Chapter 3

DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• Basic non-isolated DC-DC converter
topologies: Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost, Cuk
in CCM and DCM mode
• Non-ideal effects on converter
performance
• Isolated DC-DC converters, switched-
mode power supply
• Control of DC-DC converters
• High frequency transformer and inductor
design
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.

Power Electronics and 1

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 DC-DC Converter (Chopper)
• DEFINITION: Converting the unregulated
DC input to a controlled DC output with a
desired voltage level.

• General block diagram:

DC supply
(from rectifier-
filter, battery, DC output LOAD
fuel cell etc.)

Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)

• APPLICATIONS:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
 Linear regulator
• Transistor is
operated in linear
(active) mode. IL
+ VCE −

• Output voltage Vs
RL Vo

Vo = I L RT

MODEL OF LINEAR
• The transistor can REGULATOR
be conveniently
modelled by an + VCE −
IL
equivalent RT +
variable resistor, Vs
RL Vo
as shown. −

EQUIVALENT
• Power loss is high CIRCUIT
at high current due
to:
Po = I L 2 RT
Power Electronics and 3
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Dr. Zainal Salam
 Switching Regulator
• Power loss is zero
(for ideal switch): + VCE − IL

– when switch is RL
open, no current Vs +

flow in it, Vo

−
– when switch is MODEL OF LINEAR
closed no voltage REGULATOR
drop across it. IL

– Since power is a SWITCH

+
product of voltage Vs
RL Vo
−
and current, no
losses occurs in the
switch. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
– Power is 100% Vo

transferred from
source to load. (ON) (OFF) (ON)
closed open closed

DT T

• Switching regulator OUTPUT VOLTAGE

is the basis of all
DC-DC converters
Power Electronics and 4
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Dr. Zainal Salam
Buck (step-down) converter

S L

+
Vd D C RL
Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
S + vL −
+
Vd D RL Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S iL

+ vL −
+
Vd RL Vo
D

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 5

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Dr. Zainal Salam
 Circuit operation when switch
is turned on (closed)
• Diode is reversed + vL -
biased. Switch S iL +
conducts inductor +
C Vo
Vd VD RL
current − −

• This results in vL

positive inductor Vd−Vo

voltage, i.e: closed
opened
closed
opened

vL = Vd − Vo t

• It causes linear −Vo

increase in the iL

inductor current
iLmax
di
vL = L L IL
iLmin
dt
1
⇒ iL = ∫ vL dt DT T
t
L
Power Electronics and 6
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Operation when switch turned
off (opened)
+ vL -

S
• Because of iL +
C Vo
inductive energy Vd D RL
−
storage, iL
continues to flow.
vL

Vd−Vo
• Diode is forward opened opened
biased closed closed

• Current now flows

through the diode −Vo
iL
and
iLmax
vL = −Vo IL
iLmin

(1-D)T
t
DT T

Power Electronics and 7

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Analysis for switch closed
The inductor voltage,
vL = Vd − Vo vL
diL
=L Vd− Vo
dt closed
t
diL Vd − Vo
⇒ =
dt L
iL
Note : since the deri -
vative of iL is a posi - iL max

tive constant. I ∆i L
Therefore iL must L

increase linearly. iL min

t
From Figure DT T

diL ∆iL ∆iL Vd − Vo

= = =
dt ∆t DT L
 Vd − Vo 
(∆iL )closed =  ⋅ DT
 L 
Power Electronics and 8
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Analysis for switch opened
For switch opened,
vL

vL = −Vo opened
Vd− Vo
diL
=L
dt t

di −V
⇒ L= o
dt L
iL
Note : since the deri -
vative of iL is a nega - iL max

tive constant, iL must IL

∆i L
decrease linearly.
iL min
From Figure t
DT T

diL ∆iL ∆iL − Vo (1− D)T

= = =
dt ∆t (1 − D)T L

 − Vo 
(∆iL )opened =  ⋅ (1 − D)T
 L 

Power Electronics and 9

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Dr. Zainal Salam
 Steady-state operation
iL
Unstable current

iL Decaying current

iL Steady-state current

t
Steady - state operation requires that i L at the
end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of i L over one period is zero, i.e :

(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0

 Vd − Vo   − Vo 
  ⋅ DTs −   ⋅ (1 − D)Ts = 0
 L   L 
⇒ Vo = DVd
Power Electronics and 10
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Average, Maximum and
Minimum inductor current
iL

Imax
IL ∆iL

Imin

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

Vo
⇒ IL = IR =
R
Maximum current :
∆iL Vo 1  Vo 
I max = I L + = +  (1 − D)T 
2 R 2 L 

 1 (1 − D) 
= Vo  + 
R 2 Lf 

Minimum current :
∆iL  1 (1 − D ) 
I min = I L − = Vo  − 
2 R 2 Lf 
Power Electronics and 11
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
Continuous current operation
iL

Imax

Imin t
0

From previous analysis,

∆i  1 (1 − D) 
I min = I L − L = Vo  − 
2  R 2 Lf 
For continuous operation, I min ≥ 0,

 1 (1 − D) 
⇒ Vo  − ≥0
 R 2 Lf 
(1 − D)
⇒ L ≥ Lmin = ⋅R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
ensure continous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen be be >> Lmin

Power Electronics and 12

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Output voltage ripple
iL imax
iL iR
iL=IR
L Vo / R
iC + imin
Vo 0
−

ic = iL + iR
∆Q
Q = CVo ⇒ ∆Q = C∆V ⇒ o ∆Vo =
C
From figure, use triangle area formula :
1 T ∆i T∆iL
∆Q =   L  =
2  2  2  8
T∆iL (1 − D )
∴ ∆Vo = =
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
∆Vo (1 − D)
r= =
Vo 8 LCf 2
Power Electronics and 13
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Design procedures for Buck
SWITCH L

Lmin= ?
RL
L = 10Lmin
Vd Po = ?
f=? D
(input C Io = ?
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?

• Calculate D to obtain required output

voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency:

– preferably >20KHz for negligible acoustic
noise
– higher fs results in smaller L, but higher device
losses. Thus lowering efficiency and larger heat
sink. Also C is reduced.
– Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT.
Low power MOSFET can reach MHz range.

Power Electronics and 14

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Design procedures for Buck
• Determine Lmin. Increase Lmin by about 10
times to ensure full continuos mode.

• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.

• Capacitor ratings:
– must withstand peak output voltage
– must carry required RMS current. Note RMS
current for triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the
peak capacitor current given by ∆iL/2

• Wire size consideration:

– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as
peak. RMS value for iL is given as:

2
2  ∆iL 2 
I L , RMS = IL +  
 3 
Power Electronics and 15
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Examples of Buck converter
• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery
source. Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm,
f=20KHz and D=0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage
(b) maximum and minimum inductor current, (c)
output voltage ripple.

• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and

output of 25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz.
The power output is 125W. (a) Determine the duty
cycle, (b) value of L to limit the peak inductor
current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.

• Design a buck converter such that the output

voltage is 28V when the input is 48V. The load is
8Ohm. Design the converter such that it will be in
continuous current mode. The output voltage ripple
must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the frequency
and the values of each component. Suggest the
power switch also.

Power Electronics and 16

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Boost (step-up) converter
L D

Vd C +
S
RL Vo

−
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −

Vd +
S C
RL Vo
−

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

L
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C RL
S Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 17

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Boost analysis:switch closed
iL
L D
+ vL −
+
Vd C vo
S
−

vL = Vd vL

diL Vd

=L
dt CLOSED

diL Vd
⇒ =
t

dt L Vd − V o

diL ∆iL ∆iL iL

= = ∆iL
dt ∆t DT
diL Vd
⇒ =
dt L t
DT T

Vd DT
(∆iL )closed =
L
Power Electronics and 18
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Switch opened
iL
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C vo
S
-

vL = Vd − Vo vL
diL
=L Vd

dt
diL Vd − Vo
OPENED

⇒ = t
dt L
Vd− Vo
diL ∆iL
=
iL

dt ∆t ∆iL

∆iL
=
(1 − D)T ( 1-D )T

DT T t

diL Vd − Vo
⇒ =
dt L
(Vd − Vo )(1 − DT )
⇒ (∆iL )opened =
L
Power Electronics and 19
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Steady-state operation
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0
Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D)T
− =0
L L
Vd
⇒ Vo =
1− D
• Boost converter produces output voltage
that is greater or equal to the input
voltage.
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.

Power Electronics and 20

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Average, Maximum,
Minimum inductor current
Input power = Output power
Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
2
 Vd 
  2
(1 − D ) V
Vd I L =   = d
R (1 − D) 2 R
Average inductor current
Vd
IL =
(1 − D) 2 R
Max, min inductor current
∆iL Vd Vd DT
I max = I L + = 2
+
2 (1 − D) R 2L

∆iL Vd Vd DT
I min = IL − = 2
−
2 (1 − D) R 2L

Power Electronics and 21

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Continuous Current Mode
(CCM)
For continous operation, Vd
vL
I min ≥ 0

Vd Vd DT
2
− ≥0 Vd−Vo
(1 − D) R 2L
imax
D(1 − D )2 TR
Lmin = iL
2
D(1 − D ) R
2 imin
=
2f imax
iD imin
Ripple factor
Io=Vo / R
 Vo 
∆Q =   DT = C∆Vo
R
Vo DT Vo D ic
∆Vo = =
RCf RCf
∆V D ∆Q
r= o =
Vo RCf DT T

Power Electronics and 22

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Examples

• The boost converter has the following

parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6, R=12.5ohm,
L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum
and minimum inductor current, (c) output
voltage ripple.

• Design a boost converter to provide an

output voltage of 36V from a 24V source.
The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty
cycle ratio, switching frequency, inductor
and capacitor size, and power device.

Power Electronics and 23

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Buck-Boost converter

S
D
+

Vd C
L RL Vo
−

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S D
+ +

Vd iL vL Vo
− −

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S D
+ +
Vd iL vL
Vo
−
−

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 24

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Buck-boost analysis
Switch closed Vd
diL
vL = Vd = L vL

dt
diL Vd
⇒ =
dt L Vd−Vo

∆iL ∆iL Vd imax

= = iL
∆t DT L
Vd DT imin
(∆iL ) closed =
L imax
iD
Switch opened imin

diL
vL = Vo = L Io=Vo / R
dt
diL Vo
⇒ =
dt L ic

∆iL ∆iL Vo
= = ∆Q
∆t (1 − D)T L
DT T

Vo (1 − D)T
(∆iL ) opened =
L
Power Electronics and 25
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Output voltage
Steady state operation :
Vd DT Vo (1 − D )T
+ =0
L L
 D 
⇒ Vo = −Vs  
1 − D 

• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter

either be higher or lower than the source
voltage.
– If D>0.5, output is higher
– If D<0.5, output is lower

• Output voltage is always negative

• Note that output is never directly
• connected to load. Energy is stored in
inductor when switch is closed and
transferred to load when switch is opened.
Power Electronics and 26
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
Average inductor current
Assuming no power loss in the converter,
power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.

Po = Ps

Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :

Is = ILD

Vo2
⇒ = Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,

Vo2 Po Vd D
⇒ IL = = =
Vd RD Vd D R (1 − D ) 2
Power Electronics and 27
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
∆iL Vd D Vd DT
I max = I L + = 2
+
2 R (1 − D ) 2L
∆iL Vd D Vd DT
I min = I L − = 2
−
2 R (1 − D) 2L

For continuous current,

Vd D Vd DT
2
+ =0
R (1 − D ) 2L
(1 − D ) 2 R
⇒ Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
 Vo 
∆Q =   DT = C∆Vo
R
Vo DT Vo D
∆Vo = =
RC RCf
∆Vo D
r= =
Vo RCf
Power Electronics and 28
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Cuk Converter
L1 C1 L2

iL1 + vc1- iL2

+
+ C2 RL
V D
S vc2 Vo
d
−
−

CIRCUIT OF CUK CONVERTER

L1 i C 1 = −i L 2
L2

iL1 iL2
C1 +
+ C2 RL
V
S D vc2 Vo
d
−
−

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

L1 iC1 = iL1
L2

iL1 iL2
C1 +
+ C2 RL
V
S D vc2 Vo
d
−
−

Power Electronics and 29

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Cuk analysis: from capacitor
current point of view
iC1

iL1

CLOSED OPENED

−iL2

The average voltage across C1 is computed by KVL,

VC1 = Vd − Vo

When the switch is closed, diode is off and the current in C1 is :

(iC1 )closed = −iL 2
When the switch is opened, the current in L1 and L2 force the
diode on. The current in C1 is :
(iC1 )open = −iL1
The power absorbed by the load is equal to the power supplied
by the source, i.e.
− Vo I L 2 = Vs I L1

[ ]
For periodic operation, the average current is zero,
[(iC1 )closed ]DT + (iC1 )open (1 − D)T = 0
Substituting,
− I L 2 DT + I L1 (1 − D)T = 0
I L1 D
=
I L 2 (1 − D)
Power Electronics and 30
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Cuk analysis
The power absorbed by the load is equal to the
power supplied by the source, i.e.
− Vo I L 2 = Vs I L1
I L1 − Vo
=
I L2 Vs

Combining, output voltage can be written as :

Vo  D 
= − 
Vs  (1 − D) 
Note that the output stage (L2, C2 adnR) are in
the same configuration as the buck converter. Hence,
∆Vo 1− D
=
Vo 8 L2C 2 f 2
In time interval DT when switch is closed,
di L1
v L1 = vd = L1
dt
∆i L1 Vd
⇒ =
DT L1
or
V DT Vd D
∆i L1 = d =
L1 L1 f

Power Electronics and 31

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Cuk design parameters
For L2, in time interval DT when switch is closed,
0 = + vc1 − v L 2 + Vo
v L 2 = vc1 + Vo = (Vd − Vo ) + Vo = Vd
di
v L 2 = L2 L 2
dt
or
V DT Vd D
∆i L 2 = d =
L2 L2 f

For continuous current operation,

(1 − D) 2 R
L1, min =
2 Df
(1 − D ) R
L 2, min =
2f

Power Electronics and 32

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Cuk analysis from inductor
current point of viewL1 L2

iL1 iL2
C1 −
+ C2 RL
V
S D vc2 Vo
d
−
+
SWITCH IS OPENED

vL1 Closed vd Closed vd

vL2

t t
-vo -vo
Open Open

iL1 iL2

IL1
iL1
t iL1 t

T T
DT DT

In steady state, it can be assumed that VL1 and VL 2 are zero.

VC1 = Vd + Vo , (Note the polarity of Vo ).

It also can be seen that VC1 is larger than Vd and V0

When the switch is off, i L1 and i L 2 flow through the diode.

Capacitor C1is charged through the diode by energy from
Vd and L1. The inductor voltage can be written as :
v L1 = Vd + VC1

which is negative since VC1 is larger than Vd .

This causes i L1 to decrease
Power Electronics and 33
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 L1
Cuk analysisiC1 = −i L 2
L2

iL1 iL2
C1 −
+ C2 RL
V
S D vc2 Vo
d
−
+

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

vL1 Closed vd Closed vd

vL2

t t
-vo -vo
Open Open

iL1 iL2

IL1
iL1
t t

T T
DT DT

Similarly on the output side,

Vo = −Vd
which which causes i L1 to decrease.

When the switch is on, VC1 reverse - biased the diode. The
inductor current i L 2 and i L 2 flow through the switch.

Since VC1 > Vo capacitor C1 discharged through the switch,

transferring energy to the noutput L2.Therefore i L 2 increases.

The input feeds energy to L1, causing i L1 to increase.

Power Electronics and 34

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Cuk Analysis
Equating the integral of the voltages across L1 and L2,

L1 : Vd DT + (Vd − Vc1 )(1 − D ) = 0

1
⇒ Vc1 = Vd
1− D
L2 : (Vc1 − Vo ) DT + (−Vo )(1 − D )T = 0
1
⇒ Vc1 = Vo
D
Combining :
Vo D
=
Vd 1 − D

Note the polarity of the output

Power Electronics and 35

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Converters in CCM: Summary
Buck
Vo Vd = D
S L 1− D
V + ∆Vo Vd =
D C RL
Vo
8 LCf 2
d (1 − D) R
− Lmin =
2f
L D Boost
1
+ Vo Vd =
V 1− D
S C Vo D
d
RL ∆Vo Vd =
− RCf
D (1 − D ) 2 R
Lmin =
S 2f
Buck − Boost
D + D
Vo Vd = −
V C Vo 1− D
L RL D
d
− ∆Vo Vd =
RCf
(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
L1 C1
2f
L2
Cuk
iL1 iL2
+vc1- + Vo Vd = − D
V + C2 R 1− D
S D vc2 L V
o 1− D
d
− ∆ Vo V d = 2
− 8 LCf
(1 − D ) 2 R
L1 =
2 Df
(1 − D ) R
L2 =
2f
Power Electronics and 36
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Buck in discontinuous current
mode (DCM)
+v -
Average inductor voltage L

is zero, S iL +
(Vd − Vo ) DT − Vo D1T = 0 +
C Vo
⇒ (Vd − Vo ) D = Vo D1 Vd VD RL
− −
Vo  D 
=  
Vd  D + D1  BUCK CONVERTER
Average inductor current
equals resistor current vL
(because average capacitor Vd − Vo
current is zero) opened opened
closed
Vo closed
IL = IR = t
R
From figure, −V o
1 1 1 
I L =  I max DT + I max DiL1T 
T 2 2  Imax
1
= I max ( D + D1T )
2 is
Voltage across inductor, Imax
v L = Vd − Vo

di L Vd − Vo t
= DT
D1T
dt L
∆i ∆i I T
⇒ L = L = max
∆t DT DT
Power Electronics and 37
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Buck in DCM
Solving for I max and using (Vs − Vo ) D,
 Vs − Vo  Vo D1T
I max = ∆i L =   DT =
 L  L
Substitute,
1 1  Vo D1T  Vo
I max ( D + D1 ) =  ( D + D1 ) =
2 2 L  R
Which gives,
2L
D12 + DD1 − =0
RT
Solving for D1 ,
8L
− D D2 +
D1 = RT
2
Hence,

 
 
 D   2D 

Vo = Vd  
 = Vd 
 D + D1 2 8L 
 D + D + 
 RT 

Power Electronics and 38

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Example
For the buck converter,
Vd = 24V , L = 200uH , R = 20Ω, C = 100uF , f = 10 KHz , D = 0.4
a) Show that the inductor current is discontinuous :
b) Determine the output voltage, Vo

For discontinous current, D1 < 1 - D

D1 can be calculated by :
8L
− D D2 +
D1 = RT
2
1  −6 
2 8( 200)(10 )(10 K ) 
= − 0.4 + 0.4 + = 0.29
2 20 
 
Since D1 < (1 - D), i.e. 0.29 < 0.64, circuit in DCM

 D 
Vo = Vd   = 13.97V .
 D + D1

Figure below shows the relationship between the output

voltage and duty ratio for the parameters of this example.

Power Electronics and 39

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Boost Converter in DCM
Average inductor voltage
is zero, L D
Vd DT + (Vd − Vo ) D1T = 0
⇒ (Vd − Vo ) D = Vo D1 V
S C
Vo  D + D1  d
RL
= 
Vd  D 
Average diode current is :
BOOST CONVERTER
1 1  1
I D =  I max D1T  = I max D1
T 2  2 vL
Vd
is the same as the change in opened opened
inductor current when the closed closed
switch is closed, t
V DT
I max = ∆i L = d Vd-Vo
L
iL
Imax
1  V DT  Vo
ID =  d  1
D =
2 L  R iD
Solving for D1 , Imax
 V  2 L 
D1 =  o  
V
 d  RDT  DT
t
Substituti ng, D1T
T
2
 Vo   Vo   D 2 RT 
  −   − =0
 Vd V
  d   2 L 


Vo 1  2 D 2 RT 
= 1+ 1+
Vd 2  L 
 
Power Electronics and 40
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Non-ideal effects:
switch/diode voltage drop
Example : Buck converter
+ VQ _ L

_ +
VD Vo
Vd
+ _

During switch closed (on),

v L = Vd − Vo − VQ
where VQ is the voltage across the conducting switch

During switch open (off),

v L = −Vd − VD
where VD is the voltage across the diode.

The average voltage across the inductor is zero for

the switching period,
VL = (Vd − Vo − VQ ) D + (−Vd − VD )(1 − D) = 0,

Solving,

Vo = Vd D − VQ D − VD (1 − D)

Which is less than Vo = Vd D for the ideal case.

Power Electronics and 41

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Inductor (winding) resistance
Example : Boost converter
iL

+ vL - rL
+
Vd vo
S -

Power absorbed by the load and the inductor resitance (rs),

must equal power supplied by the source, i.e.
Ps = Po + PrL
Vd I L = Vo I D + I L 2 rL
But, the average (DC) diode current,

I D = I L (1 − D)

Substituting,
Vd I L = Vo I L (1 − D) + I L 2 rL

Which becomes,
Vd = Vo (1 − D ) + I L rL

Power Electronics and 42

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Inductor resistance
But,
ID V R
Id = = o
(1 − D) (1 − D)
Hence,
Vo rL
Vd = + Vo (1 − D)
R (1 − D )
Solving,
 
 
 V  1
Vo =  d  
 (1 − D )  1 + rL 
 2
 R (1 − D ) 
The output equation is similar for ideal boost converter but
includes a correction factor to account for inductor resistance
Efficiency :
Po Vo 2 R
η= = 2
Po + Ploss Vo R + I L 2 rL

Substituting for I L ,
Vo 2 R 1
η= =
 Vo R 
2 rL
Vo R + 
2 rL 1 +
 (1 − D)  R (1 − D) 2
 
As the duty ratio increases, the efficiency of boost
converter decreases.
Power Electronics and 43
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Other non-idealities
• Capacitor’s Equivalent Series Resistor
(ESR)
– Producing ripple greater than ideal capacitor
– Output C must be chosen on the basis of ESR
and not only capacitance value.

• Switching losses

Power Electronics and 44

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Switch-mode power supply
(SMPS)
• Advantages over linear power
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction

• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems

• However above certain ratings,

SMPS is the only feasible choice

• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

Power Electronics and 45

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Linear and switched mode
power supplies block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
C E
Vce=Vd-Vo +Vo

Rectifier
B +
+
Base/gate RL
Vd Drive Vo
Line
Input -
1φ / 3φ 50/60 Hz -
Error Vo
Isolation
Amp.
Transformer

Vref

Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC-DC CONVERSITION + ISOLATION
DC
High Regulated
RECTIFIER Vo
EMI Frequency
AND
FILTER rectifier
FILTER
and
DC filter
Unregulated Vref

Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive

Power Electronics and 46

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
High frequency transformer
Basic function :

i) Input - output electrical isolation

ii) step up/down time - varying voltage

Basic input - output relationship

v1 N1 i1 N 2
= ; =
v2 N 2 i2 N1

Models :
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
V1 V2 Ideal model
− −

i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2
−
most PE application
−

Power Electronics and 47

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Flyback Converter
+
LM C R Vo
Vs −

Flyback converter circuit

iD
iS N1 N2
i1
- +v - +
+ D
iLM v2 iR Vo
v1 iC
Vs + −
-
+ vSW − i2
Model with magnetising
inductance
0 N1 N2
is=iLM
+
+
iLM v1 Vo
Vs
- −
v1=Vs
0 Switch closed
iD
N1 N2
+ − +
iLM v1 v2= -VS Vo
Vs − + −
+ vSW − N 
v1 − Vo  1  Voltage and current
 N2 
conditions when switch
N 
Vsw = Vs + Vo  1  opened
 N2 

Power Electronics and 48

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Flyback waveforms
v1
Vs

DT T
-V(N1/N2) t
is

∆iLM

DT T t

iD

DT T t

iLm

t
iC DT T

DT T
Vo/ R t

Power Electronics and 49

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
Analysis: switched closed
diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm ∆iLm ∆iLm Vd
= = =
dt dt DT Lm

(
⇒ ∆iL )closed
m
=
Vd DT
L m

On the load side of the transformer,

 N2   N2 
v2 = v1   = Vd  
 N1   N1 

 N2 
vD = −Vo − Vd  <0
 N1 
Therefore,
i1 = 0
i2 = 0
Power Electronics and 50
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
Analysis: switch opened
N 
v1 = −V0  1 ; v2 = −V0
 N2 
N  N 
⇒ v1 = v2  1  = −V0  1 
 N2   N2 
diL m N 
Lm = v1 = −V0  1 
dt  N2 

diL m ∆iL m ∆iL m − V0 N1

= = =
dt dt (1 − D )T Lm N 2

V (1 − D)T  N1 
⇒ (∆iL m )open = − 0  
Lm  N2 
For steady - state operation,
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0
m m

V DT V0 (1 − D )T  N1 
⇒ d +   = 0
Lm Lm N
 2

D  N1 
⇒ V0 = Vd  
(1 − D)  N 2 

Power Electronics and 51

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Output voltage
• Input output relationship is similar to buck-
boost converter.

• Output can be greater of less than

input,depending upon D.

• Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is

present.

Power Electronics and 52

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Average inductor current
Ps = P0
V0 2
Vd I s =
R

I s is related to I Lm as :

I Lm DT
Is =
T
( )
= I Lm D

Substitute and solving for I Lm

V02
( )
Vd I Lm D =
R
V0 2
⇒ I Lm =
Vd DR

The average inductor current is also written as :

2
Vd D  N 2  V0  N 2 
I Lm =   =  
2
(1 − D) R  N1  (1 − D) R  N1 

Power Electronics and 53

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Max, Min inductor current,
Lmin, C values
2
∆iLm  N 2  V d DT
Vd D
I Lm = I Lm + = 2
  +
,max 2 (1 − D ) R  N1  2 Lm
2
∆iLm  N 2  Vd DT
Vd D
I Lm ,min = I Lm − = 2
  −
2 (1 − D ) R  N1  2 Lm

For continuos operation, I Lm , min = 0

2
Vd D  N 2  Vd DT Vd D
2
  = =
(1 − D ) R  N1  2 Lm 2 Lm f

2 2
Vd (1 − D) R  N1 
(Lm )min =  
2f  N2 
The ripple calculation is similar to boost converter,

∆V0 D
r= =
V0 RCf
Power Electronics and 54
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Full-bridge converter

SW1 SW3
Lx
+ + +
NS vx Vo
C R
− −
vp
VS
NS
−

SW4 SW2

SW1,SW2

DT T
SW3,SW4

T T
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS

-VS
Vx
N 
VS  S 
 NP 

DT T T T
+ DT
2 2
Power Electronics and 55
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Full bridge: basic operation
• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].

• Each switch pair turn on at a time as

shown. The other pair is off.

• “AC voltage” is developed across the

primary. Then transferred to secondary via
high frequency transformers.

• On secondary side, diode pair is “high

frequency full wave rectification”.

• The choke (L) and © acts like the “buck

converter” circuit.
 Ns 
• Output Voltage Vo = 2Vs  ⋅ D

 N p 

Power Electronics and 56

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam
 Control of DC-DC Converter

Vo (desired)
+ Vcontrol Switch control
signal
Vo (actual) Comparator
-
Sawtooth
Waveform Sawtooth
Waveform

Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2

Switch
control
ton 2 signal

ton 1
T

Power Electronics and 57

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam