Solar Radiation and Its Measurement INTRODUCTION In this Chapter an attempt has been made to discuss the extra-torrestrial radiation, its spectral distribution and the terrestrial radiation first. The various angles used in analyzing the radiation are defined then. The various instruments utilized in measuring solar radiation have been described and the associated measurement techniques have been discussed. Equations for assessing solar radiation at a location have been presented. 2.1 EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION AND TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION ‘The sun, a large sphere of very hot gases is having diameter of 1.39 x 10° km, while that of the arth is having diameter of 127 x 10! km. Its at ¢ very lage distance from the earth’s surface. ‘The mean distance between the sun and earth is 15 x 10° km. Due to this large distance, it subtends an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth's surface. Thus, the earth receives almost parallel beam radiation from the sun, Sun‘s brightness varies from its center to its edge. However, for engineering calculations, itis customary to assume that the brightness all over the solar dise is uniform. The rate at which the solar energy reaches at the top of the atmesphere is called the solar constant Ij. This is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit area perpendicular to the rays of the sun, at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Since the sun’s distance varies throughout the year, rate of arrival of solar radiation varies accordingly. The value of the so called solar constant is average one. The actual values vary upto about 3 percent in either direction. For most practical purposes, the variation is not at all important one. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) standard value for the solar constant in three common units is as follows: 1353 W/m? 116.5 langleys (Cal/cm?) per hour or 1165 keal/m? ~ hour (1 langely is equal to 1 cal/em? of solar radiation received in one day) 429.2 Biu per sq.ft. per houring from the sun is essentially equivalent to blackbody (5762 K for a solar constant of 1353 W/m? en the sun and the earth varies a litle throughout the year. Due to this trial flux also varies. The extra-ierrestrial flux on any day canbe calculated ng, J [1 + 0.088 cos (360n/365)] (2.1.1) the year I to the sun in the summer and furthest away in the winter the spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial solar radiation are made and yekara. The spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial solar radiation is shown ve depicts that the spectral first inereases sharply with wavelength and isimum value of 2074 W/m? -um at a wavelength of 0.48 um and then ly to zero. 99 percent of the sum's radiation is obtained upto a wavelength See ee pee ee eg ty zo00}- 1600 }- 1200 800 400 2 08 14 20 vol Distribution of Extaterresbiel Sclar Radiction from NAGA SF-80C5 (1971). \al arrives at the earth’s atmasphere, consists of about 8 percent ultraviolet _ of less than 0.39 um), 46 percent visible light (039 to 0.78 um), 46 percent ive length of more than 0.78 um). ation passes through the earth’s atmosphere (Fig, 2.1.2), it gets subjected. tering mechanisms before reaching the earth's surface. Mainly because of water Yapour in the atmosphere, and to a lesser extent the other gases, e.g. dCO etc, and particulate matier, absorb the solar radiation. This leads to mal energy of the atmosphere. On the other hand, all gaseous molecules mater in the atmosphere assist in scattering the solar radiation. Some *s back into space and some reaches the earth’s surface. hs atmosphere may be of without clouds or with clouds. In the former ess everywhere, while in the latter, the sky is partly or fully covered by of atmosphere the absorption and scattering mechanisms, aa stated earlier, ess attenuation takes place in a cloudless sky and consequentiy earth's num radiation under the said condition. eived at the earth's surface without change in direction is called bear or diation received at the earth’s surface from all parts of the sky’s hemisphere n the atmosphere is called diffuse raciation, The suum of the beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as total or global radiation. This is the total solar radiation receive at any point on the earth's surface. In general sense, itis also referred to as the insolation at the poi Reece back jeer A Aumasphore eoiton ak (wermg ot Rollosted beck by aurfoce ‘Surface of earth Fig, 2:12: Diet, Dituse and Total Padation. ‘A term called the air mass (1) is often used to assess the ge senes eet by beam, my through the atmosphere before reaching a location on the earth’s surface. The air mass (mj ratio of the path of the sun’s rays through the atmosphere to the length of the path when the is directly overhead, ic., sun is at the zenith. ‘i Just above the earth's atmosphere, m = 0. It corresponds to extra-terrestrial radiation. Wh the sua is at zenith, Le, directly overhead, m = 1. At the zenith angle @,, the angle subtended | the zenith and the line of sight to the sun is 60°, then m When m > 3, m = sec 0,- 2.2 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY ‘The following angles are often used in analyzing the solar radiation: 6 = latitude of location & = declination w = hour angle 6 a 0 slope altitude angle = zenith angle 17 = surface azimuth angle y = solar azimuth angle ; ic > is between incident beam radiation Iy, and the normal a pat Reged rer ars intensity or flux falling normal to the surface piven by I, cos8. Let us first define all the aforesaid angles. 9,gle between the line OP and OP’, Here P represents location on the earth vents the center of the earth. By convention, the latitude is measured as sm hemisphere. It can vary from -90° to. +90" ing the centers of the sun and the earth with its projection on the arises by virtue of the fact of tlt and it varies from a maximum value of a minimum velue of -23.45 on December 21. Declination is zero on the two h 22 and September 22. The Latin word “Equinox” means equal nights. The | the declination of the sun is zero, The declination may be calculated from relationship given by Cooper (1969). sgtees) = 23.45 sin [(360/365) (284 + n)] (2.2.4) the year, [ e.g. for June 21, 1996, n = 31 +29 + 31 +30 +31 +21 = 173] ‘declination is shown in Fig. 22.2. 28 p22 Dee, 22, Mar. 22 Jun, 22 Sep. 22 “Time ofthe year > Fig. 222: Vanation of Suns Decination, ip the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian at a with the sun’s rays shown in Fig. 22.1. It is equivalent to 15° per hour. It a a a aaa a eee = Altitude angle ct (solar altitude) is the vertical angle between the projection of the sun's on the horizontal plane and direction of suns rays (passing through the point). This is show Fig. 223, Fig, 2.29: Sur'e Zenith, Aitude and Azimuth Anges. Zenith angle O, is a vertical angle between sun's rays and a line perpendicular to the hori plane through the point (Refer Fig. 22.3). 6, = (R/2)-a solar azimuth angle ‘ is the horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal proje of the sun's rays, The angle is positive when measured west wise. In terms of 6 (latitude angle), 6 (declination), and w (hour angle), altitude angle «, # angle @, and solar azimuth angles can be prejented by followings: cos 0, = cosip cost cos 8 + sin sin im cos Y = Sec 01 (cos p sin B ~ cos sin cos w) «6 and- sin y, = secarcos 8 sinw a ‘The-slope P is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal. It is consiten be positive for sloping towards the south and negative for sloping towards the north, ( Fig 22.4), ‘The surface azimuth angle 7 is the angle made in the horizontal plane between the lin south and the projection of the normal to the surface on the horizontal plane. It can vary 180° to +180". The angle is considered to be positive if the normal is east of south and ney if normal is west of south. ‘The relation between 8 and other angles can be given by the equation: cos = sind (sind cos + cos 8 cos 7 sin w sin B) + cos 6 (cos 3 cos w cos B ~ sin 3 cosy sin) + cosé siny sin w sinB inonal suttace Fig. 2.2.4: Surface Azimuth Angle and Slope Detined, atitude (north positive) leclination (north positive) \our angle, it is positive between solar mid-night and noon, otherwise negative. int conditions the equation (2.2.5) can be simplified as follows: MW surfaces, i = 90°, equation (2.2.5) becomes J = sin @ cos 8 cos y.cos w - cos 9 sin 8 cos ¥ + cos 6 sin y sin w on(2.2.6) intal surfaces, B = 0°, @ = 6, | © sin g sin 6 + cos 6 cos 6 cos w 22.7) = sina } = cos 0,= sina. (2.28) ‘e facing due south y= 0, 1 © sin 6 (in 8 cos B + c0s & cos w sin f) + cos } (cos 8 cos w cos f~ sin 8 sin B) (By denotes the incident angle for a tilted surface) © sin 6 sin ( - B) + cos 8 cos 29 cos ( - f) (2.29) al suriaces facing due south, B = 90°, y= 0 |, © sin @ cos 8 cos w — cos 6 sin 5 (2.2.10) ‘set Hour Angle (ws) and Day Length: The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or rizontal surface is called suntise or sunset hour angle (v,). At the time of sunrise zenith angle, 0, is 90% rng this in equation (2.2.7), we obtain sunrise or sunset hour angle (1) as: fy = tang tan 6, e221) ir negative value for w, may be obtained. The positive value corresponds to sunrise ive to sunset, Since 15° of the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, the corresponding 1 hours) is given by ty = Q/15) cos" (=tan@tmray So the day length (/,) is a function of latitude and solar declination. For filled surface, the sunrise oF su set hour angle (w,) will be lesser than the val by equation, if the day under consicleration lies between March 21 and September 2 be obtained by substituting @ = 90°in equation (2.25) or one of its simple versions. 1 inclined surface facing south, substituting @ = 90°, in equation (2.2.9), we obtain oy = cos" [-tan (@ ~ p) tan } ‘The corresponding day length in hours is tg = @/15) cos [- tan (9 ~ B) tan 8] Local solar time (LST) or Local apparent time (LAT): The time estimated by the equitio (2.2.14) is the local apparent time or local solar time. It is not same as that of local clo assess the local solar time or local apparent time from the standard time observed on corrections ate to be done. The first correction appears due to the difference between th of a location and the meridian on which the standard time is based, The correction ‘magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference in longitude. The second comreeti the equation of time correction. This correction arises due to the fact that the earth’s orl of rotation ate subject to small perturbations, ‘The equation of time correction is based on experimental observations and plo 2.2.5, Thus, Local solar time (LST) or Local apparent time (LAT) = standard time 4) time longitude — longitude of location) + (Equation of time correction) 2» 8 10 5 ° a Equation ot tine (min) 10 ee | 2 ‘Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Auj Sep Oct Nov Dee: Month Fig. 2.2.5: Graph of Equation of Time Correction ‘The negative sign in the first correction is applicable for the eastem hemisphere, \ sign is applicable for western hemisphere. Illustrative Example: Calculate the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding 10 18 July 16, 1998 at Delhi (28°35" NN, 77°12’ E). The equation of time correction on Ju minutes. Indian standard time (IST) is the local civil time corresponding to 82,50" Also calculate the declination.I apparent time (LAT) = IST ~ 4 (Standard time longitude - longitude of ‘of time correction) = 1330" ~ 4 (82°30 - 77°12") ~ 6 30" ~ 4 (825 ~ 77.2) minutes ~ 6 minutes 30! = 15.2 minutes = 13" 30 — 15°12" * 14/48" Ans. | Cooper's equation) , ie, = 23.45 sin [(360/365) (284 + »)] the year = 31 +28 +31 +30 +31 +30 + 16 = 197 on July 16. (960/365) (284 + 197)] = ~23.45 sin 22° = 878°, ION MEASUREMENTS solar appliances is increasing, In predicting the performance of the appliances, olation data is needed. For this, measurements of solar radiation with the ents are required. easurements in relating to solar radiation the following instruments are Which either global or diffuse radiation over a hemispherical field of view cally the pyranomete: (shown in Fig. 2.3.1) is having a ‘black’ surface which ‘exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature gets increased until its rate of lation equals its rate of heat loss by conduction, convection and radiation. he hot junetions of a thermopile are attached. The cold junctions are placed ey do not receive the radiation. According to solar radiation an emf is usually in the range of Oto 10 mV, can be read, recorded or integrated over isa measure of global radiation. An accuracy of about + 2% canbe obtained By preventing the beam radiation from falling on the instrument sensor, 4, Black surface, 2. Glass domes, 3. Guard Plate 4 Thiee leveling sorews, 5. Mouning plate, 6. Grouted bots, 7. Platform Fig. 2.3.1.1: Pyranometor for Measuring Global Radiation with the help of a shading ring, the diffuse radiation is measured. The measurements with help of pyranometer are the most common, 2.3.2 Pyrheliometer Pyrheliometer measures only beam radiation. Diffuse radiation can not be measured with th instrument. In this instrument, a sensor disc is located at the base of a tube whose axis is aligns with the direction of the sun’s rays. So, the diffuse radiation is essentially blocked from the sen surface, ‘The most common current practice to measure direct solar rediation, is to use the thern electric transducers, But low cost photovoliaic transducers are also becoming popular now days. There are mainly three types of pyrheliometers commonly used for normal incident bea radiation. They are as follows, (i) The Angstrom pyrheliometer (ii) The Abbot silver-disc pyrheliometer (ii) Eppley pytheliometer For all the cases, the receiving surface must be placed in such a manner so that it should | normal to direct solar rays. In Angstrom Pyrheliometer, two manganin strips of size 20 x 2X 0.1 mum each are used. © is shaded and another is exposed directly to solar radiation. The blackened. shaded strip clectricetly heated to the same temperature which is obtained by the exposed strip. Under stea state condition, the energy used for heating, should be equal to the solar energy absorbed by t exposed strip. On the back of each strip, thermocouples arc connected in oppesition through sensitive galvanometer. By this, equality of temperature for both the strips is tested. The ener of direct radiation (Hp) is calculated by the formula as: Hp = W? where i = heating current in amperes ‘kis a dimension and instrament const = R/(Wa) where R is the resistance per unit length of the absorbing strip (82/cm). W is the mean width of the absorbing strip and ais the absorbtion coefficient of the absorbing strip. For the case of Abbot silver-dise pyrheliometer a blackened silver disc is positioned at | lower end:of a tube with diaphragms to control the limit of whole aperture upto 5.7% T! pyrheliometer is mairly used in calibrating pyranometers. In the case of Eppley pyzheliomet there is a bismuth silver thermopile of having temperature compensated 15 junctions connec! in series. The limiting diaphragms limits the aperature to 5.7. Itis widely used in USA and ma other counities in the world. 2.3.3 Sunshine Recorder With the help of a sunshine recorder (shown in Fig. 2331) the duration of bright sunshine i day is measured. The sun's rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held fa groove in @ spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. During the bright sunsh ina day, the image formed moves along the strip. This image is so intense that it burns 5) ‘on the card strip. Thus, a burt trace whose length is proportional to the duration of sinshin« obtained on the strip.