Fannin, R. J., Eliadorani, A. & Wilkinson, J. M. T. (2005). Géotechnique 55, No.
6, 467–478
Shear strength of cohesionless soils at low stress
R . J. FA N N I N * , A . E L I A D O R A N I † a n d J. M . T. W I L K I N S O N ‡
Mobilisation of shear strength in shallow translational
slips occurs at very low effective stress. Accordingly, a
series of direct shear box tests was performed to char-
acterise the strength of colluvium, under drained condi-
tions, at vertical effective stresses between 5 and 20 kPa.
Results from in situ tests on undisturbed block samples
of moist soil are compared with laboratory tests on dry
reconstituted specimens of the soil matrix only. The in
situ tests determine a mean value of peak or maximum
angle of shearing resistance between 588 and 648, and a
mean value at large displacement between 468 and 528,
with 468 believed representative of shearing at constant
volume. Mobilisation of similar angles of shearing resis-
tance, between 468 and 488, at large displacement in
laboratory tests on the 25 mm minus fraction indicates
that the soil matrix is controlling strength. The values at
large displacement are attributed to mineralogy, grain
shape and angularity, and grain size distribution of the
soils. Observations of the angle of repose corroborate the
measured values at large displacement. The peak or
maximum values are consistent with the phenomenon of
stress dilatancy and, although very high, compare well
with limited data reported for coarse granular soils at
very low effective stress.
KEYWORDS: glacial soils; mineralogy; shear strength; slopes
INTRODUCTION
Landslides composed of soil, rock and organic material are
termed debris slides or debris flows, depending on the nature
of movement. They are a common natural hazard in steep
mountainous terrain, such as that of coastal British Columbia
(Wilford & Schwab, 1982; Rood, 1984; Fannin & Rollerson,
1993). Experience in Hong Kong shows that they occur when
short-duration rainfall is of high intensity (Brand, 1981;
Premchitt et al., 1994; Finlay et al., 1997). Groundwater
monitoring reveals that the location of failure is strongly
influenced by spatial and temporal variations in seepage-
induced pore water pressure (Boonsinsuk & Yong, 1982;
Brand, 1982; Tsutiya et al., 1992; Zhu & Anderson, 1998;
Fannin et al., 2000). Stability analysis of these shallow
translational slips appears well suited to the infinite slope
model (Hammond et al., 1992; Fannin & Wilkinson, 1995),
which has been used in conjunction with digital elevation
models to identify landslide-prone terrain (Montgomery &
Dietrich, 1994; Pack, 1997). A basic assumption of the model
is justified by forensic observations, insomuch as the depth to
Manuscript received 23 September 2003; revised manuscript
accepted 31 March 2005.
Discussion on this paper closes on 1 February 2006, for further
details see p. ii.
* Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada.
† Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering Technology,
South Carolina State University, Orangeburg, USA.
‡ Powerex Corp., Vancouver, Canada.
467
La mobilisation de la résistance au cisaillement dans des
glissements de translation peu profonds se produit sous
une contrainte effective très faible. Ainsi, nous avons
effectué une série d’essais en boı̂te de cisaillement direct
afin de caractériser la résistance de la colluvion en condi-
tion drainée, avec des contraintes effectives verticales
entre 5 et 20 kPa. Nous comparons les résultats de ces
essais in situ sur les échantillons de blocs non perturbés de
sol humide avec les essais en laboratoire sur des spécimens
secs reconstitués de la matrice du sol uniquement. Les
essais in situ déterminent une valeur moyenne de crête ou
un angle maximum de résistance au cisaillement entre 588
et 648 et une valeur moyenne à grand déplacement entre
468 et 528, la valeur de 468 étant jugée représentative d’un
cisaillement à volume constant. La mobilisation d’angles
similaires de résistance au cisaillement entre 468 et 488, à
grands déplacements dans les essais en laboratoire sur la
fraction moins 25 mm indique que la matrice du sol
contrôle la résistance. Les valeurs aux grands déplace-
ments sont attribuées à la minéralogie, à la forme des
grains et à l’angularité ainsi qu’à la répartition des
dimensions de grain des sols. Les observations de l’angle
de repos corroborent les valeurs mesurées aux grands
déplacements. La crête ou les valeurs maximales sont en
accord avec le phénomène de dilatance de contrainte et,
bien que très élevées, correspondent bien aux données
limitées qui ont été rapportées pour les sols à gros grains
sous contrainte effective très basse.
locus of slip is considerably less than the basal length, and
the slip surface is generally subparallel to the ground surface.
Confidence in stability analyses requires a proper under-
standing of the failure mechanism and, importantly, a char-
acterisation of soil strength over an appropriate stress range
(Baker, 2003; Jiang et al., 2003). Subsurface seepage gener-
ates a transient increase in pore water pressure (Johnson &
Sitar, 1990; Fannin & Jaakkola, 1999), which may then
cause slip. In some cases a relatively small perturbation may
initiate static liquefaction and lead to flow failure (Johnson
& Sitar, 1989; Lade, 1992; Sitar et al., 1992; Anderson &
Sitar, 1995; Eliadorani, 2000). In other cases, negative pore
water pressures arising from partial saturation require the
suction history of the soil be taken into account (Springman
et al., 2003). Stability analysis requires a value for the angle
of shearing resistance of the soil that, for shallow slips
where the depth to the locus of slip is typically less than
2 m, is mobilised at very low effective stress.
The mountain soils of coastal British Columbia typically
comprise a matrix of gravel and sand, in which numerous
cobbles and boulders are embedded. Few data are available
to describe the strength of these coarse-grained soils, espe-
cially at low stress. Leps (1970) established a log-linear
relation between effective stress (
9) and peak angle of
shearing resistance (9), from a review of triaxial test data
on reconstituted specimens of gravel and cobbles at
9 .
40 kPa. In order to extend the relation to very low stress
(
9 , 40 kPa), in situ direct shear box tests were performed
on undisturbed soils at several locations in coastal British
Columbia, and the results compared with laboratory direct
468 FANNIN, ELIADORANI AND WILKINSON
shear box tests, using the same device, on reconstituted
specimens of the soil matrix. The validity of Leps’ (1970)
relation is then examined, with additional reference to more Instrumentation site
recent literature on strength testing of gravels, large glass
ballotini and coarse sands. The objective is to enable a more
confident assessment of the angle of shearing resistance of
well-graded coarse-grained soils, in the range of effective
stress appropriate to shallow translational slips.

FIELD SITES
One test site was located within the Seymour Watershed of
the Greater Vancouver Regional District, at Jamieson Creek,
and three sites were located on Vancouver Island, at Carnation
Creek, Holberg Inlet and Sand River (Fig. 1). All were
adjacent to the point of origin of a debris slide within a forest
clear-cut (Fig. 2), on slopes between 278 and 368. Each
location has a dense root mat, 0.25–0.5 m thick, below which
is a relatively thin layer of soil over bedrock. The Coast
Mountains of British Columbia are primarily of volcanic rock,
whereas the Vancouver Island ranges are of heavily faulted
sedimentary and volcanic rock. Soils date from the Fraser
Glaciation of 12 000 years ago, and consist of a blanket (.
1 m) or veneer (, 1 m) of morainal till or colluvium.
Soil at the Jamieson Creek site is 1–2 m thick. It com-
prises a highly weathered moraine and colluvium, with
frequent sub-rounded to angular cobbles and boulders, over
unweathered bedrock. At Carnation Creek the soil is a
coarse-textured colluvium, and the bedrock is highly frac-
tured and weathered. Holberg Inlet is characterised by a
discontinuous stratum of very hard, unweathered till, overlain
continuously by a highly weathered and permeable collu-
vium with frequent angular cobbles and boulders. The soil
thickness varies between 1 and 1.5 m at both sites. Similarly,
the Sand River site comprises a discontinuous very hard
unweathered till that is overlain by colluvium, about 1 m
thick. Visual observations, in test pits and along the scarp of
each debris slide, reveal that the cobbles and boulders are
supported individually within the soil matrix. Accordingly,
the matrix is believed to control shear strength.
Jamieson Creek slide
Fig. 2. Shallow translational slip: Jamieson Creek site, British
Columbia
Grab samples of the soil indicate that the grains are
typically angular to very angular and irregularly shaped.
Grain size distribution curves of the 25 mm minus fraction
define a gravelly sand to sandy gravel matrix (see Fig. 3),
with little to some silt and a trace of clay. Gravel content
varies between 10% and 40%. The matrix is finest at
Jamieson Creek and coarsest at Sand River (see Table 1).
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Soil strength was characterised from in situ direct shear
box tests at three sites, and from additional direct shear box
tests on laboratory-reconstituted specimens of the 25 mm
minus fraction of the soil matrix. The relative simplicity of
direct shear tests on coarse-grained soils makes them attrac-
tive for measuring frictional strength, given sufficient uni-
formity in the deforming material for it to be described in
terms of a single state of stress (Dyer, 1986; Jewell &
Wroth, 1987; Shibuya et al., 1997).

BRITISH
PACIFIC COLUMBIA ALBERTA

Edmonton

OCEAN

Holberg
Inlet Seymour
Vancouver Watershed
Island Vancouver Canada
0 200 Sand River
Carnation United States
kilometres Creek

Fig. 1. Test site locations

 SHEAR STRENGTH OF COHESIONLESS SOILS AT LOW STRESS 469
Pebbles/Gravel Sand Silt 4). Air was supplied by a compressor, which along with the

Clay
Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine data acquisition unit was powered by a gasoline generator.
100
Jamieson Ck (A)
In situ tests involved assembly of the shear box around an
90 Jamieson Ck (B) undisturbed block sample of soil, and shearing at a con-
Jamieson Ck
80
Holberg Inlet trolled rate of displacement.
Sand River
ASTM standards (ASTM, 1990, 1992) specify a minimum
70 sample length (L) as the greater of 300 mm or a ratio L/D85
Percent passing: %

60 of 15, and a minimum sample height as the greater of

50 mm or six times the maximum particle size. Similarly,
50 Jewell & Wroth (1987) suggest a minimum ratio L/D50 of
40 50 to ensure a sufficient number of particles in a direct
shear test. The device accommodated a block sample ap-
30
proximately 0.25 m 3 0.25 m in plan, and 0.25 m high.
20 Physical dimensions and the arrangement of transducers,
valves, reaction frame and the loading cylinder are shown in
10
Figs 4 and 5. Vertical load was applied through a rigid top
0 plate, to impose a normal stress on the block. The plate was
10 1 0·1 0·01 0·001 independent of the upper box, and therefore free to move
Grain size: mm and rotate. The horizontal shear force was applied directly to
the upper box, at an offset to the plane of shear, to facilitate
Fig. 3. Grain size distribution curves
alignment and operation of the device at remote sites. It is
likely to have further contributed to a non-uniformity of
Direct shear apparatus stress on the plane of shear, a recognised limitation of the
The direct shear apparatus was purpose built for this field direct shear test. A constant rate of horizontal displacement
and laboratory investigation. It was made of aluminium for was maintained through feedback in the servo-control sys-
portability, and comprised a lower and upper box, reaction tem, and shear stress was deduced from the measured
frame and servo-controlled, air-actuated cylinder (see Fig. horizontal force taking into account a correction for change

Table 1. Properties of the soil matrix (25 mm, minus)

Site CU * CC † D50 : mm Gravel content:‡ % Grain shape USCS classification
Jamieson Creek 9 1.0 0.6 10 Subrounded to very angular SW
Carnation Creek 47 1.7 1.3 20 Angular to very angular (some sub-angular) SW
Holberg Inlet 16 1.0 1.4 25 Mostly angular, some very angular SW
Sand River 10 0.8 2.6 40 Angular to very angular SW/GW
* CU : coefficient of uniformity.
† CC : coefficient of curvature.
‡ Reconstituted test specimens.

Feedback displacement
transducer
Vertical displacement
transducers (2) Load cell Voice coil servo valve
Air filter
Normal load
Compressed
air supply

Low-friction plastic

Undisturbed soil
column Air-actuated
12·7 cm bore 3 15·25 cm
Temperature stroke loading cylinder
transducer
Shear plane Pressure transducers (2)
Reaction frame (two sides)
1 mm gap and Teflon tape

Plaster/cement/water mixture (load bearing)

Coarse sand

Fig. 4. Configuration of large direct shear box

470 FANNIN, ELIADORANI AND WILKINSON
Fig. 5. Field set-up of shear box
in area with displacement. Further details of the shear box
and data acquisition unit are reported by Wilkinson (1996).
Commissioning test
A test was performed to verify the operation of the direct
shear box, and the associated data acquisition system. It was
conducted in the laboratory on a reconstituted oven-dried
specimen of poorly graded coarse sand, for which the coeffi-
cient of uniformity CU ¼ 1.5 and the mean grain size D50 ¼
0.9 mm. An angle of shearing resistance of 31.88 was found
at large displacement, for
9v ¼ 15.7 kPa. It compares
favourably with an angle of repose of 31.08 observed for a
loosely tipped heap of the same dry sand, subject to excava-
tion of the toe, which yields a simple bench test for the
critical state angle of shearing resistance (Bolton, 1986).
Raju (1995) reports an angle of shearing resistance of 30.58
for the same sub-rounded silica sand, at
9v ¼ 4.0 kPa, from
tests performed in a smaller direct shear box (76 mm 3
76 mm). Palmeira (1987) has demonstrated that sample size,
in direct shear box testing, exerts no significant effect on the
angle of shearing resistance of sands, and these results seem
consistent with that observation. This verification of opera-
tion led on to the programme of field testing.
Test programme
A total of 27 in situ tests were performed on intact, moist
block samples of undisturbed soil, of which 13 were either
discarded or terminated owing to the presence of excessively
large particles within the shear zone. A companion series of
eight laboratory tests was made using the same device on
reconstituted, oven-dried specimens of the 25 mm minus
granular matrix.
In order to be able to analyse an in situ test in terms of
effective stress, it must be conducted sufficiently slowly to
prevent development of significant pore water pressure that
would otherwise exert a transient influence on effective
stress. Additionally, for a degree of saturation (Sr ) in the
range 0 , Sr , 1, any potential for a contribution of suction
to shear strength must be considered, a point that is
addressed subsequently in the analysis of soil strength at
large displacement. Bolton (1987) suggests a maximum rate
of displacement of approximately 1 mm/min for a sand, to
maintain a drained test condition. The direct shear box tests
were typically performed at a rate of displacement of
0.5 mm/min: it was selected with reference to ASTM
D3080-90 (ASTM, 1990) and the observations of Bishop &
Henkel (1957). Multi-stage testing (Wilkinson, 1996) in
some in situ tests, at rates between 0.25 mm/min and 1 mm/
min, yielded no evidence of a rate effect on mobilised shear
resistance. A very low vertical effective stress was imposed
on the plane of shear, in the range 5–20 kPa.
Test preparation: in situ (undisturbed) block sample
A block, with near-vertical sides and relatively few ex-
posed cobbles and boulders, was excavated to approximate
dimensions of 0.25 m 3 0.25 m 3 0.25 m. The lower shear
box was centred over it, levelled, and stabilised using four
adjustable support legs to leave a 25 mm gap around the
perimeter of the block. The end gap, opposite to the direc-
tion of shear, was filled with a 1 : 2 : 1 grout mixture of
water : cement : plaster to a level surface just below that of
the lower box (see Fig. 6). The remaining three gaps were
filled with coarse sand. The upper box was likewise aligned,
to rest on acetate spacer strips 1 mm thick. Both end gaps,
in the direction of shear, were filled with the grout mixture.
Coarse sand was used to fill the side gaps and level the top
of the sample, prior to seating a 0.2 m square loading plate.
The spacer strips were removed upon hardening of the
grout, at which point the reaction arms and loading cylinder
were attached to the lower box, and weights were then
placed on the loading plate. During testing, transducers
monitored shear force, horizontal displacement of the upper
shear box, vertical displacement of the loading plate, and air
temperature. The data establish a peak or maximum shear
stress (max ) in the soil. Each test was terminated at a
horizontal displacement of approximately 60 mm, at which
point the shear stress was mobilised at nearly constant
volume (n-cv ).
Test preparation: laboratory (reconstituted) specimen
The same device, instrumentation and data acquisition
system were used in laboratory testing. Specimens were
reconstituted by thorough mixing of the oven-dried soil, and
manual placement at zero drop height to avoid segregation.
The 0.24 m thick specimens were placed in three equal
layers, with each layer subject to compaction by hand
tamping of a 0.15 m 3 0.10 m plate using a 2 kg hammer.
Recognising that the objective of these tests was to establish
the angle of shearing resistance at large displacement, which
is independent of initial density, the reconstituted specimens
were subject to a moderate compactive effort.
TEST RESULTS
Data for Jamieson Creek (see Fig. 7) are shown in terms
of the relation between normalised shear stress ratio (/
9v )
 SHEAR STRENGTH OF COHESIONLESS SOILS AT LOW STRESS 471
Direction of shear

Scale approximately 1:3

except Teflon, acetate
and separations

Undisturbed soil column

Plastic Plastic sheet
sheet

Undisturbed soil Teflon (12 mm wide 3 0·5 mm thick)

Coarse sand Acetate strips (1·0 mm thick, all four sides, removed prior to test)

Aluminium shear box

(13 mm plate) Plaster/cement/water mixture (loadbearing)

Fig. 6. Schematic cross-section of block sample

vertical displacement (v ), and shear displacement (). A
negative vertical displacement indicates a decrease in speci-
men height. The moist, undisturbed (U) in situ soil exhibits
a peak or maximum value of stress ratio at shear displace-
ments between 5 and 10 mm (Fig. 7(a)). It is very distinct in
tests at lower values of vertical effective stress (
9v ) and
diminishes significantly with increasing stress. Two tests at
comparable values of
9v (8.3 and 8.6 kPa respectively), yield
a very similar response up to a displacement of 10 mm,
which implies good repeatability in the data. The pro-
nounced second peak value in the latter test is attributed to
the influence of a root across the plane of shear. As
mentioned earlier, a number of tests were aborted because of
such influences. All five curves yield a nearly constant stress
ratio of approximately 1.0 at displacements greater than
45 mm. Vertical displacements are characterised by an initial
contraction, followed by dilation that led, at large displace-
ment, to shearing at nearly constant volume in many but not
all tests (Fig. 7(b)). The dry, reconstituted (R) laboratory
specimens exhibit a similar response, with both tests also
yielding a stress ratio at large displacement that is in
excellent agreement with the undisturbed samples.
Rate of displacement was examined during the in situ test
at
v9 ¼ 10:9 kPa. A rate of 0.5 mm/min was imposed to
20 mm of shear displacement, whereupon it was changed
to 1.0 mm/min for the next 20 mm, and then returned to
0.5 mm/min for the remainder of the test (see curve
10.9(U)-A). Inspection of the curve suggests there is no
influence of rate of displacement on resistance to shearing.
Accordingly, the soils are believed to be sufficiently free
draining to allow for immediate dissipation of any shear-
induced pore water pressures.
Results of tests for the other three sites are shown in Fig.
8. The relation of mobilised stress ratio (/
9v ) with shear
displacement () for Holberg Inlet soils see (Fig. 8(a))
appears to confirm the trend of a higher stress ratio at lower
vertical effective stress in the undisturbed block samples.
The laboratory data tend to yield a distinct peak strength,
and attain a constant stress ratio at smaller displacement.
Values of stress ratio converge at a shear displacement larger
than 50 mm, with excellent agreement evident in the two
dry, reconstituted specimens. As noted previously, these
latter specimens were prepared from the , 25 mm material
of the soil matrix (see Fig. 3).
As at Holberg Inlet, the soils at the Carnation Creek site
exhibit a less distinct peak value of stress ratio (see Fig.
8(b)). However, the curves, which describe only the in situ
response to shear, again converge to a similar value at a
large shear displacement of 40–50 mm. The Sand River data
are only for reconstituted specimens (see Fig. 8(c)), and
exhibit a very uniform response that also is characterised by
a nearly constant stress ratio of 1.2 at a shear displacement
greater than 35 mm.
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
In general, the direct shear box tests on in situ block
samples and reconstituted laboratory specimens exhibit a
response that is consistent at each site. In situ tests tend to
yield a greater variation in peak stress ratio (see Figs 7(a)
472 FANNIN, ELIADORANI AND WILKINSON
4 4
ó v¢ (kPa) ó¢v (kPa)
7·9 (U)
5·5 (U)-A
3 8·2 (U)
3 8·3 (U)-A 10·6 (U)

Stress ratio, ô/ó¢v

10·9 (U)-A 13·1 (U)
Stress ratio, ô/ó¢v

8·6 (U)-B 6·7 (R)

17·9 (U)-B 2 11·6 (R)
2 6·7 (R)
11·6 (R)
1

1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(a)
0
4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 ó v¢ (kPa)
Shear displacement, ä: mm 5·5 (U)
(a) 3 8·0 (U)
10·5 (U)

Stress ratio, ô/ó¢v

10 13·1 (U)
ó¢v (kPa)
2
8·3 (U)-A
Vertical displacement, äy: mm

10·9 (U)-A
8·6 (U)-B
5 1
17·9 (U)-B
6·7 (R)
11·6 (R)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 (b)
4
ó¢v (kPa)
3·9 (R)
3 6·4 (R)
8·9 (R)
Stress ratio, ô/ó¢v

25
11·4 (R)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Shear displacement, ä: mm 2
(b)

Fig. 7. (a) Stress ratio and (b) average vertical displacement 1

against shear displacement, Jamieson Creek site
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Shear displacement, ä: mm
(c)
and 8(a)). Specimens of the reconstituted soil matrix attain a
nearly constant value of stress ratio at relatively smaller Fig. 8. Stress ratio against shear displacement: (a) Holberg Inlet
shear displacement than tests on the undisturbed soil (see site; (b) Carnation Creek site; (c) Sand River site
Figs 7(a), 8(a) and 8(c)). All tests appear to yield a similar
value of stress ratio at large displacement.

Soil strength at large displacement

Peak or maximum soil strength
Peak or maximum shear stress is plotted against vertical
effective stress in Fig. 9(a). Results for undisturbed soils (U)
at the Jamieson Creek, Carnation Creek and Holberg Inlet
sites exhibit some scatter. Using a linear fit through the
origin to define the angle of shearing resistance (9max ) yields
a range between 548 and 718 (see also Fig. 10(a)). More
specifically, the data yield a mean angle of shearing resis-
tance of 648, 618 and 588 at each of the three sites
respectively. In contrast, laboratory tests on the reconstituted
soil matrix (R) have less scatter. The Sand River data exhibit
a greater strength, in comparison with the two other recon-
stituted soils, and evidence of a curvilinear relation to the
strength envelope, which is further remarked upon in the
comparative analysis of strength at large displacement that
follows. The effects of structure, initial porosity and stress
history on the engineering behaviour of soils are well
recognised (Leroueil & Vaughan, 1990). Consequently, a
wide range of peak or maximum shear strength is expected
in these data from tests on both undisturbed and reconsti-
tuted soils at four sites.
The data at large displacement (see Fig. 9(b)) are reason-
ably similar for all soils. It appears that the soils approach a
near-critical state (9n-cv ), with a unique ratio of stress /
9v
on the plane of shear that is particularly well defined by the
data for reconstituted soils. For example, the Jamieson Creek
data, reproduced separately in Fig. 9(c), yield an excellent
agreement between the in situ tests on undisturbed samples
and laboratory tests on reconstituted specimens of the soil
matrix. The agreement is attributed to the soil matrix
(, 25 mm grain size) governing strength mobilised at large
displacement. Similarly, both in situ and laboratory data are
available for the Holberg Inlet site (Fig. 9(d)). Although the
in situ data exhibit a slightly greater strength, relative to that
observed in the laboratory specimens, inspection of Fig. 8(a)
suggests that the values of /
9v would likely diminish to
those of the reconstituted matrix with increasing shear
displacement. Accordingly, the laboratory data are consid-
ered representative of the lower bound to the strength at
large displacement. As remarked upon earlier, the in situ
block samples were moist and, based on limited water
content values for each site, assumed nearly saturated for
purposes of analysis. Accordingly, suction was not expected
 SHEAR STRENGTH OF COHESIONLESS SOILS AT LOW STRESS 473

30

Maximum shear stress, ômax: kPa

20
Jamieson Ck - A (U)
Jamieson Ck - B (U)
Jamieson Ck (R)

10 Carnation Ck (U)
Holberg Inlet (U)
Holberg Inlet (R)
Sand River (R)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
(a)
30
shear stress, ôn-cv: kPa
Large displacement

20 Jamieson Ck - A (U)
Jamieson Ck - B (U)
Jamieson Ck (R)
Carnation Ck (U)
10
Holberg Inlet (U)
Holberg Inlet (R)
Sand River (R)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Vertical effective stress, ó¢v: kPa
(b)

30
shear stress, ôn-cv: kPa
Large displacement

20

10

A(U): in situ
B(U): in situ (U): in situ
(R): laboratory (R): laboratory
0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Vertical effective stress, ó¢v: kPa
(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 9. (a) Shear stress against vertical effective stress at peak or maximum, all sites; (b)
shear stress against vertical effective stress at large shear displacement, all sites; (c) large
shear displacement, Jamieson Creek; (d) large shear displacement, Holberg Inlet; (e) angle
of repose, Holberg Inlet (25 mm minus fraction); (f) angle of repose, uniform sand
(commissioning test)
474 FANNIN, ELIADORANI AND WILKINSON
to influence shear strength, which appears consistent with 80
the generally excellent agreement noted between field and
laboratory data (see Figs 9(c) and 9(d)).

resistance, ö¢max: deg

60

Angle of shearing
The in situ data yield a mean angle of shearing resistance
at large displacement of 468, 508 and 528 respectively at the Jamieson Ck. - A (U)
40
Jamieson Creek, Holberg Inlet and Carnation Creek sites. Jamieson Ck. - B (U)
The laboratory data yield mean angles of 478, 468 and 488 Jamieson Ck. (R)
Carnation Ck. (U)
respectively on the reconstituted Jamieson Creek (JC), Hol- 20 Holberg Inlet (U)
berg Inlet (HI) and Sand River (SR) matrix. Grain size Holberg Inlet (R)
analysis gave D50 ¼ 0.6 mm and 10% gravel (JC matrix), Sand River (R)
0
D50 ¼ 1.3 mm and 25% gravel (HI matrix), and D50 ¼ 1 10 100
1.4 mm and 40% gravel (SR matrix): accordingly, there is Vertical effective stress, ó¢v: kPa
some evidence of a small increase in angle of shearing (a)
resistance with increasing D50 and gravel content.
In general, the data imply an angle of shearing resistance 80
at constant volume (9cv ) of approximately 46–488, which is

resistance, ö¢n-cv: deg

large in magnitude. Behaviour at the critical state is gov- 60

erned by mineralogy, and also by grain shape and roughness.
Bolton (1986) reports the critical state angle of shearing
resistance of poorly graded sands to vary between 328 and
378, the latter value being obtained for glacial outwash sand.
Higher values were attributed to sands containing a signifi-
cant portion of feldspar, and noted consistent with the earlier
reporting of 408 for felspathic sands (Koerner, 1970). On the
influence of grain shape, Santamarina & Cho (2004) report
observations of 9cv made by the angle of repose, for poorly
graded natural and crushed sands, which yield values in
excess of 408 for grains that exhibit a very angular shape.
Petrographic analysis of thin sections reveals that the miner-
alogy of sand grains found in the moraine and colluvium at
the four sites of the current study is dominated by feldspar.
Microscopic examination of the individual grains shows they
are mostly angular to very angular in shape (Table 1). Given
these observations, the measured values of 46–488 are
believed attainable in well-graded sand–gravel mixes con-
taining a significant portion of feldspar minerals, and com-
prising angular to very angular grains. Confidence in this
belief is lent further support by observations of the angle of
repose, made on loosely tipped heaps of the soil matrix used
in reconstitution of the laboratory shear box specimens that,
when subject to excavation of the toe, has been noted to
yield a simple bench test for the critical state angle of
shearing resistance (Bolton, 1986). Values of 438 (Jamieson
Creek), 458 (Holberg Inlet), 468 (Carnation Creek), and 458
(Sand River) were observed. For purposes of comparison,
the test on soil from Holberg Inlet is illustrated in Fig. 9(e),
together with that of the sand used in the commissioning test
reported earlier (in Fig. 9(f)). Results for the four sites
suggest a small increase in angle of shearing resistance with
increasing D50 and gravel content. The range of 43–468
compares reasonably well with that of 46–488 from labora-
tory shear box tests on reconstituted specimens of the same
soil.
Inspection of the data for all sites (see Fig. 10(a)) sug-
gests that the angle of shearing resistance deduced at peak
or maximum capacity, 9max , in the current study on sandy
gravels at very low effective stress in the range 5–20 kPa,
Angle of shearing
40
20
0
1 10 100
Vertical effective stress, ó¢v: kPa
(b)
Fig. 10. (a) Peak or maximum angle of shearing resistance
against confining or vertical effective stress, current study; (b)
large displacement angle of shearing resistance against confining
or vertical effective stress, current study
dependent on stress level inasmuch as peak strength is also
dependent on stress level given the enhanced dilation that
may occur at low stress. Recognising the contribution of the
intermediate stress, Bolton (1987) notes that the peak angle
of shearing resistance obtained from triaxial compression
tests is less than that obtainable from plane-strain tests
including the direct shear box test. Bolton (1986) demon-
strated, for plane strain and a retrospective fitting to data on
sands in the 100–1000 kPa stress range, that
9max
9crit ¼ 0:8łmax (1)
where 9crit is the angle of shearing resistance observed on
soil loose enough to be in a critical state with zero dilation.
This relation is illustrated in Fig. 11, together with the in
situ or undisturbed data (U), and the reconstituted data (R),
obtained for soils of the four sites examined in this study.
Most tests, but not all, are included in the plot, because
some tests yielded atypical data (for example, see curve
Reconstituted (R)
30
ömax 5 öcv 1 ømax
Undisturbed (U)
ömax 2 ön-cv: deg

exhibits a log-linear relation. It diminishes with increasing 20

effective stress, a trend that is most evident in the Jamieson ömax 5 öcv 1 0·8ømax
Creek and Sand River data. In contrast, the angle of shearing (Bolton, 1986)
resistance at large displacement (9n-cv ) appears essentially Jamieson Ck (U)
constant over the range of stress used in testing (see Fig. 10 Jamieson Ck (R)
Carnation Ck (U)
10(b)). The general phenomenon of dilatancy has long been Holberg Inlet (U)
ascribed to the phenomenon of peak strength and volume Holberg Inlet (R)
change in soils (Casagrande, 1936; Taylor, 1948) wherein, Sand River (R)
0
for these shear box data, the difference between 9max and
0 10 20 30
9n-cv is attributed to a stress–dilatancy relation that involves ømax: deg
the angle of dilation ł. The dilatancy component of strength
is governed by the initial density of the soil, and, is Fig. 11. Influence of dilation on peak strength
 SHEAR STRENGTH OF COHESIONLESS SOILS AT LOW STRESS 475
8.6(U)-B in Fig. 7), and vertical displacement was not resistance found in the current study. Similar agreement is
adequately measured in a few in situ tests. The maximum observed with Charles & Watts (1980), who report a value
angle of dilation, which occurred at the same shear displace- for 9max between 608 and 708 for rockfill. The finding is
ment as the peak strength, was defined by the tangent of the attributed to the soils, in all three studies, being well graded,
ratio of vertical displacement to shear displacement. The coarse grained and subangular to angular (see Tables 1 and
trend is one of increasing peak strength with maximum 2). The influence of mean grain size on 9max is apparent in,
angle of dilation, for angles of dilation that are typically less for example, a comparison of data from Matsuoka & Liu
than 208, but as large as 248 in one test. Data that plot above (1998), Billam (1971) and Ponce & Bell (1971) respectively.
the upper bound to 9max given by 9crit þ łmax are attributed At a given value of effective stress, inspection suggests an
to scatter arising from inaccuracy in measurements on the increasing angle of peak shearing resistance with increasing
large direct shear box. A separate linear fit through the D50 (see Fig. 12 and Table 2). The same general trend was
origin, to these undisturbed and reconstituted soils in the 5– noted earlier in results from testing soils at the four sites
15 kPa stress range, lies between the empirical relation of examined in this current study (see Fig. 10(a) and Table 1).
Bolton (1986) and a similar expression including full dila-
tion. Sture et al. (1998) report high dilation angles of around
ł  308 for a reconstituted sand at extremely low confining SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
stress in the range 0.05–0.5 kPa, from tests conducted in the Stability analysis requires a characterisation of soil
Space Shuttle, which likely represent an upper-bound value. strength over a stress range appropriate to that encountered
Accordingly, the peak strength observed in the current study on the locus of slip, which may be very low in the case of
can reasonably be ascribed to the phenomenon of stress shallow landslides. To better characterise the relation be-
dilatancy, assuming the angle of dilation is close to fully tween angle of shearing resistance and vertical effective
mobilised at very low stress. stress at very low stress, in situ direct shear box tests were
performed on undisturbed block samples of moist soil, at
5 ,
v9 , 20 kPa. Results were compared with laboratory
direct shear tests, using the same device, on reconstituted
Comparison with other studies oven-dried specimens of the , 25 mm soil matrix. The
Data from the current study (Fig. 10(a)) are reproduced in objective was to enable a more confident assessment of the
Fig. 12, together with data compiled from a review of the angle of shearing resistance of well-graded coarse-grained
literature with emphasis on strength testing of gravels, large soils, in the range of effective stress appropriate to transla-
glass ballotini and coarse sands (see Table 2). The compila- tional slips in soils that are 1–2 m thick.
tion describes a wide range of effective stress, grain size, Direct shear tests were performed on soils from four
and soil gradation. Marsal (1967), Leps (1970) and Marachi different sites, each located on a clearcut hillslope, and all
et al. (1972) found that very coarse to coarse granular possessing a similar matrix of gravel and sand, with some
materials exhibit a peak angle of shearing resistance that silt and a trace of clay. The relation between normalised
varies markedly as a function of effective stress. For pur- shear resistance and shear displacement typically exhibits a
poses of reference, the relation of Leps (1970) is reproduced peak or maximum resistance (9max ), most evident at the
in Fig. 12 (shown solid). The relation was proposed from Jamieson Creek site, which diminishes to a nearly constant
examination of triaxial tests to determine the strength of value (9n-cv ) at displacements greater than 50 mm. The
gravels and cobbles, at effective stresses in the range 40– following conclusions are drawn, based upon analysis of the
3500 kPa. An upper limit was proposed for dense, well- data:
graded particles and, in contrast, a lower limit for loose,
poorly graded particles. Data from the current study, for (a) The peak or maximum value of the angle of shearing
which the range is defined by the vertical and horizontal resistance, deduced from in situ tests on block samples
bars, appear generally consistent with extrapolation of Leps’ at three sites, ranges from 548 to 718. The range is
limits to an effective stress less than 40 kPa (shown dashed wide, and attributed to variations of state, fabric and
in Fig. 12). structure in these shallow hillslope soils. Synthesis of
At very low stress, Matsuoka et al. (2001) report a value these data yields a mean value for the peak or
of 9max in the range 70–808 for rockfill. These data lend maximum angle of shearing resistance, at each site,
further support to the mobilisation of an angle of shearing between 588 and 648.
resistance that is large in magnitude, and are in excellent (b) The soils at Jamieson Creek exhibit an excellent
agreement with the peak or maximum angle of shearing agreement between the angle of shearing resistance at
large displacement from in situ tests on moist
undisturbed block samples (468), and companion
Angle of shearing resistance, ö¢max: deg

80
laboratory tests on dry reconstituted specimens of the
25 mm minus fraction of the soil gradation (478). It
60 appears that the mobilised shear strength is controlled
Leps’ upper limit
by this latter fraction, which is that of the soil matrix.
The soils at Holberg Inlet yield comparable values of
40
508 and 468, with the poor agreement attributed to
termination of the in situ tests prior to attaining a
20 Leps’ lower limit limiting value.
Current study
(c) In general, the large direct shear box data imply an
see Table 2 for other symbols angle of shearing resistance at constant volume or
0 critical state of approximately 46–488. It appears
1 10 100 1000 10000
Confining or vertical effective stress: kPa
constant over the range of stress applied in testing.
Independent observations of the angle of repose (43–
Fig. 12. Comparison of peak angle of shearing resistance 468) indicate that these values can be mobilised in well-
against confining or vertical effective stress, current and other graded sands and gravels containing a significant
studies (Table 2) portion of feldspar minerals, and comprising angular
 476
Table 2. Summary of literature (for compilation of Fig. 12)
Reference Material Shape Gradation CU CC D50 : mm Dmax : mm Gravel: % Type of test Size of specimen: mm Symbol in
Fig. 12
Billam (1971) Limestone sand Angular Uniform 1.5 0.9 2.2 4.8 0 TC† (lab) 38 3 76 e
Charles & Watts (1980) Sandstone Subangular Well graded 100 4.1 4.4 38.0 60 TC (lab) 230 3 500 ,
Igneous basalt Subangular Well graded 13.1 2.6 12.8 38.0 90 TC (lab) 230 3 500

FANNIN, ELIADORANI AND WILKINSON

De Beer (1965) Berlin sand Angular Uniform 0.4 1.1 0.2 1.0 0 TC (lab) n/a /
Holtz & Gibbs (1956) Sand Subangular to Uniform 2.0 1.4 1.7 4.8 40 TC (lab) 229 3 572
subrounded
Sand and gravel Subangular to Well graded 9.9 0.6 4.8 19.1 70 TC (lab) 83 3 206
subrounded
Kolbuszewski & Frederick Biddulph (BSS 25–52) Angular n/a n/a n/a 0.4 n/a 0 DS‡ (lab) n/a
(1963)
Ladanyi (1960) Molsand Subangular Uniform 0.7 1.0 0.2 1.0 0 TC (lab) n/a .
Marachi et al. (1972) Rockfill (Pyramid) Very angular Poorly graded 8.0 1.4 38.9 152.4 95 TC (lab) 914 3 2290 þ
u
Rockfill (Oroville) Rounded Well graded 30.0 3.9 2.4 11.4 50 TC (lab) 71 3 178 
Marsal (1967) Crushed basalt Angular Well graded 19 0.6 11.0 185.2 80 TC (lab) n/a g
Granitic gneiss (Y) Angular Uniform 2.4 1.2 112.0 185.2 100 TC (lab) 1130 3 2500 f
Matsuoka & Liu (1998) Rockfill (Sample B) Angular Well graded 20.0 1.5 5.5 50 75 DS (field) 800 3 800 3 105 i
Matsuoka et al. (2001) Rockfill (CL-II) Angular Well graded .10 .2 12.0 75.0 .80 DS (field) 1200 3 1200 h
Rockfill (D) Angular Well graded .10 .2 17.6 150.0 n/a DS (field) 1200 3 1200
Ponce & Bell (1971) Quartz sand Rounded to Uniform 1.2 1.0 0.5 0.9 0 TC (lab) 71 3 142 y
subrounded
Skermer & Hillis (1970) Sand and gravel Rounded Well graded 26.0 1.6 10.0 38.1 75 TC (lab) 152 3 305 ?
Vallejo (2001) Glass beads Rounded Uniform n/a n/a 5.0 and 0.4 5.0 and 0.4 80 DS (lab) 63.5 3 120 .
50 n
* Greater than 2 mm.
† Triaxial compression.
‡ Direct shear.
 SHEAR STRENGTH OF COHESIONLESS SOILS AT LOW STRESS
to very angular grains.
(d) The difference between peak or maximum angle of
shearing resistance and that at large displacement can
reasonably be ascribed to the phenomenon of stress
dilatancy, assuming the angle of dilation is close to
fully mobilised at very low stress.
(e) The peak or maximum angle of shearing resistance is
stress-dependent and exhibits a linear relation with
logarithm of effective stress (9max inversely propor-
tional to log
9). The relation, from direct shear box
tests at very low stresses (5–20 kPa), matches well an
extrapolation of the general trend reported by Leps
(1970) from triaxial tests at higher stresses (40 kPa to
3.5 MPa).
( f ) A comparison of data from this study with other
published observations confirms the mobilisation of a
large angle of peak or maximum shearing resistance in
well-graded, coarse-grained, angular soils at very low
effective stress.
The objective of this study was to enable a more confident
assessment of the angle of shearing resistance of well-
graded, coarse-grained soils, in the range of effective stress
appropriate to shallow translational slips. Few data are
reported for these soils in that stress range. The data confirm
the importance of characterising soil strength over a stress
range appropriate to that encountered in the field, given a
postulated locus of slip. The stress dependence of soil
strength has potential to exert a very beneficial contribution
to available shear strength. Put simply, a stability analysis
using strength parameters deduced from testing in a stress
range markedly greater than that governing behaviour will
underestimate the factor of safety. Infinite slopes, in coarse
granular soils, represent a particularly sensitive example of
the phenomenon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The direct shear testing described was carried out at the
University of British Columbia, with funding from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
(NSERC) of Canada, in partnership with the Canadian Forest
Service. Additional support was provided by the British
Columbia Ministry of Forests, MacMillan Bloedel Ltd, and
Western Forest Products Ltd. This support and collaboration
are gratefully acknowledged.
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