Engineering Geology, 12 (1978) 345-374 345

© Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

ENGINEERING GRADING OF WEATHERED GRANITE

W.R. DEARMAN, F.J. BAYNES and T.Y. IRFAN

Department of Geology, Engineering Geology Unit, University of Newcastle upon Tyne
(Great Britain)
(Submitted August 8, 1977; revised version accepted February 2, 1978)

ABSTRACT

Dearman, W.R., Baynes, F.J. and Irfan, T.Y., 1978. Engineering grading of weathered
granite. Eng. Geol., 12: 345-374.

A review is presented of the processes involved in the weathering of granites and

gneisses together with the engineering implications and the available methods of describing
and classifying the products for engineering purposes. A universal weathering·grade rock·
mass classification system is developed and used as the basis for the compilation of an
extensive review of published engineering properties of weathered granites and gneisses.
The data are presented, with comments, for use in initial design and feasibility studies
where projects are to be undertaken in areas of weathered granite and gneiss.

INTRODUCTION

Characterisation of rock can be approached in several ways. The geologist's

approach is to concentrate on one particular aspect, for instance petrology;
but only exceptionally is the petrologist concerned with the fact that the
rock may be weathered, and hardly ever with the fact that the rock is jointed.
On the other hand, the engineering geological approach seeks to place rock
materials in the context of their past and present geological environments;
this will lead to an understanding of how the rock arrived at its present
physical state both in hand specimen and in the mass. The properties of the
rock mass relevant to engineering usage can then be determined.
From the practical point of view, rock characterisation in standard
engineering geological terms ensures uniformity of description from one
worker to another. Once basic laboratory determinations have been made, it
also provides a visual method of assessing approxirriate values for those rock
properties requiring sophisticated tests and sample preparation and this is of
great assistance in field and site work induding core logging and mapping in
engineering geological terms. Rock characterisation also allows simplification
of generally complex rock masses for design purposes (Knill and Jones, 1965).
346

Classification of granites

Granites contain quartz and feldspars as essential constituents; classification

is based on texture and grain size, and the geological subdivision into three
classes - alkaligranites, adamellites and granodiorites - is on the basis of type
and relative proportions of feldspar (Hatch et aI., 1972). For practical pur-
poses other igneous rocks such as diorite and syenite may be included in a
more broadly based granite group. A simplified classification of igneous rocks
is given in Dearman (1974b, table 12).
Granites sometimes occur in high-grade metamorphic terrain where they
are accompanied by gneisses and schists. The latter rock type is too dissimilar
to be considered here, but gneiss can be thought of as an anisotropic granite
with segregations of certain minerals parallel to foliation.

Weathering processes

Many rocks, and granite is a good example, were formed at high pressure
and temperature and the weathering process is directed to the achievement of
stability under the lower temperatures and pressures present at the Earth's
surface in the presence of air and water.
Rock can weather by chemical decomposition or by physical disintegration.
In chemical decomposition of granite, quartz generally remains unchanged;
biotite is bleached, transformed to chlorite and other clay minerals, the
release of iron leading to general brown staining of the rock. The feldspars
break down to a variety of clay minerals with plagioclase decomposing first
(Loughnan, 1969).
In rocks of all types, particularly in regions of ore deposits or geothermal
activity, hydrothermal alteration is an important mechanism akin to chemical
weathering and the resultant products may be very similar. However, the
effects may be distinguished because chemical weathering is a superficial
process, with the effects dying out in depth. There may be confusion in the
use of the terms alteration and weathering because in general European usage
"alteration" and "weathering" are regarded as synonymous (Gary et al.,
1972).
Mechanically the rock can break down by the opening of joints and the
formation of new discontinuities, coupled with fracturing along grain boun-
daries and across individual grains. That physical weathering is an intrinsic
part of chemical weathering is confirmed when chemically weathered granites
are examined in thin section. Dixon (1969) described the formation of micro-
fractures 0.01 to 0.05 mm wide which are not confined to grain boundaries
but also pass through individual grains as irregular fractures in quartz and
along cleavages in feldspars and biotite. Intensity and degree of opening of
the microfractures increases with increase in degree of weathering. Some
micro fractures remain unfilled, but others are stained brown by infillings of
limonite and other decomposition products. Dixon determined that a linear
relationship existed between total micro fracture intensity and unconfined
 347

compressive strength, and between apparent porosity and intensity of infilled

micro fractures (Fig.l). Microfracture intensity was measured by counting the
number of fractures intersected when transversing along the sides of a one
centimetre square of a thin slice of the rock.
In the Australian granite described by Dixon (1969), the individual mineral
grains in the fresh rock are unaltered and the grain boundaries are so tightly
welded as to be indistinct. In granite weathered to a state approaching soil,
no more than 15% of the plagioclase has altered to clay minerals, and the
biotite grains - although stained dark brown - still show the optical charac-
teristics of that mineral. The cause of the microfracturing is attributed to a
combination of stress relief associated with removal of overburden and
increase in volume as the feldspar weathered.
Granites obviously vary in the way that they weather, and events early in
their history may provide the legacy that influences later behaviour. In the
Trail Creek granite of Colorado, Wyoming, U.S.A., Eggler et al. (1969)
demonstrated that Precambrian high-temperature oxidation expanded biotite
by the formation of haematite along the cleavages and minute iron-stained
fractures radiated outwards from the ends of the grains. This early change
was insufficient to fracture the rock, but later weathering exploited the
altered biotite, causing increased expansion on the formation of vermiculite,
montmorillonite, kaolinite, and gibbsite. As a result the comparatively fresh,
near-surface rock was completely shattered by weathering, the granite disinte-
grating into grus, an aggregate of unweathered quartz and feldspar grains.
Depth of disintegration may reach 65 m and the lack of displacement of
distinctive dykes in the granite indicates that most of the disintegrated
granite is in place.
The Trail Creek granite is in the facies of the Sherman granite forming the
bedrock of the high-level Sherman erosion surface. Upstanding small tors,
larger hills and mountains rising above the Sherman surface mark outcrops of

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Unfilled microfacture intensity (fractures/em) Total microfracture intensity (fractures/em)

Fig.1. Influence of micro fracture intensity on (a) apparent porosity (b) unconfined com-
pressive strength in a weathered granodiorite (Dixon, 1969).
348

the Cap Rock granite, another unit of the Sherman granite. Fresh Cap Rock
granite occurs at the surface, although it also weathered to grus but more
slowly, less completely and to shallower depths than the Trail Creek granite.
The difference in behaviour is attributed by Eggler et al. (1969) to minimal
Precambrian alteration of the biotite in the Cap Rock granite inhibiting later
weathering processes.
Newbery (1970) also showed that in the Batang Padang granite of Malaysia,
shearing and cataclasis is ubiquitous and this feature inhibited the formation
of corestones due to the uniform penetration of the rock by weathering
agencies.
Grading schemes similar to those applied to chemically weathered granite
do not appear to have been developed for purely mechanically weathered
granites, but Bisdom (1967) has zoned boulders of weathered granite from
Galicia, northwestern Spain on the basis of variation in the microcrack
system. An unweathered core, with original microcracks, discontinuous and
less than 10 microns wide, is surrounded by a "limonite" band in which both
biotite and hornblende are locally weathered. Limonite colours the micro-
crack systems. Surrounding the core, the microcracks in a transitional zone 2
are generally wider than in core zone 1. In zone 3, there is a denser micro-
crack system and scales and flakes are produced. Many of the cracks are wider
than 4 microns and at this stage those parallel to the boulder surface are most
important because by extension and expansion they become macrocracks
more than 1000 microns wide. The formation of macrocracks eventually
leads to the release of the scales and flakes characteristic of zone 4. The final
weathering debris is angular mineral and rock fragments, all conditioned by
the original crack system, with no trace left of the original concentric band-
ing; the core of the boulder is eventually transformed into a ghost composed
of the same material.
The zonal scheme is similar to that proposed by Ruxton and Berry (1957,
fig.3) for the radially concentric profile of weathering about a corestone, but
in the Spanish occurrence disintegration is dominant and the corestones are
set in a grus, in which the original granite fabric is slightly disturbed, rather
than in a decomposed, collapsed residual soil. Provided that it is noted that
the dominant process involved is physical disintegration, there seems to be no
reason why such a weathering sequence should not be described using existing
schemes developed on chemically weathered rocks.

Climatic influences

In general the type of weathering product produced is influenced directly

by factors determined by climatic conditions, particularly temperature and
rainfall (Fookes et al., 1971, p.161). Different weathering activities will be
favoured by some climates and inhibited by others, and it is possible that
type and intensity of weathering may be correlatable with different climatic
regimes. Peltier (1950) has attempted to assess the relationship between
mean annual rainfall and temperature in determining the intensity of both
 349

chemical weathering and frost weathering and the relative importance of both
(Fookes et aI., 1971, figs.10 and lIb).
Relating climate to chemical weathering, higher rainfall leads to greater
weathering because water is essential for most chemical weathering. Rates of
chemical reactions generally increase with temperature. Weathering is there-
fore greatest in hot, wet climates and diminishes both with fall in temperature
and rainfall.
Peltier's diagram for frost weathering, which he equates with mechanical
disintegration, shows two minima, one where conditions are too cold for
thawing and another where it is too hot for water to freeze. A separate dia-
gram is needed TO illustrate the effects of insolation, repeated cycles of heating
to a high temperature followed by cooling, with high intensity falling in the
high temperature low rainfall field.
Superimposition of both diagrams (Fig.2a) serves to emphasize the relative
importance of the various types of weathering for different temperature and
rainfall combinations. There is a broad correlation of type and intensity of
weathering with climatic conditions. Peltier has related these to a series of
climatic regions in which the intensity and relative significance of various
geomorphic processes are considered to be essentially uniform. These are
called "morphogenetic regions" (Fig.2b) but in using them it must be remem-
bered that these are hypothetical regions because accurate means of measuring
and comparing all the geomorphic processes are not yet available. However,
the concept is useful for preliminary assessment of likely weathering condi-
tions wherever climatic characteristics are known.
A major difficulty is that a weathering profile may have formed under
climatic conditions very different from the present. In Europe, for example,
early Tertiary chemical weathering profiles are still preserved and may

a Mean Annual Rainfall (inches) b Mean Annual Rainfall (inches)

80 6o 40 20 80 60 40
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k\ \ \T //
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Arid

Fig.2. Diagrams of Peltier's (1950) hypothetical "morphogenic regions" based on annual

rainfall/temperature regimes. a. Climatic boundaries of the regions. b. Suggested relative
importance of various types of weathering.
350

subsequently have been affected by the periglacial conditions of the Pleisto-

cene before the onset of the present climatic regime.

EXISTING WEATHERING GRADE CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES FOR GRANITES

For engineering purposes, a classification of the weathering stages in granite

must consider, (a) the sequence of recognisable stages in decomposition and
disintegration, and (b) the progressive changes in physical and mechanical
properties which influence the engineering performance of the granite in the
mass. The following are examples of certain weathering schemes which illus-
trate the effects of geological and climatic conditions on the course of
weathering.
From 1948 onwards (Moye, 1955) a systematic study of the regional
geology of the Snowy Mountains, New South Wales, Australia, was under-
taken on behalf of the Hydro-electric Authority as a basis for the broad
planning of an integrated hydroelectric scheme. The Snowy Mountains area is
made up of a succession of partly dissected tablelands which are the remains
of a former extensive continuous peneplain broken by Tertiary faults and
flexures. Broad, often swampy valleys with steep walls as deep as 750 mare
entrenched into the mature undulating tableland. The greater part of the area
is composed of intrusive granites and granite gneisses superficially resembling
fine-grained granites but retaining remnants of sedimentary bedding.
Much of the undulating plateau country and the higher slopes of the steep-
walled youthful valleys entrenched below the plateau surface are covered
with a mantle of in-situ residual soil. Only along the beds of actively degrading
rivers is fresh granite exposed. Depth and state of weathering, and the engineer
ing properties of the weathered materials, were among the most important
geological problems at most of the dam, tunnel and power-station sites
involved in the scheme. Weathering also severely limited the number of avail-
able quarry sites for concrete aggregate, rip-rap and rock-fill, and affected the
location and design of roads in steep country. Such residual soils often
provided the most abundant and suitable materials for earth-fill for dams and
for road building.
Weathering is not uniformly developed throughout the area but the wide-
spread blanket of soil made geological mapping difficult by obscuring bed-
rock, particUlarly those weak zones produced by faulting. Early in the investi-
gation, it became necessary to define the terms used to describe the various
types of weathered granite to make consistent descriptions of outcrops,
excavations and drill cores: descriptions which would indicate the general
engineering properties of the various materials.
Starting with penetration along the joints, weathering of the granite usually
follows a regular pattern in which the joint-bounded blocks are reduced by
chemical weathering to a soil. Feldspars are softened and decomposed, biotite
decays, a brown staining due to limonite pervades the whole rock fabric, and
the rock tends to break down into its individual mineral grains.
 351

Moye established six stages of chemical weathering ranging from fresh

granite to granitic soil (Fig.3a). Highly and completely weathered granites are
engineering soils, and excavation in them would be referred to as "common"
or "earth excavation". Slightly weathered granite was always considered as
"rock", but moderately weathered granite with intermediate properties proved
difficult to classify. Other properties such as ease of excavation, foundation
conditions, suitability both as a construction material and as a concrete aggre-
gate were all assessed and related to the weathering grades.
A medium to coarse-grained, grey granite with abundant biotite was the
most susceptible to weathering. Proved in boreholes to be highly to completely
weathered to depths of 20 to 30 m below the surface, it might then pass
abruptly in a few metres into fresh rock. Within the highly to completely

MOVE CLASSIFICATION
a Grade Degrees of Weathering Recognition Factors

VI
V
IV
III

"
SOil

ROCK
{Granitic soil
Completely weathered
Highly weathered
{MOderatelY weathered
Slightly weathered
Fresh
l M".,.'
Mass
------G
ABCDEF
ABC D
ABC
ABC
A

Recognition Factors

A Joints stamed
B Rock and soli material stained
C Feldspars decomposed
o Strength, NX cores can be broken in the hand
Disintegrates 111 water
F Biotite decomposed
G Orlglllal texture absent

b c Depth
Granitic SOil SOIL

Completely Highly to

Moderately

to Weathered

Highly
Bands of Moderately

0 Weathered to Highly

Weathered
(Moderately to
Slightly Weathered 100
Fresh GRANITE Fresh GRANITE GNEISS

Fig.3. Weathering of granites in the Snowy Mountains, Australia. a. Factors taken into
account in the weathering classification. b. Profile on medium to coarse-grained grey
biotite granite. c. Profile on granite gneiss. (Moye, 1955.)
352

weathered zone, large clusters of residual boulders of fresh to slightly

weathered granite exposed at the surface frequently give a misleading impres-
sion of outcrops of the solid bed-rock (Fig.3b). Granitic gneisses also weather
to great depths but generally show a more gradual change through all the
weathering grades to fresh rock (Fig.3c).
In contrast to the coarse-grained granitic rocks, light-coloured mica-poor
aplites, fine-grained porphyrites and high-silica lavas are little affected by
chemical weathering and have only a thin soil cover. Weathering in all rock
types usually is more intense and penetrates to greater depths in fault zones
and in areas of closely jointed rock. Description of the various degrees of
weathering in granitic rocks was aimed specifically at the consistent assess-
ment of the engineering properties of the weathered materials.
Another area in which knowledge of granite weathering has proved very
important to civil engineering is Hong Kong. Here Ruxton (1960) and Allan
and Stephens (1971) describe a younger granitic batholith overlain by older
rhyolitic ignimbrites. Erosion has removed the greater part of the rhyolite
cover.
Weathering of the granite and the resultant engineering properties have
been described by Ruxton and Berry (1957) and Lumb (1962b, 1965). Steep
scarps of fresh rock remain on the upper hill slopes near the watershed, but
elsewhere the rhyolite and granite are extensively decomposed. Depth of
weathering on granite is frequently greater than 60 m. Valley floors are not
always eroded to fresh granite.
A and B pedological horizons are only a few feet thick and, hence, unlike
other areas have received scant attention from engineers (Deere and Patton,
1971). Division of the very thick C horizon into four zones roughly parallel
to the original land surface is based on the properties of solid rock and soil
and on the character of the residual soil. Each of the zones, numbered I-IV
from the surface downwards (FigA), is characterized by the shape of the rock
lumps and by the combination of chemical and physical changes present.
Significant changes involve discoloration and progressive disintegration of
rock, selective and sequential decomposition of different minerals, and even-
tual destruction of the granite fabric. An important aspect of Ruxton and
Berry's work is their careful description of each type of material present in
the weathering profile. Each zone is characterized from the bedrock in terms
of mineralogical change and degree of physical disintegration present; but
also, the same zones and the same sequence of changes are present in the
radially concentric weathering profile around a corestone in either zone II or
III.
Recognition of the stages of weathering of rock material and the applica-
tion of these stages to the characterisation of weathering zones in the rock
mass constituted an important advance in the interpretation of weathering
profiles. In conjunction with Moye's engineering assessments of weathered
materials, Ruxton and Berry's work had a seminal influence on future work
on the engineering properties of chemically weathered rocks, and the evolu-
tion of weathering zone classifications in use today in the United Kingdom.
 353

GRADE ZONE THICKNESS SOil RECOGNITION FACTORS

VI 15m RESIDUAL DEBRIS D Z

RESIDUAL DEBRIS WITH CORE STONES

,~,

V SOil lIa 44m ,-~, Less than 10% corestones ABC WXY
.~
II 59m
.¢r
,,~; ..Q' Q.

IV lib 15m 10 - 50% corestones ABC WXY

III SOil III 15m CORE STONES WITH RESIDUAL DEBRIS A B WX

and
ROCK
II IV 15m PARTIAllY WEATHERED ROCK A

ROCK FRESH JOINTED ROCK

Recognition Factors
A Brown staining to joint and core stone margins W Core stones
B Partial decomposition of feldspars and biotite X Grus
C Complete decomposition of feldspars and biotite Y Residual debris
o Reddening and argillisation Z Differentiated debris

Fig.4. Weathering zones, with zone numbers and recognition factors for the granites of
Hong Kong as recognised by Ruxton and Berry (1957). Grade numbers after Little (1969).

The very deep, mature, weathering profile was developed on a gently rolling
forested land surface that has since been partially dissected (Fig.5); Moye
refers to the same kind of control in the Snowy Mountains. On this type of
land surface, it is assumed that maturity of the weathering profile was gradu-
ally achieved by the downwards extension of active weathering to a maximum
depth. A sharply defined basal platform (Linton, 1955) usually marks the
general lower limit of weathering, which may have been limited downwards
by the water-table, or by the lack of open discontinuities preventing deeper
penetration of the active weathering agents. Fresh rock underlies the basal
platform, and above it a thin development of zones IV and III followed by a
very thick soil layer representing zones II and I (FigA). Apparently weathering
was confined to a definite depth below which there is rapid transition from
soil to rock.
Active erosion has since partly dissected the gently rolling land surface,
removed most of the topsoil, and the upper weathering zones are being
actively degraded. As erosion proceeds, the weathering profile tends to adapt
to the new land form so that the lower boundary of zone I becomes inclined
into the valleys (Fig.5). In as much as soil in zone I is derived by eluviation,
leaching and collapse from the underlying soil, in which the original granite
texture is largely preserved, some of zone I is highly porous. Where collapse
occurs the residual soil reveals no trace of the original granite texture.
 sw NE c:.o
01
tI:o-
""""']" co""
125
100
75
50~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
'level of main valley

o 250m 8 Angular corestones

I I El Residual soil with granitic soil
Granitic soil with few corestones IT}] Partially weathered rock
~
~ Granitic soil with corestones
Fig.5. Geomorphological control of the distribution of grades I-IV in the mature weathering profile in Hong Kong (after Ruxton and
Berry 1957, fig.12).
 355

Comparison of the Moye (1965) and Ruxton and Berry (1957) classifications

Moye, Ruxton and Berry adopted texture, decomposition of biotite and

feldspar, and staining as factors in classification (Figs.3 and 4), but the other
criteria employed tend to emphasize differences in their approach. Moye,
concerned with engineering performance, stresses strength properties and
whether or not core disintegrates when immersed in water. On the other
hand, Ruxton and Berry use percentage of solid rock, locking of corestones
and clay content, rather than other material properties of drill core.
In both classifications a sequence of changes is recognised from fresh rock
to soil in which the original rock texture is destroyed. In comparison to
Hong Kong, true residual soil is not present in the Snowy Mountains, and
Moye's granitic soil is mainly a thin humus. Apart from this minor difference,
the recognition factors are additive as grade number increases. More weathered
rocks retain features developed earlier in the weathering until the ultimate
soil is formed and all the earlier acquired characteristics are destroyed.

Application of grade numbers to the weathering profile

In a review of the engineering classification of residual tropical soils with

particular reference to Hong Kong and Malaysia, Little (1967, 1969) proposed
six stages in the weathering process, each identified by a grade number. He
departed from the convention in pedology of starting any labelling system at
the surface and, adopting the geological convention of numbering or labelling
deposits, called fresh rock which could be expected to occur at the base of
the weathering profile grade I, and the soil at the surface grade VI. Little's
classification is a judicious blend of the classifications proposed earlier by
Moye (1965) and by Ruxton and Berry (1957); criteria for field recognition
are based on destruction of original rock fabric, rock and soil ratios, limonite
staining, decomposition of feldspars and strength. Grades VI and V are soil,
IV and III rock-and-soil, and II and I rock. Except for an occasional one,
boulders have disappeared from completely weathered grade V rock, the
original texture is still present, ghosts of boulders are visible and joints can
still be traced and exposed by hand excavation.
Newbery (1970) also modified the Moye scheme to apply to the granites
of the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, where microfracturing, to varying
degrees, has inhibited the formation of spheroidal corestones during chemical
decomposition. In this the principal trends are breakdown of biotite to dis-
colour the rock brown, followed by kaolinisation of the feldspars and accom-
panying progressive reduction in strength; and an ultimate soil (see Fig.3).

A PREFERRED WEATHERING SCHEME FOR GRANITES

A general weathering scheme for granites should include sequences of

changes in material and mass properties resulting from both chemical and
physical weathering acting individually or in combination. Such a scheme
356

should apply to any combination of weathering types and relate to the

engineering properties of each grade (Dearman, 1974a, 1976). Two schemes
for rock description have been proposed, one (Anonymous, 1970) for core
logging and the other (Anonymous, 1972) for mapping. In both systems, a
simple rock name is qualified by prefixes and suffixes, one of the prefixes
being "weathered state". In as much as weathering affects, to a greater or
lesser degree, all properties indicated by the suggested prefixes and suffixes to
the rock name, each weathering grade could be distinguished by an appro-
priately detailed description of material and mass characteristics. The inclu-
sion of an indication of the weathered state has to be justified, and its useful-
ness lies in providing an immediate thumb-nail sketch of the genetic
relationships of the mass being described. Also the position of the rock mass
in an idealised weathering profile is indicated and thus can provide a useful
guide to further exploration within the zone of surface weathering (Dearman,
1976, p.126).

Description of the weathering grades of rock material

A descriptive scheme for weathering grades of rock material may be estab-

lished on the basis of the changes associated with mechanical and chemical
weathering (Table I). Individual stages listed in Table I may be subdivided
using qualifying terms, for example "partially discoloured", "wholly dis-
coloured" and "slightly discoloured" to aid in description of the material
being examined. If desired such terms may be quantified.

TABLE I

Description of weathering grades of rock material

Term Description

Fresh No visible sign of weathering of rock material.

Discoloured The colour of the original fresh rock material is changed and is
evidence of weathering. The degree of change from the original
colour should be indicated. If the colour change is confined to
particular mineral constituents this should be mentioned.
Weakened The rock is weathered to the extent that it is noticeably weakened.
however it is not technically a soil.
Decomposed The rock is weathered to the condition of a soil in which the
original material fabric is still intact, but some or all of the
mineral grains are decomposed.
Disintegrated The rock is weathered to the condition of a soil in which the
original material fabric is still intact. The rock is friable, but the
mineral grains are not decomposed.
 357

Description of the weathering state of the rock mass

Recognition of distinctive weathering grades in the rock mass may be

based on the degree of discolouration, the percentage of weakened rock, the
rock/soil ratio, and the presence or absence of the original rock fabric. The
weakened-rock criterion has been introduced as a result of numerous field
applications of existing schemes. Change from discoloured strong rock to
weak rock before the rock becomes a soil has been stressed by Moye (1955)
and in the Working Party Report on Core Logging (Anonymous, 1970) and
its inclusion is based on its possible importance in engineering applications.
There is no advantage in unnecessarily complicating a classification system or
in altering an existing system, but it has to be accepted that a universally
applicable system can only arise by a process of modification of present
systems.
The weathering profile in the rock mass may therefore be described in
terms of the distribution of the various types of weathered rock materials
within it, and the effects that weathering has had on discontinuities. It has
been suggested (Dearman, 1976) that some of the terms in Table II may be
used in preference to earlier versions (Anonymous, 1970, 1972). Experience
with a variety of rock types, including granite, has shown that the classifica-
tion is of general application, but in some cases subdivisions of grades are
necessary. In quarrying applications this applies especially to rocks of
weathering grade II (Dearman et aI., 1976).

TilE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF WEATHERED GRANITE

Application of the preferred scheme

The purpose of this section is to describe the engineering properties of

various grades within the system. Two problems are immediately apparent.
Firstly, the engineering properties of a granitic or gneissic rock mass will
depend on both its weathering grade and its discontinuity system. However,
the coarse-grained igneous and metamorphic rocks typically have moderately
to very widely spaced joints; where the joint spacing is outside this range, this
factor will have to be taken into account. Secondly, weathered rock with
profoundly different engineering properties may occur that will not fit into
the preferred classification and this possibility must also be considered.
The information contained in this section is intended to be used for pre-
liminary consideration of likely geotechnical properties. It can also provide
approximate design values in situations where test data are not available, and
at the same time indicate recurrent problems in such situations.

Data collection. The engineering properties included in this section are based
on an extensive literature study, research and personal experience. In order to
systemize such information, different classification systems have been corre-
lated with the preferred scheme. This allows ranges of engineering properties
358

TABLE II

Scale of weathering grades of rock mass

Term Grade* Description

Fresh I No visible sign of rock material weathering; perhaps

slight discolouration on major discontinuity surfaces.
Slightly II Discolouration indicates weathering of rock material
weathered and discontinuity surfaces. Some of the rock material
may be discoloured by weathering; yet it is not
noticeably weakened.
Moderately III The rock material is discoloured and some of the rock
weathered is appreciably weakened. Discoloured but unweak-
ened rock is present either as a discontinuous frame-
work or as corestones.
Highly IV Some of the rock material is decomposed and/or
weathered disintegrated to a soil. Fresh or discoloured or
weakened rock is present either as a discontinuous
framework or as corestones within the soil.
Completely V All rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated
weathered to soil. The original mass structure and material fabric
are still largely intact.
Residual VI All rock material is converted to soil. The mass struc-
soil ture and material fabric are destroyed. There is a
large change in volume, but the soil has not been
significantly transported. Can be divided into an
upper A horizon of eluviated soil and a lower B
horizon of illuviated soil.

*In grades II, III and IV subdivision of the grade may be based on the proportions of the
rock-material constituents.

to be established for each grade. The grades mentioned refer only to the
preferred scheme defined in this paper.
Variations in intensity of weathering are sometimes gradational, sometimes
very sharp boundaries exist between the material components in one grade.
In the former, engineering properties for each mass will be represented by a
spectrum of values; in the later, a bimodal range of properties is given relating
to the two distinct components of the mass grade.

Rock-mass engineering properties

Various rock-mass engineering properties are given in Table III. Such

properties as excavatability or drilling rates, ease of blasting, will depend on
the plant available and the method used. However, these data indicate the
relative ease of performing such operations in weathered ground.
Estimates of excavatability will also depend on intensity of jointing and
can be allowed for using Fig.6. Similarly the recommendations for slope and
foundation design are generalisations which do not consider the effects of
through-going, adversely orientated structures. Where these are present,
designs based on their geotechnical characteristics will have to be used.
TABLE III

Rock-mass properties of weathered granites and gneisses*

Engineering Fresh Slightly weathered Moderately weathered Highly weathered Completely weathered Residual soil
property I II III IV V VI

Foundation Suitable for concrete and earthfill dams Suitable for small concrete Suitable for earthfill Suitable for low earthfill Generally unsuitable
conditions structures, earth fill dams. dams dams
Excavatability In general blasting necessary General blast, but riPping Generally ripping and I Scraping Scraping
may be possible dependent or scraping dependent
upon the jointing intensity upon available plant
and plant available
Quantitative 4 m holes at 1.5-2 m centres dependent 5 m holes at 2-3 m centres 6.5 m holes at 3-4 m
comparison on the jointing, 0.44-().59 kg/m 3 rock dependent on the jointing centres, 0.3-().37 kg/m 3
broken (60% special gelatin) 0.37-().44 kg/m 3 rock rock broken (40%
broken ammonia)
Slope design '.4:1 'h:1 to 1:1 1:1 1:1 to 1.5:1 1.5:1 to 2:1
5 metre benches may be advisable at top of grades I and again at the top of grade IV, surface protection, possibly above grade III and certainly above
grade IV may be necessary to prevent erosion. The presence of throughgoing adversely orientated structures is not taken into account; if present and
detailed, use c' and </>' values from Table V or Table VI and design formally.
Tunnel support Not required unless joints closely spaced Light steel sets of Steel sets, partial lagging, Heavy steel sets, complete lagging 0.6-().9 m
or adversely orientated 0.6-1.2 m centres 0.6-().9 m centres centres. If tunnelling below water table, high risk
of soil flowing into tunnel
Drilling
RQD 75%, usually 90% 50-75% 0-50% o or does not apply
% core recovery 90% Up to 70% if a high % of 15% as sand
(NX) corestones, as low as 15%
if not
Drilling rates 2-4 m/hr 8-10 m/hr 10-13 m/hr
Diamond NX
2'1." Percussion 5-7 m/hr 8 m/hr 12-15 m/hr 17 m/hr
Permeability Low to medium Medium to high High Medium Low
7
Quantitative 0-5 '10 1 ·10='-4 '10""; 1 '10"";-1 '10-5 Rock fabric has appreciable permeability in the
comparison (m/s) Figures in this region entirely dependent on how region of
open the joints are 1 '10'" -1 '10'"
Seismic velocity 3050-5500 2500-4000 1500-3000 1000-2000 500-1000
(m/sec)
Resistivity 340 240-540 180-240 180
(ohm metres) Tends to be determined by joint openness and water table depth

*Based on Moye (1955), Kierllchand Treascher (1955), Little (1965), Saunders and Fookes(1970), Fookes et al. (1971), and Deere and Patton (1971).
360

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH MN/m'

1·88 7·5 18·75 75 150 300

BLAST TO
E 2000 FRACTURE
E
Normal range (!l
for gramtes ~ 600
and gneisses U
<t
c..
Vl BLAST TO
UJ
200 LOOSEN

'"
:;)
I-
U 60
<t
'"
"-
RIP
20 SCRAPE

6
·075 ·3 ·75 3·06·0 12·0

POINT LOAD STRENGTH Is MN/m'

Within these mass grades

less weathered or fresh
rock may be present either
I'
GRADE

II
POSSIBLE RANGE OF VALUES

as cores tones or as a
continuous or dlscontmuous III
framework within the more
weathered rock IV

V,VI

Fig.6. Excavatability dependent on weathering grade and fracture spacing.

Geophysical methods may be used to estimate the weathering grade and its
depth; however, such methods are also affected by water levels and jointing
intensity. Also, gneisses characteristically display seams of more weathered
material between less weathered material (Knill and Jones, 1965) and this
factor must be borne in mind when considering the rock mass.

Shear strengths. In considering shear strength it is necessary to differentiate

between different mechanisms whereby a shear failure might occur. In the
less weathered rock, up to about grade III, the rock-mass shear strength will
primarily be controlled by the shear strength of the discontinuities.
Deere and Patton (1971) have developed a hypothetical model for the
shear strength of rock joints within a weathering profile (Fig.7). In fresh rock,
shear strength is controlled by the angle of shearing resistance of the rock
material and the roughness of the surface. This produces high angles of
apparent shearing resistance at low stress levels due to the tendency of a
moving block to rise up on the asperities. At higher stress levels, asperities are
sheared off resulting in an angle of shearing resistance that is close to that for
the rock material though with a large apparent cohesion. As weathering occurs
and the rock is weakened, asperities will tend to be sheared off at lower stress
levels and so the apparent cohesion of the surface is reduced for high stress
levels. Another effect of weathering will be the change in mineralogy (usually
to one or more clay minerals), hence a reduction in the angle of shearing
resistance of the rock material. Difficulties in recommending design values in
 361

Weathering Grade Zone

a b

Sample I
Shear
Strength
III
T ./
//

/...
/-:;:-------
Rangeof0 r

Normal Stress CT

Fig.7. Effect of weathering on shear strength. a. Joint with different degrees of weathering.
h. Shear strength envelopes for a weathered joint. (After Deere and Patton, 1971, fig.1B.)

such situations are obvious and the lack of published data is indicative of an
unwillingness to prescribe design values which may be inappropriate.
Weathering tends to act most readily on joints and as Richards (1976) has
pointed out, rock-mass grades may contain critically orientated discontinuities
the surfaces of which can be weathered to a far greater extent than the des-
cription of the rock-mass grade might indicate. This difficulty of application
and description has been overcome by giving values for the basic angle of
friction, which is dependent merely on the mineralogy, for the weathering
grades present on the joint surfaces (Table II). Also, published values for
materials of various weathering grades and roughness indicate the range of
properties likely to be encountered. Judicious use of these values, which are
relatively constant for granites despite the changes in mineralogy (Richards,
1976) will allow estimates to be made for preliminary design purposes (Table
IV). Values are also given for joints which are in filled with various materials.
These can occur throughout the profile although they tend to be developed in
the more weathered areas. They can be formed either from in-situ weathering
of shear planes with associated gouges, slickensides, etc. or by clay minerals
and other materials being deposited in open joints. Their low shear strengths
point to the need to identify them although this is not always practicable
(Deere and Patton, 1971).
Anticipation of the occurrence of relict joints will depend on the extent to
which a site is investigated; however, Deere and Patton (1971) recommend
design by the precedents set out in Table III and modification of these if
such structures are located. The consequences should a failure occur will
determine the extent of the site investigation and the most economical design
will be one in which a few minor failures along such relict joints do occur
(Deere and Patton, 1971; Little, 1965).
As failure can quite easily occur through the material or grades IV, V and
VI, it is necessary to consider the shear strengths of such soils. In this respect
there exists a tremendous variety because, although the rock may have been
reduced to a soil by weathering, the processes of chemical weathering
continue to act, tending to change feldspars to clay minerals and increase
void ratio. Lumb (1962b) has shown that this process eventUally leads to an
TABLE IV c.:>
m
t>:l
Shear-strength data for joints in weathered granites and gneisses

Nature of joint surface q,' c' Comments Source

(degr.) (kN/m')

Fresh
Fine-grained granite 31-35 Coulson (1971)
29-31 Dry
Wet } Coulson (1971)
31-35 tests performed on smooth
Coarse-grained granite Dry Coulson (1971)
31-33 surfaces; figures give basic
Wet Coulson (1971)
friction angles
Gneiss 26-29 Dry Coulson (1971)
23-26 Wet Coulson (1971)
Quartz-monzonite 28 Basic friction angle Hendron (1974)
Granite, natural joint 30-50 100-300 Values dependent on surface roughness Hoek and Bray (1968)
and hence type of joint
Quartz-monzonite, natural 31-41 0-1000 q,' = 41 0 below normal stress of Hendron (1974)
joint 20 MN/m' and no cohesion; above
20 MN/m', q,' = 31 0 and apparent
cohesion is 7 MN/m'

Discoloured
Granite, smooth joint 29-33 Basic friction angle suggested by Richards (1976)
experience
Granite, smooth natural 29-32 Lab. direct shear test L.N.E.C. (1965), quoted by
joint Deere and Patton (1971)
Granite, natural joint, 39 30* Portable shear box, result considered Richards, 1976
rough textured typical
Granite, natural joint, 62-63 600-1300 In situ direct shear test Serafim and Lopez (1961)
rough textured

Weakened
Granite, clean natural 38 30* Portable shear box, result considered Richards (1976)
rough-textured joints typical
Granite, natural rough 45-57 100-500 In situ direct shear tests Serafim and Lopez (1961)
textured joints
Granite, natural joints 26-33 Lab. direct shear tests L.N.E.C. (1965) in Deere and
Patton (1971)
Soil
Granite, clean natural 38 30* Portable shear box, result considered Richards (1976)
joints typical
Granite, natural joint 41 100 In-situ direct shear test Serafim and Lopez (1961)
Granite 27-31 o 500 tests, Cherry Valley Dam Roberts (1970), quoted in
Deere and Patton (1971)

(N.B. See Table VI for shear strength data of this material)

Infilled joints
Granite, natural joints 31 30* Portable shear box, results considered Richards (1976)
filled with stiff brown typical
silty clay
Granite, natural joints 31 30* Portable shear box Richards (1976)
that are unusually heavily
stained
Granite, manganese-stained 26 Portable shear box Richards (1976)
joint
Granite, kaolin-filled joint 16.5 Portable shear box Richards (1976)
Kaolin-rock contact 22-12 Tests originally on a kaolin-limestone Kanji (1970)
surface, but in theory applicable to
kaolin-filled joints in granite
mite-rock contact 11.5- Tests originally on a kaolin-limestone Kanji (1970)
6.5 surface but in theory applicable to
kaolin-filled joints in granite
Montmorillonite-rock 4-11 Tests on clay only, but in theory Kenney (1:
contact applicable to montmorillonite-filled
joints in granite

ct>0 CO
Black seams of organic- 14.5 10 with slickensides consolidated St. John et a
rich material in gneiss 14.5 10 without slicken- undrained triaxial
sides tests

*Value of 30 MN/m 2 is proposed design value for cohesion for all joints in weathered granite, based on experience in Hong
1976).
TABLE V c:.o
en
Shear-strength data for undisturbed sample of Grade V granitic and gneissic soil, total and effective stress conditions
"'"
Soil type <P' c' Comments Source
(degr. ) (kN/m2)

Effective stress
Granite 35-40 0 Coarse soil Lumb (1962b)
Granite 35-40 0-200 Medium soil, c' disappears when fully saturated Lumb (1962b)
Granite 33-40 0-75 Drained triaxial tests Lumb (1962a)
Granite 35-41.5 0 Consolidated undrained tests with pore water Lamb (1962)
pressure measurements
Granite 33.5-41.5 50-70 Dependent on weathering index i, varying between Hamrol (1961)
15 and 30
Granodiorite 28 30 Triaxial tests Guilford and Chan (1969)
Quartz diorite 30 10 Lab. tests Li and Mejia (1967)
Slightly gneissose 31 12 Fully saturated, direct shear Hosking (1960)
Granite 26-29 25-30 55% saturated, direct shear Hosking (1960)
Granodiorite 30-33 Experience elsewhere in Snowy Mountains scheme Hosking (1960)
Granite gneiss 40 40 Drained shear box Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite gneiss 42 40 Drained shear box Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite gneiss 38 70 Drained triaxial tests; average strength below Vargas (1967)
normal stress of 300 kN/m 2
Granite gneiss 35 20 Back analysis Vargas (1967)
Gneiss 21 50 Fully saturated, drained triaxial test Sowers (1963)
Gneiss 33 40 Average of 6 samples, direct shear tests Napoles Neto (1967)
Gneiss 22.5 10-30 Fully saturated, direct shear box Feda, 1966
Gneiss 32.5 50-60 50% saturated, direct shear box Feda, 1966

Total stress
Granite 12 90 Unsaturated, undrained triaxial tests Ruddock (1967)
Granodiorite 22 35 Undrained triaxial tests Guilford and Chan (1969)
Diorite 22 30 Undrained triaxial tests St. John et al. (1969)
Granite gneiss 15 80 Average result, undrained triaxial test Vargas (1967)
Granite gneiss 13 60 Average result, undrained triaxial test Vargas (1967)
Granite gneiss 10,11 50 Back analysis of failures Vargas (1967)
Granite gneiss 18 70 85% saturated, undrained triaxial tests Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite gneiss 18 80 80% saturated, undrained triaxial tests Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite gneiss 20 70 70% saturated, undrained triaxial tests Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite gneiss 23 60 63% saturated, undrained triaxial tests Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Gneiss 18.5 15 Consolidated undrained triaxial tests St. John et al. (1969)
Gneisses 18 35 Fully saturated, undrained triaxial tests Sowers (1963)
Gneisses 15 45 50% saturated, undrained triaxial tests Sowers (1963)

TABLE VI

Shear·strength data for undisturbed samples of Grade VI granitic and gneissic residual soils, total and effective stress conditions

Soil type q,' c' Comments Source

(degr.) (kN/m2)

Effective stress
Granite, fine red 20-40 0-200 c reduces to 0 with total saturation; q,' dependent Lumb (1962b)
on voids ratio
Granite 25-35 0-225 Drained triaxial tests Lumb (1962a)
Granite 35-41.5 0 Undrained triaxial tests with pore water pressure Lamb (1962)
measurements
Granite, slightly 31 0 Fully saturated, triaxial test Vargas (1953)
laterised
Gneiss 24.5 0 Fully saturated, triaxial test Vargas (1953)

Total stress
Granite, slightly 17.5 Fully saturated, undrained triaxial test Vargas (1953)
laterised
Gneiss 16 Fully saturated, undrained triaxial test Vargas (1953)
Granite gneiss 23 60 63% saturated, undrained triaxial test Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite gneiss 18 80 95% saturated, undrained triaxial test Vargas and Pichler (1957)
Granite 0 analysis Lumb (1965) c:.o
c v = 20-280 kN/m 2 for q,u = <J)
01
366

unstable soil which compacts under the influence of wetting and drying at the
surface, hence losing its granitic texture. A range of values is thus available
which, as Lumb has shown, is dependent on void ratio.
The high permeabilities and coefficients of consolidation of grade V
material (discussed below) imply that it can be treated as free draining and
most of the shear-strength results are from drained triaxial tests. However,
some undrained shear-strength results have been included for the sake of
completeness and it is interesting to note that Vargas (1967) and Vargas and
Pichler (1957) used undrained strengths for design and the successful back-
analysis of several failures (Table V).
Most authorities conclude that grade V granitic material can be considered
to be a free-draining sand with an angle of friction between 30° and 35°
(Lumb, 1962b; Lamb, 1962; Little, 1965; Saunders and Fookes, 1970). The
high angles of shearing resistance are probably associated with the fabric of
the soil, consisting as it does of interlocking angular resistant grains containing
clay and silt particles produced by the decomposition of the feldspars within
its framework (Lumb, 1962b). Values of cohesion generally depend on satura-
tion, disappearing when fully saturated, probably due to a reduction in
capillary forces (Lumb, 1962b). Gneissic soils consistently tend to have lower
shear strengths (in the region of rp' = 25-30°), presumably due to the high
proportion of flaky minerals which have lower angles of shearing resistance
and induce an anisotropic weakness.
The ultimate residual soil (grade VI) is variable in its engineering properties
(rp' = 20-40°), possibly due to the loss in granitic texture and resistant grains
coated in clay weathering products. However, if it is in a dense state its engin-
eering properties can be good (Table VI).
Tomlinson and Holt (1953) have reported that the ultimate bearing capa-
city on the granitic soil which forms the foundations for the Bank of China
Building approximates 500 kN /m2 , although locally it can be as low as
170 kN/m2 . Napoles Neto (1967) reports 300 kN/m2 for a soft sandy gneissic
grade V and 8,300 to 12,300 kN/m2 for a hard but weathered gneiss. Philcox
(1962) recommended that end bearing loads on piles should not exceed
300 kN/m2 in Hong Kong.

Permeability. General values of mass permeabilities for the various grades are
indicated in Table III. However, as joint openness plays such a great role in
determining permeability, these values should only be considered as compara-
tive. Soil materials of grades IV, V and VI have a primary permeability and
values for these weathering products have been summarized in Table VII. The
values do not indicate any great difference between grades V and VI, yet
Lumb (1962b) and Deere and Patton (1971) have pointed out that grade VI
residual soil tends to form an impermeable cap with two important geotech-
nical consequences. The impermeable cap can prevent rainwater penetration
and inhibit saturation of grade V with the resulting loss of cohesion (Lumb,
1962b). Or, the impermeable cap can also transform the underlying grade V
material into a confined aquifer with possible high pore-water pressures, no
cohesion and hence reduced stability (Deere and Patton, 1971).
TABLE VII

Permeability of undisturbed samples or from field tests on granitic and gneissic Grades V and VI soils

Soil type Permeability Comments Source

(m/sec)

Grade V engineering soil

Granite 3. 10-5 to 5· 10--9 Varies with void ratio Lumb (1962b)
Granite 4.2 • 10-3 to 2.1 • 10- 5 Laboratory tests Lumb (1962a)
Granodiorite 3.2· 10--9 to 5.6. 10--9 From consolidation tests Guilford and Chan (1969)
Granodiorite 8.9.10-0 Falling head tests Guilford and Chan (1969)
Quartz diorite 1 • 10-7 to 3 • 10-6 Field and laboratory tests Li and Mejia (1967)
Average 1 • 10-7
Gneiss 1. 10-8 to 1 • 10--9 Napoles Neto (1967)
Gneisses 2· 10-7 to 5 • 10-' Parallel to foliation Sowers (1963)
Gneisses 1 ~ 10-7 to 2 • 10-6 Perpendicular to foliation Sowers (1963)
Gneiss 1 • 10-0 to 1 • 10--<J From consolidation tests Napoles Neto (1967)

Grade VI residual soil

Granite 2. 10-6 to 5 • 10--9 Varies with void ratio Lumb (1962b)
Granite 2.1· 10-7 to 4.2 • 10-6 Laboratory tests Lumb (1962a)
Black seams in gneiss 1 • 10-6 to 2 • 10-' Falling head permeameter tests across seams St. John et al. (1967)
of humic complexes

Co)
(j)
-J
368

Deformability. The deformability of the ground can be divided into two

different groups of engineering properties related to mechanisms of
deformation. Those parts of the weathering profile in which rock dominates,
grades I-III, can be described in terms of Young's modulus and deformation
should have some elastic nature. Published data on the subject are virtually
non-existent apart from Kitsunezaki (1965) who described Young's moduli
of 7 . 10 3 MN/m 2 for grade I granite and 2-5· 10 3 MN/m2 for grade II
granite. However, the recommendations in Table III, which prescribes accept-
able foundation conditions on the various grades, are considered to be suffi-
ciently well documented for a decision to be made whether a loading is
acceptable.
In view of the great part that jointing intensity and openness plays in
deformability the generalisations above seem sufficient.
In areas dominated by soil, deformation will be determined by consolida-
tion characteristics and published data have been summarised in Table VIII.
The figures show that consolidation will tend to be rapid and settlements
relatively small. Both Vargas (1953) and Sowers (1963) have noted that soils
produced by weathering tend to show an apparent overconsolidation pressure
which must reflect some "stiffness" in the fabric which is not destroyed by
weathering. Vargas showed that at depths greater than 7 m below the ground
surface the apparent preconsolidation load was equivalent to the overburden
pressure, but above this depth the apparent load was between 0 and 400 kN/
m 2 . Sowers indicated a range of values of 0-600 kN/m2.
Possibility of metastability exists especially where high ground-water
gradients tend to eluviate the finer fraction producing an open structure
which tends to collapse on wetting under load (Brink and Kantey, 1961).
This condition is considered rare and in general grade V soil makes good
foundations for light structures.

Construction materials and index tests. In assessing suitability for use as

construction materials, and indeed for simple testing of the components of
each grade, index testing has been found to be very useful. Ranges of com-
pressive strengths for each material grade are given in Table IX and Fig.8
shows the correlation of compressive strength with point load strength for
weathered rocks. Other important properties especially for aggregate use are
included in Table IX. Irfan and Dearman (1978) have shown that excellent
correlations exist between the simple, easily and inexpensively performed
index tests and the more costly engineering design tests.
The ranges of properties indicated in Table IX for each material grade can
be translated into ranges for rock-mass grades by considering the ranges of
materials present within each rock-mass grade. These ranges provide a clue to
the need for subdivision of mass grades. For instance, in aggregate resource
evaluation in the United Kingdom it was found that completely discoloured
granite was unsuitable for use and so a subdivision of grade II was used to
discriminate percentage discolouration to establish a suitable boundary for
mapping purposes.
TABLE VIII

Consolidation and compression characteristics of undisturbed samples of granitic and gneissic grade V and VI soils

Soil type Cv'/yr Comments Source

Grade V engineering soil

Granite 3.4 . 10' Average value, notes that value dependent on depth Tomlinson and Holt (1953)
i.e. extent of weathering
Granite 1· 10 3 to 1 . 10 5 Laboratory tests Lumb (1962a)
Granite 5. 10 1 to 1 • 10 5 Laboratory tests Lumb (1962b)
Granodiorite 1 . 10' Laboratory tests Guilford and Chan (1969)
Quartz diorite "Consolidation takes place as fast as the load is applied ... Li and Mejia (1967)
90% settlement took place during construction ... of the dams"
Grade VI residual soil
Granite, fine red 3.4 . 10 to 3.4 . 10' Laboratory tests Lumb (1962a)
Granite, fine red 2.5· 10 to 2 .. 5 . 10' Laboratory tests Lumb (1962b)

Soil type Cc Comments Source

Grade V engineering soil

Granite 0.28 10 tests, average value Ruddock (1967)
Granodiorite 0.15 Laboratory tests Guilford and Chan (1969)
Gneiss 0.1 to 0.7 90% of values in this range. Empirical relationship: Sowers (1963)
Cc = 0.7 (e-.55)
Aplite 0.45 2 tests, average value Ruddock (1967)

Soil type MV'/MN Comments Source

Grade V engineering soil

Granite 1.0 to 2.4 . 10-' Laboratory tests Lumb (1962a)
Granite 0-8.10-1 Laboratory tests Lumb (1962b)
Grade VI residual soil
Granite 4.2 . 10-1 to 7 . 10-' Laboratory tests Lumb (1962a)
Granite 4.0 . 10-2 to 8 • 10-1 Laboratory tests Lumb (1962b)
Granite slightly 2.0·10 At 100 kN/m' Vargas (1953) c.>
(j)
laterised (0

Gneiss 1.5·10 At 100 kN/m' Vargas (1953)

370

TABLE IX

Ranges of index properties for different grades of weathered granite materials

Material grade Compressive Quick Aggregate Sulphate

strength absorption impact value soundness
(MN/m2) [QAT (%) AlV MgSO. (%)

Fresh >250 <0,2 6-16 0,5

Discoloured 100-250 0,2-2,0 8-24 0,8-0,23
Weakened 2,5-100 2,0-10,0 24-35 33,39
Soil <2,5 >10,0

10
..

PlS
s
..
5
MN/m'

..
..
o 100 200

ucss MN/m'

Fig,8, Correlation of point load strength with compressive strength for saturated weathered
granite (Irfan and Dearman, 1978, fig,3b),

Lumb (1962b) has shown that as weathering proceeds a bimodal distribu-

tion of grains is produced,with the quartz grains remaining in the sand fraction
whilst, with progressive weathering, the feldspars gradually break down to
sand and silt, This has been used as the basis for classifying grade V material,
together with ratios based on the proportion of feldspars left unweathered (ibid).
In general, the soils are of moderate plasticity and low to normal activity
although Little (1965) warns of the inadvisability of identifying them too
closely with the sedimentary soils of temperate regions.
The use of grade V and VI material as earth fill is well reported and in
general the engineering properties are good (Table X).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was carried out as part of a study into the engineering properties
of weathered rock. F.J. Baynes has been supported by a grant from the
N.E.R.C, who also supported an earlier research programme; T.Y. Irfan has
been supported by M. T .A. Ankara, and both sources are gratefully acknowledged
TABLE X

Engineering properties of compacted granitic and gneissic grades V and VI soils used as embankment materials
,
Soil type <P' c <P c k Cv Cc Comments Source
(kN/m2) (kN/m2) (m/sec) (m 2/yr)

Grade V engineering soil

Granite 36.5-38.5 25 9.5-2.5 - 10 Standard compaction, design Lamb (1962)
value of <p' = 35, c' = 0
Granodiorite 38.5 0 31 10 3.5 -10-8 to 2.2 - 10 2 0.7 Standard compaction Guilford and Chan
7.0 - 10--1! (1969)
Quartz diorite 32-38 0-10 1 - 10 7 Compacted fill Li and Meiia
(1967)
Gneiss 15-30 0-150 Compacted fill Sowers (1963)

Grade VI residual soil

Granite 28-29.5 20-50 6-1.2 - 10 Standard compaction, design Lamb (1962)
value of <p' = 30, c' = 0
Granodiorite 30.5 5 16 3.5 4.7 - 10--<J 1.4 - 10 1.16 Standard compaction Guilford and Chan
(1969)
Granite 2.5 - 10 Material dumped in trial Lamb (1962)
embankment under water,
average results from 12
piezometer results
Gneiss 15 60 kv =
3 - 10--<J Compacted fill Vargas et aI'
kh =
1.6 - 10--1! (1965)
Gneiss 26 40 15 80 kv =
1 - 10--<J Compacted fill Vargas et aI.
kh =
3 - 1O--<J (1965)
Gneiss 29 29 14.5 50 6-10--' Compacted fill Vargas et aI.
(1965)

c.:>
-J
.....
372

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