Wisp d byt (Cf, Nawawe, ed. Wiistenfeld, 707) 4.3 WI py,c* Chay Larsen old deal coils ole Gul Kesey eyil JE Lay yet ape pglall gene EE tins Gh UbS Ladle Chale Mh Caen ly le GLO, cially Ql, pet,THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 8L The first question which will naturally occur in reference to this dialogue is whether it is histovieal or Abii Hayyan’s et nd be S ple Ol yet Shue digilas Shay phheny PLO Get Linki Cyst, Lott palais Lipa ab lal Cine Lbs ad Fancy LAL pled, nites eet ty AGS ay ails Ball lao ly all FL ose Let poh Eahay Soles, Labi, 65 ad bY gill all o§ OS ee oS Hlyly Ayla eal LAL Gh IS Ela Least pas ile BG ails Gyo Lite Blas Naar OS Bladl, Gdall GES aisha’ ory gail lye veall jab b te uil Ube of Obs haber Luly, teeeath ole Gl ole oeblal chy S dalial 6 4a enya! 8 Siete yas cept Al gg Lal gl St taal gh FBLshS Yadl e GUL dpa Lal § UL LS dela GL byl I sll GUL OS Val Li BLN tails, det dy lables te db Asal, Stat Ll, etter ell ae Le gh ELLA, pill one 6 5, Sel Ssh iy phel ily AW Mg) eons * Read god, ERA, 1905, 682 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. romance. Abii Hayyiin has taken great trouble to establish its historical character, by giving date and persons. The date is the year 820, when Abu’l-Fath Ibn al-Furat was vizier ; and to this there appears to be no objection, since this person (al-Fadl Ibn Ja‘far Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Furit, also known as Thn Hinzibuh) was made vizier in Rabi‘ ii, 820 (‘Arib, od. De Gooje, p. 173),! though, owing to the death of Muktadir and the appointment of a new Caliph, he was suceeeded by another vizier in Dhu’l-Ka‘dah of the same year. Further, many of the audience enumerated are historical personages, who might well have attended a debate at Baghdad in that year, Al-Marzubant, the agent of the Samanids, is casually mentioned by Ibn al-Athir (anno 286, ed. Tornberg, vii, 355) ns “the ni’ib of Isma’il in the Cap known as Al-Marzubiini’’; there is no reason {it would ecem) why he should not have continued to hold ' A short life of him is given by Safadi thus:— VN at eel oe Gere et Met yt see gt atl Bae S18 pois Latjem gil yaa St) Lal yl nD he has Lagey hoger Lab Mba aad pal Lancy mest ot eh tll pyy ly jastall jy abo Lee SY AlN hy panel Jad) Sls, wopte dae pil NEN a oN Sey LA! pls lay. ayhyatl : EBay cprphesy yaad Lee och jy ail ht olods Jagd Gaal MN acals 5 poll al aiey A Meche BM, yt ae Gol peed eels yall Lbs col casts pltlly pee ure pall eal aes tb EL Gul AS Bnd copia) le up alll ane G Yl GIREN, Coe oe Le YM sake oye gle pled Aalb sy as abet das oy yly Eee Bary UUs wyptey os pc led! aesTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, 83 that appointment for thirty-four years; and the presence at Baghdad of the agents or umbassadors of those princes who, though virtually independent, recognized the Caliph’s suzerainty, must be regarded us characteristic of the period. This Marzubani is evidently to be distinguished from his contemporary, the famous archmologist. bn al-Ihhshid,* whose name was Abii Bakr ‘Alunud,. famous as a Mu‘tazil theologian, died in 326, six years after the debate (Fihrist, p-178); since he lived in Baghdad, Sak al-‘Atash (Le Strange’s Baghdad, p. 224), he could easily be presont ut it, He wrote a book in refutation of the ws of al-Whalidt, ic. Ja‘far b, Muhammad b. Nasir, who is probubly to be identified with the Khalidi present at the debate. For this person died in 347 (Siby Ibn al-Juuzi, MS. Loc. 370) or 348 (Sha al-anwar, i, 157; Comm. on Kushuiriyyuh, ii, 2), aged 95. He war famous aw a saint, us indeed appears from his figuring in Kushuiri’s lia is more often called «/-Khuddi, a name of which the origin was uncertain (Jauzi, Le.),? though it was also given to the celebrated Mubarrad (Muzhir, i, p. 100). ‘fhe two persons famous as “the Khilidi’s,” and aamed respectively Aba Bakr und Sa‘id b. Hashim, were probably too young to be present at a debate in 320 (Fawat al-Wafayat). A younger man than Khuldi, yet not too young to be present, was Ibn Rabah, Abii ‘Lovin Missi, the metaphysician, a pupil of Ibn Ichshid, said to have been alive, but past 80, when the Fibrist (p. 173) was composed (377 1..). Another very distinguished hearer was the ex-vizier ‘Ali b. (isd b. Dawid b. al-Jarrah, who died in 335 (Jauzi, Le.) or 334, having been born in 245 (Amedroz’s Hilal, p. 281); he was \ Tihshid, according to Silt Ibn al-Jauzi, means * king’ in the language ut Warghiual. * Asked why be was called Klmldi, he said: Sac. Voy Vile ead oe ls Wi pearl ast U JUS Blane 2 hud apnll (oN Na Che spf sal by Yall da 0 Gul. Jauat ays Ya Khuldi here is meaningless,84 THE MERITS OF LOGIO AND GRAMMAR. thorofore 75 years old in 320. Amedroz’s work contains a full account of him. Besides being an administrator, he wos keenly interested in philosophy, aa nppeura from the repeated mention of him in Ibn Abi Usaibi‘ah’s History of Physicians. Ho was besides sufficient of a saint to be credited with the working of miracles (IInda’ik al-nfrih, p. 100). Ibn Fa‘, who is less woll known, is clearly to bo identiflod with Ibn Kab al-Ansiri, who is repeatedly quoted in the Treatise on Friendship (pp. 7, 39, 52, 54, 72, 73) as a personal acquaintance of Abii Huyyin, yet ax doad when that: treatixe was composed ; und the lust date in it is 870 (p. 67), though it was not published till after Ibn Sa‘din’s death in 375 (p. 6). His sayings appeur to be Sufie in character, and he is stated to have been a friend of Abu’l- Khatib al-Sabi. Of this person a brief notice is to be found in Chwoleohn, Ssubier, i, 586, where it is stated that bi addressed him several letters. of the debate, ‘A Jin ‘Isa al- Runmdni, who was Abii Hayyin’s teacher, und is regularly mentioned by him as “the saintly sheykh,” was born in 296 (Ibn Khill. s.v.), and would therefore have been 24 at the time. Aba ‘Ali al-Fasavt, who was not present, but might have been, -was born in 288, and would have been 32. On tho other hand, slight historic doubts attach to one or two of the andience. Of Ibn 'Tughj an elaborate life is given by Ibn Su‘id in his Mughrib (translated by Tallquist, Helsingfors, 1899, p. 23 4f.). It appears thenco that he was mado profoct of Damascus in Jumada ii, 319, and did not hold office in Eyypt till 321. The Ambassador of Ibn Jughj from Egypt could not have been present at a debate held in 320. Perhaps this is only a verbal error, i.c. either the word Egypt or the name ‘lughj is a mistake. A rather more interesting question is connected with the name of Kndamah, Abi ‘Amr b. Ja‘fur, famous us a critic. Since in his treatise on poetical criticism he declares himsclf to be the first to treat that subject, it would be of interest to find him confrouted with the translator of Aristotle’s Poctics,THE MERIIS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, 85 He was personally acquainted with the other disputant, Abi Suid (Preutiso on Friendship, p. 1 Hin denth-date waa not precisely known, whe Thu Khillikiin itn hin. Buyati (Ilum al: darah, i, 225) says he dicd in the days of Muktadir, who only survived the debate a few months. Brockelmann (i, 228) gives 310 as his death-date ; Do Slane Asintique, 1862, ii, p. 156), 337, after Abu’l-Mal 323). A serious anachronism is to be found in the mention of al-Kindi as present, if by him be meant the famous philosopher, who hud been dead over &0 yours, and indoed is referred to in the debute as one of the ancients. Perhaps, however, some other Kindi is intended, e.g. the historian Aba Omar Muhammad b. Yiisuf (thought by De Shine to have been a grandson of the other), u fragment of whose work has been published by Tallquist. He might without anachronism have been present at a debate in 320. Another anachronism is to be found in the presence of dba Firds, who would naturally be the famous poct, born cither in 320 or 821. A few names remain of persons whom I have hitherto been unable to identify with ccrtainty—Iba Rashid, Ton ‘Abd al-Asiz al-Hashimi, Iba Yahya al-'Alawi, and al-Zuhri, Amedroz’s Milal mentions (p. 211) a house in Baghdad which belonged to ‘Uthiniin, sou of al-]Lasan Tbn “Abd al-‘Aziz al-Hashimi, who may be regarded as the son or nephew of the second of these persons. Jauzi mentions a Yahya Ibn Yahya ul-‘Alawi as a great scholar, originally of Baghdad, but afterwards attached to Saif al-daulah, who died in 390, Ie may be identical with the third, but it is unlikely. Aba Bakr ul-Zubri ul-Ispahiini is quoted as a historical authority by Ililil (p. 272) for the days of Muktadir; perhaps he is identical with the fourth: since Abii Hayyan (on Friendship, p. 30, cf. 96) meu an Abii Bukr al-Zuhairi as a personal friend, perhaps either Zuri or Zuhairi should be corrected to the other form, On the whole, the historical character of the debate stands the test to which we have exposed it execedingly well ; and it is clear that a very distinguished company had been got86 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. together. Such public discussions were doubtless not in- frequent in Baghdad, as well as other places of importance : the well-known letter of Badi‘ al-Zaman gives a vivid description of such a debate, certainly of a far less serious. character than the present. It needed a man of considerable personal courage and oratorical skill to venture on a dis- putation before such an audience, and clearly Abi Bishr of Dair Kunni wus not thus qualified; he could scarcely open his lips, and was nonplussed by the simplest puzzles. Tbn al-Sikkit, famous as a grammarian, was once in a similar plight : his antagonist, in the presence of the Caliph, being ed to propound a question in grammar, propounded the st he could think of ; but even that Ibn al-Sikkit was le to answer (Ibn Khill, ii, 410). Abii Bishr, being posed {0 jeers on the badness of his Arabic, and also on his Christiun beliefs, was still less likely to come sufely through such an ordeal. Perhaps, however, we ought not to forget that the debate, as we have it, is in the main reported by onc of the antagonists. And there are passages in his speech which imply that Abii Bishr said, at any rate, rather more than he is reported to have suid. If Ibn al-Kifti be right in making him come to Baghdad in 320, tho rumour of the large audiences attracted by his lectures was probably what caused the vizier to summon the asscmbly. In general the description here given accords exceedingly well with Abii Bishr os we scc him in his translation of Aristotle's Poetics. His acquaintance with the Arabie language there displayed is as slipshod as his antagonist (with his approval) aasorts it to be; though he mukes no statement about the Greek of the Poetics, he in one place terprets the Syriuc (which he misreads)! as though it were the original; and he puts down absurdities in the most unthinking manner. Abii Sa‘id’s contention that the trunslati made by Abi Bishr und his colleagues are unintelligible is fully justified ; only Abi Sa‘id is mistaken g the badness of these translations to the es 1 hay, nisrea lboy. Anal. Orient. pp. 60, 14THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, 87 translators’ ignorance of Arabic; the real reason was their ignorance of the subjects on which they professed to writv. One who with no philosophical training endeavoured to translate Kant’s Critic of Pure Reason would produce absurdities as crass as those produced by Abii Bishr, however well ho might know the English language. The quarrel between the grammariuns und the philosophers which this dialogue illustrates was long continued. In the late sixth century we find the rhetorician Ibn al-Athir calling attoution to the uselessness of the treatises of Avicenna (al-Mathal al-si’ir, p. 187), and describing with ploasure his triumphs over philosophers. “Qne day,” he tells us (ibid., p. 95), “a professor of philosophy was with mo, and the subject of the Koran cropped up. I began to deseribo it, and to remark on the cloquence and beauty of words and ideus. Ie proceeded to quote the words of Surah liii, 22, ‘That is, then, un unfair division,’ and to deny that the phrase ‘unfuir? exhibited any eloquence or beauty. T mid: ‘You are to know that there ure certain mysteries about the employment of words, into which you have not been initiated any more than your masters, Avivenua, al- Faribi, and the rest, and Aristotle and Plato, who led you ustray from the beginning” Ife then explains that the beanty of the word for ‘unfuir’ (isd) lies in its rhyming with the other final words in the texts of the Surah. Avicenna, however, comes a century luter than the dramatis persone of the present dialogue, which is nearer the introduction of Greck philosophy (or a travesty of it) into Baghdad, and gives us a rather vivid presentation of the attitude which the native learning udopted towards the exotic. Of the mode in which Greck learning came to be studied ut the Abbasid capital we are never likely (o have uny accurate account.! ‘The references to the subject in th works of Jah , 868 A.v.) are interesting owing to his nearness in timo to al-Ma’min (198-218 aut, 813-833 4.n.), to whom the tradition aseribes the introduction 1 The most recent wevount of the muitler is in the third part of Zaidin’s “History of Islamic Civilization,88 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. of the study of Greck works. He is supposed to have obtained a library of Greck books from Cyprus, and to have uppointed as his librarian Sahl Ibn Hariin, who won some fame as a miser! und writer in praise of avarice, and in general as a poct and litteratour. ‘The story of the Cyprian MSS. rests on the authority of far later writers than Jahiz (Comm, on Ibn Zuidiin’s Epistle, i, 262; Cairo, 1305),? but the latter has some remarkable passages about Aristotle. In the extracts from his treatise on rhetoric, published at Constantinople, 1301, he says: “The Greeks have philosophy and an art of Logic; but the author of the Logic was himself 2 poor speaker, not rogurded as cloquent, in spite of his acquaintance with the distinction and analysis of speech, its meanings and its propertics. ‘They regard Galen as the most logical of mankind, but do not ascribe to him oratory or the sort of eloquence which gocs with if.” The chief philosophical technicalities were alrendy invented by the lime of Jihiz, us ho cnumerates them (Bayiin, i, 60), but attributes their invention, not to the translators, but to the Mutakallimiina, or students of metaphysical theology. Une of these technicalities? mocts us as early as the Diwan of Muslim [bn al-Walid, and others occur in the poems of Abii ‘Tammiim. ‘The notion that the Greck race was extinct, which, as we see, is admitted hore by both disputants, is found in Jahiz, who reckons Yauniin with Canaan, a tribe as extinct as Thamid (Bayan, i, 78; Opuscula, 104, 3); since the tribe wus extinet, it was natural to conclude that their language had perished also: and this error was due to the employment of the name Rimi for Greck, which, however, ought not to have misled any man who occupicd himself with philosophy. OF the attack on the logieians by Abu'l-‘Abbis Abdallah Ibn Muhammad al-Nashi (Brockclmann, i, 124), which ' Jahiz, “ Misers,” p. 1; Bayan, i, 98; Iada'ik al-Afrab, 214. 2 CE. ibid., $6 (Comm. on Limiyyat al-tAjam). S The werd 15, Seo Do Goojo's plossary. # Be Ape, Pe 168.THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 89 Sirdfi doclures had remained unanswered, we hear apparently only in this place. ‘his person died in 293;! verses by him are sometimes cited al-majalis 242, Diwin ul- Subabah 163, Hadiyyat al-umam 357), and he is also said to have been skilful us a logician. Ibu Khillikan makes him attack, not the philosophers, but the grammarians; but we learn from the Fihrist (p. 299) that he attacked the science of medicine. Ilis point, from Sirifi, would appear to have boon tho very reasonable ono that Lagic for its value rested, not on the ipse dizit of the Greeks, but on its being a correct analysis of the mental process. “Of similar interest. is the notice of the mock metaphysicul questions addressed to al-Kindi, who had been u mighty uuthority on philosophy some fifty years before ; from Fliigel’s account of him (1857) wo learn that he had obérectatores.2 ‘The fact, moreover, that the Submans (ic. the school of 'Thabit Tbn Ifurruh) joined in the laugh at al-Kindi’s expense is not without its interest. Apparently the deriders of the new learning by no means had it all their own way. In the dialogue the mild and incompetent Abi Bishr is represented as the aggressor, the man who makes extravagant claims for his Logic. With the aid of the Aristotcliun analysis of the meanings of the particle ia (Nat. Auscult., iv, 3, p. 209), that of the grammarian Ibn al-Sikkit was shown to be defective. Tn the list of the friends of the vizicr [bn Sa‘din, it is the philosopher who is always “frightening” others with the ames of Plato and Aristotle, Socrates and Galen (Treatise on Friendship, p. 31 As night be expected, the debate held in the presence of the vizier and so many men of eminence had no permanent result, except that the reputation of one of the disputants was enhanced, whereas the other was discredited for the ine. The names of the Greck sages did not cease to be + Ibn Sa‘id calls JAm, which (on the analogy of the Greck obres) might imply that he was living at the time. ‘This would be a serivus 2 "This fuut i» omitted in the accouut of him by Dielaici, ‘Philosophie der Araber,’? i, 153.90 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. highly reverenced. Sayings ascribed to them wore quoted side by side with those of Prophets and Saints; and a whole collection of apocryphal apophthegms grew up round their names—a curious mixture of genuino and epurious specimens of Greek philosophy is given in the book called “Spiritual Words on Greck Aphorisms,” by Abu’l-Faraj Ibn Hindu (ob, 420), published in Cairo, 1900. But also the name of philosopher had some of the lofty meaning attached to it in Greece and Rome. A man who occupied himself with philosophy was thought untrue to his profession if he shed blood; and auch casea were explained by the supposition that there were hypocrites in philosophy as there were in religion (on Friendship, 75). The dinlogue was reported in full by Abi Hayyan at the request of the tizier, whom perhaps wo are justified in identifying with Jn Sa‘dan, the vizier of Samngim al-daulah, since not only was the ‘Treatise on Friendship compiled ut his request, but froin Ibn al-Kifti we learn that other questions of a Jiterury character were addressed to Abi by that vizier (p. 82), who died in 375 (Ibn al- 29); whereas the book called Al-’imta‘ wal- mu'dnasah was filled with unecdotes of what took place at the salons of another vizier of Snmsiim al-douluh, called Abw'l-Fad] Abdallah b. al-Arid al-Shirizi (Kifti, p. 283). Curious mutter from that work ia quoted by Ibn ‘Arabi (Mubidarit al-nbrir, i, 188), ond by Yakiit in many places. Possibly the dialogue was included in the work called Muhddarat wa-musdmarat, which may also be the source of a document produced by Ibn ‘Arabi (ibid., ii, 77). That document is ‘certainly apocryphal in character, consisting of letters which passed between the Caliph Abi Bakr and ‘Ali on the subject of the accossion of the former. Abii Hayyiin began his narrative thus: “We spent the night talking at the house of the Kadi Abii Hamid Ahmad Ibn Bishe al-Marwazt al-‘Amirl in the house of Abii Hubashin in the Street of al-Mizubin” roduced these documonts (from memory) he had previously recited them to no one save the vizierTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, gt Muhallabi. Another very curious extract is given by Yakiit in his life of the secretary of state Ahmad Ibn Thuwibeh. This person was told that in order to perfect himself he should learn Euclid; a Christian teacher was accordingly fetched, who made a dot on a board, and explained that it hud no parts and no magnitude—was, as he further expluincd, simple. Asked to illustrate the word ‘simple,’ he said ‘like God or the soul.’ ‘The pious Moslem ia horrified at a mun who makes Allah the object of u comparison, and dismisses the teacher with contumely. A Moslem teacher is next fetched, who draws a straight line, and explains that it is length without breadth. Aguin the secretary feels convinced that some slight is intended to God’s Straight Path, und bids the teucher begone to eternal contempt. ‘This amusing scone is recorded in what purports to be u letter from Ahmad himself, deseribing his noble resistance to infidel temptation in a letter to u sympathetic vizier. But Vakiit wurns us that the letier is a forgery, which may be by Aba Jayyan himself, who used to invent tales of the sort. Té should be added that the Muhidarat contained a Dialogue betweon al-Farra and Muhammad Ibn al-]Lasan on the merits of Law and Grammar (Yakit, f. 44).92 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRANMAR. cet ety Gpakedll SEEN Gi ot et yet Gar UB tebe AM dasy Elan! agree sl bet Sear Fler 5b E85 wbe pl J Noes oil gat OLE get phar got LAAN Lill ul ade FB ain CaS J JUG apes ly ett il et erty Heel Ube OS ob set Bb ol plac cet Aas iyo ins pL UY Spar ype ee et ee pil pte ee ae tt gles Jy ally Aah, GU DL gotidh spect) gaat ayo oe Lab all 2 o iM DLE RSUAL, gu ptie hes Qube aiail Lad JUG dogs erty Gast, ete ly pallel paty dele! oh All ul Ely gece yt Lalas gat gy GAS tly cy tly tt ast pip set oth Sy tly veld hy hall Geet ot hy Suit ree ee AY ett dry Saas geet wrth Ltt ob gee Bl bl poe Grace yl yl bale gy Cale SEM aye Gall Lie lees Wy 805 Gall ya Kall, atl ye Ley Al ope pall, OSM ure Gly Mi asesly Lill ya Slay cabal aye ab yg Ley MT gall aye Be teal Gear ga dale Led bly roytny tale de deals opt oF Seb oh a Lal oil SU Lb, all pg ALITER pel bh Sed iy dal Cat be pay Aa Bliney al odeTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. ws pcs Nine Ld les aby Get, Hail daly yall, ble: Shay eat, Leal aes pail gis Legs uy IAL jolly B Ayal all pt yell db opal pla GLE ajdt lal joel pial, ine yet, KS peadl glad he Gabel Lio Faben (Seedy) Lead) set Nia yo Fadtd GLI, Fast 1 poll Lale Lge o jal ly Hhie Lally Leal Cle, SH Jdz2b apes WIL YI esd epi yal Jl dole. "dee erly Sul shasilly anisd Las Khe Gy Seb ue apa Legh paigll LLE* aes yl JUG Ke Lledll we TD; ye WY Sci, noted Molla aly ye “ulsioN, dst po plall, aah b Ligeally jedgall yume Jed slaty pall eed VNU ay gad Le Gaal ye hte SUS Cae tel, 5 See Leal WM ded Soleo oi de lbs Sy whe d ITI oye LUT hy cel oe JU Gyan ib hey Gye Nj dale aye cgnall Sully dace ure all ese? & Cin, A SU A ee JL, Wlais ope UleT NM as ah SU US Gh ROY pay drs gre AGN pte yl estes! oes yl uy) Faye eye Vail ye YW ede Se Lady sti obey gh det had gt yar gal yjpall Cine 4S yo * mead dejan. * Road day. 2 Perhaps ili I . + Read OO,‘of THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. Gee Ny eyjyall pty Lae Ma ull Line on SU) iigll Kaisy pL Nie ld oe Jyle gil als gly aaa Vorwy a5 Salar t OK adit dy Solazel abe US sill dp JE Use WB ayery Kale enity daly ory ure HAT See Seals US Shes cigs Wall bbe US Gad Leal 4 hele Catd aid any Landy gett Lee Leads gabe be Lely SG bo Leeds Gain bo Lead cate aa RSL Ly pall pla NE AG OW Uy Lay yan be Wahoos pill UE "Gulaotl Syl! codyielt dS Van gey Fall! LL, Legiel) atll ae Cytally Oeedly abe pnb, Wal ad gle yt ape ery aeey glaeall Ja Sy CHAN FL al ys Lables Geapey oe ep Sphjbey bey Weel, pyaby oJ ACS ayiSiby dad Iya! Cayally Guyilly SS pS USN oe SI aged 7G Lay ahd a ch be ayaa Ey LS led, Lyell hel ye hat Ghadl Bs added Salat, aor l yl yall, Zectltl ble JB det be iS ell pane ae Ld dart, deylol og ee ETP BMY A Sally idl abylaall 26 ogee yl dels Sell E5pll oda J ulead GALL, Cae Yat oN ed oy LUI pty La Ij Gil Lal dayly Perhaps plac. * Cod. ay.THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 95 ty Arye Via Jee G dole pf Steal Map ape al, 1G alee YESaall Slatl, Lgieall ste esl 16 Lal Ne gai eal oF Gail ay slly Nabil, Leal Leslall ZAI "Yd! peopel Wind 5 lest JU pri JU LEM dbpae Jt lal SAU tee ot SUG Hin te BSL UE by ae JL yb Sigg GRIN has WY Soy Gobaeall phe MN Uyes Gaal 154 ly BAYES MN Gert ye CRG Uy Lid Ga Dil, VS aN gill US ily Lal by yh le} See Gade al wort DEG OSI de Lia pect dl upatliny by ed hing SN lly LS yw Sadly pee glee Spit Lad Loyal Wye gt SY dye gl CAI Nida ye ol lye Gos oly 62M elie 05 Leal GU Yad pe ol Uy ol BS ee IS) apes gard JIG Glas! Gall, lt Lay ed jgy do bay enraly Eh Ley ee Laer sll Y woh) eet, Ethel Le bil) Sipe ASW Blond, ples!) aay eds crs eel SAU bE Gay oy GI Mo US oly alll Eel, lett wbigg Jpde Wide Sn ony Nis ONS | Sleall polis EY, wt ey) gee SU ays Le Lik Saydy Lal lay Jy + ada IP + Uyate? 9 od. 3S, * Reud ayecy.96 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. ‘lal Waa ALE yo tasty Lastly Ske Cleel pall yoy La ae peste Lstiy dae rainy ay Seat be US upty Eby pel glyit pew Utd Lee Udy Lag Len Lindy pti Le pty py celal ose pil SLE pall Lie sat gly lid Lely Vgdly pla gb erptiee TAU OLS Leg pee ely epariy slat Ju Keytet LLM agers Cesta alll é eld! aN ayer le yee pete de Lipaiie wilelaall US, eyo bets ob Leslee 2255 whe yo ok d ple CL Ni 7 EE Nae wey Lhe abe Faust, eA, Nay Ls CON eter oped Liye hig Gil I Slye0 plas Oye oN Al) g ppily Salle Qa, SALE FLill, LILA Zaadl Tahal uly Wyelbesal Loe 1G Ul acd gly Iyyad be Isls eid Lally pe fed badly wy EG sly pple ed ee Say ptiayey paler ve roe ISIS) meaty bye ell gre phat SUSE Ub pyele aethy ute oliey yy AtEy phe wp dBay syd S epoca Lett b eydbase, LAs d oynmar tole Gedy Sot od phony SMe l od eygimory yyoal of US aad Gyre SENG, pyre ery “Lil Lapa Lip Glarall 1 Read lt. ? Read. bey ? # Add ga.THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 97 Gally eR GLa Nie le Le ye lu sty ge oe Sal SANS ENE Ne pee (Bet rts prt pill a pill PR yet AG dehy Ge pally Laat, Casall, aly Nip olen ad pe Vales) silat any aie ty ey Coty Allene JS ML de atlas ae lll as aly Jet gtebl Baill winks AY lea TAS ye Ld Ke, FAL nas Lies NN Soke ee ONY ed gb Gly Wal phan Koleel Gaytty brad by lent by Light tt ples et gt Kol enalad Wplerl daly by 2S pty Ualdt GF Spits Ahn balay lip OW Ge pd ILS by Vimy SU pad ee JE Lilacs ae pajlieil, Lilies apis GES MG dell JE LAN | debt) es YI, list! cegMllly Speed Sas ay pita Ht bale gh ol ipa dees gt JU LET OS Lee ob poe a Ne ae JU el am yt SUMS gy coll obey CEE lar aahey Jd ill Joa ace FpZaee dalle ill pS tle wel, Jed gill Gulla Gebin Mao ls ype Ales oil 2 Ul BP Saag AKT ye CS tal Sol Lay Ny gay canst aly ay pod pty geet ow SL, se eg cd tyery gh aol ay de gh darle syatlly past SN dll Ged I as al wt Ly patty gaall ge ety Gobel GY Gaal * cad. Ly. mks, 1008, '98 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. el ast 2 ob alles BALIY tloull 26 yb BALI OE piel gr pest BAD, BAL ye Stl call Sal Netty chaill, BALM, yexilly pla ol col bet gee yor! Meally Uaall, tls eal Let, Lal, eyaally aN, wl esi WU SLaall, Usually aol oly oer LS Ctl, atl, bay LG, GAIL LG Le Gy Gall ays Ghi JU Ihe, AY aay GT Le Ky lads ye Cael) tell JUL GG, LTT Le Oy st Tad Ue Gy carla ab gt ead Le US, Gancaty Aim sa bp LOU leslyy Lainey Uae lin pene ob Ao8y Glade yeotlly Had LLisy Aliie ye Foyt pat de BAU UN La, LAY adie ay got plana, Lyall rs glans oS Lily lie geally Cpreeb BAL GI ell, BAU! Qe Nady deeelall aye pel iy eneall St Wyse) lap ye (Oy bet Ged ial, Sie gieall lacus ol aba de Lb eal Ub pel My ell dy iy ellen oak Sy desk ALN Flay ome ated GI My Cap al? CGA, Ustas Geld 8 I ol ly slater 6S day shed Vl Uy Lyall er BagetS re Legh Sy 5 Laer all Jed aye Ga vk GOWN LAN oe Bolly LEAN leer ly Lar all Selec Jat BU Seely aly pall Nia (Ladle gah pe JG dee (nl) SES Ugg J Garda od Gall fl jail lay gatTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, 99 Uapleny "dey NN old i,lly Sadly pall hin of 6) eth} aay chet CT SS Wal tLe ob ily Cail de ball LE ype, SLAG, LNT nde ee JI Noe ly Nan, OB sill d obi, Leste Gell d Ub sill, de Le Wpo banle Gt de Cae bare SK bdy Sel, oil GUST CML gy LA gl pla gl ty SL Jil OS USL Lilet b Yolo aysect Wher eter got yg th Gd Layatly lista YE beml et Uy Leapaisy Lally, Liyay atts Nonny Uibing Gene Lat Lyall elie ney bendy ob Se gt Kol Nie pty Sed BE bey 365 ples bee KIS hat at Cena gh Soke ye Lhe I ery ye tolye dy hed Nn he SN por 8 ty GH ol ett! ot iN gl Kae yet Ley GU Gs gt She NLS ae Yy Lip YG sleall ol de Giyd ileal wl pF OKI Ne wey LGTY Lape y doa yy OLALI Ab TALN AOU Gos ph aly Gost, Jilly Lele sleall to be Unb! Cas pth ely anal Xe we diyaa db gle JB SSG ye gisey Gaiden USL ely de I ay Lm Lee Esl, oo oles! Lyatye ad Lal OI yas US ail, ets LS bil plaeall * Read Lacy. 2 Cod. dead100 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. Lane, sil aly se ey lel, Lat gly Usally OY pal Ne sa Hy pal Na ad cat od Jit Le olaersly bd, eit babe all LAM ye cHloge gall ade ies ely aehdeeel chy law 2) JEU he UW yy bis Ct ey eet alll Cally penal all hing Gam le UW Saree SN eal yb dy! GE aah be ly! ye last in EN oe aly Bo eet oh es Ge pis I pall ot daly Ge der geey Lili Lhe I ly yest AS Gates Shar ety LIS War YK uly Lola Labll Jae SG, phony char) ly phe ad ani dy ad! clans bee ha Naw che ples Alb pou yh Caled gh go pe GI, cam gt Lal! PLN a Sey Sly Lolth Los, Lol oye ail pgany Say wt KIL Lal, ola sey ALAN ist UAC aly Kb LS iy all Ek de et JEG sly ym cgilee ofp pSereny jFRUU YY ally Gall Ud all Lpeslyay Upilesy ON pyle UE Meg om aly Lally Uslys upragstll phen Ig SUM, eg SE Lal Sl agey de JUTE ot, GLI “LI Vo gH GaSb F Lokal, Gall db Utlally Kab Vie diy ol jac Lad Leb aya wbign Spit ere o> Galt Ds Meet ore SS ore Ser Wed Cally Cally sol pies Be ks Meg ELS SI ays GALT NN Jill yeTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 10L A all opel ge SI po Sy Gel eall ye Leal ctl SlBi ened dye ob IK ay pt Ww Jotey Jonll we ge NN eilpe oe ceed dort Giyall qual Ul ball gd DS peng ae porle ga be delagll ane pin, delell i atl aba goes Lae piles tyery gly) done gol SUG ay peptone SH AN FS ill Ley Paty 1G; ena Sd SS (LF (SE ayy Geers ES SLI Yay SS 13S Dy yack Labial) oe gol Cy te Grey pest ‘hasst sae ‘ed pel als gleell 58, Jaitley aly hal oil, SAAS pall Ohad yy Ut Leng gh AL IB yack deste oy ol lang drys Jory LS BUA gi abtey alagati cst sbyolly rane! aby Labal "Labs 8 Jane alii dees by by # stl, call EL Word Li Sphy Jarry pe apd ob lal ge lay Ly tit eal BD pS peo Ste ult LG SHAS aeal d GLI sp) SSS pall Sm ste ox ol bey Hales Je SNUG gaol ool JU LAS oe ah ly Ul Updhe LNs Laabe We go ayes il JU od act hae sep pit be GAL JCaI Gaile Goa fh Lidl all =! Verse of Ru’bah: seo Mughni of Ibn Hishim (1302), ii, 25; § 608. and Mutagsal, ? Surah axsvii, 103, 2 Verse of Imru'ul-Kais; Abtw. 147, 27 * Surah ii, 41.102 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. oj JG oh Sys LS JU gee JU eit Jail oy LLL ot he ee ees yall bs JG gee JU aiyst Jil Wy Spread pad gle erect some gol SLES ai) macy glory oF BE CaS uly pie Yee Kiger iyi Abaall Ghoul Leah ead oly cee? pot byte Salyer Lit) Dually Ls’ tery dete gh SE eel lin be yar oe JE Upllly aery ye Lal P eyeell Ge ae pad aden alae) is Nal phe delay dentally ayyacll ole gre gee Guaalall Uj} uber coral SY Ba Eke Lal Syst) Mga gli orth! US thal ob et UNS BLL EI peal dy nally echell pant bape be stpty ileal ob Gb erty ee Bet hes jet lia ty be oll Lnstall, sla blah, cents asAll Ball ye do Bally clecall ey heel Ue cola gol JE saad titty, ag ULL uyGy ale ite Bale GL yy go Waal ot ob SalLS Ul pat sues ert fl be JUS ty Goh Gat bale EGally Galella JUL at pst wb ays he Dkaal riw ye yall Lat ws eget EAS gles b Gandy be Galil yal JUS oe ene yh JES salle 5 de Lyeyed Zola! Lab Lille Jat * Read A» Late. + ePerhops (fis) (tomadhani, Mak. 38). + Read ed . «Read ReTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 103 Se Hy id oy AG Ny ja dys ail ayy EG ISI pete re lb jy yj ne py BST Ol leet oil, Syd oN past ay Hl ye St BL JL ail Uo 5, boyy JSag I sy gyaey G JT Luly alldy hry ppaey ay} GT A pad she 5g ue Ley 05 ISG pclae oF Slat 5) See wht Uh rat pl LS ipl til os HSN Jail yj EG NGG wage jad lays I US Slt a lee! WRN der yb apes ley dade gol pall, Syst soo! a fle My Oy grey yj EE peed Mode HSN ow Nd I al og Leakey be ge KUL jens gil Slam 65 Una ghd sil ayy pied anell he Say jyhow mls JE HL I jl de US Gara de Jory Jded jlem ail Sliny Jory se be lil Gal Sid aye Ally Lanyy uy te Gb Las Sle! Vay sheet ig sate pat!) gle Je ily tye lll Lic BAN Gm pap Laine yall lev dyes gl JES ol still SHS aly Ud etal Gale B aya psy gnty SILL Last Caxt NS 5 lyall yiy pt llly pail, Qlil OO) ye ST GE eel yon et hj hy SS ye Bole ye dry! Wyope yl seed! Uy tl, pol! Slant Lak JS Old Gel ghey be Lb preted de Sy lell ptt eeSL jyoe NS IS pyehe Jyrley aid plane hs + Perhaps C815. Sales104 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. ged gt Syl eel le gall GLU, plall, Gaby, lel) pel cpeetbacall de Cael sto Lal Ci act Lead 2 Gl Nya sd AIG, paybiy pyar MN cau I Sat EE Iylery cipal Hed lad pm gl dare ay wali "Line (pall ee TEL os idl gayest le Lyooly debe dase all pol PRE ol pty LY Lo JUS ae le tame gl Ul Nae Jsi5 O51 SS te Cy ended ad Ltt de il i al sey 8 ay LG she La GA gle pik pst Cog! AML 95 Blow Gy) AG V tsasl, assayed AGF Shans TMAKS abe babe chia) 15 hs Livy a lak aac aor AM) clang be JS Hoss te Oy Col LS Nn gyaety digo Vin GLE csyhl ee ye dees LNA dhe calpill opel JG ad cs8ll Gaal aclu! Gate, aclbiil OW ade ily WS Jb Sar gg dais be dares gl JG spar I agall Gally spar) JU bast gy ple ot Lee gin JES pad ptye Ge LA Get ole Si uppclell are 2 ge Se Eb ead Ob AN 6G doled Joy SU lie ype Lisl ole Le yj Lips hy 78) Sy ultmas big) 6 3} Sy ULepeaall Dee DEBRA RES Yands all heal abn pty yratgnce Bolle KS Eas pled J thee ore Ke Lag! ba 3 det BTA GS ge gL NI SI tbat age yl JG SleTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, 105 eel Ayla jolt Je abil 2%) gad Lae du stl Golesi uly Whe gl Lites UG ol HUY LS AW psye de Gy Bill Mate Ky le aia, Gad estar! JN Senedd Lal tia, aS wy ppt Le le ALAS ye pata Lol GS Lise be Lal ey iis epee Saally ell ugly Spas, pigally Hy aad dl aka by Cpl oll ON ay petty pi al, HN yi TG alle LLG de Oilaae i “Nye pail gl Ue ply WW yeas diyi,ai Wy patll yori day pte woh ot Eek deel Jy SUG eaene ay tpl phe ob et Abed by ball pli (lb JLILS L6G ula,d bs ged obtall Sb be WN eae AF bell Ei ol, Ce! del) cles (I) be Gino Li My lash ow Le gh LaLs La! (529 Ny Sty 8 Darts yj belie ALS Nia ace akenyy godt mall Wy ol GL Ipuje YJdona tale Wass Koll, Sally CAM yey Vac, sally sal, Lele, yyally Lebsedly Largely Ss) LA ol, LEG, ye opal Lae earl yiy pleat ol Lally Leal Lani Wy per Coe ist Usb Ute go ers sl Sabla ly Ving — gly obs, & by Gare gt TD lod BoB ye KS Vr Lbs ada Golesi Goats Niany Perhaps LDN,106 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. aly ily ah Lely ajeea anny Abbe cle yyy ety ial) Fogery thatdy AlN cygar aS Nw yo gated add oUt ibe ere ated Ul) SIN Cog fll CAL peal yey ipl bay aol ape Ady art be Yack all dadlyay Len alt pele Labi oF ll go) SEIN Nay Gary Garay pGelUbad wot endl Myst ply pied 5 ily (SUS rey pub Ei, apt ob py le pty Ly JU es Fal, ALS ade Ihay? Eerlgh pee Nay pty gle lG Lally Volpe de 45, 3, Leol,é Sila rbogr yal 8 65 LG SLO 52 Gey US Late Uned Tyee? ly Satay Jab ob Os Min Lal aet ad IRAN eylyy Uaend (ated (LY Lage de IAS oly Lecatlyey eis ALLE OS Ny yey Saits ure Usill pods Delt er Jodh Le LALA gb LIN Nany pee eed Clery) pale Us, Lan LIS uty Lea fll Uae, Lily Aayrsy eS chad GLENS eat, Slt Yy Slits aad SY Gud 258 Siler) V Syd be Lic! Mle gl Clie 6 a3 Wb Liles Qe Gla uF Uysane Jp Nay Jaiell ym hall ul oyaezs Laat Uy Lge of SI I Sy gee base pal agg Syed Kae pad wl py Gb pho be Kad ye pil ay Ll Gah ESSN Nae toe CofE gall le babit jay yal beady geal ted Egle NST Lali aay gam Le dle ot + Perhaps dayall.THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 107 Ulead, Lydall lai, Lessa!) Goll BAU Joes cela ae Es Lae od cel LENS ileal "ay de azaall Vie de ay ib NST ogllaall I Yall stl Yas hsb H wert nd am Et Lae eptly dey oy Jory jo aryl 9 grill Ved aalactl ase "Cea dad bones gl ad gut Kgakeal NOY Nay tlie aba, “Lail glid Wale Le pal gael ol he abet Nia 3 ale Gat ls ba Ge rele yet Ghoul bi pled Jo Lise J 6 I pl dyil conde allay Glee! Sub O61 asl et HUEY aad, I PSN > 5h) oly oly gre AST So NN Gl GG IL all Qt SRS be Sally Al tds be g ptt Uy oly ged vey aye wt Gy pibsay Sie! 5928 ye EHF yal Lab lee EG Us easy) oF Lins Laake fhe poy pill, pdyie bt JL LM UG JU Sake ell 5 clslal WSU ald Mal ay opel ya Ley aod pall Le yt T Sy ager IS gre ial dog T SG Lagagy Ley Le OSS oly Fala Kipet ey Fall GT yl ule lass EE SG La gay Chee sy 5s pate ool) oF May baggy La harey OAS elicaics gb be aay gyn pclae 9B be Wl ye em cel pelst pile ade Bel, Unslh ade pus Les yp Cod. dusy. # Read joy.108 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, Wl yee by peat cll Karlee 58 Wily Caedlly LULU Ne orl ret VES EL GU IEE, Gal pots Glyal, GA Led acl sel amt day allie creme oF Lande! ell GN dal tees UG by So! steel fay 2 Si) ope Nay eat bey Sane role SI Egaue roll 3 Layee ae gis Fda Ob Lede pales, LG Chae ly ol at tale Lycee jg BAN oS p9 lM Ul Ad delagll oye aed Bad, GU Ebley, yas Jail Uy Llyiew sleally Jill 23 hagexy bysanall £AS OK LAG ol ey Lid oot ape ball 53 et Eb ert ALAN ye ES "ga ly Igual Cay ol cel oladL) Mel Math aye ys Jota yl aryl ply sh Nay GIL EL aatyy JEUY Gall blir NS 3 Pl CSAS ole by Glad gd LS Jl bas neal oF iS, UN pat ede J oily Ghul Wy Ll were pblsad dS pidgdy BLD piye de Eady pills LL, Mare aged plat deny pgabe oy Lal pidayls 1 y9jly Senki Siyie Fdgndly Lecayaill cibpally Hingiall Leal ye Kine Bil debe Iparliy aall Nyard be Ky Lee! SLT E phe yy 56) Gal nal ie Ladd yay pall ape east yl Ped Foe Col ye Nhe das lye is J ‘Rend gay. 2 Rend dad.THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 1uy P> SEL pal LAU ye LGN Gut che Leet EASA al CELA ye ayyly Uy aghllay Va Gye Jatin dl Iyesy ljall ool La Gaye il odecl paid I) ale ads AyaN cobadbatl ye Gest DING OM tytn Sy all Ee 3) Ea yey QU cf dey he Ud bales SC baol, Lat DAYS, LS ye gists be SI Ja OU oe edt Rahs bey Liye yy MN doe nalall oka! Mages be 730 be aad BU aged UbNja st led, dl ayae ob LG Sayers ot Corlyl gland aoe Kall ote gd ular all yous Sis Nie dey abel Kl re dots d yey IF be lb e lll, Hall, LSM GLE be Ne epee ye alge bie oily AS NG roped Sayles!) ve Syall Wy Cece, EILnal, ogi BY ay bhes od “Lath a 5 eglistl abs be ye Wow de os be SG gail 8 GLI, Jel § Last SN he RN aaL Lijaally Gye ade pals SIE gel Ka Nall Guatbe ope dyed I Ob ays daa, 56 Lyberl has oily Gy pall ly t g LS jdt Lad Ob ged Lay Goda) piny gall nat, LCN Kea ley wae ugha baniy Gheally LauLall atlyiy lis oy yo I lS 13a Qoyy110 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. silly Lesaseth MN ar IN ll gl beg sand Widgsy Hea alll JN Nbe yle pt IG eet pete CHT Lasalle ell sete pi! WG allel ous EEN ate wt he wt En Le be LS gad de bist Jy ol Laill sia aye bel sy, pete IE ON Nye dll pyill 65 Caf yy eG EI tet ort ge JU dae ats Jas si LB ples, paella Slay sate ceil ile ys oyna abaly cle! coe YEN antl paidl d JE dela sally pal deny Cetety Uggs ay LST ey AS atl Lal Sle OLN eG JU Ural) cijcy Y alll dda I GIb eS, lye, ds saya JU Mays dere goth ol oS cgutet ort bed eet ee ly ae yesh LAN ogy ob AM cpttley piled Baal Jal les Vay sally ally BN aaa poe Nba easly ob pty pel Ecler Waals gla ULF eye iy patally tebe, Celi to oy 2apery LNT ely Unpitlly yall oF SE abe gi ele coal gel tee a dd cot hy i be he ape od aml oy UW Ly Goan LE 226 23M dF SBy be gil SE Sdall Helly jyetiall poll Nin wl Seely gait og UME ot 85 yaa Wie pine Be tly He etl ere ate gil tl Ge isl ane CLA BY pl SS, Tell ye Lal all uly Lace cout wl be pall ort SG Kagem sols Slyll yaily WISL4 unas 283 gisTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. ill Discussion werween Marra Inn Yunus or Dain Konna, tue Paitosoruen, axp Aud Saiv ar-Sini Said Abu Haydn: T mentioned to the vizier a discussion that took place in the salon of the vizier Abu’l Fath al-Fadl Ibn Ja‘far Ibn al-Furit between Abii Sa‘ld al- and Abii Bishr Matti. My uccount of it was only an abridgment, but tho vizier told me to write it out in its entirety. For, he said, not a word ought to be lost of a discussion which took place in so notable an assembly, between two such savants und in the presence of so many eminent mon. Every sally should be preserved: no sentence neglected. T therefore wrote it out at length. Abii Suid was iny authority for portions of the narrative; and ‘Ali Ibn ‘Isa, grammarian and devotce, narrated it at length, as follows :— In the year 320, when the salon assembled, a salon containing al-Khilidi, Ton al-khshid, al-Kindi, Abii Bishr's son, Ibn Rabah, Abii ‘Amr Kudimah Ibn Ja‘far, al-Zuhvi, ‘Ali Ibn ‘Ist Ibn al-Jarrih, Abi Firs, Ibn Rashid, Tbn ‘Abd al-'Aziz al-Hishimi, Ibn Yuhya al-‘Alawi, the ambassador of Ibn ‘l'ughj from Egypt, ul - Marzubani, companion of the Samanids, the vizier Ibn ul- Furdt addressed them as follows : I desire someone to come forward and debate with Matti (Matthew) on the subject of Logic. He declares that it is impossible to know what is correct from whut is incorrect, truth from falschood, right from wrong, proof from sophism, doubt from cortuinty, except by our command of logic, our control of the systom estublished and defined by its author, and our acquaintance through him with its doctrines, A general silence ensuod. Presently Ibn Furat suid: Surely thore must be someone here who can meet him, and arguing with him refute his view. I regard you us scas of knowledge, champions of our religion und its followers, lainps to guide the secker after truth. Why, then, this hesitution and alarm ? Abi Sa‘id al-Sirifi raised his head and said: Vizier, excuse us. The knowledge that is stored in the breast is112 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND URAMMAI. different from that which is to be displayed before such au assembly, whore there are listening cars, and gazing eyes, and stubborn minds, and critical spirits. Their presence ocensions anxiéty, end anxioty numbs the energy: it produces ehame, and shame presnges defeat. To come forward as champion in n crowded assembly is not like having o wrestling bout on a private field. Tbn ol-Furit said: You are the man for it, Abii Su‘id. Making excuse for others, you are bound to defend yourself. And the credit of your dofence of yourself will redound to: the whole audience. Abii Said: To disobey the orders of the vizier is a disgrace, nnd to decline to follow his udvice shows incli- nation towards failing in duty towards him. God grant that, onr foot slip not, amd we pray of Him good guidance, and help in peace and war. ‘Then turning towards Matthew he said: ‘Tell me what you mean by Logic: for when we understand your meaning, our discussion as to its rights and wrongs, which are to be severully accepted and rejected, will follow proper lines and paths on which there is mutual agreement, Matthew: I understand by Logic an instrument whereby sound speech is known from unsound, and wrong sense from right: like m balance, for thereby I know overweight from underweight, and what rises from what sinks. Abii Sa‘id: You are mistaken ; for sound speech is known from unsound by reason, if we investigate with reason. Say you know the overweight from the underweight by the balance, whence are you to know whether what is weighed is iron, gold, copper, or lead? And I find you, after knowing the weight, nccding to know the substance of what is weighed, its value, and a number of other qual which it would take long to enumerate. And this being 60, the weight on which you insist, and which you are so anxious to know precisely, will benefit you only a little, and on one point, whereas many points remain; as the poet says, * You have kept one thing, but let many things slip.”THE MEW ‘Ss OF LOUIL AND GRAMMAR. 13 Moreover, a point here has eseaped you. Nut everything in the world admits of being weighed. For sume things dry meusure is employed, for others lineal meusure, for others surface measure, for others rough estimate And if this be 80 with visible bodies, it is also the case with noumena that ure the product of reasoning ; for the senses are the shadow of intelligences, which they imitate, sometimes at a distance, sometimes nearer, retaining all the time their resemblance and similarity. But leaving this. If Logie be the invention of a Greck made in the Greek language und according to Greek von- ventions, and according to the descriptions and symbols which Grecks understood, whence docs it follow that the ‘Turks, Indians, Persians, and Arabs should uttend to it, and make it urapire to decide for them or against them, and judge between them, so that they must accept what it attests and repudiate what it disapproves ? Matthew: This follows because Logic is the discussion of accidents approhendod by the reason, and ideas comprehended thereby, and the investigation of thoughts that occur, and notions that enter the mind; now in matters apprehended by the intellect all men arg alike, us for example four and four are eight with all nations, and so on. Abii Sa‘id: If what is sought by the reason und expressed by words with all their various divisions und divers paths could be reduced to the obviousness of the proposition “ Four and four make eight,” there would be no difference of opinion, but immediate agreement, But this is not so. Your example is misleading, and it is usual with you to mislead in that way. But let us drop this ulso. If the accidents that are apprehended by the intellect and the notions that are comprehended can only be attained by language, whieh embraces nouns, verbs, and purticles, is not knowledge of language indispensable? Matthew: Yes. Abii Sa‘id: You arc wrong; in answer to such a question you should say ‘ Aye.” Matthew: “Aye”; Tum prepared to uccept your authority ‘on such a point. sas. 1905, 8Ut THE NERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, Abi Sa‘id: Consequently you are inviting us, not to study Logie, but to learn the Greek language. Now you do not know Greek yourself; how, then, can you usk us to study a Inngunge of which you are not master? A language too that has perished long since, whose speakers are dead, and those extinct who used to converse in it, and understand cach other's intentions by its inflexions. ‘True, you translate from the Syriac: but what do you say of ideas that aro travestiod by transference from Greck to another language, Syrine; and then from that language to another, Arabic? Matthew: Although the Greeks have perished with their Language, atill the translation has preserved the intentions of the writers, giving their sense, and conveying the genuine trath. Abii Said: If we grant that the translation is veracious and not fallacious, straight and not crooked, literal and not free, that it is neither confused nor inaccurate, has omitted nothing and added nothing, has not altered the order, has not marred the sense of tho general and tho special, or indeed of the most special and the most gencral—a thing ich is impossible, which the-nature of Iunguage and the character of ideas do not permit,—your next point would appear to be that there is no evidence save the intellects of the Grecks, no demonstration save what they invented, and no verity save what they brought to light. Matthow: No. But they among all nations were the tion that applied themselves to philosophy, and to the investigation of the exterior and interior of this science, and to all that appertains to it or branches off from it. And to their great pains we owe all that hns come to light, been propagated, been circulated, or made progress of all species of science and all forms of art. We can find this to hold good of no other nation. Abii Sa‘id: You are in error; you hold a brief, and your judgment is partial. Knowledge is sown broadcast in the world, whence a poet says “Knowledge in the world is spread, ‘To it is the wise man sped ”; wTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 113 and 80, too, are the arts scattered over all who are on the fuce of the earth. Hence some science predominates in one place rather than another, and son rt region rathor than another. ‘This is leur, and to udd a word about it would be superfluous. Nevertheless, your statement would only be correct and your claim conceded, if Greece had been known to possess out of ull nations absolute infallibility, an unfallen nature, and a structure unlike that of other men, so that if they wished to err they would have been unable to do so, had they desired to make a false statement they could not, and if the Shechinak had uded upon them and God taken them specially under His charge, and error washed its hands of them, the virtues clung to their roots and their branches, and the vices Hed from their substance and their veins, But it would be ignorance for anyone to suppose this about them, and fanaticism for anyone to claim it for them. No, they resembled other nations, sometimes going right, sometimes wrong, sometimes speaking the truth, sumctimes speaking false, sometimes doing well, so badly. Nor was the whole of (reece the author of the Logie, but one particular man, whe took from his prede- cessors, just us his successors took from. him; his authority is not over all mankind, nor over the great multitude, for indeed he has opponents both among his own people and others. Moreover, difference in opinion and sentiment, discussion, questioning, and answering are inborn and natural, so how can a man produce anything whereby an end can be put to this dissension, or whereby it could be rooted out of nature, or seriously affected? It cannot be: the thing is impossible. The world remains after his Logie as it was before his Logic. Resign yourself, therefore, to dispense with the unattainable, since such a thing is wanting in the creation and nature of things. If, therefore, you were to empty your mind of other things and devote your attention to the study of the language in which you are conversing and disputing with us, and instruct your friends in words which the speakers of that Janguage can understand, and interpret the books of the Grecks in the style of those who ‘wily im one ines116 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. know that language, you would learn that you can dispense with the ideas of the Greeks as well us you ean dispense with tho language of the Greeks. And hore is a question: Do you hold that people's intelligences aro different, and that their shares therein are unequal ? Matthew: Yes. Abii Said: Is that difference and inequality natural or acquired # Matthew : Natural. Abii Su‘id: How, then, can there be anything herein whereby a natural difference and an original inequality can be removed ? Matthew : ‘This point has ulready been mentioned in your vious discourse. Abii Sa‘td: Then did you furnish it with a sutisfuctory answer and a perspicuous explanation P— However, cave this. I will ask you about a single particle which is much used the language of the Arabs, and whose senses ure distinguished by intelligent persons. Do you, then, extract its senses from the Logic of Aristotle, of which you boust sv much, and on which you lay so much stress. ‘The particle is wae (‘and’): whatare its rules? How should it be used P H[ns it one sense or many P Matthew was bewildered, und said: ‘This is Grammur, and of Grammar I have made no study: for the Logiciun has no need of Grammar, whercas the Grammarian docs need Logie; since Logic ouquires int the senso, whereas Grammar enquires into the sound. If, therefore, the Logieian comes ucross the sound, it is uccidental, and it is likewise accidental if the Grammarian comes across the sense, Now the sense is more exalted than the sound, and the sound humbler than the sense. Aba Said: You are wrong. Logic, grammar, sound, correct exprossion, correct inflexion, statement, narration, predication, interrogation, request, desire, exhortation, in- voeation, appellation, and petition, all belong to the same region by virtue of similarity and resemblance. For example, if a man were to say “Zaid uttered the truth, but prTHE MERITS UF LOUIC AND GRAMMAR. 17 did not speak the truth,” or “spoke what was indecent, but did not say whut was indecent,” or “ exprossed himself correctly, but did not speak eorreetly,” or “made his meaning clear, but did not imuke it perapiouous,” or “enounced his business, but did not utter if,” or “stated, but did not predicate,” he would in each case be talking nonsense, contradicting himself, misusing language, employing his power of utterance in u manner not certified by his or the reuson of others, Grummur, then, is Logic, only abstracted from the Arabie language, and Logie is Grammar, only rendered intelligible by language. ‘The difference between sound and sense is only that sound is natural and sense intelligible, und for this reason sound is for ever perishing, obliterating nuture’s footsteps with other footsteps of nature, whereas seme iy permanent Chrough time, the recipient of the sense being reason, whit the matter of sound is earthy, and all that is of the e: dissolves. And thus it comes that you are left without a name for your urt which you profess, and the of which you are 60 proud, unless you ean borrow one from the Arubic language, which indeed you are to some extent allowed to do. If, then, you cannot do without a little of the language for the sake of your translation, no more can you dispense with a great deal of it in order to make your translation precise, in order to inspire confidence, and in order to escupe error, which will otherwise molest you. Matthew: It is sufficient for me to know out of your language the noun, the verb, and the particle: with that much I can make shift in expressing ideas which the Grecks: have polished for me. Aba Su‘id: You are wrong, About these nouns, verbs, and particles you have to know how to employ them and arrange them in the order which the speakers of the language instinctively approve, and also you need to know the vocalization of these nouns, verbs, and particles, for error and corruption of the yowels are as bad as the sume in the case of the consonunts, And this is a subject neglected ason8 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. by you, your friends, and your associates, although there is » mystery involved of which you have no inkling, and which has never dawned on your intellect. That is, thut you ought to know that no ono Ianguogo exactly corresponds with another language in all respects, or has conterminous properties in its nouns, vorbs, and particles, in its mode of composition, arrangement, employment of metaphor and of exact expression, duplication and simplification, copiousness, poverty, verse, prose, rhyme, metre, tendency, aud other things too numerous to mention. Now no one, I fancy, will object to this judgment, or question its correctness, at least no one who relics on any fragment of intelligence or morsel of justice. Tow, thon, ean you rely on any work which you know only by translation, after this aeeount ? On the , you require to know the Arubic Lmguage much more than the Greek ideus, albeit the ideas are not Greek or Indian, just as the languages! ore not Persian, Arabic, or Turkish. Notwithstanding, you assert that the essence of the idens is in intelligence, study, and reflection, and then nothing remains but using correct language. Why, then, do you despise the Arabic langunge, when you interpret the hooks of Aristotle in it, albeit you are unacquainted with its real character ? Aud tell me: supposing anyone were to say to you: “Tir respect to knowledge of verities, their study and: their investigation, my condition is similar to that of those who lived before the inventor of Logie. I regard them as they regurded, and contrive as they contrived. For I know the language by birth and inheritance, and I make out the by observation, reflection, scrutiny, and industry ”—what can you say to him? “This will not hold good or be practieal, because he does not know these objects by the road whereby you arrived at them”? And perhaps you are prouder of your imitation, though it be of a false method, than is such a person of his originality, though it be correct. And this contre is indeed clear ignorance and wrong judgment. And besides this: tell me what are the rules of the war, for I wish to » This corrupt.THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, wo show that your insistence on Logic does not avail you at all, while you are unacquainted with a single particle of the language in which you invite us to study Greck philosophy. And he who is ignorant of one particle is potentially ignorant of the whole language, and even though he be not entirely ignorant of it, yet, being ignorant of some of it, he may chance to be ignorant of what he wants, and knowledge of what he does not want will not help him. And this is the stage roashed by tho vulgar, or those who are slightly ubove the vulgar. And why should he object to this description and reject it, and fancy that he is one of the superior class, nay, the most superior class, and that he knows the mystery of dialectic, and the hidden things of wisdom, and the secret of the syllogism, und the correct form of demonstration ? Now T have only asked you ubout the senses of ono single particle: what would happen if T were to shower down upon you the whole series of purticles, and demand of you their senses aud their proper and permissible employments ? Now I have heard your people assert that the grammarians are ignorant of the proper usuge of f2 (‘in'), saying that it expresses the vessel, just as 5/ expresses adhesion, whereas Vi really serves for the expression of a number of relations : you say the thing is iu the vessel, and the ves place, and the adininistrator is in administration, and the udministration is in the administrator: now this sort of thing belongs to the minds of the Greeks and is drawn from their language, and eannot bo understood by the minds of the Indians, Turks, or Arabs. This, surel, on the part of the person who usserts it, and idle quibbling at the grammarian who asserts that in is for the vessel, whe by this definition hus literally expressed the correct sense of the particle, while indirectly expressing those othor scuses which become apparent by analysis, ‘There are numerous cases of the sort, but the one T have quoted is sufliciont to justify the detinition of Tb al-Sikkit Ibn al-Furat here observed : Sheykh, favoured as you are with the divine assistance, answer him by explaining the uses of the particle wdw (‘und’), in order to coufute him the more ion is ia the is ignoranee120 THE MERITS OF LO6IC AND GRAMMAR. lently, and realizo in the presence of this assembly that 1 he is unable to perform, although he makes it especially his subject. Abi Sa‘id: ‘And’ has a variety of meanings und usages: Conjunction, as “I honoured Zaid and ‘Amr.” The oath, ws “And Allah, such and such o thing took place.” Circumstance, as “T went out and Zaid was standing,” for what follows is made up of an inchoative und u predicate. “Many a,” where, however, only a few aro meant, us “Aud [a valley] black in its depths, barren where it is crossed.” Further, the letter can be radical in the noun, as in wah wasil, safid, or in the verb, as in teajila, yayjalu, or otiose, as in the text of the Koran, “Then when they had reconciled themselves, and he had laid him forehead upwards, and wo called him,” icc. we called him, or in the verse “And when we had passed the court of the tribe, and we were socluded by the innermost part of u plain with many kopjes and windings,” where the ‘and’ should be omitted in translation. Further, it implies condition, as in the toxt of the Koran, “ And he shall apcuk to the people in tho eradle nnd a3. a grown man,” i.e. he shall address the people while still an infant with the language of a grown man who is in his maturity. Further, it has the sense of a preposition when you say, for example, “The water is level and the beam,” i.e. with the beam. Ibn al-Furat here said, addressing Matthew: Abii Bishr, was this in your grammar? Abii Said: Enough of this. Here is a question more closely connected with the intelligible sense than with the verbal form. What would you say of the phrase “Zaid is the best of the brothers” ? Matthew: It is correct. Abii Sa‘id: Then what would you say of the phrase “Zaid is the best of his brothers” P Matthew : It is correet. Abii Sa‘id: If, then, both are correct, what is the difference between them ? jatthew was troubled and hung his head, and was choked by his saliva,THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, lL Abii Said: You have given your answer without per- spicacity and without understanding. Your answer to th firat question ia correct, ulbeié you do not know why it correet; but your answer to the second question ia wrong, though, there too, you do not see why it is wrong. Matthew: Explain what fault you find with it, Abii Sa‘id: If you come to my class-room you will learn ; this is not the place for instruction, but “for the removal of usiona with onc who is uccustomed to produce them. ‘Th assembly will know that you are in the wrong. And why do you maintain that the grummarian only studies the sound and not the sense, and thut the logician studics the sense and not the sound ?—which might be true if the logician kept silent and let his thoughts wander among ideas, and erected any fubric that he choxe in floating fancy and occurring ‘thoughts and suddenly arising conjectures; but seeing that he desires to produce his conclusions, obtained by study and investigation, to the learner and the student, he must. perforce employ such words as cover his meaning, suit his purpose, and correspond with his intentio Tbn al-Furat here asked Abit Sa‘id to complete what he had said in explanation of the question, that the hearers might enjoy the benefit of the information, and that Abi Bishr might feel himsclf the more completely confuted. Abii Suid: T have no objection to giving a clear answer to this question, exccpt that I am unwilling to weary the vizier, for a long discussion is tedious. Ibn al-Furat: Whon I wish to hear you speak, tedium and I huye no acquaintance with each other. And the audionco ure evidently anxious to hear you. Abii Suid: If you say Zaid is the best of his brothers this is not a permissible sentence, whereas it is po le to say Zaid is the best of the brothers, the difference between the two lying in the fuct that Zaid’s brothers are not Zaid, Zaid boing outside the number. And the proof of this is that if anyone were to ask “ Who are Zaid’s brothers?” you could not say Zaid, ‘Amr, Bakr, and Khalid, you could only say “Amr, Bakr, and Khilid, Zaid not counting aimong them.122 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. But Zaid being outside the number, he is not one of them, and he cannot be the best of his brothers, just as your ass cannot bo the most spirited of the mules, since an ass is not a mule, just as Zaid is not one of his brothers. But the expression “Zaid is the best of the brothers” is permissible, for he is one of the brothers, and the name applies to him an well as to the others, he being a brother. So if you were asked who are the brothers, you would enumerate him with thom, saying Zaid, ‘Amr, Buke, Khalid, and the phrase in like “Your ass is the moat spirited of tho usses.” Tl being 80, it is permissible for the word ‘best” to be unnexed toa single indefinite word signifying the genus, thus: “ Zaid is the best man,” “your ass is the most spirited ass,” the singular ‘man’ serving in such a case for the genus, and g the same us the plural ‘mon,’ just as the singulur serves in the expressions “twenty dirhem,” “a hundred dirhem.” Thn al-Furat: Nothing could be added to this explanation, and I have now a high idea of the science of grummur, as shown by this investigation und the subservience of the rules to the case. Abi Sa‘id: The subjects of grammar are divided into the assignation or omission of vowels, the employment of letters in their right places, the arrangement of words before or after cuch other, striving after what is right therein and avoiding what is wrong. And if anything deviates from the rule, it must either be an archaism, rarely employed and interpreted in a roundabout wa: to be rejected as deserting tho usage of the natives w they instinetively employ. A3 for what is connected w the tribal dialects, they may use whet forms they like, and he who would spoak their Iimguage must imitate them. All these rules are drawn from the four sourees—imitation, tradition, limited lists, and free analogy ; following a known tule, but not eases of corruption. ‘The logieians’ conceit ix due to their supposing that the ideas could only be learned or rendered clear by their method, their studies and their labours, ‘They therefore interpreted a language in which indictTI MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR, $ they aro weak and of which their knowledge is imperfect into another, in which they are also weak und their kno ledge is imperfect. This sort of translation Uhey made into an art, und then declared that the grummariuny have to do only with words, not with ideas, _ Abii Sa‘id here turned to Matthew und said; Do you not know, Abu Bishr, that discourse is a name applied to things which have got together by degrees; for example, you my This isa garment: now die word ‘garment? in upplicd to w number of things by: whic 4 gurment: it was woven after being spun, and its warp will not suffice without its woof, nor the woof without the warp; the composition of the discourse is like the wouving, its elegance resembles the exercise of the fuller's art on the garment; the fineness of the thread resembles the beauty of the sound; and the coarseness of the spinning resembles the harshness of the letters. The sum of the whole is a garment, but only ufler the performance of all opt Ibn Furdt here intervened: Ask him, Abii Sa‘id, another question, for by the succession of puzzles his incompetence will become the more apparent, und the lower will he fall from his eminence in that Logic which he would champion, and that truth which will not champion him, Abii Sa'id: What do you say of the phrase “Someone is my creditor to the amount of a dirhem save one hirat” ? Matthew: I have no knowledge of matters of this style. Aba Suid: T will not release you till the spectators ave convineed thut you are an impostor and a cheat, Here is something yet easier. One man says to another, “ Tow much are the two dyed garments?” Another says, “How much are two dyed garments?” Another says, “How much are two gurments, dyed?” Lxplain the senses which these several questions contain. Matthew: Tf I were to shower a num questions on you, your case would be simil: Abi Said: You are mistaken. TF you were to ask me about any matter, 1 should consider tho object, became r of logi to mine. al it, and if it were12k THE MERITS OF LOUIC AND GRAMMAR. connected with the sense, but wore correctly expressed, I should answer, without troubling whether it agreed or disagreed : but if it had no connection with tho sense, 1 should refuse to answer; even though it had connection with the sound, but involved a form of fallacy with which you have filled your books, I should still refuse to answer: because there is no means of inventing a languogo which shull be estublished among its apeukers, We cumnot find that you have any words save what you have borrowed from the Arabic langunge, auch as cause, except, subject, predicate, essence, corruption, the disused, the special, with certain formulw that wre unprofitable und useless, are little better than incompetence, und end in feebleness. Then you people in your Logie are invelved in obvious contradiction ; you do not produce the books, nor are they furnished with commentaries, and you profess poctic without knowing it, 1 you profess rhetoric, while being at the furthest distance from it; and I have heard one of you say the Book of Demonstrati this be 60, why does he waste time the treatises that come before that book But if the books before the Book of Demonstration are indispensable, then the books that come ufter it must be indispensable also: otherwise, why did he compose books that are not wanted and can be dispensed with?’ All this is mystification, charlatanry, intimidation, ‘thunder and lightning’ (brufwm firtnen). AML you want to do is to impress the ignorant and vulgarize the noble. Your aim is to alarm people with your gonus and species, and property, and differentia, and accident, and individual, und to talk about num-mity, and ubi-oty, und quiddity, quality, quanti essentiality, accidentality, substuntiality, anateriality, formality, humanity, acquisiteness, animality: then you point out, and » “Here is a magical operation: There is no A in B; C is in some B; therefore some A is in C, Or, A is in all B; Gis inall B; therefore A is not in all C.’"""' And “One process is hy contrary, and another by specialization.” All this is trash, vanity, quibbling, trap-sctting : one whose reason is > Phe symbols in the text are ewerupt.TUE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. ae sound, rin ion adequate, wit keen, judgment acute, and mind luminons ean dispense with all this by the help of God aud His fu and soundness of reuson, adequacy ution, keemess of wil and illumination of sind are umong God's gracious gilts and precious fuvours, which He bestows on those of His sorvants whom Ie will. I know of no ground why you should pride your And Abu’l-‘Abbiis al- ‘our pretensions, fullowing: on your trail, and hus demonstrated your errors and shown up your weakness; und to this duy you have been unable to refute one word of what he said, all you can utter being “ho did not understand our aims nor perecive our intention, and he spoke uccording to a wrong idea.” But this is only obstinacy and an attempt to extricate yourselves from u difficulty, and practically a confession of weakness and defeat. And all that you say concerning entia is liable to objection. This is the case with what you say about “he did” and “ he suffered,” for you do not el of both and their usages, nor do you understand their divisions: you urc satisfied in these forms of speech with the action being done by the agent and being received by the patient, but there are stages beyond which have escuped you, md cognizances which are concciled from you. ‘The same is the cuse with the doctrine of Annexion, and as for Permutation and its different varieties, and Definition with its divisions, and Indefiniteness with its different degrees, and other mutters too numerous {o mention, you are entirely out of the running in respect of them. And when you bid a man be a Logician, whut you mean is “Be intellectual,” or “ Be intelligent,” or “ Understand what you say”: fer your authorities assort that Logic is Reason. But this statement is fallacious, since Logic has several ecnses of which you are unaware, So if another man says to you “Be a Grawmarian, Linguist, Eloquent,” he means “ Understand what you are saying yourself, and endeavour to make other people uuder- stand you, and suit the sound to the sense, 60 that the former dovs not full short of the latter’: that is, if you neutoness of judgment, elves 40 anuch on your Logi var up the degrees126 THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. want to express a thing precisely; but if you wish to enlarge on the sense and to expand your meaning, then give the sound free-play with clucidatory eynonyms, similes which are appropriate, and metaphors which defy competition: thus fortifying the sense by eloquence. I mcan wave some of the matter in the air (as it were), in order that it may not be attained save by investigation and earnest effort: for when that which is sought for is sccured in this way, such 2 prize is exalted and is thought honourable, great and inighty. Still, explain a little of it in order that there may be no dispute conecrning it and no trouble required to orstand it, and that it may not be avoided owing to its ; and in this way the idea will embrace tho realities wa und the semblance of the Now were T to give w detailed account of thie subject T should go beyond the scope of the present discussion, thongh T do not know whether my words aro leaving an impression or not. Then ho said: ‘Tell me, have you ever settled by your Ingic between two opponents, or removed the difference between two? Do you fancy that it is by the power of Logic und its demonstration that you believe that God is one of three, and that one is more than one, and that what is more than one is one, and that the Code is what you follow, and that the truth is what you say? Far be it! Here are watters that are too high for the pretensions of your friends and their chatter, and too subtle for their minds and intelligences, But leave this, Here is a question which has produced a dispute, so put an end to that dispute by your Logic. Someone says, “To A belongs from the wall to the wall.” What are the rights of the case? What is the amount which is attested to belong to AP Some suppose he has a right to both walls, with the intervening space ; others, that he has half each wall; others, that he has one of the walls, Produce now your manifest sign and your triumphant miracle—though how are you to get them ?—for indecd the difficulty has been solved without: the investigations of yourTHE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. 127 friends or you. But let this pass. Says A, “Some stute- ments are correct and sound, some correct und fallacious, some erroncous”; explain this sentence. Another savant objects: do you decide between the speaker and the objector, showing ua thereby the power of your art, whereby you can discriminate between crror and truth, right and wrong. Tf you say, “How um T to judge between two persons, having heard the statement of one, but not having learned the objection of the other?” we reply, * Evolve the objection out of your own mind, if the statement is liable to objection, and then show forth the truth out of the two, for the original statement has been heard by you und set before you, und that which corroborates it or can be urged against it ought to be produced by you, und indecd would give us no difficulty to produ bly who does not And itis clear now that the sound whieh is compound does not transcend the intelligence which is simple. Now the ideas are intelligible, and are closely connected, and are of plicity. Tt is not in the power of the sound, to whichever lingnuge it may belong, to conquer this simple essence, and comprehend it, and enclose it with a wall, allowing nothing within to go out, und nothing without to go in, for feur of admixture, whieh will entail corruption, T mean, for fear lest that process will mix truth with error, and cause what is wrong to seem right. And it is this which produced corree! reasoning at the first before the invention of Logic, and again by virtue of this Logic; and if you knew how the sayants and jurisconsults handle their questions, had seen how they plunge into unknown regions, how decp they dive in order to extraet what they want, how skilfully they interpret what is brought before them, how widely they separate the tenable views, the useful fictions, and the near and distant appli- cations, you would despise yourself and feel contempt for ica, their inventions and traditional lore would ¢, for there is no one in the asse: ee in Does not al-Kindi (who is one of the lights of your school) say in answer to a question, This is of the class of1B THE MERITS OF LOGIC AND GRAMBIAR. uu number,” and he enumerated the views “according to possibility,” “after the manner of what is possible,” fr the region of fancy without: any order, 50 that some persons. je up questions of this style, and deluded him making him suppose they belonged to the foreign philosophy ; he did not perceive thot they were inventions, and thought he must be deranged or diseased or indisposed or confused. ‘They said to him: “Tell us of the elementary bodies—does collision of the pressure of the corners enter into the category of what is necessurily possible, or does it leave the category of non-existence to be included in that which is concealed from the mind?” And again: “What is the relation of natural motions to material forms? Are they endued with existence within the range of vision and demonstration, or disconnected therewith with the extremest precision 2 Whut is the influence of the non-existence of existenee upon impossibility when the necessary is excluded from being necessary in the exterior of the unnecessary owing to a veductio ad absurdum of its original possibility P” Notwith- standing, his answer to all this is on record, and a very silly, wenk, absurd, nerveless, and contemptible answer it is. And were I not afraid of taking up too much time, I should go through his answers. I once came across in his handwriting the passage: “Variety in the annihilation of things is ncom- prehensible, for it implies difference in the roots and unity in the branches, and in all such cases tie indefinite clashes with the definite, and the definite contradicts the indefinite, albcit both definite and indefinite belong to the category of garments that are destitute of the clothing of the divine mystaries, not to the category of divine things that crop up in the states of the mysterious.” Qur Saban friends have also told me things about him that would make a bereaved mother laugh, that would make the enemy triumph, und vex his friends. And all this he inherited from the blessings of Greece, and the benefits bestowed by Philosophy and Logic. ‘And we ask God for His protection and help whereby we may be guided to words that are profitable, and acts that are according ta the right measure. Verily He hears and answers. them,MEI OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR. lw Said Abii Mayyan: Here is the end of the notes T took from the pious sheykh ‘Ali b. ‘isi; and Abi Sa‘id had himsolf narrated purts of this story, but he used to say that he had not comiitted to memory everything that he said, only the people who were present had taken down his speech on tablets or desks which they had brought with them; but the report: was very imperfcg continued: So the meeting broke up, all the the spirit of Abi Su‘id, and his mighty tongue, and his beaming face, and his stream of arguments. And the vizier Ibn al-Furdt suid to him: “God’s favour bo on you, O sheykh ; you have moistened many a liver, and cooled many an eye, und whitened muny u face, and woven u web which the days shall not efface and fortune shall not assault.” Suid Abii Mayyau: I asked ‘Ali b. ‘Ist how old wus Abii Su'id ut the time? He answered that he was born in the year 280, and so was 40 years of uge ut the time of the Aebute, und there wus a touch of white about his jaws, which went together with rectitude, dignity, picty, and carnestuess: and this is the mark of men of worth and progress, and few ure they who openly exhibit that adornment but are ennobled in men’s oyes, and magnified in their breasts and souls, und ure beloved in their hearts, and have their praises recited by their tongues. Then I said to ‘Ali Ibu ‘Esa: “And was Abii ‘Ali ul-Fusuwi present?” Ie said: “No, he was absent from Baghdad, but was informed of the scene: and Abii Said was greatly envied for the fame and notoriety which he acquired through this famous episode.” Abi Huyydn continued: At the end of this nurrative the vizier said to me: “You have reminded me of something Thad in my mind, and wanted to usk you about, in order that I might ascertain it. What was the position of A! Sa‘id as compared with Abii ‘Ali, and that of ‘Ali b. ‘Isa compared with them? How doos al-Maraghi compure all three ® How do al-Murzubani, Ibn Shadhan, Ibn al- Warrik, Ibn Hayiiyah ?” My anawer was what has beet given above. amas 1905. - 2