are

women
u man
? And Other
International Dialogues

CATHARINE A. MAcKINNON
are women human?

019 t1zed oy the Internet Archive

1n 2010

tittp wvvw archive org/detai s areworl"IC humanothOOmdck

 CAT HARINE A. MacKINNON

are women human? eop.,,rl1h1 e 2t• 1l" C&eh11nnr: A i\1'icKu11,c1G

AD rl~h1s ft- ""'-ni
for
Pnnced in dtt Uniced S1at<1 of Ame:ttc. Asja Armanda
and other international dialogues and
Wr.il")· v.I e "'V"-'~ C.:.u11lu¡1ri"-'""p,.¡.fKiJllf1fj D.1..
ri.l-.KU'ln(ln.1..;A1h,1rtt1C A
Jessica Neuwirth
lur: .,,icncn h,unart? 11nJ l1thrr intrm.auoruJ dulo,uo C..nh1nr.lt' A, ~(.¡~ Kinnon

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Ftv J.-l<(.j) 1.nduJes md~:x.
ISBN G-<>74-<!2 1~7-8 t.U.. !>IP"'I
1 ~-1cwnen'1 nah•" 2. WcilllC'n- t.qi.al w.a1u.., 111.,.,. etc
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1• 1 <H'l<o-J <lJ ,?llO'<j,j.747

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Cambridge, M:tsSachusctti>, ánJ London, England • • • 2006

 vhi P11t11c•

.ih»ays ro Roben Dahl. who never stops inspiring: ro the late Andre.1
Dworkin. who ínsisted fr9m 1he be¡unnmg rhat we ground our work
Preface uga.ansi pomogrophy in m1emauonal law: 10 Christioe Chinkin for the
leammg of JQint 1enchmg; to thc Fcderation oí Womcn Tc•chcrs A»00·
uuons ol Onrnno !F\XIAOJ for i" vis1on of womcn'• geruus .ind moJcl
of W(lmenºs <0l1J:1ri1y; to ;U( thc women of Equul1ty Now, .,,pecially Jess1cn
Ncuwir1h. fnr nur yc:i.-. of work togct hcr: and to Notalie Ncnot.lic 11nd A5j.1
;\rmnnda ond 10 my clienrs anJ cnlleagueo from Bosnia-Hern:govina ond
Crofüfa. who ¡1ave me 1he wodd
C111hílnne A. MocK.innon
In the mid l 980s, os thc nc-w Choncr of Ri¡¡h1s and Frcedoms camc inro Srnnford, California
fprce. 1 bcgan workin¡¡ fqr legal cquolity in Canado, largcly wiih ihc
Womcn's Legnl Educa1ion nnd Ac1ion Fund !LEAF). The rcsuhs divcr~ed
strikingly from 1hosc in Úle United Srntcs, srimul•ting comp:trn1ive
thouglns. [n late 1991, rigbt afrer Vukovar fell, Bosnian ood Croa1ian
women's request to work with diem took my work m1eroauooal. as Jt has
remruned. The presem volume-onginally part of \'7omm's Ltt:es, Men's
Laws !Harvard. 200,l, now us tronsnatloiul companion-collccts selecied
comp.rarive Jnd imcmnnonal wriungs •nt.I speeches f rom this pcriod.
The picces, orranged in uppro•lm.ic chronological on.lcr \'"!hin themcs,
:ippcar hcre esscn1fall> ns 1hcy wcre whcn origin<illy spokcn or writtcn. Thc
ideas develop over cime, porricuforly in the Bosnian case. Mos1 oí these
wrirings were lmt giveo as speeches. self-com'1ined aod free.standing. with
theconsequence that certam locurions or source texts rec1.1r, if 10 somewbat
chfferent fonn. throu¡!hom the collecuon. Foomoies alerr che reader 10
s1tuauons that are now dromaticaUy chffcrent from the way 1hey are rep·
reknted in the toxt. Thi> hoppens falrly rcgularly, a. these diak>gucs werc
often p.1rt oí uuking chun.ge. in ihe worlJ with which th•1· •re cngaged
Since 1990, tbe Universi1y of Michi11un Law School. 1101.1bly íts unsur·
pmcd Law 1.ibrory, has ~iven me 1he suppon and ireedom 10 1>ursue my
own path As one pince to foUow it, rhe Ccmer for Advanced S1udy m the
Bebavior:al Sdences lCASBSJ m Stanford, Cal1fomia, has been 1dyllic. These
instlrutlons pul thru resources wbcre their pnnc1ples are. Kélll Harvcy and
Nancy Ruth have been there througbout. Chllrlonc Croson, .Jobn Stolten-
berg, Lori Wats0n. Aru:ia Baldwm, Emma Cheusc, aod Shiri Regtv, "'itb n
last minute as.'i~• from Shunnon MncKinnon, sltoulJered with <kili unJ
humor, c'llcn heroism, the 1echnicul rnsks th111 mak" • pile of munuscript>,
tr.anscripts, and offprin1s 1010 u book. 1 om grateful ta 1hcm oll.
Speciol rhanks ~ to Peter Nelson Rowe, my fusr intemarional temcher:
 ' Concents

part three • through the bosnian leos

Contents 14 Crimcs t1f Wor Crimc• of Peace (1993) 141
15 TurninN Rape u110 Porno~raphy: Postmodcm
Gcnocidc !19'13) 160
16 R..pc"" N•ú<>nbuih.lin~ 1199-1) 169
11 rrcim Auschwitz 10 Ornarslw, Nurernbcrit 10 The
1fo11uc (1994) r 4
18 Riirc Genocide, and \Xlomcn's Human Righ1s 1199-1) ISO

lmroduc1ion: Women" Stauu., Mcn's Swcs 1

19 Gcn,ler Bll5<:J Cnmeo in Humanitarion Law (199il
20 Wur Crime> Remedie. ut 1hc Narional Lcvcl (1997)
192
196
are women human?
21 Collccave Harms Under the ALen Ton Srniute:
part one • theory and reality A C.utionory Note on Cl~s.s Actions 11999J 202
rd '1 r it rr a• 1 lo
1 On Torture ( 1990) 17 22 Genocidc's Se~uality (2005) 209
2 Human RighlS aod Clohnl Violencc Apinst
Womeo 0 992) 28 part lour • on the cutting edge
3 Tbeory Is No1 a Luxury (1993) J-1 23 Dcfining Rape 1n1erna1ie>nally: A Commem on
4 Are Women Humlln? <L 999) 41 Aka_reµ1 120061 2J7
5 l'ostmodernism and Human Ri¡¡hts 120001
~·
24 Pomogr•phy as TruHickin¡: 120051 247
6 The Promise of CEDA W's Optional Prot<>c:nl (2004) 64 25 W<>mcn'< Scptcmber 1l th: Rc1hinkin¡: the Tnu:mutional
Law of Conflitt 12006) 259
pa rl two slruggles wilhin states
No1~ 281
1 Makinjl Sex Equality Real ( 1985) 71 lndex 4117
8 Narionbutlding m Canada {19881 77
9 M1so¡zyny's CC1ld Hean (J 9871 86
10 On Sex and Violcnce: lntroducin¡¡ meAnupornograpby
Civil Rigbts Law in Sweden 11990) 91
11 Equalicy Remade: Violence A¡l;ainsr Women 11991 l /Oj
12 Pornogrspby's Empire ( L995) 112
13 Sex Equali¡y Uoder rbe Consútution of lodfo· Problems,
Prospecrs, end "Personal laws• 12006) 1211

Introduction
Women's Status, Men's States
They had been, if not social equals, homomakers nnd mo1hcrs wi1h famílics
and homes co rnre for, farmers with land and Llvcstock, lnwycrs and jud~es
in a legal system, workers wirh job$ in factori<'S aod businesses, scboolgirls
whose mothers were alive and whole. These Bosnian Muslim, BosllÍJl.D
Croa•, and Croatian women and children surviveJ che arrocicies of Serbiao
cxtrcmist forces in Bosnia-Hette.go\/Ína and Croatia from L~91 ro 1994
determmed to stop the genocide, to bold the perpetrators accountablc.
and to change che way sexual vmlations are sccn ln society and ireated in
law. 1 Con~rging wi1h 01her dcvclopmcnts. 1hcir responses to thc:ir expe·
ñence of violent sex'Ual and ethnic íncqualiry combined huve conrriburcd
10 making women's resistancc to thcir scutus and treacment the c1.1ning
edge of dtange in internacional human rights around the curn of' the
cwenty·frrst centmy.'
Worntll 's rdusal to accept tbe douWe-edged Jenial of cheir humanicy-
tbe dcnia.l duit sex-specúic violntions are commonly commmed and that
they 3t'C ulhuman-bas long becn slowly shifting thc form nnd contcnr of
thc m1nsnntional humrin righcs pnrodigm. \'>fornen, lnr¡tcly c><cludcJ from
govt'mments, hove or¡{anizcd thcir own intemouonal DOll¡lO\'trnmcntnl or·
gunizations (NGOs) 1ha1 havc incrcasingly made grassrOOtS civil socie¡y a
factor to be reckoncd with in intemaúonal re11tions. Recogniúon thac sta1es
Earlitt vcrslOOSo ol somc o( thc tckas 10 Um 1ot.roduction \\'t're publtshed ln tbc Unh~tty ()f
Mu:htpn l;1.w Sc.hoal's ~ Q..Jtalfglr- .'Jotn, fall-Wlmu 1999, l. 11n:)• bcudueJ hom bc.illll
Pfné,':ntéd 101hc E,ut0¡W1:1n Coun ofJui-ltce • ia tneettnl' htl(J hy 1he t1niVrN1y~( f\1.icrn11an L11w
Sd>ool at ihe H•)"A<bms Hotd. W..J,Ulj¡ton. OC. IApr t9. 20001 . .,d cldn'Cted"' lb. Coo-
1.t'mporary C1Wu:1non ~de L«tur~ •t Columbu Umvt'fmy utlt!d "\\'umai'a Wodd.i,
Mc.n't ~111!(~" CApr 29. 2004) .1nd ítrnn the di>t'\ltlinnt 1h111 foll°"•1..-d \..,ommnu• fn,m )Miel
NniW1nh. Lt$1 Catdyo, J~ Alvarei, and Tom Bc:rKkr m.a.de 11 bcuct. Exttpüonal t«hmcal
muL 'lntc- undcr pc~llUtt v.~ prow.kd by Arui1 8.Jdwin es1d Emm.t C 1t"WC anJ the Uru\'d'l.1.1)
ol ~iKhiJ;Mt L1w Lbrary. Th<' Vnh·('111fY oí 1'ticluti11n l.11a· Sthanl .and • fdki"'-.hil>•t 1flco r.rn1C1
for Advanced Siudy in 111< BehaYIOOll ~ IC'.MBSl a Sunfcxd 1iUPported us ..,¡Wlj<.
2 - lntroduct1on
pcr se are oftc::n not the most 1mmediate víolators of women's bumam¡y
1ilihougb thcy uftc::n colhborate m 1t) bus tt.'<jwr~d rctogniuon, m tum,
th~t other tb.tn-statc actors n:guLidy pétpctratc scrious bumán ri¡Uiu. vio·
IJunM' And slnce >tates too oftcn Jo not rcpn:scnt womcn, whcthcr by
•et> or r.ilures to Jet \\ithin the <phere of 1heir power und authoríty.
wrimm Ía<.:in~ unr~ponsi\~e offir1.1I mechnnisms doctrines. and au1horities
1
h;we reoched. c>ften throujlh rheir own NCOs, to hold the law in their
own bands, sedon¡t perpetrator accountabiluv direcdr co them throu¡!h
civil l<'j(al meaos. \X'omen's asserrian of their human nghis can thus be
Sécll, on one k"'cl. at once not only as an attempt to make scates adhere
ttl human rigbts but as illl Jttcmpt to separatc SL•LCS from the human rigbts
thcy gu.mmtec anJ vi<>Llte, induding by ignonng 1hcm In •upplemcnring
or c\•en Jl umes •upplantlllg the >tate as internacional low .. historica!ly
nellrly exclusive unir. W\'.lmen hnve pushcd for the formal cbanHes 1hcy ncetl
ro secure thei r subsiamh'<' ñghrs. mcwin~ human bcinj!s-violators and
violated alike-to che cencer of che human ridm process.•
In tbe mid-1990s in panicular, Bosruan womcn. wbile tbeir communmes
wete stiU bemg arracked by Serb1an forces. spoke out about being rapcd
en maSSe as an mstrumenwlicy o( a genocide cha1 wa.s being conduetcd m
pnn <hruugh war The assoul1 Jnd their reslStilDCc 10 it challmgcd tbc: unes
betwccn gcnodde ólnd w•r ond, ulum•td), l>étwcen wu and poicc.' AJ.
th<'U)lh inequalny 1t1 pc.1tt und genodde throu¡¡h war are 001 equivalcm,
1'11pc both in and outside zones oí rcco¡tni1.ed conllicr was dari6ed ns more
a collectivc chan an indi,<idual crime.• To he adequate 10 thesc women's
violations. human n~ts !""" needed to come further 10 tenns vo:ith the faet
cbat !\tOUp i<lenúJications make up much of 1he ccmrem of the human.
m~ group-based injunes centr..J to the <.kniol of humanity, ,..¡ch sex·
and ttbruca!ly-b..eJ barms at tbc corc of, rnther than pcnphc:ral to. human
rlgbu.. To enhancc d1c accountabil11y of mt.,rruuional proc= to such
n1M\'Ors. ciV1l proceedings have been fow~. as h.1\-.: avil remcd1cs-
no1 hccau.<e perpetmtors should nor be incurcera1eJ. but bccausc IOcial
chan¡:e 11nd reparntion are more effecth-e rdief ancl dctcrrcncc than is pun·
1Shmcnt .Jo~.• Steps toward esublishin¡¡ tbesc features of what mi~bt be
termed the "'Ornen" modcl of human rights-oor because ic is exclusi\'<'
to one sc!J< but bccause 11 1s prcd1cated on u'Omen's rhsuncrive expertences
oí •1oLtion iltld of Jcrua.l of tbnt violauon-arc bcgmning co make bumm
riglu. an honest tenn
Becornmg hum.m lo botb 1hc legal and hved scnses is a social, legal. mu!
politic.il process • h rcquires prohíb111n¡¡ 01 01hér\\1se dclef!ÍtimutinH .n
•et> b,· which human bein¡¡s •• such are violated, ¡¡ullnlmecin¡i pcoplewhat
 Women's Status, Me1l's Slales • 3
lhcy nceJ for a. fully ltwnan exl!>tence, and thcn oíficwlly upholdin14 lhosc
stnnJar.h and ddivm11g oo thos<: cnmletnonl$.• But, m cirntlar cpistemi<
fo;hion, seeing wb.11 subordmated groups nrc distincth ely t!epri' cd of. ~ub­
jcc1cd 10. ''"d ddcgttimated by, rcquircs 6m 1ha1 rbey be real 10 power
thar thcy firs1 be seen as human.
Pur ano1her way. human ~hts can be observed ro be a response to
arrcx:ity denicd. Befare atrociaes are rerognized as such, rhcy are autbor-
uativcl) rq¡arded as clther too extraordinary 10 be belicvahlc or too or-
dina.ry 10 be atrocious. Ji me events ure socially con•i<lered unusual., tbe
foct that they happencd 1s dcnitd in spccific insrnnccs; if they att rq:nrded
as mual, the fact 1hnt thcy •re violating u tlcnieJ: if i1's happemng, it's nm
so bad. nnd if it '• really bad, it isn '1 h:1ppe11inN. Thc¡1ivcn status of cena in
people is seen as tautolo¡;ous with, cven jusriiied by. 1b.: depnvarions of
meir human nghrs. Law ohen coUaborares by making an unusual or ex-
treme form of a commo11 violation illegal, so tbar wba1 is illegal almOSt
nevcr bappens, yct the law appears to sraod against t:he vioLnion. \licnms
are thertby idcologically rendered appropria•c to their LTentmcnt, tbc un·
cqual ucatmcnl senwg to conlinn thcir omolo¡;1cal starus as l<:>scr hu·
muns. \'('hcn nothing Is done, lhc tre<1tmcnt, untl social status nccordingly,
co11fi1m and e-reate who one is. leg;1lly, onc is less t:han human "'hcn ooe's
violations do no1 violare rhc hum•n righ~• rhat •re recogoized. Acts
common in human cxperimcc, sachas rape in war and rape in peace, have
been beneath serious notite because ihey are so familiar, "•hile acts rhat
are uncommon, like the Nazis' irulusuial murder and rhe Serbs' industrial
rape. bavc btta beyond belid. \Xlbile disbelief and associared impunlty
rdgn, the violatcd arc-sy>temicall)' and effecri\'Cly speaking-ren<lercd
not íully bum.tn legally or socially. WhCll und whcre th1s dental is overcomc
1nd rights against thc extreme nnd thc normal ore recogmzed, rhe trcar
menr is defined as inhuman nnd the vktims human \\~ornen <1re in the
midst of rhis process.
Meantime, tbe status and trcatment of men stlll racidy but audtoritarively
dclinc me human universal, eliding the pa.rticulamy of being a man. The
statc, an apex form in whlch me power of mm is orgarnzed both among
men and ovec women wbilc purporting 10 instirutlonalize peace and ju~ttcc,
has been revcalcd as an 1nsl'itution of mnle domlnancc, 1· lts behanor .md
norms pon:ial Qnd gendercd. Mosculinlry (>bsen,.bly mnrks whot men w'uit
and hove und couch ond ma.kc nntl clo in social spoe<. policical insrirurions
indudcd. lí tbc statc is a mole institurion oot only demogrnphically bm
socially and polirically- its s1rucrures and acnons driven by an ideolo¡zy
predicated on an epistemic an¡;le of •'Ísion '"'h concomitanl values, atti-
rudes. anJ behaviors b3Sed on the SIJltuS locaaon o( tbe male sex m scx:icry,
n1<!Illb.:rs of wbtcli (1nih vruiuionsl occupy a supenor posuion in gcnder
lucrMchy, resulnog in • saual poliucs"-a the 1111crnauonal sys1em 11
l'OUOterbalmce? Or IS ll mct•mAlc?
Tf rhe siate hos • Atndcr (a.• "'-di "' usuJll)• .1 $<:XI so 1h11t the ~me
throttAh lls distinnive mstrumcnt, IJw, SttS and treats womcn 1hc W•)' mcn
in SClctcty scc and treat womeo," doe$ lnternational law cballcnge ibis. o r
docs tt reproduce n at a yet hi11her levd? Seen in its ¡¡endered chmensions,
does ilie move from n.ational to 101ernanonal essen"ally simply magrufy me
scalc and chversíty of law's ma.scultnlty, or tlocs it at me same ame offer
Ji...tinct dynanucs, opporturuties, anJ challcngés? faen as inu:mational bw
•nd m.mtuu<lns could t::hall""Jle or limu the powc:r of indivulual ltates, do
thcy build •nd Jepend upan und <Uppon tbe power of Slates as such ot
1he same rime? As 1he stnte appears ou1moded 1(1 sorne, superseded by
instirutit>ns and forces with bases oí power indepeodem of s1ates. such as
globalization. mulrinaaonal corporarions, orgamzed oiminaliry. nnd rdi-
gion, has rhe masculinicy of intemarional laws, oocms, aod instirutions
wubered aw•y, or 1s male dommance equall)· present m aod transmnang
imo tranSnauonal forros? Ls gender a transnal'ional force-both from me
top do\\TI, cnsuring mole domtnancc, .tnd, u,th wom<'IÚ cmergcnce as a
global rorce. from thc lxmom up, challen¡;in¡; thu1 dominancc-th•t h11s
long been lar¡:dy ovcrlooked?
These íotemational quostions can be oskcd throu~h four dimmslons
ilion~ which national bchavior lhrou~h law has bccn analvzcd in ¡¡endcrcd
terms State bdia.ior that promores and mstttutionalius mak dommance
has been found to distin¡¡uisb public from pri,'lltc, naturalitt dommance
as Jifference, btde coercion bebintl con...nt, and ohsrure stxual polines
bcbinJ mor.iliry." Do...s the ordcr that stllto bavc cttatcJ among states
bch:l\c in simiLir gc:ndcrcd wuys?
At lea<t sincc the critique oí thc distincllon berwecn lhat conute thnt
\1olates mternational law because states do tL and that torture 1ha1 docs
not bec:ause nonsratc aclors do rt, n rhe inremational strucrure has emerged
ss a <et of mtern<-<ting boxes delincd by layers upon layers oí distinctions
bctw<-Cn public and pri,-ate. ,. Thc public is formalli• supr<?me º'''" the
pnvaté, thc pnvate a spacc msidc wbicb pówcr IS lcfr alone by public
Juthoriac:s. Women hllvc b1stonoilly bctn rdcgated ro anti i<lcnttfiL-<l "'th
thc pnvatc, cxdudcd irom W>J, wbon pre'<:nt, >uborJuutcJ in publlc. The
•uprome, ""lld•ted, h1crlllc;brcnlly superiClr udc oí thc linc, lhe loe.Je of
lc¡tmmatcd force, " 1hc iJeolo¡¡1call•· male sldc:, de6ncd by clisuncnoa from
Wome•'s Status. Meos States 5
the subordmatc, lc>Ser. oo-force-penni11ed (emalc side. Power may be
hcld at<-Ount•ble, lf :n ..U, for 1ts abuse oul~ide the border's threshnl<l thm
ddincatts where thc publk bc¡¡ins
The hiemrchy of 1hc st•tc ovcr cwil soc1cty provides one transnntional
exnmple. Thc state 1us power º''Ce civil sociecy, 3 feminized realm wirhin
which male dominance is permitted free rein, simultaneously masculitJizin¡:
lhc s:tnt<:. \Xlar and peace offer aooiher intematlonal cliscinction with classic
sex-stcreotyped dimensioos. Men \'Íolemly dommsting orher men for can·
uol of states is called w.u-: men \~oJently docn.inatlJlg women \\1lhm statL'!.
is relegated to peacc." .Parallel lcgll categones disunguish combata.nts.
\\tdely ihougbt o( in malc tcnns (pcnnittcd to cnpge m force) from civil
ians, construed in femalc tcrms tunanned and puiarivcly 10 be ¡>rotectedl. ••
Apan from the rclativdy constant foct that men organac themselves to
compete and conilkt wilh othcr men, contemporary conlliru amoog men
have increasingly become more ¡!r<)Up-ro-group than state-to-sme, tesem·
b!Jng women's t.reatment by meo more chao ibey cesemble classic armed
conflíCL lntemauorut.L politics has much 10 lerun from underswndmg
womea·s ueaunent by men.
Pubhc/prlvnte lines also Jiscemihly dtsungwsh thc convcnuonaUy so·
ca.Ued gcnerutíons oí humnn rights. •• Thc fim gencrlltion is considcrcd 10
be political and civil rights, amounting to what cmpowcred mc:n fcel they
need against orher cmpowcred mcn. Thesc rights define where public or-
dering is considered axfomatic Economic and sociJll rights, !hose ~rs of
which womén as such are largely deprived aloog with many roen, are usu·
ally rcgardcd as se<-Ond gencratioo, ~-en tbough ibey are in the Univer.;ru
Declaratioo of Human Rights and recogni.ud as mterdepeotlent \l1th thc
so-c..llcd fust generarion tbroughout thc covenants ibemsclvcs. Thcir ter·
ni.in is considcr<'<i more pnvate: liOcial, not po~tic~I, ~nd oftcn no< 1"C11dil)'
enforccuble or implememable in thc usuul fonn ñj!hts takc Public inrer-
vcntion hcn: is often contested, Group or coUective righrs are called rhc
third ~nemtion. Thesc are re¡¡arded as de6oitivcly social, quimessenmrlly
pri,'ll.te; mese ri¡¡bts are leasr guaranteed, sometimes 001 consldered prop-
erly rigbts at ali lo tbe eníorreable sense. Tbis bterarcbtcal ordenng nmong
geoeraaons. conuo"etstal m irse!!. ranks systemic rq¡Rtd. From \\'ornen'>
stnndpoint, it migbt wcU be reversed. Women are mcn·~ unequals as
groups. lkal equalicy righl$ ore collcctivc in 1hc Jcruc of being group-based
in thcir es.<entinl norute. lndividuols may suffcr t!iscriminatioo one al a
rime, but the ha<is for the injur)' is ¡troup memhership. Lacking effective
¡:oamnrees of economic and social rights. \\-ornen h"'"' found political and
6 tntr dut11on
anl nght>, ho11.cvc:r cruu.J, to be l•rgdy m.1cce»1blc and >Upér6cial '!be
gmerouonnl J1mncuont anJ thcir ronlun¡;i. quc-.uonJblc for meo "' 111t:U,
urc d..-..rl) ¡>rcnu.éJ oo ~..:ndcréd • ,ympll<ln>, p<re<pll<'nl. ..,,J pnonuc..
But 1111in1unsd1rn.,n-thc JoctnnC' ~fl\Tmm~ who has P<l"Cr to <kadc
wh.i •nd whcrc:--that thc puhl1c pnvatc d,.tmctl<ln 6nd. ns n•nmal home
Junsdicunn dchnl'llt.,. turf. lntemat1011ally, 1un.drct1011 =°""' amund
~m11nty .\ '°'"'"'11!'1 h.L• ndu<nc dom1mon w11hm a spht:rt:, a concq>t
1ha1 b spaual ron<-.:ptu.U> a. "·di a; c>hcn roncretd}, acrnunt.bl"- íf at
ali onlv to cqu.J '"'clCl¡tn> <111d oftcn not ,olunuml)l. A .i¡ite IS S<Wttelpl.
Thi. mc.aru. th.it 11 IS JdíncJ b) a publtc/pmJtc """ at lb bord,,r, v.hidi
1$ prin.:11,.lh tcrrttun.J >u<h thot wh.it happcn> wtthm b pm>te, mt:anmg
th•t u ts thc cxduSJH' dumillll ,.,¡ thc J>atnar<h.J c>rdcr callcJ gmcmmcnt
Th• hnc that mcludcs by udmhn~ createt. thc same un11 th.it is inarnatcd
tn intcmau011al la,. • at OllCC thc ¡¡uarantor ..,d \1c>l11c>r of women's
human nahL• D•mam1caU> dr<cnbcd. mak poWtt quintessennally sctS ll·
sel! up as exclusive "ithm, 1u~ul}1n11 11> he)1emony ts pr0ternon. then n-
olates thc protect<J \'1lh rd•u1 e unponuy or permus thei.r ,fobtion by
tbose 11 empower> by 1¡;oormg them <•ppc•nng 10 sorne 001 to be IClJ"8
'1.·h.:n u J<x-. nothm¡¡ about th1s '"'l•u<m). Thmk mant.J rape, incc>t Wi1h
thc globc di\ id1...J >pJU•l11 mto n•t ion "Jtn, m•lc tfommancc avcr wamen
beflin• at home w11 hm •n<l hcncath 'tntcs, 1mernal to 1uri..lict1011> in
dudin~ thc family. Malc <tructurnl pnvncy " the principie 1ha1 animatCli
thc ¡:ro¡.¡r.1phy nf hoth malc power ond mtcmanonal 1usuce. Ir roles thc
world
!k'alu;e 1url.Jiwon ¡z1vc.' mcn p<1111er ovcr a spherc, encom¡>assmg
womtn w1thm u, thc: tntcrnationaJ ¡unsd1ctio11, wh1ch coul<l máke these
mc:n JCcounLlule to Othcr llltn, i> Jtllk>u5)y ¡¡u•rJe<l • 11d Carcfull) COn•
stmncd, Ou tht mtcrnJtlonnl k'Vd, thc f,'"t thu1 MJI C bound.mc• <ldine thc
linc whcrr mcn <lil'o<lc powcr nmon¡c thcm<ell'cs, wilhon 11·h1ch <hcy setk te>
exerc1-. exclu<i.e dom1nu,n, md111.hnl! ov~r womcn, c•r>lain• 11.·hy <he Cc>n-
venticm cm the rl1mmat11>n of Ali f'onns of Dt<cnminarion A¡zatnst Womm
ICED:\ WJ ,. so widely re1erved " 'i1mtlarly, amonl! the mos< reserved in-
temauoial prm151on• 1n .Jl trcaues are <hose ¡unsdicttooal pto\'ist0ns tba<
Je..¡zn.uc thc authorltv to tc>ol•e J1,p111e:.. · Tdlingh. LEDA~. along
wuh thc <.onv<.'lllJOO oo thc Ri¡cht• of thc e.luid, ha> no st11c-10-<w1c pro-
colur1', .. h1k thc Ü•n,cnuuo ''" fonurc, die lntcmaoonal C:O-cn:uu on
C,..tl an<l Pobu.al Rt¡thts (IC'C.l'RI, an<l thc Con,<ntw>n oo thc Ehmuuuoo
ot \11 Form• l'I Ract.tl DJJCnmtnJlJ•>n 1CERD• .U e.lo" Thu 1< what a real
h"'r•rch\ of n¡;lm look• l1kc 01 C'O\Jr«:, mtcl'$11tc cl.ims ª"' rarc C\'Cll
whcre au1lablc lntcrpr<~cJ in Kt"nd<'ttd terms, mcn rt:<pect other men 's
Women's Slatrs. Meft's Slalu · 1
conuol ovcr thdr own Jorn•rn• in thc hope •nd cxpc<t•ll<'n ol re<1p1<><.it)C
1hc mnlc hond
Sr•t"' rn1.i huvrn¡t º'"'"•te •< '' 11<hud1cu1c..I by an~'t'lnc ath<r than thcm ·
~lve<, 1he u;u.tl pt"rpct rat<>r grm1p. wuhout 1heir cxp""• conscnt or at ali,
and domestically oftcn m<i>i on wverctfU! 1mmumnes for officw acu and
•cts of <tatcS.'• Thc rcsult is to 1nsulaic statcs írom accoctntabo.luy 10 anv-
one. A sy>temic <tructural b1.. mil1t.1tc:s a¡ramst holillllj? perpeuators oi
in1uncs to wom<:n u su..h n:.po1151blc 10 pubhc autbomy, mcanmg anr
authonty bcyonJ tbc mcn ,.·ho rule thc pm•rc rcalm 111 v.·hidi a '1.-omm'>
\10Ution occun and ,. t)p1<-.ally cÍÍn;lJ\d) pcmuncJ " fa"1> thc Romc
S<>tute of thc ln1cm•1J1>nal Cnmtn.d Ú>lltt d<>c> not cl.um universal juris
dictinn but set• pl'CC<lnJ111<>11• for iu cx<rci<c O\'tr mtnnatioial crimes,
,..,lym¡t on • •••te rommuung thc crunc or 1dop1ing the •tarute'" Thc
perti<ubr romb11~11<'n c>I rcqu1nn¡t <tate ans for many tntemarional Yio-
1.ation< ,.,th 12,-ers of unmunuy tor oHloal ach and aru of state, added to
rules f.a,vnn¡t local rooluuon .and disaJJO\lo,ng cxtratcrntooal ¡unsdicnon
and 10 thc lacio. ol tntCNl.dlc cl•uns, !.hui. '1.omcn out
lJ mcn havc gu.rdcd •P""'t ¡>.1tt1.Jit\, clh>tt:illy thought to be bl>Cd
on 1<lc'llt1fitu11on with P"''l'lc lokc me, by rcplacmg gm cmm<.'llt oí men
with rule of law. womcn ronunuc t!> be ~vcmcd by the mlc oí men's
laws Their ~t h<il"' h.1 IX'<'n 10 •rreal ur thc jumdkt1<>nal hierarchy to
men and laws more 1urud1ct ionally (m<.'anin¡t <panallyJ dJStant Crom, tbus
hopefollv lcss controllcJ by anJ 1denufied 'mh, 1hc menJla11,'S tbat viola1e
rhem, exoctly tho>C sotes " herc they ha\-e bt.'Ctl least likdy to be gramed
acc"'"' to nghts anJ wbere miplementuuon onJ cnforccmcm are least as-
sure<l and lc•st concrete. In thls rontcxt, thc rulmg "' the Umted Succs
m Kudic ,. Kiiradik whkh pcnnlt1<'<1 i.c:xu11lly violated BO!l111an women
to scck remedie• undcr lnteri..iionul l:1w for rape •s genocidc in another
rounr"· •g•inst thc •d f <l<.'(:lured lcud..-r of t ro1111e regime at home," is a
signal ,;rtory on the junsd1c1ionnl íronner
In the face of these dcc:ply gendered le¡inl arran¡zemc:nts and the rec-
CljlntlÍon tbJt IOt'<juahty w1th men IS womcn's ¡ilobal rondiuoo, tbe sprcad
and dfecuvcncss o[ intcm•uonal equal1t) n¡:ht> pro'1<le seruim-e .m<l.
nulung lndic1101> of womcn\ pro¡:~ m b.commg human 1n thc legal
scnsc. Coruudcr•blc otnJ.,.. ha'c ~en mJ<lc m th• coutt> o("""" coun-
rncs, ontably Cona1b anJ ~u1h Afn'" lxyoncl thc formal C<¡Ualít} •p
prooch uf um..·no' with • Jominant 1m1lcl stand.rJ •nd towanl rubstan-
m-.: cqu.t)nv. mcasunng 1....-. ..,J policics ·~•in't rr•hue< of suborchnation
and gcndtr hoerorchy." lncha's con"1ru11<>nal cqualtl'!· chmlan~ las •
chance 10 reach an cqu.il luturt: tram an unequal prescnt. s,. cdcn ha:.
8 lotrodut11on
noublv mo,ed eftcrn•el~ a¡tJUISl prosmuuon t.brou,11h a de Caceo sex
equ.tlny approa,h." Ahhou¡zh h1,1onc•lly 11·omcn hove not foun<l srrmgth
tn numbcn, whcro f"mg f;itt~ .an<l rapcn1n¡; pttnaplc IU\d lwing up to
com1numc-nt• •n,I .h.1mrn« l•1l, anJ C'ÍÍocuvc externa! cnforccmcnt rcnuuu
un•vaJ•l>lc •n<l corrupt ion rul<ll, perlup. dcmocracy will lcad starcs to
promc>tc ... cquJlny tn rcalnv in,tead of merey in form-m.,bc C\'Cl1 10
~ 1t as m thc:tr tntcrcsr
As 111 mO!ol 0111.,,.. se• cqual11\ n~ts tn the ma¡or human rWirs tDStru-
mcrm h~'c tended to cmplO) thc purponedh neucral samcoess/ddferencc
mo<ld. u 5b0'&'1.0jl more '"''00. the UN Human Rigbts Coaunmec. mtcr-
prrttng thc ICCPR. ha• t.t.cn • >ub.i.nuvc •nd •ubtlc appro.lch to tbc scx
cqualuy quallllllS tn 1u •rhcrc" Se>. to sorne ~tmt, h... CEDAW w wbidt
ttlLlflU\tcn '""méll ~· 1 '"'"P thc n~ht not 10 be d1scnmmatt:d agmut.
focu,tng oo thc roncmc snuauon oí• suh.tanti'~ group oí pcoplc imtcad
of ab<tract <phcrcs called m'tl, pohtical, cconom1c, and social as thc pn·
marv ctnlb of anal)''"· Bv lts bt.n¡:uaj!C, CEDAW also rt:achcs pnvatc acts."
althou¡¡h 11 can do so c>nly throui:h statcs, tht: parucs to u. Mo.t of
CEDA\'\"s acth't prov.,,ions admmcJ.ly grant womcn "'JUahty of ngbts m
gmJer-ncuttal tcrrn>. Thb approach, proclucmg somc advanccs, lunus
womm to wh•t mcn nccd. J'C>ulunp in J1fficuh) m Jeahng íor cxamplc,
wtth prcgnanq (which CEDAW CO\'Crs) and <ClL spccilic and sexual vio·
lencc. '\ccmm11 to rc•l11c that violcncc agamst womm is nor jusi one 1ssuc
on a lis1 oí 1mponant problems but ~oes 10 the core of women's status
and the rrla11on of ftatcs to 1t, CEDA W has been in1e1¡>re1ed 10 prohibir
violencc agomst women as scx d1scr10unauon.'• No state has yer proven
cap•blc of 1h1s recQj)nruon. 11 The CEDA\X' Commiuce m•)' be coming 10
recogmZ• ni•le clomin•ncc 11s t he real nrune of the problcm of discnm1·
nauon ut:.iinst wunu~n 11
Twn oí 1hc fin«>! illu~1n11ions uf• subu'1nt1vc equJlity approach tntcr-
nauon.lllv ore rc~1on.1l the lntcr-Amcnc.in Convcntion on the Prcvenlion,
Puni•hm<nt ond f.r;1d1c.nion of Vic>lencc AR•in~t Women !Con~'Cl'ltion oí
Bdém do Pa,.jl' and the Afncan Protocol on 1he Rights of \\"ornen ... ro
wh1ch women from cultures ICl'OS$ the r~ons concnbuted. The Conven-
uoo ol Bdém Jo Par• rccOjlnrzcs v1olenre agamst women, ·a marulestanoo
of thc hmon<.illy un~qual po'1.cr rdatK>n> bctwcen women and meo." IS
• duttn<Uvc humJn n¡1lm viobt1<>n 'b.i.sed on gcnJer. "'bkh OlJSCS dl.'llth
or ph,~t<al, ...,.....1 or l")thol.>~1<•1 harm or wftcring to ,.-ornen, 111hcthcr
m thc rublic C>r rnv.nc •rh=."" Thc C.onvrnuoo s.¡u.ucl¡ ¡:ranL• "cvcry
"·om•n thc n¡¡ht to k Írtt from "okncc in bo<h thc public and pnvate
•phcra, • back<J lw ·th., nght to <tmplc and prompt rccoursc 10 • com-
 Worneú Status. Meo~ Stales
petent coun for protecuoo against acts that ,folatc ber nglm."" The ngh1
10 &ttdom from violence nowbly indudes "the rigbt oí "'omeo to be
,·aJuc:d and educat.:d free uí >1~reot)petl paneros of beh~,·101· anti sod:il
'."'d culrural prnctict:> baJJed on coocepts of tnferi.orlt)' or subordinJtÍt>O, •
unplcmcnt«I by "pro¡;ressrvel)· sp<"ciJic meosures" to modify ~d coun
teract such prcjudices nnd rroctices that "legítimi>.c or cx•<'Crbote violence
lljllllnst women. "" This is whar a substantive equalir)· approach with che
necessary subsrnnce looks like.
~e Africao Protocol embeds its sex eqw.lity and anaviolence guar3ll-
tces '°.a broadly concei,-ed sub$taouve \'!Sion. Irs postti\'e equality recog·
nfaes nghts for \\'Ornen "10 live in • posiúv~ culrurol conrext • and 10 pcace
and su;wn.1blc dc:vdop1TLen1.•• Leaving fonn.J1nic negnti,·c ¡,quality·--con-
tcnt m re0ect unequ;l social nrrangemcr¡u, Jecl•ring equalit)" in la... when
pc9ple are legally soned into exisún¡¡ social orderin¡¡s-in 1hc du;i." thc
Afocan Protocol expUcidy and in diverse concrete seuin¡:s prohibiis •'Ío-
lence 3J!&ÜISt women. not reco¡inized as sex discrimination but defioed to
mdu<le "all acrs perperrated againsr women wh.ich cause or could cause
them physical, sllJCual. psychologlc:il, and economk harm. .,. TI1e Protocol
guaranrees appropriate and cffecuve mcasures to eoacc aod enforce IJws
against "unwanu:d or forecd se< wherhcr. . in pri\'atc or public..., co,·ers
·verbuJ viole.nce1- 14 und rcjects \'iolence ago•insL "'ornen in "'pri\•+ue or
t>ublic lifc in pcacetime and during sin1ations of armed ctlnRic1s or of
u-ar.....-.
Far from being paral}<:ed bv cultural díffcrenccs or intimidated by cu].
rural relaavism,"' che Afncan Protocol at once ¡lllarantees rights to women
in polygamous union.s and prefers monogamy." 1t moves ro elunioate
"hannful practtces wh.ich negaúvcly affect the hum110 nghrs of women and
which ar~ contra~ '.º ";"°gniz•d international sUtndatds," 10duding 'fe.
mitle gen•t•l munln11on. " hs economic .ind :.ocial ngbu nin 10 "the ,.,
formal sector" <tnd "work of womcn in the home"" us well as eovcrinµ the
publu: worltplace. The Protocol not only guaranteC$ womcn 's rigln 10 con-
1rol their ferriliry and to decide wherher nnd when to have children" bu1
also. uniqaely in a mult1la1eml 1reaty, requITT:s ~tes to authorize "medica!
abortion" in cemún cirrumstanccs.1' It puts Afr1ca on a par u'1t.h Larin
Amcrica on che question of '"°leoce agalnst women and in the load oo
womcn's equ.Uty tn wodu law."'
As more and mor<' oí die substanovc r<:<iltty of wonien 's deprivation of
humonity. h~s becn reílcct<:<I m low, rccQ¡¡mtion uí scx cquali1r 115 " per
emptory mtcrnanonal norm has advance<l" $ex equnllty, olrhou11h subiect
ro mryíng ínterprerntions, is nearh· universaUy embrnced a; an intcmatiooal
9 10 lntraductio"
norm ' ' Internacional human n~hts l~w. indudm¡¡ rhe United Nations
Chaner. pervllSive.ly ¡¡uarantei:s the n¡z:ht co equalny before die law withour
d1)Crtminaclon on thc bJ.Sis ot $t!.X.'o,1 Many, c:Vdl mos.t, rounu.ies rec0Jn1ze
><X cquahty ..i~ • val~c in thcor legal •ysu:tn>, w1ddy guaramectng lc¡iul
cc.juulny based on !<it':~ tn const1tuuo1is an<l olhl!r foundauonitl ~tJtements­
thi!fl despiu! tl1c Íal·t 1hat s.:x Jiscrin1inatory lou<s con1inu~ in íorcf! ~rdunJ
the world' in seuings of perv11s1ve rodal inequali1y of 1he sexes in rculicv.
The fact t:ho1 .1 no~ i_< nm lived up m or delivercd upon with consis1ency
does_nor mean 1har n 1s nota norm. Much like racial discriminacíon, "·hich
is widely re~ogmzed ro viola1e customary mrernadonal l:1w. the rejeccioo
of sex dt>cnmmauon 1s normauvely vigocous 1f feebly implememed, dts-
playtn¡¡ mon¡¡ beltef in legal obhgaaon bue weak sme pract:ice. Virrually
no one says thcy support scx Jiscrimination.
Even more l.1nnnimo~1s ~han the rcjection of discrimJnotion agJ.lnst
W<>mcn by law is the re¡caton of thc idea (lf the bioio¡úcal inforiority e>Í
we>men tomen•• and the condcmnation oí the •ubordina1íon oí w<>men bv
men, panícularly. ,.·ben it i~ violcn1, lí discnmínauon b~ law is widdy
rejecred on pnnc.1ple 1f not 10 prnruce, ideologies of scx-based infcnonty
by naruce aod '10lcnt sexual subord.ination m SOOety an: broadly con-
demned, .i le:i.st ostensibl)" Rape, a forro of sex i.oequ.ility widely pr-JcuceJ
and pennmed, JS no11e1heless un1versally abhorred officially and >1nually
wufo"";I> made cnminal. The ad hot criminal tribunals are moving the
1n1crnanonal o~Jer co":"rd ·~ undc:-rst•ndmg of S<!l!U.d vaolcnce •g•urn
'\\'c>mcn as n cr1me of \1«>lcnt 1n«1ualit)' i..J Perhops lhe pel'\-"ilSÍ\"" prcsence
nf women pressurin¡¡ male state& to recognize rheir humaniry in principie
,.. well as in pracnce is shifnng professed custom." By diese measures,
pamcuforly for gross or sysiematic aas, sex equab¡y lS moving wward
r~togrutlon as a percmptory norm at the h.i¡lhest level of rmernauonal prin·
ciple:
D..sp1te tlm J.,.d oí Jceep1>nt'\! of scx equolity os a prtndplc, womcn's
Jctu.J >ec~ntl-cl..ss >tlllll$ rontinuc• 10 be concealeJ. 1hoñ:forc m•unrnineJ,
~y r:rv~wve .P~•.ct1<es. umo1111 which ;. the tcndcncy of Liw to prcsent
t1mc~1onmg.d1v1s1ons of power as" di~urse in ideas ,,f riitht and wrong.
11~rbmg polt~cs as moral1rv lí the equal1¡y of the sexes is reco¡inized 10 be
• facr, equalmn¡¡ soc1aUy unequal groups is merel\• a problem to be solved.
But 1.f scx eqll'1hry 1s secn as a value. u can be accepred or re¡ecteJ as one
'1cle m J norma uve c.liscussion. ln pohcy, ' fact is either reilecieJ or dts·
toncd, o •·,tluc can be dcbu1eJ cndlcssly. lts recognation cbbs and llow•
wuh umc JnJ pi•~. m•Jomies anti hcgemonie>.
This di<tínctll>n 1n logic.il stotu> .md S<'mc 1>f Íl$ implic.111ons can be
ill11'trated I" comp.mng rwo ~"'s.sa¡;es in 1he preambular langua!!C of
Womtn'• Status Men's States • 11
LEDAW "'tb tbat oí CERO. CERD's r.uificrs are •[c]onvínced tho.t aoy
doctrtne oí supenori¡y bascd on rada! dúforcnuation is sc1cnu6callv ralse
mor•lly conden1nable. sociatly w1¡ust and tlangcrnus, .1nd diac che..;, Is n~
JUSL~ficauon ~r.racial c.liscrimindtion, in theory or in pracucc. anywhcrc."''
R:tc•al t'<¡ualtty 1s a fact. Doccrines of racial supremacy are based on che Lic
al die superioriry of some roces O\'er orhers At bottom, racism is inaccu-
rate.
Nothmgin tbe preamble 10 CE.DAW approxiroates chis leve! of re¡ecuon
o{ sexism. The doscst u comes is "Recalling tbat discriminatloo .igaiast
wo1nen violatcs thc principies of eqwility of rights and respect for human
dtgnity, is ;in obstado to die participation of women, on equal 1crms wich
men, in the ¡;olitic,11. social. e<'Onomic anti cultural life of 1lteir countries,
hampers 1hc grow1h of 1he prosperity of sodety ond the family and mak{-s
more d1f6cult che ful] developmenr of the po1enrialities of women in die
i:ervice of tbeir coumrics 1111d of humamty.".. Scx discrimination •iolares
other abstrae• ideas; chat discriminarion violares cquality principies js a
uiu1ology. Tbe stroogest rcaluy-based argument against discrintlrrntioo
agalns1 women here is consequentiafut: it tnterferes with 1he abilitv oí
fa1nihes nnd socic1ies und cou11Lries to use!' "'·orneo ro gro~, l:Uld prosp~r.
CEIU)'s formulation does not just turn up che rhetorical he.u. 11 grounds
a pnl111~ oí ~quahry in the worltl of reality The only rea.son not 10 reject
rncism L< lcft ex¡lO'led as che imerest of one rncial group seckin11 10 dom-
umre anocber. Racism is mked' the ideology of the sclf-interest of bigors.
The CEDAW preamble, by disrinction, rejectS scxísm principally oot as
false aod inberendy 11tithou1 ba.sis bu1 llS a bamer 10 tbc cxercise of ocher
nghrs, heoce derivauve. and ao meffidcnr use oí human resources. Sex
cqualit)• inluibtts thc realm of the good idea, the r<ght view, o gwde to
propcr 1hough1 ond action, rather than being the only posiuon consistent
with tho evidencc. The "pcrational language of CEDAW squardy od
dresro< mony concrete problcms this preambular lan¡¡ungc le<wes in qucs-
rion. índudinA the r~Jditional roles of rhe sexes, rrnditional cultural aod
relij¡íous prncticcs, proscltuticm. aod reproduction. º' But on the leve! oí
express principie, C.COA W ne.,.er s• ys chat sexism is a lie. 1t <loes not say
that tbere IS no jo¡stificauon lor 1.bc lnferiority oí womea 10 theory or prac-
ucc anywhcrc. Nowher<' does 11 sLJtc that thc doctrine of male suprcmacy
based on sexu.J diffcl'rntiation con ne\'er justify thc subordtn1mon of
wo~en. ~ significan! an advance for womcn •S CEDAW is, oppositicm
to d~<enmmnhon bnsed on $CX is, on this preambular leve! oí principie.
framed as a moral ¡ud¡¡mcm of v:duc. Sexism remain• clo1hed, sexual pol-
1tics ungroundéd.
lmernaúonal Liw often gets funher tn addressaog che rcaliaes of sex
l? - lntroducho•
me4uahl)' whm it u= odler legal lt.meworks, IntemJUonal lilÚ6ckmg
prolub1úou., for in:.tance, show more .iwarenes> oJ che d)1lrunics of se>.·
bll>C!d u1cqu..bl) 1h.11 women .mJ girls focc 1n • sex-unequul world th.m
Ja.s .mything in Sl!JC cquoL1i L1w per se,' Simtlarly, ihe lntcmatiunal Crim,
1n.J Tnhunal Íor Rwanda tr•nscendcd rhc moral opproach typical oí na·
tionJI la"'°' regulann~ bate speeclr in holdin¡t tbrcc media ltad<'r< guilty
of ~enoéldc and persecution la cnmc a¡.:•inst hum.mityl for broadcasts und
publiouions 1h111 impi:ll<)d the lcillin¡i oí Turs1 and modtratc Hutu ci,.;Jiam;
in tht l{wandan geooc1dc oí 199-1. ' Thc point of the ruhng was not to
Jccry thc neg.iuv<: and batdul s1a1cmcnu but to find and prohtbit what
was done to pcople tlS .i roult ot thcm. Ft-ar·mongcnng, malung aggrtssl()n
in10 sclf dcfense. orcufating hu lisis .md iargrting inili>1Juals movemcntS
anJ locanon<. :md spreading a climo1e of ethnic nnimos1r¡ and rcrror so rhat
one sr.irk could i¡?nite the proirie lire in wbich 800,000 prople were m••·
sacred inside of dll'ee momhs were found 10 be genocidal il!ld an imerna-
áoaal delict.7 The issue was nor def.amaáoo but che power of media to kili.
Canoons thar sexu:ili?.ed b.ue and fear of TutSi \\'Ornen were linked to rheu
OlllSS rape.'' Tbe approach 10 causalicy lllken by this case, called me Med14
Cose, offers po\\·erful guidancc for ihe regulauoo of pomogmphy, uidudmg
roeis1 pomography, a pnmicc of inequalicy ronnec1ed 10 viol.mcc agamsr
womm ou1>íde .as wcll •s wnhln iones oí rcco¡¡ni2cd conJlict:
Ob<erv.ibly gcndered o~in<t womcn's inrcresl.<, che intcma1i-On•I S)'Sletn
has ne>necheless produccd gnins for women unavailable d:;ewher~ Tn chal·
lengin¡i men·s rule to produce thcse gains. women as such have emerged
as not o.nly a group in rtsclf-a ttansnallonsl ¡.:roup cr<at"d thmugh Ut'lll·
ment that is not limitc<l by oauoaal boundancs-but also JS a group for
1tsdf, sdt-coosaously rcalized through org"1llzing.'' Titat tbe mternauorul
is ihc Juthenuc lotált for thc light for womcn 's nghts expbin> the explo·
sivc produc·mity of the serie> of tnlcmational conforcncos of the p1m thtte
cl<01des,·' CoMciousness of scx-baJcd otlhorJination OOU the possibilit1es
for chan¡.:c went global rhrou¡:h thcse conferenées. mobilizing women
worldwide nnd producing inAuential forward-lookrn~ (despi1e sorne crucial
shoncomrngsl'" dratts oi le¡iislatie>n and policy. blueprinrs for where
women's world could move. These documems have led mtemauonal
OpUl!On anJ locusc<l nnuonal ci!ons undcr an mtemauonal umbrclb. In
thlS pr0<:e>s, thc Je¡¡iun1•cy of the NGO. tha1 ha\c >pok<:n for womct1
whorn st.itcs havc long l¡µioré<l h<t> bccn n!JJCai.Jly qucSuoo<'.d, e\C!I as
thr lc'j¡Jt1mac) of stJle> in repraentrng 1hcir countncs womco-halí 1hc
populJtion nduded fmm rhc puhlic ordcr for cenrunell .mJ rrmamin8
out>ide pubhc powt:r even in mn>r democr>cies today-is lef1 unques·
cioned
Womtn's Status, Mtn's States • 13
\1(1omen are a global group rn che .en~ dm tbe disuncrive social deli-
1lll1on, treatroent, .a.oJ stt.ttU:t oi \\10ml.!ll as a seK rcbt1\:C to meo is recog-
!llZJblc m dwcrse forms aU ovcr 1hc world.' Both women'• subor<linauon
•nJ thc11 1'es1>1.incco 10 11 havc l>een globnl ali .1long, prednun¡¡ whar is now
culled ¡¡1.,baliza1ion-J rn<'mcnt oí rcrteprion cuiching ur 10 \\'ornen'•
lon¡.1rimc t1'ality (f'imilnr 10 thc phrn<e "1hc ft111iniza1ion of povcnr•l,
Gendcr inequality is a global system, Nacional J)llrtirularicics ~ive sorne of
it> forms tbe exempcion of culture, =áng che rest as narural, renclering
C\"CI) foun of oppression koown co woman citber culrurally universal (so
we "can't" do anythlng about ni or culrurally specilic (so we "shouldn'c"
do anythiog about il). Nowhere 1s s~xual1ty not ceotrnl co ki:cping womcn
down. Nowhere are 1hc umversal 1md the c<Jwr..Uy pnrticulor in 1hdr
vcrsi<lns of ·samcncss" ro anJ "diffcrence· from mcn, no1 vnumcd as"'"
son9 why thar lcs<cr pl:icc is wom1111's ri¡;htful pince and as f<';tsons to do
norhinR •bou1 it,'• facn •S ruch fe:itur<.-s unitc the many fonru of subor-
dination 0110 onc sys1em, solutions need to be dwersely tailored wich Cllre
co tlllllly local forms of chac system,
Women's world-both status an<l strugg)e co change U-IS the globe,
in Ulbeteot rensioo with subsumpuoo of women and tbeir rights to s1a1es,
Thc mternadonul arena tbus presents u1 once n sp«ific problem of org11
111zcd nule dominiltlcc :llld " world sc..le opponututy for thc s<>lutinns 10
r,1 thc SCTile of 1hc rmblem In 1his light, work within notions. how~"'
t~1cotial, tun<>unrs 10 ~ckio~ C<luality for women in onc counuy, d rak
ultimatdy incapable of achicvem<:ot by itsclf, As women in one country
;;chieve mon: equility, meo sed< out -..-ornen with fewer options else-
where-a pauero observable sexually m sex trafficking, sex tourism, and
llbÚ!-order briJes and economicaU}' [n labor uaffidcing, internacional out·
sourong co S\\'Cfltshops, and relocation of produc1ion m Jom111ant coun-
trics to •Our~es of chcap fomale lobor in com11nes whosc gtoss domcsuc
rtoducl is lcss than 1h111 of sorne nf thc multin111ional corporminn• 1h.u
locurc rhere."' No rntire than ck'lln air can wornen's equality be ~uccc«fully
achie.'ed in onc counuy, No woman wiU be free until all we>men are equal,
As che moum:tin of women mo,-es, che stace in its m.Ue form is arguably
bccomlng anacbronisnc, even obsolete. locreasingly a sbell of force, íf \\1tb
considerable remaming dout, che scate neve.r has monopohzed thc means
ol violencc wuhin ns borJen, unless mnle vrolence J)l•tnst womcn is secn
us cncompa.<sed wtthin ji, 1.. illq¡itimncy more nnkcJ by the J11y, rhe siore
muy be incn:nsin¡¡ly irrel<"Vant to wamen, who have nl""' had meo's s1ake
in ir anyway."" In rhe Jbscnce of sta1es' 1ools of implementatioo, inrema-
uonal law-like '>''Ornen largely laclciop access to legitimare force ro compel
adherence to i1s will-bas had to develop a wider range of ml'allS to be
14 lnlroductton
ctfecuvc. Not to valonze lack of enforcemenr. but force is not all mere is
to efkcth-cncss or even 10 pOw•r. Many \\'Ornen compl)· '"'h 1he dictates
.intl limlts oí Jrul!e Jommancc evcn when not mchviJually forctd to do so,
Most Jctt>inns of tbc Jnwrnuuonal Court of Jusuce llre complicd \\•th evcn
tbou¡;h it rornnun<b no m11i111iy forces." For yc·ars, the Bcrlio \X'all w:u
fcared anJ un:..,uilablc concrc1e and wi"' wrrh armed gt1ards, bu1 what
hdd 11 up did nor change the day n carne clown, Peuplc dismantlcd tbe
Berlín Wall with cheir bare honds 1he cfay the world stopped bdievinR in
it. On Att~ust 13, 20().j, hundreds of women in Nagpur, India, stabbed
their mp1sr to dea1h ""h kitchen knives on tbe wbite marble floor of a
courthouse. He w0> abouc ro be releaseJ co t<:JTonie them again afcer years
of official compl:IÍntS rcsulting In no acuon, as whcn thc polkc Jaugheu ar
onc iMe '1ctim che perpctrutor 011led a prn;r11u1c nnd rhr.:uLencd 10 r•pe
ag•in. lt.pe is sociJUy feh 10 be incvunblc to 1hc extcnt thc rnhum>nuy
of women is believcJ. Thellc worncn refusccl 10 acccpt that thcir incimatc
violarion wi1h thcir State's rn1ifica1ion of i1 1>-;is inc,~tahlc one O\orc doy,
Tbat day, ihey 1ook back cheir humaniry,
Sexual violarion ma)' be law's <dcimate challcngc. Rationalized as con·
sensual. it is coerced. ConsiJered private, its shared ami public role and
reaLty demand pubLlc redress. Attributed to sexual dilicrencc, it cnactS
~exuul Jominance, EnJlessly moralucd, it is poliucal, scxually poli!lcal
lgnored, u Is condoneJ. Scxu.J violauon ;,. J crimc of incquality of s111rus,
to which 1h0<c wbo ure low in status und 1ts power urc subjccted an<l ro
which th""e who nrc subjected are lowered, lts ccntrJlity to women 's in·
cquality to mcn (and sorne meo's inequalil)• ro mher menl rlays ou1
throu¡\b rulture. honor. rdigion. fomil)'. digniry. identiry, incimacy, inceg-
rity, and respect lt dehumaniies. No material recompense or punishmem
can fully restorc tlli inLanj!ible, invisible harm, Official force alone, alchough
esScotfa), is uot cnough. Bcyond mcarcenmon. punishmem, and olher ret-
ribuúon; bcyonJ damagcs 1m<l othcr reporauons; beyond truth and rcc-
onélliation amJ symbolism, beyonJ rc,>1itu11on for 1he rrrepoublc los.~ oí
Í1unily memh<orS; bevond the ret1lfn of fnnns, ho!Tle<, jobs, und lc¡¡ru S>'<
rems, hum<tn righis cun ¡vve hack 1hc hum•ni1y 1hc mriisr rnkes ow1iy,
Global consciousness of women '• rigb1 ro human <tilCUS, beWnning ..~1h
mtimatc mviolabililY, is explodin~ aci-oss the porenr arufice of smes' bar-
rkrs, erupting Lhrough che fissurcs of smte subordinatioo, aod rismg from
tht ashc> of stotcs' colttpse.
 1
On Torcure

part one Torture is "'idcly recognizcd ns• fundamental violarion of hum1111 nght>.'
lncqualiiy on thc b~~¡, of sox is also widcly condemncd, wid seii equality
:tflinncd as a bask human rigllfS value and legal guarantee in many natións
theory and reality and intemarionally.' So wby is torture on the basis of ~e.x-for example,
in the fonn of rape, banering, and pomography- not seen as a vioL!tioo
of human nghts?' \\7hen womeo are abused, human rigbts '1!e violated;
anytluog less unpticidy assumes womeo are ooc bumao. Wheo torture is
sex-b.1sed. human rights stanclards sho,Jd be rccogniud ¡is >iol.ued, just
as mueh as wben the torture is bascd on anything clsc.
TmcrnatinnaOy, torture has n rerogniud profilc.• T1 usually begins with
abduction, detention. imprisonmeot, and eoforccd isolarion, progresscs
through exueme pbysical and menea! abuse, and may end in death. The
corturer has absolute. power. whicb torrare vicums belie1oe jo absolmely
and unerly. Life and death rurn oo bis whim. Vicnms are beacen, mped,
shocked with clecuicny, nearly drowned, tied, bung. burned. depri•-ed of
slecp, food. and human coornct. The a<roc1ties nre luniccd only by che
torturer•s lll.Ste ~tnd imi.1g.tnacion und any vo.lue Lhc \'iccirn may bé seen to
bave ali'"' or unmark«I. Verbal abuse 2nd humíliati(ln, making Lhe ,.¡etim
fecl \\'Orthless and hopeless, .re integral to Lhe torture hoving its intendcd
effect. Often torture ,.¡cttms are selected and tottured io particular ways
because they are members of a social group, far example, Jews in 1977
Argentina! Tonurers alw exploit human relinionships to inllia meocal
suffeang; a man wtll be forccd to waich his \lo1ÍC being raped. for example.
V1ctims are forccd to dnnk thor own unnc. to ~t t.htir own cxcrement.

'l'bts SpttCb wu 81\"CO al ao uutnwuooal confcrmce oo human ngfns oa N~rnbcr 10, 1990. tn
0.lftfl, Albt-nia, C•n.ad11. h ,..111 ociglnally publdhcd a• '"On fortw"C A Fc:mmht Ptnpecm'C: on
1iutn11ft ru,h1J1," ín 1ft1,._," IVtfN 111 1/y TUlflf/"i·irit Ctn1,.,.., A CJnhJ (JIJ/rnt• 21 fK.tthkoc:n
E. \lab.<1..- ami P..t M..b-r. cds. t99H
17
18 • lheory and R11ht1
SomeLUlles dru¡¡s ~re fordbly admmis1ered <hat aher persooaliries and
make bodily or mental control or evcn sclf-recogmaon ll!lposs1ble. Tonure
os ofu:n Jesigncd os a slow procc>S toword on excrucintin¡¡ death. fü'Cll
\\lhcn une sun*h.es, evcnt) movc 11nd csNlare to\\~ard <louh, which is somc~
time;. wi•hcJ for to =•pe the agony. One is Jware thot on<: could be
km~..i at 11ny prum M.1n~ ;ire
Wh•t tortur.: does 10 a human being is intem3tionally recognizc<I. lts
purpose •~ to break people. People change under such extreme pressure.
srudie<l under the rubrics of brainwashmg. post-trawnatic stress, •nd the
Stockholm syndrome. Long-ceon consequetlces iodude dissoc1atio1l, which
proruotes surviv.il bur can be han! to reverse. \X'hat Oné learns bdng tOr·
turcJ, Jnd wbat 1s ncC'CSsary to survive tt, can milke living latcr unhearablc,
pro<lucing su1ddc """" nfter many ydll"S, Thc gcncrally n!C01Jni2cd purp0$C
of tortun! is to conrrol. imimidate, ar elimiome those who insuh or chal·
leoge or are seen to undennine the powers tba< be. ¡ypically o n!gime or
a Clldre _seekmg to become a regime. Tonure is thus seen as polirical, a].
thou¡!h 1t often seems thac h:s polirical overlay is a faciliming pn!lext for
the pure exerdse of sadlsm, a 1.>0licics of itself.
\X'hen mese thiogs bappen, hwnan rigbts are deemed viola1ed. lt is ac·
knowledge<l that aLtocities are commiutd• While therc ís no ulumatc an-
s11-.,r 10 the quc'Stion "Wby do thcy do it?" anJ tn thc contcxt of torture
linlc •gonmng ov<"r the questlon, nothing soops tbe pmctke from being
idcntilicd ond universally opposcd ;is o crime jus cogens.
W.th this framework in mind. consider rhe following accounis'
"Lindo LO\i:lace" wu thc nJune 1 borc durlog the two •nd ooe half ycar
pcrioJ of impro,¡onmen1 begmnmg m 1971 Linda•• Lovd.icc" """ ctl<'.Iccd
through phy>icul, mentol and Séxu•l tonurc ond ubust, ofocn 01 gunpom1
•nd throuMh threits on her life 10 perform sex acrs, tndudin¡>; forced
fdlatio and bestiality so thot pornographic film• coald be mude af her.7
~k "LO\ d acc" thcn <lcscdbes cncountcnng Chuck Tr-;¡ynor, • pimp, as
follo""
[\X')ben In resporut to hu SUl!Jlesrions ! Ice him know J would not bccomc
uwolved in prostuuuon tn any wa\ 11nd told him J m1cndcd to Ji:-ave he
beoi mt up pby>ically anJ the canst:mt mental abuse btgan. J lttcrally
beCiUTlc: o pri.>0.ncr, 1 wa:; 001 allou.c:d l1Ut oJ his l;.aght, nol e\'CU to lbc
thc b•ohroom, wbere he wotchoJ me through J bole m tbc door He slcp1
nn 1op of me •I no¡¡h1, he listcncd in on m¡ tclcphonc calls wub o 45
•uu:>molic c111ht <ho1 pointed al me. 1 was b<-a1cn ph)l>ic•lh and suffered
On Ton.re • 19
20 • Theory and Rtoloty
meru.I obuse each .wd rvccy tLy thcrcaftér. He unJennm«l my "°" with
wcn1 by 1 ilidn' t tbmk was my last as he touilly lost cocmol He <lept
other peorle 11ad forccJ me 10 m.art) hlm on udvict from hls l•W)'\:r My
\\1tb a gun bcsidc lum every ni¡tht as he promi>e<l he woold kiU me ;nd
1nnl\1uon in10 prosotuWJn \\·a~ u g.tnlt rape by 6-...·c men. arrnnJ.1,cd by ~1r
thcn sb,oot buruelf if 1 ihdn't subnuc to his obsessoon of sl"'~'Y and
T r•ynor. 1t ,.-as the rumin~ pomo m my Ufc He thrcottned to sh<iot me
bondage .wd beatlngs Junng se• J was raped 11 ames berween March
with ihe pisto! if 1 didnºc go throu¡:h -.itb it. 1 h•d ne"er expenenced
nn.J sex before and u nppcd me apan. They tre:ited 1ne like an mtla1•ble
º84 and Novembe1 'Só 1 hacl four broken hands clurong iny m•rn•gc,
causcJ by O\Y huslr.inJ J WU> pul IDtO the hospu.J lll tracuon for two
plasric doll, piclang me up and movmg me berc and o.here. They spread
"""'h Juc to a beaung by hom. 1 w•lkcd \\ilh n walker sc""ml monolu
m• legs chis WllY anJ that, shoving thetr thmgs oc me and 1n10 me, che)
nfrer thm \Vhcn 1 wn' ropc:J by jerry. 1 was olway• tied 10 mv bed. Tird
were playmg music.J cbai~ wttb pans of my bo<ly. 1 havo ""'""' been ""
where m,- I~ u·crc spn!ad aport He tied llfe with nylon cords and ex-
fngh1cnoJ and dtsgrJc..J and hunuliatod in my Irle. r folo Lke garbage. 1
tensíon rorcls 1evc:n ~oc úed up wbile J was sleepiog ar ornes. He would
ongagcd in ""' •et• for pomography ag•orut my will to avo1d bcing killcd
then penetra!< me wjoh ob¡ects such as bis rille or a long necked wine
Mr Tr11ynor c0trced me mto p<>rnogrnphy by thn:o1cning my lífe 6rst
decanter or rwdvc Ulch artific1al ru.bber pentses. He woulJ sba\'C alJ ol
""h a .45 aummudc ei~ht shot and later witb an M 16 senli-~utomañc
moehine ~on which bccame bis f.,."Orn• toy. 1 was brurally beaceo when-
the hair off my pavate ª"'ª as be $l!Íd be W11.0ted to "scrcw a baby's
cunt. l lo would sl•p me whilc 1 was ucd. coll me ali son1 of horribk
e= 1 showed any SJ¡tns of resistance or lack of en!huSJasm for the freaky ndtnr< J brokc my urm On rwo OCcasions trying !O pct tway from him
sex he required me to aa lli 1 .:n¡oyed. The lives of my fomily were
chn:atene<l Each chy 1 was rapcd, beateo, locked, punched, smadced, When h• would wa1ch porno movies cm our VCR, he would tcU me 1<>
do ex•ctlv whot the ""'men in d>e movies luid Jone 10 rbe '""ª 1 would
choked, degru<led or ¡cUod :u b)· Mr. Trnynor Sonictlmcs •U oí these.
tell him 10 forge1 ir nnd then he would ronnnue to slap me around unul
He consi•tcntly belmlod and humilw<..J me. 1 belicvc-d Mr. Tra\nor
hed j!el $0 llJlgty thar 1 waHfraid he'd beat me so harcl hcºd kill me. At
would have killed me and 01hers tf 1 did no1 do whac he dcmandcd of
rimes be'd grab a large k.rufe he kept ln che drnwcr bes1d<0 our bcd ond
me. 1 didn '1 Joubt he would shoot me. 1 made m)~elf Mº numb as if my
hcd hold u to my face or bn!OSIS and teU me to do as he said ar be·d
bodv belon¡¡ed to someone else ... Simple suo:vival 101>k C>1'f)1hiog [ bad
cu1 me up. lf 1 d1dn' t oct loke 1 wos enjoying plelltÍng bim he'cl tbmucn
I mana¡¡ed ro escape on mre.e sepamc occasoons. The first and serond
me Jg¡iln and then rrpmy 1hc sccne he w11llted actcd ou1 from thc mO\'ies.
time 1wos caugln and suffered a brural lxaung md JO awful sexual abuse
T hnd no plat'C tn run 0$ l nc--·cr hot.1 uny money of my own Ho cut off
as punishmem. The thtrd ame 1 w.is di my parerus' borne and Mt.
the phone which Wlll> my only contact with thc outSide world He would
Tr:iynor tbreatcncd "' kill my parco~ ancl my oepbe1> i( 1 diJ not !cave
unm<tliaidy wuh lum The physic'al clica. of this are siill ll1th nie. makc me visit hun whcn he fuúshed his mailmllJl rourine .nd gi,·e him a
blow 1ob on the publtc street wbile people wen! passistg by. 1 really
During my impri~onn1c:nt D\)' brcasts \\'ere in,cctcd u1ch 1.iliconc "·hieh
W"'1ted LO die.'
has $1nte brokc:n up ond hns bcen dan¡:erous nnd p:linful Ali of 1hc
surfoct veins of my ri¡¡hr leg were destro>-ed becausc 1 uscd 11 to p!OIC<'I
lll)'Self from me beatings. My doctor raid me that because oi ihe abuse. Now coosider this composuc sccoum of tbe s11s1cmoac viobtion of A
wwas unsafe forme ro h3\·e anothcr child sol had an aborooo wben 1 woman n:omcJ Bumhnm by a man nnmcJ 13.:glin, her husbanJ: lkglin was
wwocd to havc tbc cluld. lt took a Joog time to <:'..:Il begin to deul with w.cching an X rotcd rnovic on cable 1elcvision in tht famoly r<1om. He
thc: meow clÍecto. A pél'>On CJtO 't be bdd prisoner for two ancl onc h.U L·ntcrcd rhc bedroom, thrC\I· btr on thc bed, and bound her He ñ1)pcd
off her dmbinM and be~an 1aking ph0tos of her He then sexually assuulied
yc•rs anJ che nex1 da) tru>t soc1c1y, trust the pcople who h>ve put me
her. Crisis cencer workers and an emergencv toom doctor testilied ihat her
1hcrc ond JUSl ¡;o on with 1hc lifc th•1 you c>nce though1 "·.u yt1uu.'
"·ris1s and anides were madced &om betng ued to me bed by copes. He
Now con>1.cler rlus account: forced her suc~lgh1 doffcrent Clllles 10 hnve sex with neigbbors and
strongers whtle be took pbocographs. She was forccd lhrou¡di assault and
Mv nrune is Javne Stamen. At one rune 1 thou¡zhr there WttS no onc wbo
could help me to ~r awev from mv husband. 1~ wasn 't a day that hol.ltng tbcor child hoscagc to stand on tbc comer •nd invite men m for
.ex •nd to h.1w sex with the tlo¡;. He bea1 her ¡;o th•I shc was nc•rl) killed
 D• Torture 21
She lescilieJ lO cpisodes of torture wilh a bJtrcry·charged c:uttle prod anJ
un decuic cggbeatcr. Shc was u;keJ •boul photogoplu. in an ulbum
showmg her smilin¡i during the loCXunl cncountcn. Shc .,¡J that her h'1$-
bunJ threuened her with violente if she didn't <milc while 1hc:sc: phom·
grophs were rnken. •
Jn che acroums by cbese women . .U lhe same lhin¡¡s happen diar happen
rn Anrnesty lmernational reports and uccounts of tormre--excepr tbey
happen in homes in Nebraska or in pomograph)' srudios m Los Angeles
rnthcr th>n prison cells in Chile or deteruion centers in Turkcy. But Lbc
social .,,J legal rcsponJte> to rhc ei<periences are not thc s_., at alL Tor·
ru"' is not co1uitlered pcrson;I. Torture is not ~uributed ro orno sick in·
dividua) at a time '"d d ismii;l;eJ 11$ cxccption;¡l, or if it is, thnt maneuver
is dismissed as o CO\"er-up by che hurrHln riAhts community. Tom.irc ''ictims
are not ¡r,enerally asked bow many were tbcre .,.,th chem, as if it is not
impoltant íf " happened only to you or you and • few orhers uke you.
With rorrure, an increase is not dismissed as 1usr an rncrease in reponing,
as tf a constant Jevel of such abuse is ucceprable. Billions of dollars are nat
m•dc selling •S cntcnainmcnt pictures of \\•hat is cegardcJ us torture, nor
is torture as such gcncr"lly regarded as ~cxual cntenainmcnt. Nc'Vcr is J
victim of rortu t" uskcd, didn't you rcully wom it?
A simple double standard is at work hcre, What fi.111dnmcnrnlly dis1in-
¡¡uishes torture, understood in human ñ1thts terms, from the events these
women have described is char rormre is done tomen as well as co-women.
Or. more predsely, when what usnally bappens to womcn as these women
have dtscribc!d tt happens co men. \\'hich it sometimes <loes. women 's ex-
perkocc u th" templatc íor it, so chose men. too, are ignor<'d as \\'Ornen
ttrc. \X/hen thc •busc is •Cl<unl or ummatc, esp«ially when it is sexual and
inílictcd by un inúmiuc, u i; gcndcred, hcnce not considcrcd a human
rights viQfation. Torture is re¡¡ardcd •S politicnlly morivoted; srotes a.re jlcn.
erally required to be involved in it. Wh•t oceds askin11 is \\'hy rhe torture
of womco by men is not 1óeeO as torture. speci6rnlly why it is not seen as
politic-al, and just wha1 the invokemem of che state in it is.
Women are b.ilf thc human race. To pul the individwtl accounts in
conrext. oJI orounu the world, women are banered, r.iped, SCJ<Ua!ly abused
a~ childrcn, prosutULed. and rnerc¡¡¡¡ingly Uve J>0rnograpluc hves rn contexts
saturnrcd more or less with pomogr:iphy.' Womcn do rwo-thirds of thc
world's worl<, <:arn one-tenth oí the world's inromc, and own le.s than
one·hundredth of the world's propeny." Women are more likcly to k
property chan to own any. Womcn ha"e not even been aUov.·ed t0 \'Ote
unul very recendy and still are noc in sorne countries. Women's reproduc-
12 • lheory and Reoltty
ave capacmes are sy<te01Uuc.illy e.xplo11eJ. While che rate and intensicy ol
these auoaaes and nolatloos "ª'> acros.s cultures, chey are never equal or
$ubstant"1Uy rev~ed oo the basrs ol sex. Ali th1s is done to women as
14·01ncn by mf:rt BS tncn.
Dai. contextualm:s thts, Jnd .1 ÍC\1 <efow:J cxumpla show i1 with more
texturc ln thc UniteJ St.1tes, ~4 pcrcen1 of ali womcn nt onc time or
anomer are victims of rape or "ttcmpted rape; for -.'Ornen of color. the
nues are h111her." 1n 1988, 31 perccnt oi murdered woméll "'ere killed b1
busbaods or boyfrtend• " Jn eg;ilitadan Sweden. one woman ts barteced ro
deatb every \\ eek to ten days. u Dramauc increases in cbe rate o[ reponed
0
rape are debated mere; che debate is over 1~bechet che Ulcreases are • reill"
or "mtrdi • rcflcrt "" iotre'1Se t0 reporung. \'Chere \\·amen are cham:I or
hJve only rctcntly cv<n legally <!m<rgcd from che condition of being
chnttcl, .c9 ;., 1he situiuion in Jnpnn. what nm rupe mean? If n woman cxis!l
ro be se•ually used. to "'hat sexual use oí her is rhe d,U,1 mnn not encitled?
Sweden. tbe Unired Smes, nnd Japan nre ali sanirnted wirh pomography.
In the United Scaces, women disappear on a dnily basis-from thci.r homes.
IJ'.om supemiarket parlong loes. Somedmes they are found m dicches or
floaung down ri\'Cts. Somcwnes we dig up cheir bones along wich those
oí ten or fifte.!n othcr women ten or fiftecn years btcr. !)cri.tl r>p15ts md
seri.u murdcrcrs, who ""' nlmo&t ~lw•ys men, t.1rg"' women Jlmo.t cxdu·
,i,.dy.
\X'h)· i.n't this politioil? Thc •buse is nei1her random nor indívidunl
Thc foct th<ll )1lu may know your assailnnt does not menn chac your mem-
bcrship m a ¡r,roup choseo for violauon 1s irrelevam ro vour abuse. le is
súlJ sv>1ematic and group-base<l. le defines che quafüy ot commumty life
and is defined b) tbe disuibuaon of power in society. 1t would seem <hat
somcdung is not considered pohtical if " is done to women by men, es-
¡x:ci..U) ,[ 11 15 L'O!lsitlt:ttd 10 be ""'· 1ñen it is not consideR.J poliut•I
bccausc whnt is roliucal 1s wh<n mcn control •n<I huri und U>c 01hcr men,
mcnning perscms who nrc deserving of dignily and ¡><JWer, on somc bJSis
mcn ha\'e dc:cidcd is dc.en.1ng "f di¡¡nity and a measun: of power. likc
com·cnnonal polirical idcology. becausc that is a basis on which chey have
beco depnvcd of dl¡:nity .nd power. So thor sufferlng Itas che di_goiry of
polmt:S and is callcd torture." \X'omen as such are not seen as desef\ing
ot dignily or power. nor does the se.xualuy that defines us ha"e dlgi11t.1f)'
s1and;rJs, nor is womcn's bclief rn our own dtgmry g1vcn thc di¡¡nity or
po\1•1 of bdng regurded ns n poluie1tl id~'Ology Thc Jdin1uon of the p(>
lrtical hcrc is .u1 unequaJ c>nc, d<~erminetl on the bi1Sis of kX such tbat
atrodti,,. to womc:n ~re denicd as utrocities by bcin¡¡ deprived of r<>liricul
meanin¡¡.
o~ lortur< • ll
Oftcn che rc.ison gl\cm tor not cotl.>idC'IÍJlg atr00.ties to \\Omen to be
torture 11 th.it tbC) do no1 rnvolve actS by smes. Thcy happct1 bctwccn
nonsmc actor. in ci1.jl $0éic:ty hcnce •re sCctt .. not onl) unofficial but
uncon.'lcious und unofAan1zed Jnd unsystem•tic .ind und1rccted .md un
pUruied They do not happeo it is thought. by smte policy Th<:) jusi
bappeo. And craditionally, rntemaaooal instrumerus (as \\'ell as oariooal
consanmonsl govero srn1e acaon.
Fim of ..u. che State IS no11lll mereis 10 power. To aetas u itts produ~s
an excepaonally inadequore definiuon for human rights wben so mucb of
the stconJ-dns. ~wus of womcn, from sexual objcctific:ation 10 murder.
il; done by mcn to womon without expres; or immcdiate ..,, oven "3te
invol\'ement lf "rhe polirical" is to be dcfincd in tcrms of men\ cxperi-
ences of bein¡¡ subiected 10 PQ\ló"er, it makes some !but only sorne) =se
to center its ddinitioo on che srn1e." Bm if one is induding the unjusr
power tm-olved tn che subiecoon ofhalf che human race by the other half-
m11le dom.inanre-rc makes no seose to deline power cxdusívely 111 cerms
o( wh•t cho stare does when ÍI 1s dclincd 3S 3ccing. The srate is onh ooe
in.trumcnuilit} of scx ina¡uality. To foil to sce. rh1s 1s pure gcnJer bias.
Oftcn this bÍ.!1$ llies un<ler thc R•g of privac}. so thut thos" arcJ> that ilre
dcfincd os inuppropriatt: for Slate in\'ohcment. wherc thc discour<c of
hurnan ri¡¡hrs is made irrele\'llnt. are chose "atea• in which the majority <'Í
the world's women lh"e out their days .•,. Moreo~er. che foct that there is
no sin!de state or organned group expressly dedicaced to thts pursmr does
aor mean t:lu11 ali states are nor more or Jess dedicated ro ir on ao operau<e
lc:\'d or chat 1t IS not a d<!Cp structurc of social, pohtical, .iod legal orga-
!Úz.ltion. Wby human nghtS, mcluding thc inrt:matioruil bw agarnst torture,
should b<: limitcd by it is the quesuon.
Second, th" <tnte aetuully is typically llccply Jnd aetivcly comphcit tn
the obuses mentioned, cc>llabornring in Jnd condooin¡¡ chcm. Linda "lovc
lace" describes her escape from Mr. Traynor: •¡ called the Be\'erl¡ Hills
pohce depanmenr and 1old chem my husbmd \VAS looktn¡¡ tor me wtch an
M 16. They told me they couldn't be im·olved ""ch domesac afuurs. \'<'hen
l 1old thcm lus we:ipons were illegal, ch~ told me to ~I back when be
wos io the room."• She tesuñcd bcforc a grand JU!) in un QbscenLty ca>c
in,·olving one of Lhc: films madc of her Thc: ¡;rund jury looked •< th" filiru
and :ukcd her how ~he coold h•vc ~cr done that. Shc •.Lit! becuu.e J gun
was at her hcnd lt did nothin11"' As lind.1 Mnrchiano, she later tried to
have an ordinance passed chat wotJd bavc madc 11 pnssible for her to brin~
a civil nction a¡?ainst the pomographers for damages tor t:\'etytbmg thi:y
did to her aod to remove che pomography of her trom distnbutioo." Thts
ordinance. a sex cqwtluy law, \\':IS mvnlrdared by the Umced StJres rouns

14 - Theory ••d Rullty
as a viol~oo oí freedom of expression. aren though the coun of appeals
that uwalidateJ n recogruzed ali of thc hal1Jl$ pornograpby did to womco
:lllu •grttd tlut 11 uctu:t!ly did tho.e l».1nru. Tlus c:ourt hdd that pornog-
rophy mu~t be protcrtcJ .,. spcech m ~pue of 1t$ hnrm to kx cqu;ality-
mdt..,J, b,.,..,uJc oí these harm,, annsmuch .., the •·alue of tht! speech for
pur¡iose.; of prot«tion mts measured by the harm n did 10 "'ornen ond 10
their equality" \X'hen dus result was summarily aflirmed by the U.S. Su·
preme Coun, the U.S. ~<Wernmenr legalized an express and oclmmed
~uman aghtS violarioo oo che \'Íew that che hann thar pomo¡i.rapliy cau<es
IS more !Jl'lpOrtant chao me poopJe Ít huns.·' Tu.is is cenainlv state ratifi.
c-.ition oí her abuse. k also rillses che quesuon. if romeone 1'auk p1c1ures
o! what happc:ns m pmoo oells JO Turkey. would they be wld .lS protectcd
cxpn!Ssion and >t!xmil cntertt1inmc111 on tl1c open markct, with tht s1n1e
scen os uninvolved? The pornography of Lmd• ronunucs 10 prolifcratc
world"~de.
JPme St"men wr0<e her acrount from the Nassau Counrv Correctiooal
Facility in \leu· York, u·here she was imprisoned. Sbc "~ ronvicted ol
?Janslnughter m Jem•'s killmg by thrtt men she supposedl¡ soliciLéd•.fa-
1Jence ol "barrered women's syndromc" "~ cxclutlcJ from her trJal. ro
tbe reporLed •ccomp:m1meo1 of JuJlt:W n:rruulu such as • rm not golng to
~1"" ill'IY wom:m 111 N•ssau Count)' a Liccnse to kili her busb:tnd • .md •Jcrt;·
S1.1men IS 1101 011 trinl hcre but Jnyne Stnmen is.,. Prosecuuon •nd 1uilmg
ate SWCe' UClS C¡Ut )'Oll imagine 3 murder prOSCCllriOn bv a Qate A1l9-inst a
mrturc victim who killed a tonurer while escapi.n¡t? lf rou can can rou
imagine Amnesry Inrernational ignoring it?" ' ·
1n tbe Burnham case. tbe convictloo for marital rape tbat the wife won
at u:ial was o~crrumed oo appeal because of tbe fuilure o{ rhe judgc below
Jt1<1 1ponte LO insttuct the fury diat the husband tru~ht have belie\'ed that
!'.Is. Bumham ronsemd •• Tho:re was no st1mdarJ bcyond which 11 WllS
rcgurded a. obvious that o humon betng \\'lll v1ol.,cd hcncc true co1ucn1
1>"aS mconcdvable. No recognition thut pcople break· undcr torture. No
miliznuon thar anyonc u•ill say •n¡1hinl! to a wnurer 10 try to make it
.rop. When \\'tlm<!D bre.k under torture. wc att said to ha•·e coo_<enred.
or the mrturer could havc thou¡zht ""' did. Picturcs of out ·confessions"
ID tbe form of pornography follow u; around for che r:est of out lives. Few
say, th•t 1s.rú who sbe re.illI Is. everybody breaks under tonure. ¡\fanv do
.ay, be could havé bdiCl!ed 11: bes1des. sorne worneo hke tr. - womcn are not sub¡t<tcd to e<jUllluy bw •t aU. \X'hcre the lnck ol similantv
Thi• !! the lau• of pornography, thc l.iw of bJncrcd \\'Omen's sdf
def~sc thc: /Jw of rJfl" Wh1 isri'l thi• State mvolverncnt? Fornully ns
conh~ur•1ion is vet;• close 10 1he rccent case Vel.1~quez-R'1<1ñguez v Hon·
On lorture 25
dura>.~ 1n "'htch a m.ui "'"' v1olendy Jc<.uned, torturcJ. anJ uccu!>CJ uf
poliucnl cñmcs b• a ~roup th•t wa~ aílcgcdly officinl but wa.. Jctualh •
more or le>s unoffidal but officially-"inked-at denth squad. He has n~er
been found \\"hot was done to hllll was legally impmed m Honduras os
a state under intemaoonal law mos•ly becuuse the abuse was S)'Sccmatically
tcierate<f by the ~overnmenL The abuse of me women Jescnbed wns not
ottícial. m. che narrow sense at thc ume it happenecl but 11s covcr·up,
lcg1U!IlJ2llUbn, •nd lcg•líuuon JÍtcr thc: fact wcrc opcoly so. The bLk of
cl'lctuve r.cmcdy "'ªS entitdy oflícial. The abu>é was doné, JI the >CI} IC;t>l,
wtth oí6cial lmpunny and lrg.Jm:d disregard Th~ 1busc IS S)'!tenrnuc and
knmrn, the disregord is offidol n11d orgonized ond 1he effecth"' 11overn·
mental tolerance IS • maner of l.1w ond policy.
Le¡ially, 1he pattem is one of nadonal nnd internacional guornntees of
sex equalitv coexisting -...1ch massi•·e rat<.'S o1 rnpe and banecing and tratfic
111 "·omen through pornography efrecttvdy condoncd by law. Sorne pro·
gt<:.SStve lllternational human nghi. lxxhcs are begmrung 10 lll<¡lilll! IDLO
sorne duncnsions o( thd!: BSues undcr equ.ilitJ rubrics-nooc 111to por·
~ogrJphy, sorne into r:tpe nnd bnttering.'" Rape is now more likely 10 look
l1kc • potentrnl human ri¡¡hu violation when it h•ppens m official cust<tdy ,.
A wom:m's human ri¡¡)tts are mpre líkely to be deemed yfoliued when the
sute can be sccn as an insrrumemalíty of tbe rape. Yet the regular laws
and dietr ~ukr cvetyday admmisrrauon are not seeo as officíal srate m-
volveroent ID legahzed se.< 111equal1ty. ·· The fact that mpc happens is re·
garded by sorne far-tlunlong groups and agencit.11 as a violaúon of a ncmn
of >Cx "<1.U<lllt¡ Bw tbc fact that thc lou: of r.1pc protccts rapi>18 and is
\\·riucn from thcír point oí ,·icw to guarant"" impunity for moSt rapes 1&
e>flic:i•lly rc~ardcd '" • •iolatíon of the "'"' of scx equallí¡. natio11al or
international, by '1rtuaUy nobody.
Hi¡\h on rn) IL<t of Stalc atrocines of 1his son is rape faw's defense of
mtstaken belie:f in consent. Tb.is permits the accu~ 10 be exonemed ti
he tbmks t:he woman co11sented. no mantr how much forc" he used. Tbis
is thc law in Caoa.da, New Zealand, :llld che Uruted Kmgdom, as wcll as
somt pan& of 1he Un11ed States, incluJing CaliíomtJl, wbcre die Bumh~111
~.,,e wao Jd1u~1ca1cd. Anothcr Cllilltlplc íi Jbortion's uncoruutulldn.tlicy, as
~n lrc1"11J: A further cxamplc i> thc uffirmauve protection of porno¡uaphy
m the Unued Srn1cs. mduding undcr 1hc CB>C m which Lmd• • Lo,·chicc"
participaredu Ot course. the Onned St3tes, an imemotionaJ outlaw of
ma1or p•oportions. is not bound by most of tite rdevanr 1mei:national
ag:reements. not havi~ rntified them. But other counmes where the por-
oogt:llpby of her, and others hke h~. is m1ffickcd a.re. l would aJso include
26 - lbeory and Rtality
tn tblS bst of srnte atrocmes the decnmin.tliz..1uon of pornograpby, first 10
Der:un:trlr., meo JO S"'·edcn. Those wcre offic1ol statc •cts. howe-ver bes1de
tbe polm of 1hc hnnn 10 -.·.,mcn lh= prior pornograph¡ Ltw• wt:rc. No
!'°rno¡:raphv l~w~ ,11 llil ;, open •oa.<un on womcn "ith offidal blt:J1smg. So
~ the acre»-,·the-bourd lcg.1líza1inn oí all partic1punts in pros1itunon.
\'<'hy uc thcre no hum~n ri¡¡lm s1;indards for torrares of women as a
sex? \'Cby are thcse atrocities 001 seco as sex equaliry violaaoos' The
problem can be explained in part m terms ot the =eived ootion of
cqualuy, wbich has served as a iairly subde cross-culrural template tor the
legal luce of mi;,ogyny. 1be rradiuonal concept is die AaslotdlJln one of
lr'CftUOg likcs alike and unükes unaJike-mostly likcs ohke. In pracucc, 1his
mcoos th.11 to be •n equul. you muu be thc sorne u whoarcr 'l!ls the
dominant standard. Thc unlikes unolike p•rt hns ;llways been .n uncom
fortable Pllrl of equaliry law, really •n interna! exccption m tt, :so di111
affirmurive actioo. for e:<ample, is rcgnrded as thC()retically disreputable
and lo¡ncally problemaac, even contrad1ctory. Tbe Ans101dian approacb
to equality. wh1ch dommates worldwide, never confronts severa! problems
iha~ the condiuo11 of women e.'poses. One is, why d<>n'Lmen, parucul:irl)
wh11c upper-closs men. haw to be thc 5•me "" anyooc m ordcr '" got equal
trC'.ltn1Cnt? t\noLher ~' mcn 11re ~ d.ifícrcnt fro1n ~'amen ~s '\\-Ornen ilre
irum mc11· cqu.illy díffcrcm \X'hy orcn't 1l1cy punc<hed for 1bcir Jiff.,rences
líke womcn urc? Anothcr is. wlty is equality os well satislied by equ.Jiring
down as up? In e>mer words, ií equllliry is treatiol( likes alike and unlikes
unlike, if you ~t somebodv down in che bole that rhe unlikes are in. in
theorv that is just as equal as elew.riog tbe deoigrared ro die level of tbe
dommant standard set by tbe prlvtleged.
Thc upshoL o( tllli apprOách is what is calléd in Amcricun law che "stm·
tLldy SÍ!Wlted ·· test, • concepl tbat 1s U$cJ in onc form or unothcr oround
~he worlJ wberc\'er Ltw requircs equality." &, npphcd 10 womcn, h mc:.tn•
11 men don·t nced 11, women don'1 get 11. Mm assnch do not nccd cffc<'t1ve
laws n¡¡amst rape. banenn~. prosmution, and pornogrophy (aldiough sorne
of the1~ dQI, so not havmg <uch law. for women is not nn ínequalíty; 11 is
JU'<! a d1fference. Thus are these abuses rendered pan of che= difierence
the .pcrmincd treating of unaLikes unalikr. Bccau.~ there are relatwely few
surularl}· raped, bJttert:d. or prosututetl mcn ru-ound to compare wuh. lor
they art comp:trativd.y 111\'J>ibk and gcnJcrcJ íanalc), such abU>es to
becausc of sc.x 1ncqunJ1ty, th~
1
of \\'Ofo'1t'11 S condnion to men is _e:xLrcnic
,....uJt '' thot the law of sex equal1ry does 001 properly •pply.
Sex inequnl11y, in this >-Íew, i< not Slmply a di<tinction 10 be made prop-
 On To"ure • 21
crly ur tmpropcrl). "' tn thc Am1utd1.1n uµ¡much h t> lunJ.1menwUi d
h1eurdiy, hcre tntU.ill) a 1wo 11crcJ htcrJrLh) lncq11.tl11y pruJuL.. >)•tcm·
au1.: o;,uborJindUoo, di in che 'nu.Hltll1t oí thc \\.tlOlt"n J1~(.1.ls~J.n Thc c...
n.1<li.n 'iuprcmc Cmtn m 115 1\11J,,.,, 1 Jcci"'"' and CJl<'ll foll<'l'·mg h0>
come cl"'cr th•n an\! t>thcr cmm m 1hc wtirl.I ro bcgmmn¡c ro rerogn17e
1h1• lundJmcntal nJlurc o[ tncqu•lit), k·•Jmg thc 1.-orld on 1he «•hícct "
To be COlbblml ,..,r.h cqualm gu;aun1ccs in tht> appro:tch i, lo mov<'. to
cnJ ""' inn¡ual11\' \Xncr«cr r.hc "'"'' rcmfor<c. gcndcr h1t:un:by, tt \10·
We> kg.J cqtt.tJit) gWtlllltC:O, tn n•t1on.J Cl>fblllUllO<l> •nJ lD l0lcl1Ul10<1.iJ
COVCIUnl$ &> "'(Ü.
Undcnt.anJm~ 1ncqu.di1i •• h1cur<h) m.1kt'S thc torture OÍ ""mrn be-
camc ci '''" an obv1<>u; human n¡;hu 1uu.: obontrt" onl> be<·•....,
of '"
J'C".....l\cn<.'S.'I In thts lt¡iht, law• th•t rrul11hi1 .. hat '"'mcn nL..J for
tqualil), such as rt'.<ln<lton• <>n ab.>nton, •nd unmforc<'d Ltw<, <uch as 1he
Lrw agams1 bau=~· which can makc •1<>1mcc u·omm'< onh su"'Í\-..1 op·
tion. net'.J 10 be n:tb~ht. TllC\ 110la1c hum•n ri¡?ht' l...aws r.hat Jon 't fu
thc: '10lmoo, Mlch., ilic l•w oí ""11-Jdcn'C. r•p<:, •nJ ob,,.cnuy m mo>t
pi.a.en, 1iol.uc bwn.n nghu .•\JI ""' .Uhrmamc •ldlc •<U or i-m\·c
om1»1on> 1h.u J1><1 untn.ic <•n 1he b.-" ol 'ex anti Jcny rd1..í for scx
o.¡ual11y v1ol.i10n' The l.itk ,,¡ l.1u·, a~;lln•t thc h11m11 womrn cxpcncncc
in SNiety bccau~c \\"C ;U'(' \\.tlln('O, ~UCh _., m~t OÍ th(' hanns of ftOín.<lg
.. phy. also •iol.11cs hum.n n~hio \'(/ornen are human 1he'1', 100
U. wbeo womén ore tonurcd bCCllu-.c \\'C are "·ornen. 1he law rttognirtd
thac a human bci~ had her humJn ri~ht> dolJ1c:J. thc 1erm "'nj\hts" woulJ
begm 10 bave ;omcr.htn¡: of thc conten1 10 whkh \\e m1gh1 uspirc, anJ r.hc
1erm ·wum.rn • woulJ, ln Rid1arJ Rony'> plu.-c. bc¡¡ln to become "• nam~
for n way of bc1n¡! hun1.1n."
2 \\a~ she a humJn ,,,tnlicc in a rd1gion 1h.11 ha•
HtunJn Right~ and Global Violence
Against Women
Y"" li.no.. 1hooc lxincs th.al .rch.iet•l<'l!i>ll Wil up from ancieru civiliu
1100<? Oíd\'"""'"' o.nntlcr aboul ...-omcn thc kinJs of qu.,.1ioo• r.hat Clln
be, a<keJ o[ bones: l-low olJ ,..•, •he "·hen •he had her fim period" Oid
"1e ~~ 1ha1 olJ, OiJ <he cal b<t> Do her li~amcn1 atuclunems show she
d.u~ anJ liHc:J too much lor her lumc' Otd shc bci.r a childt Was she
.iill a clulJ r.hm! Wcrc "·omcn's ,kuUs, bach. and leg. crackcd itlld
broltcn b, bloo.• whco thc> "'"" sull ahvct Bono ldve tbe lrind of trace
th•t 51>11,; ll'>Ul'O-\JllU,.¡, rnou1h> . .1nu,cs-Jo nol \\'e will never kn01&·
1f 1hesé "omcn "'cíe np¡>éJ <1pl'11 nr nu mio. llcr hrain lea•·cs no trace
d1hc1 anJ oftcn no rccwJ of 111 conienh. \X'c w11l ncvcr know if h.-r minJ
w., frmured, h<r <rlf 'l'lintcrcJ. her spim shwered \Vhai w•
ha''C left
of her " <1lent here \\'e wtll n~r hear 1he o.·or<k she •roke. ~o ancicnr
1able1 will hkdy 1ell u• wha1 <he •aid or whe1her she leamed m \\TÍte.
\X'hat 1 w~m to know 1hc mos1 about ll'Omen ol thc past 10: How chd
•he e.he~ D1J shc burn JcCl<lenrnlly lrom volcanic ash or on purpo;c from
111 kerosene? Du.I ~he 111akc hgh1 like BudJhbt mo11ks or go in10 tLrknei.s
l1kc mo•t of us? D1J <he J1c blccdin~ In childbinh und !mm 01.her wounds
con,idcreJ dolllL"llll"? W11' •he''"" .,f 1hc p.llnf'<',..,J fcw wc hear much '°
abou1. b;11he.t in m1lk anJ ¡>•rn<lcJ abou1 m<anin¡c. T 'iClrnetimc< think,
u~I hy t>nly one rn.1n JI • time, her duon' •liced out lc>ng •ince, pcrhaps
Jym¡c quictly of <Ollll' ""·nmnn'• Ji<ea•e" wc like 10 thtnk today is obsolete"
D1d shc dte tryin¡¡ 10 COllll' becv..ecn mcn in r.heir bonding confbcts aod
get run through hke thc s.b1ne "'-ornen m sorne man 5 unmorul p3Jllnn¡c!
DiJ shc J1< lur • I'"'"' bu1 whMC potnt>-hke thc ull<llcn at M.isaJ._.. 1
Was <he<'!""'"'¡ ot lurth bn.1u>c •he,. .. n•>t J bo> •nJ 1he M:lcctl\1'
tcchnolo¡;y tor 1lxnun¡; IJt"r An<I only her h.J not )CI bccn Jc'\..,loped>
lron;i • lrmurnpt ot e Lal1. dm .-a ~ ID die- ~mfC'ftDt'.C •t...lubal Su.au-'°lcl klr
'Thit b
Ac.t.mn, f.,,.. m dw <.auru O...mnü: \:mlmi. .. .. 1·. .a;1,..,,..._ Coenn-. (,W'lhftl.md.
Fm-,• 19'2
21
H•man Rt&hls '"d Clob1t Voolence A1a1nst Women 19
in our umc J?O~ >ecular
or unJcrgmunJ> \\'u, ohc .,,cnu.Jly luckc<l to dc-Jlh, her tn>ides tom out,
thc ,..,,l lli her <l1>pm<J of whcn thc>e plrt.• wcre not usdul ID tbí.s ""J}
•n) 1m>rd 1)11.I >he Jie by her nwn h•nJ, Ji¡¡nificJ JnJ powcrful. ¡·c1 1hc
11re.11n1 01p11ul.iitlfl m • worl.I 1h•1 "•ni• 1><>mm <lead?
Mo-.1 t>Í thc umc, u " h•rJly "'>nh ..kirlj! ,.·hethcr 1hc 1>·ay <he Llicd.
1ncludmg whm ,iolcn1, u'H dlecuvdy pcrm1ncd 1'ow • truly or.her·
wt•rldly quouoo: Her l!O\·cmmmt. JiJ 11 know <he existed. tbcn ceased
to cx1.>t? \\'a:. hér """""'" .and p...sin11 ncr <:1-cn counced? Otd sbe reg-
1>tcr cnou¡ih 10 bcwme a ua11.>11c:' For thc uomen ""'ºare around us OOU'.
bq;inninR ¡J...,..i) ID 1970, ¡¡.unJIJ¡! momcntum al"r 19SO, ansia·cn toques·
uons !tkc r.hoc lx-g.i.n to be ln01&TI \\"h.lt h•s bcen lcam..-d sin.:c-. • n:sul1
abnut m>lcncc .a~ain" ""mtn globally chmgcs C\'t:')1hm~.->r •hould-
•bout how ,..omt'n ·, 1" e• •nJ dcaths ore undcNood On"" such fom can
he 5"Cn to \.e pan o( 1 s\~lcrn, lhc ""ª' hum.an nghL• are understood,
parncularly r.he meanm¡¡ of cqual11v, alo;o chan~cs. or should .
B~ v1olcncc a¡tatnsi womcn. 1 mean •l(l?Tt<>1on ~e and explon.aaoo
ot womcn bccau;.c: "e are wom"'1. S\"Stcm1caJJ, anJ sys1emanc:all~. Sys-
tontc. mcarung >oelttll) pattcmeJ, mdudtng kxu.tl bat:1Ssmcn1, rape, bat-
1crn1g of won1en b) 1ntunate>. scxu.al abu.., ..,( ch1ldrcn. and womln k1llmg
In r.hc contcxi c.if ¡xwcn)' 1mr<:n•h<m, colon1..lism • .anJ raa>m S)">tcm•uc,
mcanm~ in1c1111nn.Uly nr11.1mze.I includin11 l"º'li1u11on, pomo11raphy, sex
'"""' ritU<d 1ort.urc, ond c:>ffid•I cusiodul 1onurc in which womcn are
cxplC>ltt-d und nolat<-d for i.cx, r<>l11ks. and proh1 tn a contel(t of, and in
intricale collnlxira1ion w1th. po•cny, 1mperiabsm. colonialism. and racism .
.Rcsearch on thes~ rcaluie. arounJ 1h~ world presenrs a p1crnre of ~­
grcssion that is phys1citl, verbal. anJ crnotionJI; ara that are unconscious
and rl'ckles~ a• well ., 1mcn11<>11.1l, thrt"•tcncJ .is wdl os dclivcrcd. This
•r>1em ,. •odc1v·w1dc. privoir '" 1>·cll •s public. Jircctcd •go111s1 childrcn
us wcll •• ••lults Ir. nfhci•l impunily i~ ~r.n1C<! by omi>sion us ,..eJJ us
commi•,10n. lw "h,u 11 foil• 10 do "' wdl .., h) whJt 11 does \'<'hcn the
sooal sy>tema111ot1t>n •nd lc¡¡"I rn~tiiuuona.ltzaunn of r.his abuse becomes
v1S1ble. connecuon> cmerrie bcrween marna~e and the family. and prosri-
1u11on and sexuJI har1"...ncn1 Both n:qwre sexual deil\'ery for matmal
su"·1val. 'lñc m.t.n-hu.b.tnJ, emplO)<r. punp, iohn-is m r.he socul po-
MU<>n to cxplon, donunJlc. •nJ lbc. In >uch •ptcm>. whJI b C211o.I v10lcncc
..,h<:n 1t 11 nc.~u-..c::J u 'uc.:h li cnJC'm1~, nP« exccpn<-,rttl, ~ tA·e:U J!!. ep&Jcmic
.anJ penA>ivc In 1<><1cuo <hJractcriLCJ by 1uch nrrungt'11lcms. and most
att, w<>mcn Jrc ob1cct• for 11Cxu•l 1111C, .....-nN .. pmpcny for ~on
and acb.rn¡I(", to be, •'i<>latc:d and ahntcd oi ,.,11
\X'or1J"1Jc r<'CJrch on nokn"" "l'dln,1 ,.·omm documcnts an O\'tt·
30 • lhtory ••d Rulotv
,. hdman~ •mounr ot JI, olwa,'5 unc:kroumJtc:J and comrdcrc:J ro be un-
J.r,vuntcJ l hcrnf,dmin~h. mcn do u 10 wumt,, lt 1.J.05 culruralh >pc-
uh<' tornu but 1> tttmanglv n<"cr noi rhc:tt <.;o.t'f11mcnr J....s nar ro
noth1111t d'f«t"" .1bou1 11 any•h.:rc \'i.,lcnc" •g.un•t \\'Ol'llm 1.-nJ. no110
be "'l:""',...i 1n1n da'<TI:IC cam¡>aagn•. hkc thc ~liJ.llc r..ui:c "' 1h., H<>-
1"'1111'1 \\uh """"""'· i1 has bttn a ttbm·c <"UlnmJ ronJ1<1111 h m•y be
•l('V. I\' gl..h.all\ ..->eala11n~. but e.en thc ras• nr prcsent knmm •mnums
that cxm •re cnouith lor an emer¡:eoC\
l re»; t-uhunal srudac:S ol '~olence ag.illm lliOmen u1 11111m•1c serun~.
Jrawn mo~th but nul cxclust\cl} lrom the Wcs1. pre.<:nl lllul1lmaung J ura
011 wilc •bu'C. ( .ross·ruhutal s1mlie> show thu1 rute> ol hu;banJ.10-wife
m1lcncc .re uhuut cqual in rbc Umtc:J StJll'>, J•tpm, Jnd lnJ1,1 Onc sruU)'
nf India hmt. 1h.11 [dlomesuc hoolagooi.m .anJ vi1>lencc ·~·nn.r m•mic.I
"'""'"" <'<'< ur all º'"' rhc world on a "~nificant and da<mrhan~ seo le "•
Thc '""'' C<'ndudcs rhar rn "'"'" dom1non1 s<><"icuc< lmosr arel, Jll!'rcssim
bv hu<ban,l~ a~ainst "~'eS as sooall..- cffecuvcl,- ollo,...J t\ srudv ot Papiu
:-.lcw Gu1Ma hnds up ro 67 percenr of womcn battettJ by mJle rnnmaics •
'1
In Ku,.•u. a 'mal) hnds tbc same for of I" womcn >UIVC')ed' In M:n~a
•na! llwWid s1uJ1CS ol nn.-spapers repon s1JUU,hunt •muunb ..,f alomcsuc
\loltn,c .agam•I womcn • In ~agcna ood lJb-mJ.t, sm•ll mJorm.t ,,uJ..,.
rnnfinn ahc ••nic Onc >tuJy of '•""'" S(lCacuc• 1n '''"' anJ C.m1ral
Afnc. ~h"" • th•I "'albc .,.;fe i• rhe mo.1 PÍl<:n 11wm.,rJ •nd mo.1 oftm
lulkJ I"'"'°" wuhm ahc immcdia1c domc.,lic ¡¡mup ., A •HW) nf Scotland
cnndu<k-, that ·u " in 1he marital setun¡t that "ornen are mO\I likdv ro
be anH1ivc:J m 11olence. and usually as 11cums • · In Canada. from 1%1 10
197~. 60 ptrccnt of womcn homicidc victtms wcre ktllcd m 1hcar famili~.
most ollcn b) 1hcir husban<ls. 10 In thc Unucd Srntc•. olñc1•l c>timat<:> are
Uhtt une luunh 10 one-tharJ of "-ornen .trc bancrcJ 111 rhcir homo, mmy
'Crt<'Uslv lt ¡, P<"S•blc rhat thc U ~- ratcs urt: raot thc hiphc>I m thc
wNlJ • arul) hornhl< rhought. '
"'ºº"
\ 1Wl'I U:-.1 repon <timmarize< thesr fin,lmg< .- "The nsk of
vaoknC'C ami vic>lauon •11hrn thc bousdmlJ """" 1h111¡t \\nntcn. ntt•pec-
tl\c nt rhnr ftlCllll"°''"º"·creed. colour or culrurc. <hore 111 rommon. • '
h m1¡¡h1 h,¡,., added 1h11 <ocia) hierarchical lacro!'\ 'uch os ..acial po<Won.
""'· and cuhutt <"111 rncn:a,.c u'O!llm"• 1-ulncrabili1) 10 rh1> n<k ol abuse.
ll>c ..me >tuJ~ al!IO "~'cd. "l\'laokncc '' p•n ot thc: J1n.m1.:s ol manv
l•mil> ""''"'"n' In J.,.dopm¡t and J~dopcd 1<'<.,clld, 11tduotn•l and not.
'"'men •re bc1ng murdc...J . .isuultcJ, ,.._.,.u.JI) •hu1cJ. 1hroa1encJ. and
hunul1Jt<•J \lllhan 1he1r 011n home-< by mcn to whc>m thC'V h••·c c<>mmmed
ahtrn'<lvt'i Thi< doe< nm scem 10 be C"11<iderod unu\u•I, nr uncomm<>n
hcha\l(>r "" ~ n:¡>Nt conunues 10 ob<cf\T.... uh rq¡onl ro bannv m
panicular. thJt ·u ha' ~one bqtely unpum,heJ. unn:markcJ anJ ha>"'""
bc.:n IJllth, al no< exrbad<, condoo..i "" A!thaugb thcrc " Ln.k rontro-
\U.J oo rh., o.l>lC'll<c ot rlu. probl= .lfl\.,.licrc, ll ltt.ll1> that mooa place>
nttd ro <lo rl>nr ov.11 "udi to C011\111Cc U>Cln that '""· 11 luppc11$ bac
lOO,.
farla1n11111 h•nc.-nn~ a< more rontro\'c.-rsaal 1h•n donamcnung au n1$
acnt-c In ¡he lueratutt. bonery of w<>m<:n 11 attrib111r<l ro, omm~ 01bcr
than¡:s. alcC'>hol. dru¡ts. mcss underdC\"'1opmcn1. mcntal 1llncs.. and a cyde
of vte>lcnce The-e explanarions fail 10 <:xplaan why not Jll mcn "ho are so
alllictcd ban<r, nnJ wh) somo ol rhosc mcn who urc not >O altl1cted-
1ho.e d"'·dopeJ, ~bcr, 'ªªº mcn-Jo. Pcrhopi. 1h1> I• whrre i.tr..-.s comes
111, but 11 v.oulJ hJvc lO be thc SUC$S of [)nvdcgc No1h11111 cxrlam•. or
uttcmpt1 u' c''"l.un. \li.'h} won1~-\\·ho are p<)('U'e1 {ha1n mcn. l•t.:k dc\'cl
opmro1 fl'S<'urcc< roo. ore morr stres..,d. ha1-e b.:<:n hru1al11c.I for ~""'"'
ounn• "'"'"'~ Jrink and r•ke drul!" ro dcnl "11h 11. and ne .,facn Jri,=
cr.m ¡,, 11-do nN battcr mcn more
~n~ ,,.-.lcncc •11amst womm r; • form oi thc «'ICUI mcqualny ol the
~C> as 1hc anal\"IS thJt h.i> come out <:l th<: >hdtcrs ,..¡,c..., rhe be.u.:o
.. ornen ¡:u. h 1; rhc: anal)"'' md cxpla=uoo th<: ~r-roors \l.'OITlcn's mme-
mcn1 M>rlJ .. adc h» proaluccd. anatt>10gl) «xplnted cm¡>trt<.UI, 111 work
lakc tha1 <>Í 1hé Daba.h<S. The grassroors "'"'mcn'• mrn;cment u abo
rnponMhlc l<>r ¡:m-ernmcnr.t anennon 10 th<' rrohk-m Bcfore thc wome11 '1
llh"\·cmc1n Jna.immu:d its exisrence, ~o,·cmmcnt~ c.liJ n<'I dr1~n to noticc
i1. for le<~ kccp rrack of 1r. 1 Morcovcr. C\'t'n <thl'l•l'\h1p rh•t noticcs tha1
incquJ!ny bcN-een womcn and men explruns violcnce ag;ain~t wom.:n rends
nnt tn da~~-u;s whar tha1 inequalicy of thc •cxe. ts llM:U. about. U <ex m-
"'lualny c•pl~ms \aolcncc ag;iinst women. what, In tum, cxplJtn• sex rn-
"'JUalit) r \\'ha1 1> thc vaolcnce that ls pm ot gcnJ<r 1no4u•l11y •b<JUU ln
panac'Ular. ··h) "°"• "'' ane4u:ility, wru.h 11 S<Xltl~ wu:lc, "'' marlccJI~
pmJuce h•ncnng of ..·ornen in anurn.11c wntcxta~
C".ansidcr rhar hatrrrin@: PÍ womm ma• be ~hout oa tn thc rombincd
co.W anJ ~enJer ..,.,..,,. rhe pov.-e.r of men gf1Un1t "h.u 1b.,¡ •·ant .nd
fed S<Xully cnntlcd ro: thc: thnll of domtnmce rhat ts both lnenl and
cia~tory, thc Joil'e lor domm'1uon thar ts codi.lic:J u ma,culJnc adcnmy
and cxpcnenced » .úhrmaoon and pkasurc. 'iolro.c as an acr of !'O" cr
º"'' anothcr th.at 1> •c:su.al donunmcc'• ulum.tc rum -on anJ hn.J cxpro
iri.1,,n lñt• m1J:,hl m..1.lc.e som~ Sd\$.e of the " "'} bouu:nn~ 11 rom;,1.n11cized,
t'TC'll1.11et..I, c"<oncr.tt1,.--d. md cncoura~ed hcncc cfttt1t\t:l\ J"t."nnHtcJ, 1n
mdll\ ol e>ur tuliurc< lt malre"S sen"" .,( thc eml-eddang an low r>Í mb of
J1 • lft,.ry 1nd R••l•IJ
mJKulanm and lcmamnin-, p-.iralkl to thc dm1m10 ot battenng's dofW·
n.UICc onJ subrm.,,.100. •cuoo aod !'&>'MI) lt mü.o sen.e of tbc cbydum
and cx'Clcs ol banam¡t."' v. bicb trad. thooc ot ~tllJl...ochism_ h mako
tcnK ,,¡ rhc r.tat and dlc.:11\"C Jq,.t a<ecptabduy oí bancrmg ioduJmg
murJcr, undcr rubna of cnmo ol h<Joor anal r•s.100,.. configureJ a.
rxr•r<'UÍOD.• nf 1hc nulc rok ond thc rnrmMty ot h<-1erof~u.i love and ahc
honor ol rhe IJmil)
Sttm¡: ..,, as an eroocization ol hat red 11 rrohlt>matic for many people.
bur 1 think thar D\ISOg}-11)' as tbc namc of 1he S)~tem we are confronl1lllt
her~. and pan of the difficulr. of explamin1t rhaa sysrem so persisrem and
ren.adous, lio \\,th leavmg scx out. 111 thl$ connernon, note that rhe UN
.lclrniuon oí domesnc \'toleoce andudcs bmcrm~. tape. 1nccs1. and e010-
uon.1l Abuse. yct mosr of rhe 1.Lua collectcd d..cwhcre under the rubnc
nf Jomc•ll< 1ic>lence do not mduJ.: 11> 11<:xu.al fonn> dt 1tll. cvm rape
PreJmahh. rhe more women are .c:•u.tiud an 1 •ociety. the hi¡ther thc
acnul 1nor r-eponcdl nue of battenng wnuld be Thi< W<>uld make "'""'
of rhc e<calanon m ba~nn~ rhar wtlll'l<'JI rq>0n frnm de1Tlopilllf roun!TÍ<s
•nth rbc mtlUJ< of JlOl1l<lirNphY ...-bach ~•ualazes 111equal11v on • mass sc:ilr.
1hhoul!h k-s public means oí SC11u.!12111g u-ornen can al.o be effecuve.
1lo~. "''OOlen ol the future ,.ill knO\I me>rc about U> dun our o.-
••hc:J rdll""' can tdl Bu1 "'"" 1lu1 v•c hi\"C 1 bcctcr 1Jca of ,..¡,., ,.
ha¡•p<-n111~ 1<> thc bones oí 1he women arounJ u>. "har to Jo; ~"hcn
\Hllrn'c lf1nun~1 "':ornen hcc"mt"t a JlC'f'J"'t'Cll\(• JI ,h.1n~cs \\'hat )"OU Stt.
nr •ht>ulil 1hc famih• th•t brccd< u, 1hc cu•tom• 1h.11 j.atil) 11, the culrural
•pl'Cifie11y thot ludes it. the rdi1'1011 tha1 cxcu<cs nr •nnctifies it, the wan
rhar moke 11s or~noized qualiry offictol, the lei:.11 nouons like rorrure that
txdudc 11. rhe ansutuuons of law enforcemenl 1ha1 cssenualh· legalize ÍL
Human ra~hrs b•ve agoored it almosr coniplt1cly
t:. .. ung k-gal appro:tch~ 10 ba11ermg rcvol' e oround whethcr the cnm-
in.al ¡,,. anJ-or..kr approacb or thc n><:Ji.iu<'n conctl~oo therap) and
..,lutano docs nol worlt in r•rt be<·-
C"Juc.111nn •rrro.ch "' bcucr :-.lorh<:r .1NlCll'1 lU ttJlh· lliork. The criininal
1he •me is nol nn sí.:k 11ic
meJianon cnociliarion appmach SOO><;llOl"" raluce< tte1drvi<tn but cJ,...
""' ottm to ha'-c: rmdr much ot a dmt tn abe mci<lcnce r.11e<. Banercr<
kccp on bccn~ produccd. <;ince .,,Juuons <hoold hr problcms. it banam11
" a <<><"aal probl<UJ of sex mcqualn~. ars legal soluum •hoold líe tht:OU¡?b
.ex cquoilirv 1.,. Althou¡th ~-ou ...'OU!dn 't kn""· lt, cquahl} law t:x!Sb m
wme funn nc•rly n·Of}"'berc, but nowhctt d<>c> 11 >CCm 10 moan that
ft(>\Cnuncnt mu~ gt\C \!.'Ornen frccJom lrc~m m.,ll" Jc1m1nanL:e, that ~ cnJ
ex ane<1u1h1, 1n .JI 11s fonns, andudmg 11cnJer b11JC.J \i<>l•nr on<S. lnsread.
 !1111111n R11hls and Global V•olence A111nst Wo111en • 3l
crinunal lsws eren •1olence againsc women unequalh•. wuh no ronsmu-
aonal rontrols, wbile avil legislnnon g1vcs individuals actions íor sex dis-
crimtnauon in many aieos of soci.il lift:-except u·hen th~) ore hun
th t'ou¡;h m•lc vlolenci..
lnstcad of cmpowcring thc s1ntc, •s crimm•I l•w <loes, l.1w could put
more p<>wcr 1n the hnnds of women borh to confrom 1he staie. where
necessary, mcludin~ through imemmiooal and onnonal forums, ond co di-
recdy confrom meo in socieiy who barm i:hem. The reco~nition that
women are violmed. a form of unequal rrearmem, because we are women
oeeds legal reeth. The connections need to be mude between th" strutture
of marria;gct sexual haril$Smcnt. and J>rosntution, hcnce bctwcen rupc. bat
1cring, •nd sexual humiliauon and .ibusc at home, in bro1heh, nt work. on
thc 'trccts,""ti in 1>0rnograph)" Ar thc ume umc, connoct womcn's pov
crty wi1h men's u-eal1h, expo$ing the link berween the prcsence of o white
industriafüed milicary t111d womeo ond clu1dren becomin~ a cash crop in
coumries of color, showing prosdruaon. as a 1985 UN repon revealed. m
be a movemenr of poor women toward rich meo and sex tounsm to be a
mo,'Clllent of rich roen toward poor women." We can s1~n anywhere be·
cuu~ ali thesc issues u~ intcrconnec:tcd. Bur we necd to Slan, msurutiQn·
.ilizing anti intcrruiúonaltzing i.c.• cqUlllity nglm1 in \\'Omen's hands to <b
ins111uuon.U,.,, nnd finnlly 10 end, the govem1nenul paitcrn. n•tÍOn•l .md
internntional, of collnboratio11 in the violent scxUlllized subordina1ion of
women.
3 quences for i:he status und tl'Olcmen1 ot women as such. Women's p0511-ton
Theory Is Not a Lu.xury
AuJrc Larde showcd thut p<ieu; i~ n0t • luxury of thc privileged but •
nece.-icy for the discmpowerc:d.1 Her milir:tn1 rcdama1ion of w!r.tt ha<l
beco ron,idcrcd •n dítc male projcct inspircd thC$e rcmarks
"Theory• is oftcn used ·~ a club ro invaliruue criricism of established
wa}"S of lookmg a1 thin~. lt is said that tbe oitics lack tbeorerícal rigor,
or, d tbey have a theol}" they ha\'e just a theory. As Moiru McConneU pur
1t. ·die d~ation 'meo!) [isJ a polincnJ statcment as to tbe e.xistence ot
sorne oou-tboory position "; the "non·tbeory pOSttion •is tbe one "imagmed
by the meo who huvc donunntcd thc wodd's powcr structurd."' We hu,·c
• thcory, 1he)· h.ve rcality. \'ChLlc s)mpatl1eiic "'th the rcsulang impulse
10 jcttison theory, 1 hope 10 persuade you not to give it 10 men. That
would mean accepting rea.lny as rhe most powerful men see and clcfine it,
whJch ulnmately meaos accepñng reali1y as chey make and live 11. Women
can no more •fford chis m 1he mrernational legal order than anywhere clsc.
New theories belp make OC\\' rcalicies. lmerpreted in 1his hght. Moira
McConnell's s1<11emro1 can be datmed JJ 1hcory.
Thl'Of)' approprio1cs rcaluy i.n a ccn•i11 w•y-its way is method-10
m.1ke thc world •c~siblc t<' undcr..umding •nd dlll.n_gc. lt IS • w•y oí
~cning J grip cm 1hings. To hdp movc iowo1rd new thcory, T i<lentit}
common themes in 1hc papers dclivcred oo 1his r•nel ílJid then ronsJder.
in ligh1 of them. the intemaüonal legal strucrure's response 10 o currem
example o! women 's unequal rrearmem.
Common themes easily emerge trom these p11pers. The h.tnd of men as
such is see.n mO\ing behmd che iruemalional legal order, \\11h consc-
ThJl utk ..., runcl 101 1.hi: Womcn Ul l.tuct,wk,llU)
¡cj\"t!ft t'ID 11 u. ltH('~t Gf\>Up al th... An1a
11t1n ~al fntrrrwo~ l-;1u•'• 81th. i\J1r)UAI \lttfine Arril J, J9'>\. itl \t'.i.'Jhina.tM, OC. h
wa11o on.t ru~"' R~,,r.rr.·,,1, R.f-,.bl"I W<- '11(',, '" 1,,,n.,.,1"''""1 z..,i. SJ :SrudtC'$ in Tril.IU·
o/
rt.Jt1on.l lqitl f'.,¡.c:y s.., .?1, ¡1,..,,.,..J,. /01.."'"' l'tlrnw1P411 L,w>•Oonntl• G. D.illmeyn, a!
19C1l~
Theory Is Nol a lumy JS
under lntemJuonal law 1s 1denúhed as mu ch liko women 's p0>i11on tn Jo.
mcsuc ltgal ri:ttimd: morgin.Jized. exduded, subordinatcd. lt is qwte u
tnck to k<'q> ~ pt.'Qple, pJnicufarly whm thcy ure ú1e majorit), on thc
cdge, om. and Jown ai the sume rime. bu1 meo hove ligured out how 10
do it !O women Each pa~r rreats this quesrion of locntion hy seeking to
siruate women m 1he internat:ionul le¡¡al order. Barbara Stark sees women
at 1he center, Moira McConnell shO\\"S women marginalized lñe paper.;
also understand thc nc~'CI w changc more than pem:púoo to change
wom"'1 's posiuon m th1s ordtr. Anoi:her chscern1blc tbeme, L:Xphett lll
sorne, subte...\l in others LS the .. chcre is no common theme· thccne: the
1
diversi1y of wom!'.n's expcl'icnce leadmg to the disrupuon of cn1ego11es,
rhe <omplex11y 1111d insrnbility OÍ ooncept. oncl world. Herc, women·~ SJt·
ua<ion delies ordered gl!:neroliiarion, reduction to rulo, and codilicntion.
This notion can resist imposed fonns of thinkmg und being. but it can also
deny realiry's n11idities and imposed pa1tems. l1 is alm051 as if rhere is no
•'Uch thmg as the statUS and treatment of womcn You w!U find me in
tension with th1s Lmer vicw. A Jinal theme. both ob,fous and tncapable oi
bcing reptatcd 100 oftcn, is the need Cor change, Th1s animatc:; Hilary
Clutrltswonh's call to "chMge the heartLtnd."' Barbara Srntk's urgmg of
1
n "bottom~up" transforn'httioa and distancing fmm \1.'01ncn ~ subordino·
tion,' and Moirn McCannell's "brenkfin¡¡] [olJ rhc molds. "•
Hil.uy Charlesworih prov;des a masterful summary of emer~n¡¡ fcmini<i
literarure on international law (indeed. she co·"TOI• sorne of thc best of
it). This literature reco¡mtzes thc state as patriarchal, m.ilitanzcd. and bi·
emrducal on the basJS of sex. She ar¡tues tbai, more fundameni:al.I}. i1 1s
sowreign. The example 1 wall discuss wjth )-Ou tllkcs up this ruialysis, ~·
lustnuing how SO•<:rcignty as a ddinition of tlie sme as suth, uit.lun an
intcmorional ordcr <lefincd ~s an order of sovcre1gn statcs. hns workcJ co
1k-ny the human ri11hrs of wornen Sr.tes bond ,v;,h e-Jth other interna·
tionally to pe:rmit mcn to violare \\·ornen :1crC1ss state borden~:. jus:t as mc:n
bond wich each other for chis end within stau:s. lo Barbara Swk's tenns,
this example chooses process over abstract tbeory. lo my teans. Jt makes
tbeof)' out of practice. This analysis aspires to build a piece of theory ol
the lun.d \VC need rather ilion 10 talk about how theory JS or should be
done.
In Octobcr 1992, , piece of rculit)' 11rriveJ """' my fax machino. Ii
C\'Cnrually rcsuhed in mJ bcing reiaincd pro bont> by whJt •re now fivc
women's groups, three. in Croati3 and rwo in Bosnia·Heriegovina. m seek
incernational le¡ral jusñce for mass sexual arrociries. Ir srnied:
36 • lbeory end Ru111y
!xrbun for«> h•>< <•l~ml111Jll.J uH·r 2llJ.()lXJ Cro;uans and MU>lims
thu• fi1r t.n an 0J,t'r.u1on thl1 \e comed •nhnac c.:lrJJU.Ulfl • In thts 8cnG->
dJc, 111 llt"n•• l lcrzcll"'''"" al.me, ,,.., lll.000 Mu.hm >lnd Crn.uan (llrt.
anJ ,..,'lllcn .,... r1T¡:iun1 lmm m.iu urr Of rhc hunJml Strhoan run
cmcm1ra11m campt, .1ho•111 tw<"nty a«· ,,.,Jdv r•J'l"/tk.a1h campo for
Mwlnn .md Crnauan wc~n •"" <h11d1TR Thctt ª"' ~.,. ITp<'n• and
ptetutt> hc:n- ot ~"'" iank, rla•térN ..,.h J'<'m.,.rapl11 .and rqions
th.i1 tho.c -..ho catch thc "'e of thr mm ltx>~ •• lb< pomo¡¡rapby are
lullc.l ~e m-..cmi 111 'ill.to.'<"' "'" cll •> r•po 111J a«UU<Jru IO ampo
.,e bcin~ \IJcoup<J .. 1hn re happcn1115 Onc Croauan ,.....,.., clc-
KTib<J betait h•nured by ck<tn< llh<><l• anJ ~.&ng·nircJ in a camp ~
Scrbun mm .mu.-J '" <:ro.111m 11núorms ... ho 6lsncd thc urcs aaJ
focccJ htr 10 "ronlcss M lilm 1ha1 Cn>•u.&nt nrcJ ht"r In '"" "'""''
al 7.ogrd>, UN troopt <>hm ..k local """1Cn ¡,.,,. much they et><t Tune
OJT rq><>ns o! 1Tt\.q;Ot! "'OCllCll b<-ing forcnl to «xualh <l't\,.,,dx t:~
rroops 10 ""'~'-e lid Tomor'IO\\" 1 ..tk 10 two <WVlmrs of m""' rapc-
chtm lllftl p<r Ja, tor O\cr thrOt! month. Wc •e hc.rd thc U!\ passcd a
•<
resoluuon "' colla.~ C\1tlcn<e thc b,.t >lcp tor a 'l'ar crunc> IDlli. but
Jt •~ s~ud hett: thjt thc~ a. no prn:.cJcnt for tryutg K.xual atroauo
Thc C\COIS J"' fam1h.ir . 1Llcgal t>r nN , on C>CI')' coun"' m the worlJ
cvery da> ~s wcll o• m war: rJpc, forc:cJ mothcrhoo<l. P""titutioo, por-
no¡miphy <exual murder, ali on 1hc be<is nf ""x and ethmcity combined
The 1n1emauc>nal le¡¡al order i• no1 prcdicated on the need to addt'e$S thcm.
but many are fonnally proh1bued under m1emanonal law, aJJ ot them 10
anne<l conthcis. Whe1her they ure fonn•lly prol11bucd or not. the.e prnc·
UCC$ ore oonrrhclcss w1Jcl)· pcrmmcJ us 1hc libc:rucs of th1:1r pcrpetr•tOI'$.
cxces> of pJHIOn. spoil• of vk101;. ur by produ<ts t>f ,...ar Vmu.Uy nmhing
" done JOOUI 1hcm wi1hln t1r •mong nation' They tcnJ 10 b., lcwiil> ond
<ociaJI) mioMliicd. <>flidally winkr.1 •t, '" 10 ><>me mst•nc.:> fonnaUy
condoncd Mos1 of ali. 1hcy ""' C>\crlookeJ · women Sn why
The panicular ronftict d~~ribro m the fax exempWics how existin~
human rt¡?hts onrurunon•, as muc1uJ by thesc papers. can "'orle io cover
up and confu.e "ho rs Joinj? "·h.tt 10 "hom anJ Ülu> eftcrovelv condone
nrocmcs. Thc plrllt> 10 tht> conl11ct anJ tbc atnxme. Ul 11 are covcrcJ
by m1crnauonal humanu•run bw .111J thc la"' vf war.• Ye1 no1h1n11"' fu
h•• bccn 1nvt>kcJ to >1(>¡> 1hc ah....... or to holJ '"" pcrpctraton llCcoun•·
abk Thc Llct of Scth1an ·~""'"'" " ~.,,.,J <¡UC>tinn. rt•M 01 thc fact oí
mak anrn<K>n ogatnSI """""" both In thB "Ar and "'~"· Ja\, I< beyond
que<IJOll 'Ethmc clcansmi:" L•. "crh..n rolicy ol e-<tennmauon nf non·
Seth< w11h 1he l!t'al ol crcaun · a C..rc• ter ~'ª· • h IS • cuphcrnisrn for
Theory Is Not a Lumy • 37
¡tenoc1de. 'et th" •ltilrc'""" h.t> rq,.,JtcJI) beco con;1rucJ .._, bJa1eral,
.u a c1\ ti u ar or an cthnu: ,._,nalu.;t. lU che ª''._"mp.a.n1mcn1 of mudt wter
naut>nal \\'Olltlcrnl<nl 'h.. rcorl<' CJnnOI ~<~ •lonjt .mJ P'"°' cludung Jl
ancicnt h.11rcd• •nJ 1hc h•J l~hl\1t>r ,,¡ "ali ~,J.,.· h 11 r<nun1secn1 oi
bbmmg "nnicn (.,, ~omn~ ouf\clH.. ,.red bv mcn ,..• lmow ¡¡nd rhcn
cha<1mng u• for n<>t hkon¡¡ 1hcm ''ttl "·di altcrward<
~ 'ªIX"' ª"' not grJ<rcd a< a <1ra1~ m iecnoade or as • rractitt
ot rnlso¡t\'Tl\, lar less as wha1 thcy are, which 1> both •1 once. \\'ha1 t>
lnppen111g to Bo.ntan Mu.,lun anJ Cl'Oll!Wl "ornen •• the lunJ. of Sccbun
torces 10 tlus ~cnocick 1> contmuou. both "uh an cthruc '"ª' of aggrc,»10n
m tlx rcg100 •nJ 1he ¡:ent.krcJ "ª'o! a¡:¡:reu1un ol "'"'>.hl bfc This
"u b 10 r•pc C\cl) Ja) -.hJ1 thc l loloc.10'1 ••• 10 •nll Sm.1111m C\-c"
d&1 vmhout 1hc "'cr"l.oy, thc wnl11~rauon roulJ noc cimt, but do nol
rn1<12kc onc for 1hc nthcr •
In th" onslau1tht •.\lu-hm anJ Croauan wornm and 1ttrl• are rapa!. then
murckn:d: 'omctunes thetr CO<J"!C\ JIT nipcd "'"well. \\hm th1s "' noúet:d
" 1s calleJ ~thér gcnornle '" rape. rathcr than rapl' 11> a prarucc: ot geno-
odc tl1rtttcJ SJ""'Úl<>LI) •11.un.1 <crtlWl "ornen h " ""'" •s cuhcr pan ol
• comp.ugn ot Serbia ·~ltn>t non·Serb1• or J "'"' b) nvnbJtants ag3Ulst
avih.mi. ót .in JU;u:k b~ mcn 1&Mrun~t WC'mm. ~lmf.."timn 1t u sttn J:S susr
anmher rn•••nco of •~ll""'"ln by .111 mcn •~.oln•t tll ""ornen •U rhe time
""p<:eiallv in ,¡JJ w•n. rothtr th•n "il•t i1 ~ctu.111~ i• which is n1pe b,· sorne
rn...n aµin•I ccrldm womcn m thl\ ¡tenociJc. which is bein¡¡ cnrried on in
pan throuph war
Tlte point ot much ol thc 1hcoriung that has gonc on arouml this c'OnJlict
appcilts to be to obscure b)· .iny mc•m ov1ill•ble exactly who is Joing wbot
LO whom anJ why <Ul<I to define thc problcm so 1h.11 no onc can or oectl
h
Jo •n)1hin~ 1100111 ~nen thc -.ornen survi\'c, thc •••P•• 1cnd 10 br re·
,,¡
¡t.rdctl ;s •n 1n<" 11nb1li1y ,1rmcJ c1>níl1<1 1hc w.r of all ag'1ins1 :tll-or
._, • mere conunuauon c>Í 1hc ho•ulnir• uf civil life, ol all rncn ·~"'"" nll
'"""'ene. anJ on "·ha1 <1Jci !Upe docs ocrur in war
amon~ and bcrwccn ali <1des R.lpe " also • d~tll' aet by mcn a¡;amst women
and IS alwavs an ac1 of dt>mmauon b1 meo ovcr "omm. But tlic fact cha1
tbest rape. are pan of an cthmc war of •AA•<»•oo bang rrusrcpn::.enrcd
as • cMI '""' "'"""lt cqual •AA<CS~<'rs mean• that Mu>lun mJ Cro•uan
\\"01nen .are iKuitt tv.1cc .1~ rna.ny r11rnics,., uh tv.10: .t!i atan~· cx~-tu.·o
l.t1cn of mcn cm tc>p ot 1hcm rath<"r 1hm t>nc, onc ln"r iuempnng 10
cxtmnm"'• 1bc <>th<T l•¡<'r, -.11h rwo i.,...,. of 1mrun11) l<"ing '" ¡u<rifv
thc rapc< thc "¡usl war" kvd anJ 1hc "¡ust bír" ln-d And noihmg is
hcm¡¡ done ª"""' eJthcr o! them
Like all rn~. thesc rape> are parucul.r 1> "-di a. 11enenc; tlic paruc-
uUnl) d<>1."> l>l•ll<r Tht• 11 cthmc <JI''<' In otboal poli<y. lt ,. not onl) by
¡uucrn ,,¡ rn.1lr ¡•lr•<Ut< ;nJ m•lc J>l>,.·cr unlc..hcJ. 001 only b) mlent m
ddik, 1onur< humil1.11c, dcgr•J<', mJ dcmornluc thc othcr .,Je. and no1
mh' 1n 1.1n 1u1nnrc cu ~''" ad\ ¡¡n1•¡.;c 11nJ J.!rounJ ovcr othcr men \X'hat
1h1< t<- 1h15 tn\C•k.-. 1he 101cm•uonal lq:al ron1na •pcct/icallv-is rape
undcr e>rdcr< h t< not rarc out ol control h 1> rapé undcr conirol lt "
.ibo rape unto J,..1h. rape 11> m.1».1C1T, rap< 10 kili and to mili ncnms
""'h th<) 11>crc J.,.J. h IS r•pc 11> an 10>trumc:n1 oi lom~J i:xilc, to makc
}"" kJ1c \'OUr home anJ l>C\cr -..un to come b.id. lt 1> abo rape 10 be
"""" anJ hc•rJ b) 01hcn upe u >pé<Ude lt 1> thc '"P<" of DlüOg}n)
l1hew1..J f,. xcnorhubia anJ unlca>hcJ In· otlictd commmd. h ,. rape 10
Wal~r 1 pctlpk, tO Jm~ • v.cJgc thruu¡th a communtt\ 10 Jcsuoy ÍI h
1$ rap< IS j!t"ROC1Ck
1t thl< \>Ctt ractJI rape, 1n thc Amencan 'Cll...,, n would be nipc as
rollunon. The childttn "'Ould bc ~arded as • dim • and • conwrunared."
tha1 1>. 1he1r mo1bc"'' bab1e<, Bl.ick bab1eo. a. m the Amencan Somb under
;l.-ery. But 1n 1h1> paruculAr cthno1. rape. wh1ch ha. no racul markcr:s, tbe
ch1!Jrcn are rc¡tJrJcJ d> m-.i1<•ll> el""" and punfieJ, u their fachers' bJ·
b10, 'icrbim h.1h1cs-or, ., dc•n •• un~onc , ...h J woman's blood on
thcm .mJ tn th,·m '"" l'C Thc Scrbran 1Jca 'ccrn' to be 10 crcate • lifth
column with1n Cr.1ot1Jn onJ M"'hm \OCICI) chtlJren who thc ~bi.m
force:< <ttm to 1m•~mC" will ull b.: s<>n<-who will ri<c up and join thdr
lathers. Much of 1h" Serbtan 1Jeolo¡ty md pracli"' sunply iak~ a ~
trom the Nazi book But tn the Serb1an abuse oí women's rcproduawc
c~pncil), on ,Jumate raet.ilu:mon of sooet) ba. beca uchie,ecl tbc v1ew
1hJt culture 1s gcnc1k 'lltc >pectJd< ol tbe UN uoops violatlllg the people
1hcy .uc 1htr<' lll 1>ru1cu udJs .1 t<•uch ol 1>ervcntl) And tbe op.mness of
1he u"",,¡ ¡•ornoµr•phy, tht «>n>ci<•u• mnlung of pornograrh> of the ••ll'OC·
inc>. .mJ 1h u'e ª' S.:1 hr <n w•r prc'r"~•ntlJ m.ikl' this pcrhaps 1hc firs1
1rul)· n1,xlt"m \\'•Ir
Now rcturn 101 hla"' Charleswonh's d1<cu"ion of wh)' rhc inrematicm31
human nghts of "ornen Jrc m"rc fraa1le 1h..n other rlj!htS. lntcm2tiooal
1ru.1rumcnh Je...lmg -.nh Wt•rnc:n. she nc>tl"!>, b.. e wcakcr unplementanon
oblo~•Uoo• •nJ 1u0<cJurc, l'hc iiuutuUOO> J011tncd to monnor tht'III are
unJ•-r roourccJ, 1hcu r<'llcs ul1cn mcunl>Cttlxd comp;areJ "1th otlier
hum•n nghlS bo..l1t~ 11ic -.1Jo1,.c-JJ l''"'uce of malun¡: "'''"'"llon> 10
fuml.tmm1al P"'"''""' u 1olcra1cd, •• 1< 1he f•ilu"' ,,f ''"'"' "' fu!ñll thctr
ohli~ation< unJcr 1he 1n•1rumm11
""1rc~•nit for tnlt'm•t»nal tUSIK'C tor BP.n ..n and CroarUJn V.'{Wllen, 1
lrt-.e ~• .,,cJ th•• thesc tX....-naum> are arruratc To sa1 thar tbe mtcr·
 Theory Is Not 8 LUlVI)' • 39
national system is ¡¡endered 1s no enJl¡leraúon. il1ld ns ~ender«I dynaaucs
do revol'-e around srate só,·ert·l¡¡ofy. Th= women are not • statc. thcy do
JlOC C<lJlltOI J •tale; no Sl'1lC representc:tJ them unciJ B°'"iJ MJ.J Scrbld for
gcnocide 1n 1hc ln1cmauonal Court of Jusuce. ' W'i1h u fcw cxccp(ions
(cxccptions 1hu1 eith.r do no1 opply here or hnvc no tecthl, hum•n ri¡thts
instrumenrs empower <tates tQ acr a~runst sisees. ""' indhidu~ls or ¡tmups
to nct on their own behalf, wbethcr agrunst smes or individuals. Civen
1ha1 mrunlv only srnte violation.< of buman rights are reCOjlnv.ed as viola-
tloos, chis is particularl)• odd-<!Spe0ally aher 19~5. "'hen 11 nu¡:lu have
been leamed that <tates tan violate the hum<m n¡¡hts of chose wbo are noc
starcs and who bave no sme ro aet for thcm. Under internauonal law,
stJtC. rcmain thc dominanc unit. Tht:)· ""' im•Rintd thc prúnary violutors
of hun1Jln righ1s JS ,..eJI as being che ones cmpowcred "' redress thC>sc
violarions. HO\\-r convenient
Nor ooly does this smist •tructure of interoarional human ri¡zlu. leove
out men's so-called privatc aCtS agamst womeo, 1c also meaos cha< no State
has an wcentivé to bréak r<mks wnb smes as such by mo.,ng to set a
human rights Stilll<lard for women 's starus 3lld trearmcn1 th1u no srace yec
meelS "'tlun itself or (seerus tol want to be beld to internauon.Uy. Why,
oiherw1se, Ju.~ no s.t.uc-1hose ..·lth tlic powcr ro do something about thcsc
u1roclti<$-stepp.J up to act on hchalf of 1hcsc wom•n umler the hum•n
righis inscn1meots availnble only 10 stotc» Perhaps bec-Juse it is a •tundard
by which i1s º"'ll beha,1or h"s foilcd, since no state effeetively ~uarantres
women's human ri¡thts witlun tts borders. So. imemaáonally. mcn's states
prorecr each other from women's rights tbe way meo pro1ecr each other
from women's ri¡thts wítluo states. Sovereignry is thc name of tht pnnc1ple
in thr name of wbicb men respec1 this. A1 least this IS ouc cxplruuuon,
consi;tont w11h thc p•pors and ibis cxpcnencc, for thc failurc of thc. intct·
lllltional system in tbis ms1.inec so for. Which si.te is in • position to
challengc another on thc human riAh1> of \\'Orneo? Wluch state will?
As to mcn's so culltd privnce acts a¡1;1inst womeo. wart:ime is somc1hiag
o( a k¡¡al cxception. More of what men do 10 "'ornen 1s form•lh- covered
in \1'1l'r tban in peace. Arrocuies by soldiel$ \1.gaiast avilians, so loo¡¡ as they
are in 1be scope ot armed conllm. are always secn as essentially srate aets.
Bu1 .men do in war "'ha1 they Jo m pcacc. \'Qhcn u comes 10 women os
civiliJO ca•ualries, the c"t>mplac:cncy that >uuoun<ls poicctime cxtentls 10
w.ir, how~·vcr thc la••• ...,.d. BarbJra S1•rk showcd th•t ""'"'" ri¡¡his gel
1reo1ccl 1hc "'"Y womcn ge1 rreau:d The more • conllict can be: fromed os
\\i1hin a s1a1e, as a civil war, •• social, as domes1k. the Jess human riAhts
are reco¡¡nized to be vmlatccl. The doser a fi~ht comes co hPme. the more
40 - Theo,., i•d Reahty
fctruntzed the rights and thc victlms tno matter their sc.x) become. ood the
k.,.s likcly rn1cma11onal human 11¡!hts \lill be louod to be v101J1cd. no
maucr whar w•s done.
Hnw - indctcrminale • is tlús rc.ility> lt L< not chnrocterizetl by "ephcm
crality," "'di~continnity/' ()r ... ÍNJ:mcntr.uíon. '' 11 How 111uch "radical re·
thinkin~ ' 11 Joc:; 1he foct of a ~enocicle need? Do we \\·am "chaotic"" war
etún<.'$ crials? The tbcoiy devdopcd here has nor had rhe luxury of \\1th-
holdtng c:omrnirmdlt '" rcfusing to be pmned clown. nor can JI resl on the
mar¡µn Wlleso it pl<mS ro g1vc up womcn's lh·es. Are therc sorne "casy
cJte¡;ories"" bere we 11efü 10 r<-S1st? Hcn; ns usual, womcn's particularus
i• no1 in confüct wirh our commonal1tie1; thc detper 1hc p•rucubrs go,
thc mono rornmon.ility u·c find
That '" to <.iy, some of 1he disavo\ll'JI of 1he project of i:heorizing the
re1lity of women's lives in rhese p¡1pcrs is dlsrurbing. A¡\ainst this disa
vowal. this ana)ysis is offered in the engajled spiri1 1hat otherwise 3llimarcs
thr papcrs: as bottom-up theori?.ing direcred 1owa.rd a change in the scW
cold bcartland of rnternabonal law and 1ts tnstitutions. wbere ¡¡enoodal
rape rema.ins rondoned. l '
4
Are Women H uman?
Thc Universal Declaratioo of Huma11 Righ1s defines what a human bemg
is. tn L948, it 1old the world wbat a pcrson, os " pel'son. 1s entitlctl 10. lt
h:is been 6fry >"'ª"· Are women hum.in )'Ct?
If women wcrc human, would wc: be a C'ltsh crop sh ippe<I from Thailaml
in contninel$ inm New Yorlt'$ bro1hd<?2 Would wc be se>eual and repro-
cluctive slaves? Would we be bred, worked withou1 pay our whole livcs.
bumccl when our dowry money wasn't enough or wheo men rired of us,
statved as widows when our busbands died (¡[ we survived his funeral
pyre). sold Cor s.:x bccause u-e a.re 001 valued for anythmg else? \X'ould wc
be sold mto mardage ro pricscs 10 a1one for our fomily's sins or 10 improvc
our (JOU!y's can.hly prospccrs? Would we, when allmvcd 10 "'Ork for pay,
be nude to wmk 11 thc most mcninl job! and cxploi1ed 01 barely srnrva1ion
lewl? \X'ould our gcnitals be ~liéed ou1 10 "clcunsc• us (our body pans
are dirt?), 10 control us, 10 m:uk us and define our cultures> Would we
be trafficked as tliings for sexual use and entenainmem worldwide in whar.
ever form currem cechnology makcs possible?' Would we be kept from
le•rll!Og to read and wme?•
lf women were human. would \\'e have so lude vo1ce rn pubuc delib·
Cn\IÍODS and in govemmcnt in 1he counmes where we live?' Woulcl wc be
hichlcn hchind vcil• Jnd impl'isoned 1n hmu.is r!nd >ion«.! aad shot for
rcfming? Would wc be bcaten nearly 10 Jeadi. and tO death, by mcnwilh
whom we are close? Would we be sexuaUy molestecl in our fomilie<?
\Vould we be rnped in genocide 10 terrorize and eject and dcstroy our
ethmc commumdes. and raped a¡¡ain m that undcdared war that goes oo
tvcry clay in °'"'Y rountry m the worlcl m wbat is called peacetime?• !f
women were human, would our \ciolanon be en¡oyerl by our violators? And .
lb.. .anaJy~ w..:1 ongmally publub<..-d u1 Rt'/1«1""1'1 (f1f tht U1111 .mJ/ ~Úf;m()n o/ l/.,mu R1c,h1J
111 {~«"o.-1 \'llft '""' 1-lojllm •nJ B•hl:i T•hzah IM, rd•., 19C1'~
41
I? - T~.. ry and Rtahly
tl "" wccc human, \\ohert these r.lungs bappcnecl, would virrually nochmg
be done about 1t?
IL rnkes • lo1 of mrngmauon-And a determ111~dly bhnkered focus on
exccpi.ions dl the privUegcd margins-10 see • real womltn in lhe Univer.ol
~cl.1r.ition's maj<'lir Auur.1ntoes oí whn1 •evcryone i• enti1foJ 10." Af1,·r
over half a century. jusi wh•I pan oí ·e\'eryune" doesn'1 me-•n 11s?
The ringin¡: lon~uage in Arride 1 enronrnges us 10 "•CI tm>'ards one
:m<>tber m a spint of bro1herhoocl." Mu$1 we be men before illi spirit
includes us? lei;t 1his be soen as too literal, 1f we were aU en¡()iJ1ed to •act
towards one another m a sptrit of sistcrhood." would men know it meam
them. too? An1cle 23 encouragingly provid!$ for jusi pay 10 "[c]\'cryonc
who work$." Ir gocs on 10 -.y thnt ilus msurcs u lifo of human dignuy for
"hnnself .md his fanuly. • Are womcn nowherc paid for the work we do in
our own fomilies becnuse \\'é are not "e-"el')'Onc." or becausc whut wc do
therc is not •f"-ork." or jusi becau.se \\"C ;.tre not '"him"? Don't \\ on1en h.ave
1
fomilíes. or is wbac womeo ba\'e not a familv \\ithout a "himself"? tf the
someone who is noc paid at all, far less tbe ··just and favorable remuner-
auon • ~uarameed. is also me srune someone wbo Ul real life 1s often re-
sponsiblc for her fomily's sustenance, when she is deprived of providJng
for her fom1ly "un cx1stl!tlcc wonhy of human cligJUry. - J.s she QOI human?
And now 1h.11 "cvcl')'Onc" has hnd 11 righ1 "to wke pan in thc goverruncnl
of "" cnuntry" sincc 1hc Univer~ol Dedarutioll w11s promul¡µced, why are
mos1 govcmments sa11 nm mostly by mrn? Are W(>men sile1Jt in the halls
of state bCC1luse wc do nol hrl\·c a humnn voice?
A documem that could provide speci6cally for the formation of trade
unioos and • periodic hohday ,.,, b pay" m1gh1 have m1mered 1he specdiciry
to mention women sometime, othtr than through "mo1herhood. • whlch is
more boweJ to tban provided for. lf \vomen wcrc hurruUl lo ihis dot'tllncnt,
w>0ulJ dorn<'SUC "iolencc, sexual vio.lnrion from bmh m dea1h, indudin~
in 1>rosli1u1ion onJ pornogr.iphy, ond system.uit sexual '!bJe<.~ific-•tion •nd
dcnigrnunn oí women •nd girls simply be left out of 1he explicit lon¡:uo~e?
Granred. sex discnmin(ltion is probibited. Bm how Cllll it h1we bcen
proh1b11cd Íor all clns rime, even aspuaáonally. and rbe end of ali these
cooduions suU not be concretely ima¡uned as part of whar a human bemg.
as human, is éntitled toi' \\\'hy is women's entidemem co un end of these
ronclit.ions •tlll opcnly dt:batcd based on culniral ngbcs. speoch righcs, re·
hgious nghcs, ""1<lllli frertlmn, f""' m.irkc:ts-.. if women are social Stg·
nificrs, pimps · 'P"'-'t:h, '•cr<d or ""'"'"I fet.ish<'l>, n:uural re<ources. ch.1uel,
"''t:l)rhin¡¡ bu1 humnn bemgs?
The omissions m the Univer.al Ueclorarion ~re no1 merely semmmc.
Aie Women Human? • 43
Bein~ a womao is "not yet a oame for a way of bem¡t human, ... not even
m this most vistonarv of human ngbcs documems. lf we meu.ure 1be realny
of wmnen's situuuon Ul alJ us vari<:cy agairut the guol\lnlces tif the Un1vcl'll•I
Dcclarrlutin, 1101 only do women no1 havc 1hc righrs il ¡¡uuront<:cS-mo~t
oí 1hc: world's men .i<,n't cithcr· hu ir is harJ 10 $Ce, in ns vision of
hun1:iniry, a \\'Ornan'$ f¡,C'C,
Women nel'd full human s1atus in social realicy. Por cl1is, the Universal
Dedar;mon of Hum'm Righcs must see the ways \\'omen disuncrively are
depnved oF human og)ns as a deprivation o( humanny. for the j!)orious
drerun of tbe Universal Declaracion to come rrue, for human rl11lus to be
uru\'ersol, both ilié t'-"!lity i1 challenges and the standJrd i1 sets net!d to
ch.rige.
When will womcn be human? When?
5
Posunodcrnism and Human Rights
for ..an .\mtril.'.im lcmln1't re-JJ1ng T"r ~f<·u·l_v &1r11 \Vo·;¡~n 1r. likt
"un~ U'I 51<'C"p 1n ollC "-orld .Lnd wülna in anothet-jC040fC (o 'lc:cp in a
tealm (Jt tact:S. wh1ch Ol')e mus1 labor 10 1heoru:e, anJ ''alunA m • dom;un
al tbroE)'. ~iucb onc mwt sut\'C ro lf•acrualizc.
-::t.mJr¡¡ ~l. Gdbm·
11 has bcen over • qun11er of a cencury since. nccordin~ to Mary Joc Fru~.
· MacKinn<>n .. founched feminism imo social theory orbir "> ln the ron·
ICXI of 1he women's mcwement praccice ar me nme, rny mougbc in raking
up method was rhat women 's snuation lacked aod needed a full.Jtess
thcOC)' of ~ own, and chat the expenence of \\'Ornen bad ~ disnnctivc
coruribution to makc to polilical thcory. indudmg on tbc "PÍStemic l.vd
Back thcn, my view wa.; thJI thc reb1ion bcr1>·ccn knowlcdgc and power
WJ• 1h<> centro! ~ue chJt womcn's >ituatton und fonn•I 1hcor¡ poscd for
eoch omer, anti lhnt sexuruity WQ< whcre thi• issuc was Cmtially pl~yed
ou1 Almo.<1 tbirty years later the discussion launtht"d then L< far from
lini<hed.
1
fcm•ni•m ·, dcvclopmem ~s 1hoory i• 1mpdled by rhc realuio ol womcn \
SJlu.IllDll Wtimcn's live.. rhc "'timen'$ movonent b••
found. havc conto11"'
wtLh comcnt Ccntr.Jl) \\·omcrú liv"' wcre found w h"'" bcen ltvcd
mninly in <ilt'llce. oí which existin~ thet>ril-,; wcre t~n<>rum, Almost totally
TbCM" thou¡;hu \I~ f>MJIUUJI~·" 1111• r~ in \'Akn.:i... \p.uo. '" tht< ~lf oo fC'mwsm ond
Pul.Juo lur i.bt lmanauarul l'M'ctsuy ~tr:ncn.Jn \ P.:L.w 1UU..tP1. Uruwc:rMI)' ~ Vakna.. (m
luly .. J9Qf. Thcy'l.'ttt íu,r JHd1hllllo·J * 'Polnt• , \~·,cln1' P"""'noJcrnz.n1.•7, c;hi~t.t~Kr,,tLla.
Rn·1nii Nii WIO
 Pntmod ... ISOI Ud Hum1n R1ah11 • IS
'ilcncnl Jta, bcrn ""'mcn s sexual \100000 b' mcn Bt.i:1nrun~ m 1he e•rly
1970., Jire..1 mi:•~1nc:m "uh dus ><><.'i;il ra.111,-11<11 rciili1v m the •b
,u.,1 1b1 n:-•lny m lhc: brollen dov.'11 1mmalmc ....-...U¡ 1"~ out con
etttl"-npoo<'d the regulinU<"S •ne! •~Jorr<aJ ('Xlcnl and 1raum.1 of
'°'";J •busc m childh.M>d. '"" ~n~<ncne.< ol upe ""'I othcr ..,~tul.,.
..uh. rhe ronuic anJ •h•m~ ot ba11enn11 1he rouunt" 01scrn.r of sc•.ul
hau,,mcnr 11 ""rlt, m <chCIOI, and on r:he s1reei, and the "ndellllc abu,e
consunueJ hv romo1m1phy and prosmuuon The exrcn1 .1nJ n••ure ni
these pr~cuces JnJ 1heir place m <exual polines. hcnce pol111e>, ,..•..., un·
CO\crnl anJ e'~m1ncd. Unce rh1s g<neal<>!'.Y mJ 11> conunu1t\ wtrh '>Cxu
•lny more ¡tcncrJlly \\crt c>rubhshod, nothmg lrum 1hc '""" 1u uucr-c.1
t(roup' to 1.,:uh UtC' to 1nt1m.uc rd.uions lookt..J 1t .. 11 huJ Clnc 11nJ'ht.:dllC,11
,..., rh.11 ho1h l.m1" 1ng ,ond thc k.nm1·n h,1J ro be n:mnJ« t<> '"n1enJ w11h
1he role <'Í m.1lc fl<'\\''" in wn.,ructing chem
Thi< prllctical c""froo1a11on \l'llh the speci.fic ~me< ol <exiul and rhi-.·
1cal ,,o]•n<'n cre.11cd lem1m<t theory, mdudm~ <o-called h1~h 1heorv. m
lorm and ron1<n1 llur thc.c n:almes were gendcred ,,,.._, no1 ª'sumed,
po-.11cd, 111\ c:nr.J. or unapneJ. GenJer \\':IS no< crea1eJ 111 ••ur m111..U ilftc:r
rcaJm11: rh1loo.>¡>h) brM•ks ucher pa>plc \l'n>tc; u ,.~ nor a 1 nuh rlu1 ""
'el 001 t<> esuhli;h r<> c:nJ 11<Jdenu.: dcb>te. or 10 Cr"111C: • hdJ ''' n1die
"" "'"' C<tulJ 1c:1 ~,¡,. h "~' ,.¡,,, ,,...,founJ thcre, b-. """"'" 111 ,. <lfn<'D',
li•cs Pi«c by bhx..!y I''""'· m •rticubiinjl Jire,1cx(len«nCCS,1n rt•s1.,11a¡¡
1he disdML'\I pJ<t1<11I•" m tnin¡t 10 make wt'men'' u.in" /.,• J1ttcrem
than n "·'~· '' rhe<>ry <>Í the stanos of women -..·as lor~ed an,I ,.,1h 11 a
cheol') ol the me1hod tha1 could be adequate to 11: hmt• \\C h•d to know
m order m kno\\ il•u
Th" p.tnicul.ir 1heory, "'' buih.. ,,...,. • rhcory ol ••x
1nc4uulny •nJ more
bru.1Jly O( .Cxu.J f"Oblin ln und frum thc CX¡>cfltltlC <•I \Htlll.1" •Ítcr
\\'OffioUl cn1cr~cJ 11 ?i)"U:nt.tttt:, ')'stcmic, orga1u,cJ :11o1ru..:1ureJ, nc\vly CO·
1
hc:rem p1nur< .,¡ thc rcl•ll<'"' berv.ecn ""m<'fl anJ mcn th•r J1S<.-cm1hlv
ex1ended frMI m11m1n throojlhoui thc <Ocial ordcr anJ 1hc ~111c: Our
mmJ, roolJ ltno,. 11 ,..,. real lxcaose our hodie,.. e<.Uc.'('t1vd,, l",.d
through 11 h rhcn.·fore «>aallv aisted. ;o.;or d1d m; dl\'CT<ll)' unJcrmllle ru.
reilir¡. 11 ron>utu1cJ 11 \X'e "1Jd: th1> happm' The mo•cmcn1 ..¡w<.kh
bcc-.ime ¡:lobo&! .as \l'Ollldlc.-=-.. bere 1Jcntibo.I """ mc.¡u.Jit} UI ihdi ""11
CX¡>ctl<'ntt 1nJ lb f"IKe UI Jnmng thcm 1' holc lt'"'·' This ¡\ln1<ul.r CO
hcrcJ reul11y \lllS no1 •n eumrlc oí what. ncw .... \ "' 1h1nk1n¡¡ ahou1
knct~1n,,; or • nc"\ar 11nWc uf \'t,1on proJucc:d h~ \\il' ot dJt.1, n" 1' 11 ~J'f'l·ifi-.:
realirv 1h.11, wlln 11velv <"nsc111u>, CJUed for • º"" w"v ol 1hmkm1t ah""'
kno\\1ng
16 • 1heory ••~ Ru1o1y
1 \Cf)1lung .about th1~ tht."O~ U;b, tl• rcl>t""JI¡ pan1lu1Jr. h w..a.s n1-,t jtetl·
C"r11.I h "J' «.:tltlt.rct<! lt v.·n nm .ib~1r-.1c...1 h ".ti tf'C'c..thc.: anJ grounJeJ. lt
_... , nctit J undttnn homt~elle'()U.'i unU) 11 "as ta lt1•mplcx "IK'll· The- pc:1in1
ot rhe J..c1>UJ<>n of method m r,,,.
urd" f..,,,,,,,.,
Tlvorr ,,¡1he ~,.,,. was
to artkuldlc 1he con<equen= ol Un• new len<"' lcJ1tc .md the ,..., it was
appreh<nJeJ tor theoiv-<pec1hc;ilh for th~ kmJ of phil<>-0ph~ that
100..1tht th.i a 1h.lU1th1 had 10 be ~eral anJ •b.m<1, meomn¡t free ol
r.an11..ul.ar1t~ ol ~1uon or sub!.ranu\:c \OCIJI (;Ontcnt, O(l( r:x~r1mced-
1n 11rJcr 10 bc ,J!tJI) thairctm1I. AnJ lu connc<t 1his """ 1nforma11on un
\\ h,H U1iok ph•lc In V.Ornen'~ l i\c~, :iiJC04.Cl( by print lftcory, lO ht\V" (a\\ 35
"'6t.&tc.• pr.1c..títe, une 1h111 has al~o clnirncJ 11' \:111id1ty 1n llUIUn~ gf..'flcnalit)
and •l1>1rn111un ir1111 • fMrticul:tr (i, eJ form b.1t·ked hy power •nJ uu1honty
The ¡muu wa• 10 take women's e•perience ~<rious!\ enou~h-both the
how >nJ lhe whBI of it-tO end me inequalll)' flu, proces• WIS tO get lO
rhe bonom of the thcoreucal coosm1ru rhai haJ covered 11 up aod defioed
11> rul111 "" lhcorcuctlly invmd .ind emp1rit"11) noncxi;tcnt or a< most
mar~1n.al, ..,.J haJ msrnuoo.w.ud thJ1 tbron mJ 11> proJu<lS a> gov-
cm1ng norm~ m U\\
•\\"'t,.mcn• 'Ali' nvt .in il"'tract catc~ory •\\'ornt"n• an fcrrun.11t Ült..-or)'.
an l.:llf1tounonJ ror11cn1. "·.as thu~ .l.\ 1111 1hn>rc:11c.tl montcr. f'-,.rm.1.11~ l.al")r!d\•
l1t"\I h• et•ntenl wu< th<- rub<t~nm·e expe<1<'n"' 1hJ1 w·omcn m .U thcir
p;anicul•rnlL.,, And v•riatwn> had. ~ot lll'\·au-c 1hc 1ht"'n corre<ponded 10
ch" <l'llllly but bcause ir was ron;111u1~J J.v 11 Th" w·•s no1 a ~nmil
1hc<•ry uf p.1rurulars, 1t was a thcory bu1lr ol 1he>e (l.lru<ulars; a particular
lh<vry. Ji was bwlc on . .md accouniablc r<>, wom~-n·s c.'pcricncc::. of abuse
•nJ violJ11on, 11> grounJ.:J construcuon unJ cn¡1•¡:cJ ae<ouniabcl1cy ,..•...,
nu1 • 1'•1S1Urc 11 uclop1cd or J 0.1g 11 flc" ' íl1C)' wcrc wlr111 lt w11> m•Lie of.
"h111 11 J1J l1 ,[¡J 001 purport 10 be thr une 1r11c uru•uni ,,f ¡,.,,., c:very1hing
«-.111\· ¡, h do1mcJ 10 be aC'ctlnl<' and >ICCOUOl•hlc 10 the •OL-iJI world thm
con'111u1cd 11 lt ...,1a1ed to 1he re•hl)' i1 1henri1cJ m 1hi• "''''" way
Fc:niml\m did call for rerhinkin¡t evm'thm~ for one <imple in<tance.
1hc Ji<uncuon Jra\\'11 smce thc Enhi;htenmcn1 bcN o<.'11 1he um•er.al and
thc r•ru<ul•r ,.., rC\cakd 10 be l.1hc. beau<c "hat h•d bccn c.Ual tDÚ·
\'Crul ,.., thc p.n1rular lrom thc po1m ul '""" ol powcr f'or another,
the 1ubl'"~"" objc..:u,c ch\ ti1on ,,,., m .....JlcJ "' be l.!.'<', briJtne thc ob..
f"'-11\C SI inJr<••m--<>r -o 1 Or¡?ueJ m TouwJ J frnrumt Tht'O"l o/ the
~1.11r-- .. ;s •rcc1fi<.Jly '"" """ from th~ m•k• r<>sninn uf powu ThJI is
tho.c wh" 0<.rnp•· wb.11 '' called 1he ohj..-1i'c <tJnJpnml "''"~111 who .also
cn¡(.a¡¡c in thc l'"•tttt fr<>m rhat sundp<>ml c.1Unl nhit-ct11icat1on-1he
pr.1t11Cc <tl m.Jon¡.¡ proplc into 1hmM• lt1 makc 1hcm know•blc-their
Pestmodein11• ud """'ª" R•ahl• • '7
ll•nJp<>url anJ tb1> ¡m1ct1cc Jtt ao npra1ron ,,¡ 1he souoil f""ltl<>n .,(
JomuunCC' rh•t u on1Jp1.J lry 111en Th1$ J1anJpo1111 11 nol l"'lllK>nb or
poml ..,f """' lcss, a it ¡>urpom 10 be 11 ,¡,.._.. lll'I nnplv 01>11 accuracy
anJ f11rncss as m.n~ bdiC\~ n cmhodin and ~ns • •p«tlic ionn o(
f".,,.cr, ooe thar haJ been 1n.,js1ble ro pohuc- anJ theo<) but, by lenurusm.
lay '"¡>O'C\l ª' undcrf),n~ them
fh1, 1hc..>ry 1us not an atb.rm:mon ol che lemm1oc p.1rucubntV as op-
po:.cJ ro 1he m•,c-ulmc uruvcnal h "lb no1 a cLurn co km.Je suh1ecavny
or J f<'J!Ch for 1L. h """ dut th~ conccpt•. •nJ thc µurportcd illvul,,
bd\\'ttO tht'm, Jr~ prt'Cluc.:ts oí tn.afe f>'l\\'cr ih.u ,,,nno1 •l"C thclTiloC:lvc~ or
mud1 d,e. L1n11I <>11<1seJ, the>e concepi< look«I penrr.tl. cmpt) ol content,
un1Vcr<11lly º' Jilable to ali. valid, mete crol•. 11~.1in<t whrth ali clse fcll short.
Fcm1m•m CXJ1<1<ed how prior theory u·•s 1•uioloR<111• ro j¡, own rerms of
val1Jouon anJ could hardl~ be um'<er<al hec•u~ 11 had leh out at least
hall lbc Ulll\'Cl'o<'.
.'1"1thl't <hJ lonmiom pll!Cl>d) lay clllm 10 thc 1cm1ory thJl womcn luJ
btc:n ._,.,gnod unJcr Ülli •i•r=. ~lure, 11""''1u d•111110 m th.r "" i.ought
tu J1td.ttm \X'e \ICl't' not l01•king for A plu>hcr cdl "' a more d1wufio.I
>1orcutypc \\"e"º"' nor loolún¡: 10 dabou1e thc IL'muunl'. ptrt1nibnty u
11 n ......, oun •• hJd becn livm~ lll<l<ie ' " 1ulls for ccmuncs We were
noc lookmg ro daom the <Ubíecm;,... or suhjc.'('t !'<"1'100 10 w!uch "'" lud
bttn rtlttraicd an~ more 1han we 'OOjlh• 10 "l'P"" nther« b• 8""'111l
acce" 10 thc power 10 objecuty and JommAic thai "" hJd rC\wed 3S
•u<h AD th1> wouJJ ru\'c lett wha1 wc \lcrc tf)tn¡c ro cb.illcnit<= squudy
In plJ<C; by compubon with our Agenda 11 "'·" p]~y1ng "tth, or w1rlun,
bludu. l.i<mit~ •• such w•s not our l!o5Uc lnsoJe, wc k.ncw wbo wc werc
m .1 «>n>tLl<r•hlc exlcnt. Gendcr idcnllly· 1hc lcrm inirmluccJ by Roben
~1ollcr in 1'164 10 n:íer 10 the mentnl repre•cm~1 inn <•Í 1hc -.lí •• maKulrne
or lem1nrn..-. s1t11a1cs women's problcm in the \l'rtlnM pi.ice.' Our pnority
wa. ~•m•nA •e= to the realiiv o! mrr cnllC<"tl\'t' e•rer1cnc<' m order to
unJcNanJ a.nJ cban¡:c: 11 tor .U ol us m our 0\\'11 lúcumt"
MJ 01''11 •'Oclt p<O\'!des JUSl onc illu:.tr•uoo of ho\l thb plulooopbial
approodi ul thcory lrom rhc grounJ up ru.. bcen proJu<U\C Ul pra.:ua:.
Ibis d1COry, •1>Plial, proJucal thc cLUm for >cxual haruanon 1> a lc~.al
.,:J.um lur so \l1.Knm1n.J.t1on •So nav.. •hm • v.·ornan tr ;:nu.tll\ hJra...~
me
l1f1<I l¡>CllkS of 11, th31 is 0(>( "mpcy • wnrnm •reakm · Ir> ~ J1ffrrcnt
vo1c~ "' n.ma1111g he< sub1ccc ox~rien<e .,¡ he< sil\wion Shc " sa)'injl
wh•1 hoppened to her And \lTuII happc'ncJ 10 her, "hen u happens. is
"""' •u1bnn1•11,-.,1, reco¡uu.zed m law as tnetjualnv on 1he bos1. ot sex. U..c
''- U> J \lol•nun ul womm'< human r1~h1<, The m·1l remcd) under the
48 • lneo1y and Reahty
\'iolen(c Agu1nst \'(1'01nen Act u&CJ the ~•une lop,ic Lo recognize 1h.11 r-.1pc
ond b.menn1: c•n be rroct1c<-. of S4'X discrimm"11on. SimiL1rly, Andrea
Dwnrkin's ond my proposed law tha1 pomojlrnphy he reco~i:ied as a
prnctice of sex discrimirulrion is based on rhe realines of 1he expcrience of
\l'Orneo violatecl 1hrough the makmg and use of pomography. Under ii,
-..umen ', resnmony abou1 their abuse through pomo¡¡rnph)• would be rec·
ogoiied .is ev1dence. so that pornography is lcgally ;ecn !O do the injuries
thot it <loes 1n realny. Thc same approach procluced th< argumrot,
ndop1ed b¡ the Sccond Circui1, 1hat when r¡1pe 11 nn •« o( gc11ocidc In
fact. it is '"' •<< of 11enocicle in lnw Thnt is. sexually viol•tin¡¡ women
because thcy ltl'c \\'Ornen oí a ¡>articular etlinic or rcligíous communilv Jims
10 destroy that communicy•
J usr these few examples of the practice of rhis thcory show a two·
pronged rransfonnarion takiog place By including wba1 violares women
uoder civil nnd humllll ngh1s faw. rhe mearung of ·ciuzen • and "human"
begins 10 bave a woman's face. As women's act\lal condmons are recog·
011,cJ as rnhurnnn, chose condnions •re bcing change<l by requirmg thoc
1hey mcct a stan<lurd oí ciuicnship an<l humunity th•t preVlouo.ly <lid noc
upply becuusc 1hey u·crc womcn. In othcr words, womcn both changc che
siandml ns wc come under it and chan¡ic thc rcality it govcms by ha,1n¡¡
it upplicd to w;. This dcmocr:ctic pnxess describes noc onl) che common
law wbén it works bue also a cardirutl tcnet o( feminist analysis: womeo
are éflutJcd LO access l O tbings as thcy ate ,Uld aJso LO mange thetu IDtO
somttbing wonh our having.
Thus womcn are u•nsfonnmg the <lcfuuuon of cqualuy 001 by malung
ourselves the $ílm<! as mcn, cmitled 10 violate Jn<l silence, or by rcifying
womcn's so-calle!d differenccs, but by insisting 1hn1 equal cirizenship must
encompass whnt womcn need to be human, including • right not to he
sexually violnred •nd silenced. This was done in rhe Bosniun case by rcc·
ognizin¡¡ ethnic parriculariry, not by denying ¡, Adapring the words of the
philosopher Richard Rorty. we are makin¡¡ the word "wrunan" a "aamc oí
a way ol bcing human.·" Wc are chaUcnging and changmg thc procc'SS oí
knowing an<l thc pracuce oí power JI tht same umc. In otber \\'Ords, u
works.
Pcminism m.1<l<! o bold d.iim in Western phtlosophy· women can Jttess
our 0\\'11 re11iry becausc we live i1: shghdy more broadly, living a <ubor
dinoted siarus con wve one ~ccess to its realit)· Nor realiry wirh a capital
R-this particular social reali¡y. Since women "'-ere not pla}Íng !X"'oef
gamts or trying 10 wm academic debates, wc did not cla1m pri'il"llc. We
sunply cliumcd che reahty ol womcn 's expeacnce as a ground 10 stand on
Poslmodernism ud Human Ri&hls • 49
ánd movc from, ns a b~SI• for consaous polmcal ocuoo. As jl rumeJ out,
once =~1ed íro1n f!IJll""" mvbibility. wurncn'• rcaliúcs could oftcn b.:
documcmcd 111 othcr W <I)'" and nearly llnyone pro\•cd •ble m undersrnnJ
tbcm with n liulc sympathetic •pplica1ion Women tumed lhc realitics of
powerlessness imo a form of power credibility. And reality supportcJ us.
What we smd was credible because it was real. Few people daimed that
women were nor v10laied in 1he ways we had found or díd nor occupy a
sa-ond-dass smus in soc1ety. Not many openly disputed that what we had
unco,-ercJ did. in foct, e>.ist. What was 5'1id lnscead wus 1hat in socíet}.
notbing really C.XISIS.
n Posrmoderní<m 's reiectiC>n oí univcrsals ha< bcen ckscribcd by Lyotard.
Durin¡; thc same rwenry-five-yenr period rhar this theorv uod pracrice have
been ongoing. a trcnd in throry called postmodernism has been working
on tmJoing it. hs main 1arge1 ís, precísely, rc'ali¡y. Posrmodemism, 1 will
argue-or more narrowly. thc ct:ntral epistcmic icn<lcncy tn 11 that 1 am
focusing on-<lcrc.ili:tt. social rtility by ignoring it, by rc:fusing 10 be 11c-
coun1.blc to it, anti, in n soint:what nc:w m<>\•c, by opcitly rcpudl11ting a.ny
c:onnt.oetion \\'Í1h an "'it .. hy cl.tinting ''ir:" Í$ nol t.hcre
Posimorlcmism is a ílog flown by a diverse a:>ngcries, modey b<!<"Juse
lack of unity is thcir credo and rhey feel no need to be consis1em Part of
the problem in a:>min¡? to RrÍps with posrmodernism is tha1. pretendíng 10
be profouod wbil.e being merdy obSéure (many •re fooled), slathering sub-
jecrs with wor<ls, its self-proclauned practiuoners faidy oftc:n Jon'r say
mucb of anything." Anotbcr part oí the problcm os that some commen·
rntors crcdit poi.untxlcrnism wich ick.t> tl1a1 scrious criucaJ tr•<ltuon~ orig·
inai<-d .1nd havc long pructiced. For exJmple: · aalkin rus b.:en onc of the
fcw l<1tul writcrs u•illin¡; 10 explore po»tmodcrn issues such as the soda.I
construcrion oí rc-.tlity. the role of idcology. and 1hc problen1 of social
critique. •u Jack Balkin does explore tbese themes. callin¡¡ that work post·
modero, bur legal fe1runis1s bave been explonn¡l thtm in dcpth for abouc
tl1iny years. as ha\•e,Marxisrs andsome legal 1e-.tlísts, beginruog long before,
to namc on!i sorne. A funher part of tbe problem "' that posunodemihlll
steals from fcmmi~m-cl•imtn¡;. for CJ<nmplc, rhJt tbe crniquc of obicc·
ti\1ty is a posunoJern m~1gh1-and covers its 1.irccny by ;ubsum111g fcm
inisn1 as a subprovinre oí pos:unoJcrnlsrn "
lo any evenr, the nppelbñon "postmodemism• does cohere u conscel
lanon of recenr tcndendes and senriments in theory. To trace mv particulM
theme, I analyze 1hree rssues that are cenrral to women. pol1rics, and theory
50 Theo1y ano Reat11y
10""' wh.i pa>tmoJ~nusm h.i.s Oh1Jc oí lemimsm's mttbodolog1Cll! brcok-
tluough ¡ust Ul.'M:nbcJ These thn:c ISSUC> roughJy r•rnllel Jane f'lax\ di<·
cu"ion oí P<'>rmodcrní•m ·~ rcvoh1n~ arC>und thc deu.h oí man. the Jcath
oí mewphysic<, und 1he dcath of history.'' 1 do not crincize ull thnt is
called postmcodem or dcfend ..vcrytlung said by its dettaciors: io particular,
the Amen~"" mu1at1on 1 focus upon 1s disringuishable from sorne Euro-
pean p<>S!Strucruralists whom the Amencans appropaate lor • pauru1 oí
authonty. Far from artempung to iar chem alJ -..-i1h dus brush. 1 ID'1LC
anyone to <l1>1denúfy 1>1tb what I descnbc and to s11>p domg u any ame.
A. ·\'('orneo•
delining posunodemism, as -incrcduhry t<>ward metanarrati\'CS.•., lo ns
teminm ¡nuse, this themc runs undcr rhc cnticism o[ "tbe grand narraoves"
of feminjst 1hcory,• qu.,.tioning in the name ol "Jifferences• whetber
·"-ornen• cxist •nd can be spokcn of or di&! w1th • oun. · A5 Mary Joc
Prug •rt icul•t"d thi> poinc • 1 .un in favor of lootllzod <lisruptions. 1 am
a¡;.ún>1 1ornlizinit ch<'Ory."" Anuesstriti•lism 1s onc fatet of tb.. objectlon'
the vicw 1ho1 thcre is no such thmg as "women" because there ore alwa)'S
othtr as¡>ect> to women's idenciries ond bllses other 1h:m sex for thcir
oppressions. The de(eose of multiculturalism is anorher facet of 11: there
is no such thm~ as womeo m the sm¡¡ular; there are only women in the
plural, many difiereot partículanzed. localized. soaally constructed. cuJ.
tUt'.illy modified women, heoce no ·women• m u•hat postmo<lc:mislli llll"ll·
me i> the fominist ocnse.
If anyone <loes "grand nurrativcs." l suppa<e 1 do. so 1 1hink thot l'm
enm led to ..y thut 1 dt>n't know wlw thcy're t•lkrng abou1 As 10 "to·
rnlity" -• blontcd, ovcrícd, but also oddly empry 1enn-wha1 is one
•JIWnSt whcn onc is "a¡tamst totali.tin~ rheory'? Why doesn't anyooe s•y
what is meant bv the tcnn? \'G'by aren't thcre foorno1es co tbe charget"
One 1C11a¡nnes tbat 11 is a reference to Marx and Preucl: lt rs apparently •
syo<m)m for "universal," bue, jusi 10 begin witb. no analysis that rs prcd-
t<.'111cd on J ~ende.r div1sion can be a universal ooc in thc usual sense.
Fcmini>m ha. •lso nevcr, 10 my knOlllcdge, hJd whai (; cnllcd • • mon-
o<:iausal" narruuvc; nl I01St 1 h.1vcn'1 Wc do nut ••l 1ho1 gender L< ali
therc Js. We hm-c ncvcr S•id thm it explllins C\'Cl)1hin¡t. We have said tlw
¡;c:ndcr is hlj! nnd p<:rvasive. ncver not there, that it has • shapc ond
re¡lulanties and lm\'s of mouon. and tha1 i1 cxplams a lot-mucb oth-
erwise missed, uocxpLrined. 11 ís a íearure of mosr evervthmg. pervasivdy
<lenied. Th.it tloes not mean rbat C\'erythrng reclutes 10 gender, tbat 11 is
 Posl•ode1n1Sm ••d Hu1110 R1¡hls • 51
thc onlv rcsularll ) ur thc 011Jy «J'l.11wlvn, thc >1n~lc '"""' ul C\Cl')'h'"H•
<>r thc only thmg thcrc h l l ,1l•o '"'"h '<f"'Jtm¡t thJt ... ,.,.,¡puliuo, m
ltm1msm, 1> not ,11) o•u•rch1nM prttxl'ting ¡:<·ncrJI th0<>rv th•• i' .ippcolcd
to in orJer to undt"t•nd or •'pbm, hut ,, con,tJnrl\ provisional .mal"is
in die pro<e"' ot bcin¡¡ m.1dc .and "'mJdc b, the -.ocia! realmes thai pro-
duccldl u
ni., P"'tmo.km cnuquc ol lmum~m """"'' to <l>Sume tlut thc "womcn •
ot lenmlbt throl'} are '111 thc ume. hom<~°"""'· 1 untlorrn un1L 1 Jo not
knoo..· ..-hcrc thcy J!Ot thu 1Ju cnhc:r :-loe lrom me TI1C) don't u~ Thl>
nouan thJt C\"1\00C mu<t be the •Amc to h..,.., •«CU tu thc l•b.:l ",.-omcn"
i> nor an 1.ka th•t ••rcnucs m Í<"'111\1$t thc.•I'} to my knD'll k~c Tui
uniformnv ,. • .iandard ih.,.,mKal pn>f'C'M) ol a caiegon Jocs OOl mean
1hat 11 " h:minism\ ronccpr ol "'''llltn Wacncn. m fcmmi<t thcorv. are
concn:tc, thcy an: oot a.b,.tnact. Th"' are not >ex <•r iiendcr, they are markccl
and ddíned .uid conuollcJ by 11. Gcnder, 1n femm1>t .,,ah,... IS al-o ob-
"""·eJ to bc po\loedully bmar\ m >0<let), hui not cxd11>1vdy ><>: P""'"'
cbHStOll>""' ob.cncd to cxI>t "1thin ..,x..JctmcJ ¡¡nrupi Js ,..¿¡ 11> b..1v.ccn
thcm, so abo m thr fcmml'I th«>I'} ni HmJcr
Írmllll>m m º°" M:M><' ><•MN 1hc <nuquc oí un1vcr,¡(11\ "' currentl)'
practrccd h.- •ho<nn¡t how <1<•mcn •re l~h nut oí ihe human epi<ieme. We
took th• mtique c.f !>OCICt) • '0<1•llv ron«rucicd to • ncw derth by
sbo"m¡¡ how t'\!en somcthm~ often ihou~t h1• orhen; 10 be hiolo¡:ical-
scxualit) - t.S social aod Jra<>'S I'º"º' lin~ 1em1nism does 001 "assume.._..,
but rather bwlds, tt> "women• lrom \Himen who M>Ci•lly exm. Wbtn
f=U11Sm nukc. UJ< "womcn" lrom the ~round up, ouc ol pJrucuLiriue:s,
from pr•c11cc. ro1hcr 1h.111 lr<>m thc cop duwn. l)UI of ulhtrn<Uon> •mi pnor
thc<>ry. thc ~•-cullcd c<wn11.11i~m pmhlcm connnl c>ccur.' The daim 1h.11
fcminism i~ c•scnuufüt 111•<1 !l<n<:s tn ohscurc ihe fonnati<'c role of \lo"\1men
of color and le:sbt•ns "monji othe.-., m cwry pan of the fcmíni•t theory
cbscussed The¡· ns much JS an1 an•I more ihan m<><t, crea1cd ihc women's
movement's, aoJ te1n1n1sm"s. ··"·ornen ..
Postm0Jcrn1Sm nuucrs on uhout how lcmm1'm prmlcgc< p:nder. bue
sddom »l' "'hut tlut me.ns ctthcr lf 10 pm 1legé ~endcr mearu tbJt
lcmiru;m Jrrango gmJcr JI thc ll>P ol >OOte h1crJr•h) ol opprc.>1ons, thc
•llcg. uon ,. f.Jsc. •L ¡.,._,, .. to me 1 ,lon't ,10 h1er.ir<h1 11 1h..e rnt><•
'°""" th>< tm11m<11 1h1nk ¡:cn.icr m•n<ri u L11 and oficn n:-.aJ 11twuons
in tcrms oí dmamtC\ ol gcnJer h1cruch), •nd reíusc to <hui up .tOOul
l?=dcr as • form Clt Jomination, the)'rc n~t Th.ry shoo!J say wh< m
eacb mst.mcc, wc are "roo~ 10 do ''" whv U> pi.ice m our anal,-s1> 1s
11Deamed. .\bk suprcm.14; "pmilq!<'S" ~enJer. 11>c cncu:tZc: u.
A rcU!cd argumcnt i ; th•t k-m1nnm ".-...cn1t.iluC1" ,.,nJcr Onc <'OllCcpt
52 • lheo17 ••d Rullly
ol mtl<$oc:nu.11J,m hhrn· "'" m•ml i• Jchncd by Troq Htj.lglíll as "the
rc1c.u<>n t•l thc ,.¡,,.in•• pm1rnl•r ch.11.mori>ii<"' con be 1dcn1ilicd wnh
womm (l\t'r tune an-.J .a~:rc-''" 1r,;uhurn "D h "Ct'1n~ to m~ that rhís presen~
JO empmrnl roihcr ih•n ~ ron<'t"ptual yue-;non Do ch2racicnsncs cx>St
th.i can be 1dcntilicJ w1th-mcJnm¡¡ lound m the red.1ry of-the status
ol wQflll'n J,rou umc JnJ plJ<e, m.luJm~ lw thOS<' ,.-ornen th=sdvcs>
\\'acnm rcport thc ciwtm<c ol >U<h rc~ulanuc:. ><'< tneqwlny, for """-
h IS othcr thc:rc ur 11 IS not. º°" Joc:• ni• opp<»e thc oh.cr\JUon th.u 11
is 1hcre m thc n•me uf Jn 1Jc• tbJ1 r<f«l• tlünkmg th.i u IS thcrc. Once
n hl< b<'Cll loun.I to e~ist, to <ay 11 ISO i thcrc, i.ho'll u 1>n·1 therc-<hov.-,
for e'ample, 1h.i Í<'m.Jc iiennal muulJuon " a rnOcct1<·c Jdusion or barm-
le- or a pramcc ol "'lualll\ \\'ornen ""'ldwiJe U\ tlw SOCICl)' after
~" contams p.-.cuces tha1 trcat thcm un..-quall' to men To comes1
tlu.. lioJ a <OOCI\ whcrc thC\ are cqual. v.·hcn:: uncqual pramces do not
cXl>l. To contol the documc:ntaoon ol rorru"'on char•cttti>n~ ot womeiú
>tatUS acm» ''""' and pi•« 'ho"' tho:y uc: no< thcrc. Oi rourse. liOcial
realu; hai "' cx1>L 1<• ¡tnl'>uc 1h... \'('!w thc P"'unodcrni;is .....,., to be
'J)mg hcrc " 1'1.11 thC') Jon't ltkc ihc idea thai ""111dl are uncqwil n·cry ·
whcre \\'di <>·e Jon '1 ltkc JI rithcr
\luch eof v.hai h.. anim•t<.J ihc criuquc ot 1hc <0-caUed es<cnnalísm of
lem1m•l 1heory 11 thc niuci<m th.11 lcm1ntsm 1s racist-that 1he UTI~ <>Í
"thc femminc" m lcmmi>m. 1crordmg to this crinque, has a "'h1<e woman·s
facc. Tht> cnuc1>m Jppltc. 10 the rac1sm ol the acadcmy thst calls u.dí
temlnt>l but rclu>e> 10 crcJcnual women o( color .s theorisu or appro-
pri•tc. thcir work d' p.tn of 11• plur.1l"m whtle ttsclf Jo1ng noih1ng any
J1ffcicn1l)' thun u J1d bdorc. h 111•0 •1>1•he• to the racism of lhe medu
thot ¡ircocnt• i1 ....·lf •• >ytnpn1hc11c bu1 ,1,,.,. no1. for ex.miple, ~how how
womcn ,,f e<•lor formrd fonuni'm J1nce iis 1-.cp,innin~ anJ conúnut to do
so tod.iy. lt bcst cnllCllCS 1hc fcmtnist luce of hbt:rnl chusm that passe:s for
temimsm m <(lme quancr., 1ncludinp, m 1he women s movemern. But un-
ltke "cssenual"m." <•-hich snunds hke \'OU'rc 1allun¡¡ thcory, raosm ts an
u¡tly, acaJemicall¡ nonpraemuble, and rísky pohtkal ...ord dw plsses off
wbllc p<'<>plc ~' lll•lcJJ ol "•')In¡: thJt ><Hncthmg or >0m""'1e is rac1S1.
11;l11ch 1héy olt<"n "'"· "'< M"' thc <-.b-.urc ph1lo-oph1C3! swear ""rd ·.,..
scnu.W.1 • ur "" hc.-.r th.it fcmtnot> ,¡., noc ukc "d1ffcrcncc" 11110 11<'·
(OtJnt M
Nice ncutnal "r>rJ. J11tem>l'<", .nJ u ha< .ill <hai French crcdibilit)·
:-.IC\er mmJ ihat J1ftcrtnces c.m <tmplv he tru¡mimttd unh-enals. lt
doe:sn 1 unpl'U\.., ""''' •bilil\' to anal\'ze h1crarchv "" sociall> consnucted
to adJ more p1cccs calla! Jtttcrence> tl thc: Jilt<reneo are .sccn iiS btolo¡?-
Postmodu~ism and Humao R•&hls • 53
,,.Jly dctcrrn1ncJ U> lx.,:m "nh. \'ou c1111 ha' e J b1ologkal tbeory of raee
¡u.t hke you can h~"e ¡ 1>1ulu~1ul the<.•ry ul ~cnJer, 1111.J you 've gonen
"'!u.ilh "'"' hcrc m tcfm> 1•f <li.m•nthn¡¡ •O<:•JI hicrardiy. Pur ~nothcr way,
1i """"'n J1>n°L e"''· bccau"" 1hrre Jrt' <"11) panicular women, maybc
Black prople don 1 ""t enher beca~ 1hey are 1füided bv scx Probabli
t.,.btan• can't cx1<t 01hcr. becou.., thc:\ are.' di'1dcd by race and dass; if
"-ornen Jorú n•"· •u>man "knulíed womc:n <Urelv don 1 eXtsr. excepi tn
thcu liad. \\e ift: rcduccd to md1.,Jw.J,. which. ol ali comciclences, is
vohcre hber;afum pi•«"> u. \1C'1th 11> alhrmJU''" o( womcn"• rommonaL.tie>
tn ali thr:ir W\'<NIV, ll,. fcmm1>m th.u rCl«b thc uew tlu1"v.om.m"1> •
prc.xial, th•t "· b1ologr.;ally Jctcrmm<J catq:ol'} •nJ thc nouon that JO
'tl"C>ffiCO •re tbc WJlC Í<mtnlsm anJ t>SCntWl<m canno1 OCCUp) thc 5anlC
spacc.
Thc P"'tm<ldcm •n1ck on unl\Tr<alm also pro<'eS a bn 100 much In-
con•~tlv. thc ta.et o( dcath tt a un1vcrsal-approeclung 100 percenL
\X'hatn cr u mco111>, hou "'"'u IS rdaicd 10 culrurally and spmrually. what-
C\-ct happ<ru alter tt, u happcn;. \loch to thc cmbarrassmcni of the an-
UC>,,.,.,,tialats, "ho ¡>rCÍC'r tlt~ht> ol fmq ltl ¡¡nu1• realiucs, hlc and death
1> C\CO h.1>icalJy 1 btnJ!') OOUn<UM-JnJ noi a Ve'} nuanced onc cither,
npcc1ally frnm ihc Jc•J ,,.¡., of the !me. • • lc•<i v. hcn .ccn from <he
~=dro1m oí thc l"inp,. <h•t i• as far •s .... know And u is C\-en biolopical
a1 sorne pomt So the idCll 1hn1 1hcrc 1s nodun~ csscnoal. in the sense that
therc are no humm unl\·cr<al• ,. dOj!llla Ask mos1 anyone who is going
10 be >hOL ~l W<>'ll.
Mulucu!tura!Jsm is u polmcally norrnauvc vcmon of the nnthropological
nouon of cultural rduttmm prcm1;cJ on thc " ew "thnt all culmrcs are
cqually vnhd "'' Thc 1-.o•tmodcrn ver.ion oí ihe mulucul1urohs1 cniiquc
11>sumc. thJt thc •Pc•kcr tak<'• 1hc11 own culture und ns v•lues 10 be \'alid
and critidr.cs 01her cult ure. from 1he standpoint of their O\t.'11, Feminism.
howt'\!er. quc•ttons thc culniral v•lidi1y of suhordiMring women to mm
anyv.here. Femintsm d~ not 3«ume ihm "other" c\llturcs" are ro be
mcasured aR:illlSl 1he ,alJJ1ty oí thor own. bccause fcmimsm does no1
assumc th•t •nvone.. culture. mdudm~ thcir º"""· 1> val1d. How could .,-cJ>
Dd<n$<:$ of hxJI J1flcrm(c>. llJ thcy •re "'Ucd; Jre <liten simpl~ • dclrose
ol nule ¡x>wcr in 1ts lo<•l ttu•>e .•\ lak ¡>Q\\er •muall} '11w•)> >ppcan m
lo.:.! ¡tW>CS, onc m1~1 hJarJ tlut thcrc º'' "1thmg b1<1 local gUl>O for
male i'<'W"' The !Jet thai thC} Jrt' local tlon oot 1mprove them
T"'º cnmmal <•"'' in which a mul11cuhural <o-c.Ikd culrural defmsc
,...s cmplo¡..,J 'h""' this mul11culrural1 m·, dyrumtc, p-.uttcularlv rtS erasurc
ol ~s •'OCl'lc:n, in opcra11on In Chnr " a Chinesc unmimlnr mm
54 • Theory and Rullty
who beat h1s wt!e to Jeath with • cbw hammcr wns defended on the
grounds th•t lus r:ige and v1olencc at the lmagincd inñdcltty of bis w1fe
were normal in his culture of origin. ln Jnotbcr. Rhines," un AfrtcanAmcr
ÍClln m;ln wus occusetl of rnpe through physicul forc-c and •·erbal Jbuse of
on African An;erican womun. His defense was that he mistakenly belicvecl
that shé consenu~d to the rape because Black people nre routinely violent
and ycll •t each otber"' Presumably che racism of rhese assumptions is
apparent, altbough the defenses were made in tbe name of opposing the
racism of whne culcure in punishir¡g these men for raping womcn of color
and benung tbem to deaih. The Afncan American woman m the rape case
wu very dear thot she was raped. lf African Amerkans yell al eocb other,
shc m1gh1 be tbe 6rst io k.now wh•t it incnnt and not be silcnccd by it
into ncting as if ~he wanrcd to have sex, or so he could think.
1 would olso likc to know in what culture sorne mcn áon'I kili their
wives f¡¡r pcrccived infiddiry (or just because ... ). and in wbat culture
men are not supported in culcurally specific ways in believing that force is
part of sex. (Let's roove there.) Wbar posrmodernism gwes us instead is a
mulücultural dcfense for male ,.¡o[ence-a defen.se for it wberever 1t lS,
wnich in effect as a preny uruversal defense. Pornography also pl'Ollides an
exccll""'t cultural defcnse to rape in most Western cultures: the more por-
nogrnphy is consumcd, thc mo1·c dtfficuh it is for men to know thot thcy
ore using force whcn thcy force women inro sex-so thcy u•rll o.1lturally
believe 1hat women conscnt 10 sex no maner how much force is used."
Why are we cominlt up with a mulricultural defense for each culture m
whicb men specificaUy and particularly are permlued to believe rape IS sex,
ins1ead of Jookmg at the assumption that rape happens in a man's mind
rather t.han in o woman's body in alJ of 1hcm? Nono of clus would be
possible íf 1hc disseming women of cach cuhurt>-tl1e women wbo say, 1
was raped-werc creducd with knowing the rcality of wh•L w<.u done to
1hcm.
B. Me!ho<l
Posanodermsm as practiced ofteo comes across as style- petulant. joy·
ridmg, more poscure than positioo. J3ut u has a metbod, making meta·
physics far from dcad. lrs approoch and ns position, its posture townrd
thc world and its vicw of what is real, is 1ha1 it's ali mentol, f>o.,tmodcmi;m
im;~incs that socicty h.1ppcn> in your head. Back in thc modcrn pcril'Ci,
this position wllS cnllcJ idealism. ln its continuity with this method, to
offer a few examplcs, posrmodemism bus made tbe penis inro "the
Post•odernism ••d Humaq R1ghts • 55
phallus," nml it is moscly obscrved to signify. 1 Worocn havc bcrome "an
ongoang Jisrut>Jvc practicc"" or, ubiquitoW!ly, "thc ícmale body."" 111h1cb
is wnnen on nnd signilied but scldom, if cvér. rapcd, bcuteo, or othetw1se
viola1ed. Racism and homophobin ore clided "differences" in disguise.
Abuse has bccome "•1tcncy•-or ratber challeoges to sexual abuse ha>-e
becn repbc-cd by invocauons oJ "a¡tency," women's violation become 1he
sneenng wound of a "viccim" pinned in ardi quoraüon marks." lnstead
of facing what was done co women wben we wcre violated, wc are told
bow mucb freedom we hud at the tune. (For thlS wc oecd fcmin1Sm>)
Agcncy in 1hc posrmodem lcxicon 1> u st•n1lin for thc powcrless cxcrcisin¡¡
powcr; sometimcs 11 meons frecdom, M>rnctimcs sclf-acrion, somctlmcs ti:·
sisrnnce, somctimes desirc:. Wc are not told which of these is meant, pre·
cisely, or how any or ¡ú] of these things are possible under the circum-
st;10ces. lt would be good to know. Oddly missing in this usage is whar
an agem legally is: someone who actS for someone else, the principal, who
is pulling their scrings.
Dominatioo, posanodemists know cx.ists. but 1bc:y don 't 1cll us how or
whcrc: or why. lt is something that no Olle does or h11> done 10 1hem but
somchow wintb up in "gendered lopsidc<ln=.""· What we u~ed to csU
"what happcncd ro her" has becomc, al its most crcdiblc, "oarrauve. • But
real harm has ccnsed 10 exist.
So wbole chapters of books w:itb "pomogr-Jphy" in their ritles can be
wriuen without ever once tallong about whar the pomograpb.y induscry
coocretely does. who pomograpbers are, or wbat is done ro wboro in and
wuh thc matcrial_s. '· Therc is oo dascussion of bow pomo¡¡raphy exploiu
•nd m•ss-produces se1CuJ.l ubuse. Thcrc ;,, not even o.n cxtcrulon oí thc
t!Arly work on thc scopic dnvc by Foucuul1, LaCJn, and lrigar~y lwho ~re
even Frcnch)-•n •nalysis 1.hnt is rc:ndíly cxtcndable 10 describe the ag-
gressive appropriarion and rroflicking of women in pomograpby." Nor
have 1 noticed the mulriculturalists ouc there opposin)l the spread of por-
nography from Scandina\'ia, Germany. and the Uoited Srates oo grounds
of cultural imperialism. and ir's rnking over the world. The point of pon·
moclcrnism is to get as far away from anything real as possible.
Postmodem ferrunists ,,.,!dom butld on or refcr to thc real Uves of rt:al
womcn directl¡, mostly, they build on th• work of Frc:nch 1nen, i( selec-
tivcly and often not very well." Foucault. for instance. studied sorne reJ.l
practices, 1hough he mosdy missed gender, whicli from the stondpomt of
feminism is• rather bi~ thin~ to miss. Foucault's elision of ~ender. feminisl
posanodemists tr)' cndlessl¡- to fix, but his accual ea¡:nge.me.nt with re-
alitv- " l'm an empiricist"'°-they have totally abandone.d. Femnust posr-
56 • Tneory and Ruluy
modcrn1sm is for, far away from thc réalnics of the subordinauon of
wonw:n Ali womcn should be so fortunate.
C. Realny
lt is my víew that a is the relat1on of the.ory ro realiry thar feminism
clian¡?ed, -and 11 is in pare a revemon to a prefemirust relaaoo of tbe.ory ro
reality that posrmodemlsm IS reimposing. This is 001 about truth. Trutb is
a gcncralit y, an abstracúon o( a ce.muo sbape tllld qualliy. Social rc:aliues
ore sometlung eJ..e agu.in. Postmode1nism has deciJed rluu becsuse trutl!
d1ecl with God, therc: ore no social facrs. The focr tha1 reolity IS • socíal
construction doc:s not me~n that it is not there; it means that ir ÍJ there.
in sociery, where we live.
According ro posunodermsm. rhere are no fans; everyth.ing is a reading.
so there can be no lies. Apparenúy it cann0t be known whether tbe Ho-
locausl IS a boax, wbether women !ove ro be raped, whether Black people
are genetlcally inteUecrually inferior to wbire people, whether homosexuals
are cbild moles1er.. To posunoclémim. tbesc factish things are inde1cnni·
nllte, rontingem, m play, ali n matte.r of interprctauon. Símilarly. whcthcr
or not ncts of inccst hoppened or ore troumatic to children bccomc foggcd
over in "epistemological quandaries" as beyond thinlcing. beyond narmtive,
beyond intelligibiliry, as "this eve.nt that is no e11em"-•s if survivors hove
not often reponed, in imelligible narratives. that such events did happcn
and did harm them." That violation ofren damages speech and mcrnory
does no1 mean that one was not violated-oo thc contrary. Recall when Bill
Clinton, asked about bis sexual rclatioosbip wnh a young woman miem,
saicl th•t it ali depended on whaL "is" mcgns. The coumry jecred lus epi·
stemic dodge as o transparent and slimy subrcrfuge to evade accoumability.
Rct rei1l. Thc posrmod~misrs wcre strangely silcnt. But you can't commit
perjury if the.re are no fam. Whcrc are 1hesc pcoplc whcn you O(ed tbem?
What posunodemists want. 1 have come to think, apart &om to live in
thcir heads instead of io thc world (that old dodgel, iS to vaulr themselves
out of powcr metbodologically. '!'bey want 10 beat dominaoce ar lts own
grunc, whicb ¡, usually called domiaating. Tbcy W3Jll to WÍJl every argument
m advW>ce. Abo, if evcrytlung IS in1erpretauo11, you can ne•·cr be wroog.
f'cmanism has foced that you know wrull ÍS renJ OOl by geUJng outsiJc your
determinan~ (wfuch you con'1 do anyway) but by getting deep insídc them
with a lol of 01her people with rhe sorne foot (or feetl on 1heir necks.
Abdicotmg this, fcminism'$ sourcc of power, postmodcmism has swnl-
lowed the objcctiv<: standpoint while diúming to be off on a wbole new
 Postmodern1S11 and Human R11hu · S7
methodologic:nl departure. Then postmod.,.nists sigh ond •<lrrut th.tt they
might h11\"e to concede parri:tlity," meaning admiuing nnly knowmg pon.
What. ogain, W\lS th• oltemotive? To1ol11y? What's wrong "íth pnrrialicy-
except from the obrective $landpoim, which think$ u means you cnn'c be
ngln? Who soid th"'e rs eith"' 1he whole or a pan? Postmodemisrn keeps
hecornmg whac 11 claims t0 supe:rsede."
1l feminism is mo<lcrnist-wh1cb is hrghly probleroatic. bec:nuse it 1s as
much a cnuque oí mo<lcrnisrn"-an<l posunodemists want to be postÍetn·
1ni<t, they have to tnkc fcminism "íth thcm anti go further. Tbey oítcn
cloim 10, To be ponmodcm in this sense, the insightS of modcrnism ond
its crítics into rhe inequaliries of :;ex, 111ce, and class must, it seems come,
be taken on boord befare they can be gone be}'Qnd." lnstead of super·
sedíng these mStgbts. postmodemists routinely elaborately deny them, ig·
nore them, acr as if they are not th"re. Th1s •• premodem. as íf fenunism
né\'l!r txisted. On the qu"5tion of conunutty, whether posunodemism has
much tf anything to say that modemism didn t is also wonh aslung. The
gre•L modcrn Genrudc Stein wrote in l946: • ff)bcrc uint any unswcr,
chcrc aint going to be art)' 1.tnswer, thett n~e:r has becn an ans\ver, 1
thl1t 'i
the answer. ".. How is posrm<>demisrn ¡xm that?
What T meJln to say on rhe question of realicy in rheory is rhis: \Then
somerhing bappens to women. it happens m social reality, The perspecnve
&om womenºs point of view does not mean that women's reahty c:nn only
be seen from Ehcre, hence is inaccessible to an¡'One else and can "t be talked
about und docs n0t exJSt. Rathcr, wbat can be seen from the potnt of vicw
of the subordinati()n of u·omen h.. b«:n thcre aU along-100 long. \X'e
wish it didn ·, exist. but ít carú be wisbcd out of existenec. Anyo11e can
see it. Tt c•n be found. lt cun be 85certoined. Tt cun even be measured
sometimes. h can be discussed. Before us. it l:uis been missed. overlooked,
made invisible.
In other words, the harm of secood-class human S!aros <loes not pose
an abstract realny queS!Íon. In social Jife, there is Unte that tS sobde about
most rapes; there tS nothmg complex about a fut m your face; there is
nothing nuunced ubout genocidc-although many nuunccd questian> no
doubt can be raíscd llbout them. Thcse social reulitics, central to fcminL=.
do no1 raise difficult fina·or~r renlity questions, not Joy more.
lt is the denial of their social realiiy tha1 is complicaced and raises dif·
ficult pbilosophical quesrions. Understand that the deni:tl of the renlicy of
such events has betn a philosophiaJ posnion aboot reality itself. Unless
and until tt tS effecovely challenged. ooly what powcr "'llnts to sec as real
tS gronted. realiiy status. Real.ity is a social 1/atus. Pawer's reality d0"5 001
58 • Theor1 and Realltr
h•vc to <>tabli;h ·~clf •• real in ordcr to exi.1, becau>< ll hJ> 1hc status us
real 1hu1 power gives u; only 1hc re"lity of the powerless has to est~blish
11>clf ~s real Power am also e•toblish unre:tllry-like thc bormlcssness of
J">Ornogniphy or smokm¡¡-:is realicy. Tbat doesn't make it harmless. But
umil power is effecrively challenged on these lie:s-and they are lies- ooly
t:hose harmed (and those harmmg them, who hove every incenll\"C ro oon·
ceal1have ac-cess to knowmg thiit that is what they are. So it has caken us
itll tht> umc. "11U a movcmonL that has challenged mole po1&·cr. to hgll!C
out that womc1ú rcality is olso a pbilosophical posuion: thut women"s
r<nlity exist>, 1ncluding women ·s denicd violation. therefore social rcaluy
CXÍSts separa te Í l'('lffi llS CODStÍIUti!ln by mole po\\·cr or llS \'lllidanon b)'
male knowlcd~e.
Thts analvsis raises some questions •bout poscmodernism that are nor
simply a repon oo my currenc mental stare: Can postmoderrusm stop tbe
rape of childreo "'heo everyone has thelr s1ocy, and evetyooe is p=umably
exero.sing sexual agency ali che cime? Can postmodernism ldcnufy fascism
if powcr only c•isrs 1n microccntcrs 1nd nev"' in sym:matk, fixcd. and
dctcnnlnatc hicrnrch1cul •rrangernents? 1low can )'OU opposc somcthing
1ha1 i> .alw~ys only in play? How do \'Ou orguni.zc agoinst something 1ho1
isn'L cven rcully thcre exccpt whcn you are thinking ahout n? Cnn post·
modernism hold the perpetrntors of ¡¡enocidc accountable? lf thc subjcci
is dead, aod we are dealing witb deeds "ithout doers," how do we bold
perpetrators accountab!e for wbat they perpetrate? Cao the Serbian cu).
rural defense for tbe einernunation of Croars, Bosnian Muslims, und Jfo.
sovar Albaruuns be far btbind? 1f we can have a mulucultural defensc for
che curttnt genocide, because th•t"s how tbc Serbs sec it, why oot •
Germun cultural defcnse Cor 1he t!3rlier one? Anñ·Semit:tsm mar pan of
Gcnnun culture. Finally. Cor another old question, if you onl)· cl<ist tn
opposition. if you are only fuU in opposirion to thc modem,'• it ha., de·
i=ed you. Don't you need an account of how )'OU are not merdy
reiterating your dctcnnination.~? From postmodemists, one is not yet fonh·
crurung. Tbe postmodcrnist rca.ltty corrosion thus malt<:s 11 not only !neo·
betent and useless-tbe pragnllltists' v:tlid crtticrsm"-but also rcgres<tve,
discmpowenng, ancl coU.borntionist.
There 1¡ reality to many of thc poscmodcrnrsts' favorite conceptS, ,¡.
thou¡th they sddom t;ilk about it Toke their •fragmented self .,. In the
material world chey largdy refu•e 10 en~age or counrenunce, the frag·
mentcd <elf is a mulriple perronality. Multiplicity is crea1ed through ex·
neme. liSually se;rual, tonurc at a vei;• youn¡¡ age." Postmodcmists oul!ht
to b.ave to confront the human pam of the ideas tbcy think are so m:ucb
Postmoder•ls., a•d Kumlft Rtghl! • 59
fon.'' Tnkc bcing ntlrnadic. My &sninn \\'Ornen clicnt$ •re rcfugecs. Will
Rosi Bntidoni" s N01nad1c Suh¡ects help t.hem ¡¡tt througn thc day?' Bcin¡t
a n:al nomad can include being forced 10 flee your own counuy for ~'Our
own survival as )'OUr frunily is exterminated m from of you. Po~rmodemism
celebraies interculturality as a libernúng head tnp for ÍlS cultural rootless-
ness aod multiplc poss1b1ltties. The actual expeoence con be somethmg
dse agaln. But tben. Rosi did say bomclessness gor fun only after she got
cenurt.'.¡
One final cxumplc putS togethcr these points abcmt posunodcmism t>n
women. method. multiculmralism. and therefore social rcality Tt ccnrers
on a question. large in Western philosophy, of whether the "·orld exists
mclependcnrly of our ideas of it. This has been • big male problem. An
introduction 10 tbe postmoclem collection Domi11at1111. N<owledge by Sre·
pben Marglin addr"5Ses lt by statíng that che material world has objective
reahry but the social world does not." H.ts eirnmplc is that althougb he
lcnows che eanh is rouod (he do"5n°1 say how). people used to think it was
!lat in human sodcty, accordíng to him, thcrc is no reality, hcncc no
knowing, likc rhat. •• Thc idea is, if you believc thc societl cquivalen1 of rhc
world is llot-like, say. thnt \\'Ornen nre inferior 10 men-i1 is. Tn society,
there is no n:aliiy; therc is only what is thought to be real.
To illustrate tbis. he discusses the subje<;e of "human sacrifice" in a
soetety that beüeves in tts ne=s1ty:
lmaj!inc tbc priest<S.\ calletl upon to cxplain the consequcnces oí a foilure
ro sacri6ce the requisite virgins in tbe requisit< munn<"r Shc rni¡i:hr wcll
say. •Sociery will fall apart. Our women and our land will b~me barren
because our men will become impotent as lovers and intffecti\'e as cul-
uvacors." A»d shc Wtll ~ rtgpt. 6el.téVing themsdves to be impot..-nt JO
tbc hammock and incf6<icnt in the field, tite men wtll be Ulldbk to pcr·
form in cither conrext. The binh rato will decline. and thc horvest wul
fnil. Sociery w1/I fall apan. • . (BJclicf1 bnng about thc very conditions
that will make 1hese bclieis come ttut."
Wbat wc ho•-.: herc is a mulúcultural sexual and ecooonuc ruuonaliz.rlon
for thc murder oí littlc girls. Wc also hu\'é • sítuation in whích mcn's
erections can be dc:pcndtnt on killing femalc children Male impotenec
occupies the staros of a fact; erections, 1 ¡¡ucss. exist. Wha1 r want 10 say
about this son of thing is tbat no one is askin~ the gixls. The description
of "thc way things are" is &om 1be posttion of a man who 1s about to kill
~ child. Of course. m this example. it's put m tbe moutb ot a wam:an.
Womcn often serve male power und do have power over childrtn, but
60 • 1heort and Rul111
p<'>Unodtnum ha'c in J"'nr.11 wnmm •<rnally h11·m, powcr 1hu1 m<n
lalJlcl' ha\C tn nrdcr '" <onOl\C l'l'C'lfllC aoout J'C'IW~r IThat they Wllll 10
.,..,,d bé1ng c•lled ~"" in thc rm«'" 1>c havc acrompbshed.I
.\ti p<'Ult "' 1h1« ,.fui h•rf!Cn• 10 thc v11):tn bem~ sacnbced is mdcpen-
Jen1 oJ "ha1 ,¡,., 1h1nk. aboot 11. S/.e ma> tlunk th11 ihc ero¡» will R"""
lll>l as wdJ 11 ,Jtc ll ail\C tnmorr"'' b ti ~ IJ killcJ 1..Ja) Sh,, llU) "'""'
think h.:r humilll n~hu ore béin~ \1<•wcJ h muo nn Jilfc=cc 10 thc
rcalui of h<'f ¡:cmng kill.J t<kla, i'\n m"ncr "h•t oltc thinh aboot n, ,¡,.,
,..¡¡¡ ~b.--Je.J 11m 1ttm• in me \cfY wnplc: thc ruliry rl pcork
who dorú ""'e """ª'
f'O"'Cr rxrm 1nJcr<-ndcnrlv ré ihC\' ihmk 11tc waal
ron'tructs 1ha1 ron1rol 1hcir In·'° vm C'hcn are not thor roosmms. Wba1
v.'Ofllcn 1hink Joe'\n'1 1end '" makc thinp be thc '"' v.·c think ~use
wc Joo't ba,e me social p<l1lCt IC'I Jo them ot 10 Stop thcm. An~ "'OIJIUI
wbo Joorú """" 1tu., in my npuuon, b.ts llOI pushcd \'Cf)I hard 00 me
"alh aruund her .,nJ othcr ""ntcn "' hA> bttn, so far, \el) prn1lcgcd and
\Cr')' lua~',
Thc r.,...,., 1ha111d~n1 •rrcu1nm<n lnrccaally mcnof1hemcorydaut
tlm l¡,., V."OrlJ o,,,. inJcrc-n,kntly oí th<ir rnmd• IS bccausc thcy Lar¡tdy do
havc thc pov.~r 10 do" h.11c,·cr hapf'('n< m their mmd' Ji ih"" """t. in tbar
mmd<. 10 k1U her, 1hcy can Jn 1ha1 in ihc world lf rhev 1"anr 1110 !tl\'C them
cm:uoos. 11 wtll So they natuntllv don 1 kno"· wh•t come< lirst. u or mem.
\X'har ih1> mem~ 1> th•t W<'mcn •re thconc. "ho know wmcthtng•boucsoc:W
reaht) as suth, whích ·~ thccxrcm of 11$ inJcpcnJcnccof minal U.oaal rcahty
"1ndcpcmlen1 oí'"'' m111J., u's mJcpcndcnt <>Í m1nJ. nnJ rnc:n ¡u>t Lhmk lL
""'' becau•c ol 1hc11>(l(iol l11<•t1<>n
Worncn are in a ¡>0<1<ion '" kno1> thi. 10 che cxicm 1ha1 real11y dOC' not
respnn<.I fCI u5. Wh>t wc know i• 1ha1 rhc ¡>ov.·cr to malee rcnlity be real is
a product of •ocinl flOWcr to act. not jiut to una¡¡ine. Wc kno,.· 1hat rcabiv
is abouc power hecau<e "e c;1n ima¡¡tne chanAe aU da>· loo¡¡ and noihing
is :tny dilterent ln1s " • crmc..m. 11 r; noL .ui mC\1tabilny. Wc cnn col-
lect1vely mtcrvcnc in ao<:liU hfo, but not if v.·e Jeny th•t ll is thcrc or wb.u
m..kc. u be rhere. Wc can "'en 1m1g1nc, long cnough t<> organizr 10 stop
ihci.c: men, ,. h•• u11.1IJ h•p¡>cn íJ 'ontc >u<h ~rl· 11"' •""•> wuh their L,es
onJ thc et<>!" kept n¡:ht an 11row1ng. Stcphcn ~lar81in is n(>I a<kmg this
~id if som-ry '"" t;1U •1,.n 1[ Ñle livcs. Wc are \\'e •re, u vou ,.,u, an
unpmbeblc ml'\emc-nt .,¡ thc C$<ilfltt'I and '"'"""""' ot such <acnficc
Yes, _.¡eiy is la'ltelr madc ol rc<>fllc's con<ctnu<ncs' of sooal relanons.
Tbat doe<n t -.in tlut c-·crynnc' s con'iCIOOsnes• coosuturcs social rc:iliry
cqually. As long '" sooal rcaLty t> a proJu-i ol mcq1ul11y. and pomnoJ-
cm1,,¡s rcfu.., to cuntCSld "uh '<Ktlll u1cq.wit) mc:tl>O<Jo~<ally, pootmod-
Po11n1odorn111• ••d Humu R11fth • 61
cm"m will go on ~Jopt1n¡: thc m<'fh<><lulug11•I I''""'""
nf male po,.·er,
and tht l"'liu<'I of rhe 1'omcn'1 mnv<nll'nt of thc 1'170' will he dead. in
1heorv ~1esnume, womcn m the "·<>rld ,..,IJ ¡¡o on fighnn¡¡ ro chan¡le che
uncqual o;oc1aJ r"21mts of "·ornen\'"º ilS 11 ro,tmodem1>m dad not <XISL
m hurnilll ..., u as 1<>mc:1htn¡: more worih ha'1ng and mJght apply to us. "e
IJ u 1> LO contnbutc to lrniuu•m \ lu1urc, pournoJcrn1>111 b.is, 1 think, """"
quci.uon~ ro •nv.-·er \\:ña1 ª"' u1 '9c\:nun1 fl'Í n!>df? Hov.: con\:mrcni to
rq>udmc ilCC'OUnt ¡¡m~ "hcn u ..-....ns 10 h.i,..., nooc, .i la.t no preocnt
•ble """ \\1..r •r< itJ gmunJ<> !'inv.· 1h1> •• an ag¡:re<..,ve qucsuon
Thinking f?rouncls rrumcr, rhcy rcrud1a1c as "lounJabo""1i.<m • Bu1 v.ila.1
are ihc •cxual anJ rn•tcnal prcconcLuon• lor m1> thcon' l)a,id Hllt\'~
traca me n-ooonuc and culrunl l<>rco of L11r-r..·cnuoh-o::ot:UC} capnalism
mat, U\ ru. an.tl¡,J>. h..c proJu,-,,J, rcaJ Jctcnrun<-J, posun<klcmum."
\t'lur cloo thb •u¡.tg""t .1bc>uc th.:u abalit) 10 promotc chAllgc> \\"h.i 11
postmodcmi<m'• rmrc:ct> llc.w lanc•r, ho.. 1drolo..,1c.I. h""' "'"""' To
...·hom anJ "hJt ,. 11 acwunublc? r ..,.,. u " occountable 10 ucadcmic
hieruchy. Who d<e can offord th1'1 the<>ry?
PMtmodcrn1sm nrprornJtcs 11• meth<><iol<'!lical prctcnsioos Wld ¡lCS·
rures from femmasm. but u cloe>n't pracuce thcm hs rcalíiy posttion is
doser 10 me premoocm, ,-,,nainly che prclemtnist. a mrowbJck lO before
me femuu.m in1t1.i.lh J.scnbcJ. ~ u's foru.lJ'J lO me pa:.t: to )~l moiher
set ol 1bs1mctaon; wtrh no a<:edunL11btl1t) 10 subordm;1cJ ¡><'Ople> realit)
and •n imphcn but tot•I a.coum•b1l11y to powcr w1th ÍJm1li•r if fnncier
reurons for dnin¡i no1hin11 r•Jic11hounJan¡¡, but with thc ..me ori¡¡ins, •
Jislocotcd d itc. ~nd the ~11mc cons«.¡uence•, u dtScn~a¡¡od thcory, 1ha1cor-
rode< material re<israncc ro powcr.
Posrmodernism's analysis of the social c<>nstruct100 of rcality is smlen
from [emimsm and ihe leh but ¡tuued nt sub~l;lnU\•e content- producing
Marxism v.1ihout che worlun¡: cla>s, fcm1nt>rn wlmou1 womcn lú •n ob-
nnct cnuquc ol ~bmau 'uhrc<t• Thc hall of mirtor> !ihat'$ rlural) rhai
much of 1><mrnoJcm1,m •ubstnutcs for •O) ancmp1 m gr..p • rc.J '°'ial
""'rlJ i> an ultun•te rollapk' imo ltberah•m ·, rdauvi<m f't'J:'~"'' As mildl)
put b, Al.tn Sokal and lean Bncrnont, "relatm<m ,. an extreme!' "~ak
foundanon on which 10 hu1ld a cnuci•m nf 1hc e<tmni o;ocial order • .,
Once posnnodcmi<m's \'at'IOU\ ªª' n( ihcft and selloo1 are exrosed . ..-hat
1> lett 1> • pose, m cmpt\ j!C'turc ni thcarncal anar<:hl>tl1 ho ..-hrch \lan(s
muque appliol, • Hc¡:dim n~•Uon ot thc >UIUS quo Cand lll>l a> Jt.tcr-
nuncd b¡ nl, Mx:ral1Jrn's tnnhk ch1IJ lm.my hbcrala louk plent} grouoJcd
61 • lhto1 1 1nd Rul111
.1nJ cn¡t•Rcd h) comran>0nl, • pttcinu• pol1110 e>f abd1carion compla·
CtnC), and rassiv1sm,
1 do kno"' 1h1< wc cannot havc tlus po<tmoderruStn and snll !uve a
rncantn¡¡IUI pract1cc ol 1>omcn's humm nglus, far le« a women's movc-
ment lrumcall), .uicJ h°"' l""'tmodcrnu.m !oves m tr0ny, 1us1 as "-ornen
h.-" be¡:un 'º beromc human "'en u ...-e h.-c bcgun 10 II'lnsform me
•re told b) h1gh rhcorv that the human " inht:rcnily auihorirarian. not
\.-onh h0\1n~. unmansformable, and may nnt cvm exi.i-and how hope-
¡..,¡, runcteoenth-«nrury of us 10 want 11 '° ITha1 fcw of the fmünist post·
moclern1m. had 11 no• beco for thc iheory of hurruuuty clic¡· cnnazt. ...-ould
h3\ e beco ~rmmcd 10 leam tO read and wnl~ tS perbaps a small
poanr)
The l'ClllOCI ¡x»U11t>tkm1>m unJcrmino • pracuce of hum:in nghts,. not
becJ<IJC u conoclct unl\erul11v, l lum.n nght> m thc rcal v.-orld att
provm, far ku •n,.hcJ 10 mctr F.nhgh1mmen1 baggage ihan a.re me in-
tclkctuJls ""'º ~uuJ ... thcol) The rea'°n is. me rcolicy of viola1ion is
thc onl¡ 11roonJ the \lnl..rcJ h.ve 10 stand on 10 cnd ir Power and its
prC!cnden thmk thcy can cLspemc ,.,,¡, ground ~use they are in no
danj!Cr o! lostnR mc1rs or thc po..·cr that ~ ...,th ll. Postmodcrrusm
v1tiate> hum.111 nght> 10 thc cxteot 11 crccts ruelf on tts lack ot relaaon 10
me rc.i.11ues o( the suborJma1cJ because u IS onh in social realicy th.tt
hum..n '"''•""" t•kcs plaoc. c•n be kno•m, and can be stoppcd.
Th1> 1n,1l)'11 1n lllm fll.\O u c.¡uorion femtni<m has not haJ 10 nnswcr
before..., crttically '" we dci now. bec•usc wc ncvcr hnd a thcory class
bcforc whnt i• thc pl•cc c-f the oc•dcmy in che movcmcnt? Posunodcrnism.
cmpcy· os mu ch oí u i•. is rnkin~ up ti lot <>Í femmist 1hcorcúcal encrgy m
thJS onc world ihn1 we all 110 10 slccp m and wake up rn. Ponmodernism
is an academ1c theory, on~inatin~ in academia with an ac.ademic elite. not
111 thc u orld of womcn 111d meo, where fcllllOist mcory IS rooted. In me
carly 1970$, l Uor cine> haJ unaglncd mar lcmtnists doíng mcory '"-ould
retheori1.c hf< in the <:vncrctc rAml'f thlll •pmd thc DCllC thrcc docadcs on
met•rhcory, t~lking ~htm11hcol)-, tthuhinR C'l\'cr nnd over in rhis discon·
ncctcd "•V how· thcorv ~uld be done, ka\in¡! wruncn's liveJ rv.-istin¡¡ in
1hc "'llld Too. 1hcomin11 ahout Lttlc cx~pt o<hcr theorics of t:heonrs
prmmlcs Lnk cxpencncc on how 10 do 11
.\h lcdmg 1<. ti the po<rmodcmL~ rook rc-.pollSlbilicy for cbangm~ .,~
onc rw ihtn~. ihcy wou!J leun more about ihco~ tlun "'·~-thing they
h.- e "nucn to J.i1e pul together lnncaJ. as pra~uccd by porunodemur.s,
the 1<ib ol thcory, '" thc blooJ ·~"'" of thc aaiJ0111c curung cdgc, lS 10
 Postmodern1sni and Hu•an Rl¡hts • 63
ob,..,tve •nd pos• on und play "~th these big quc,tio11>. ou1 of toucb ""h
nnd unaccounr~ble ro the lavei. of the unequru Their cntically mindcJ
6 olaaon, "" S1ates can opt out oí the 10quuy procedure. bue, umqudy
$1Udenrs are tought tha1 nothing is real, thm diseng.1~C1T1em is smnrt ln<n The Promise of CEDAW's
10 mention career-promotin~). 1hat politics is pamomime and vemrilo-
quism. that rea.lit)• is a reJ<t (readin(l is safer man acnnj! any dayl. tha1
Opcional Prococol
creative misrea<liog is resistancc (you feel so radical and oomfunably rnar-
gmall. that nothlng can he chnnged \you cnn only amuso yoursclf). With
powcr lefr ~1andlnJl, thc fcnunism o[ thls thenry canno1 be proveo by any
~\1ng woman. 11 ~ úmc 10 a.<k ihC$C pcQple: wh.tt JrC you domg'
Thc Optiooal Protocol to ihe Convcncioa on lhe Elimioatioa of Ali Fonas
o[ Discrimiruuion Agamst Women.' "·bich came 1010 force on Deccmbo-
22. 2000, pul a new legal tool 1010 tbe bands of wruncn, empowenng thcm
10 clalm their iotemaúonally protected equality rights.'
lf justice inhcr<'S in procedures, i1 has bttn long in coming under the
Convcmion on the Elim1nation oí AU l'orms of Discrim10ation Ag•irut
Women ICEDAW or "<he Convemion")' For rwen1y years. CEDAW's
subs11101ive guaranrees haw b«n marginoli>.ed and disreR•rded. hampered
by multiple reservations' and enforcement limited to reporting.' Lack of
procedural mechamsms for direcr victims to dnim violarions has con-
strained tbc Conventioa 's effecuvencss agamst offiaal acts and fatlures 10
act, and agwnst those iarcractions of srn1c u-ith nonslllte •ctioo thac so
pov.·eriully enforc" women's subordinatt status and trt'31mem.• L;tws that
c..Hscrimhtatc ogainst \Vetmen rcmain in cffecr in r1.uif)~ng countries nround
1he world' CEDAW's mundatcs 10 promo1c women's cqualiry in poli1ical,
economic, social, and cultu ral life' ~re widely ignorcd. The Convcntion's
efficacy as a force for chang~&om transforminR social and lc~al nonas
10 inioating domesac legislaáve and polic¡• reform to strengrhening forces
for equal11y 10 civil sociecy-bas been seriously undennined.
lf U'OJUcn 1ake ii up. tbc Opaooal Protocol could end ihaL h encom-
passes all provisions in thc Convention, not just those expressly stnted ln
1cnns of righu.• Din:Cl eomplain1 1nay be mndc agtlinsl mtifying countrics
10 thc Comminee on Distrimina1ion Agninst Women 1•chc Commiuee"),
thc cre.11y body t>Í elecred cxperu 1hat imerprets the Convention.1• T"'º
mechanísms are av11ilable- individuals and ¡troups can initiatc communi·
caáons, 11 and the Commmee itsdf can undenake iaquiries based on in-
formauon submmed to tl comalning evidence of "gmve or synemaric V'I·
64
Tbe Promise ol CEDAW's Ophonal Protocel • 65
umong comp"rablc instrum<nts, thc Opuonal Protocol pena1ts no rescr
v•tions. 0
~1andin¡¡ 10 10iu.rc o communicarioo for "viClims"" i• confine<l 10 in-
<lividuals or 11roups of ind1viduals who clnim acrual injury due to CEDAW
violations. Others can act on thcir bebalf" witb their consem. or if good
reasons ex1st that their consent should not be required. 1• The scope of
permme<l represenrnuon o[ vrcums will be determined by the Commrttee
as ns 1urisprudence devdops, as will the reqwsitCS of consent 10 complam
on behalf of another anti che l'Cllsoos iheir conscn1 may not be required.
No doub1 tbese uc1caninarions will be iníluenccd by tht prjctic"' of other
trcoly boJics wirh complaint mcchanisms. 11hhough mabün11 w<:>men 10
claim their rights as women m•y cal! for indcpcnden1 solurions Anony-
mous cornplnims are not allowed," bu1 an unprecedemed prohibition on
retaliatory "ill·rreatmeat or iotimidaáon • of complainams. represematives,
or Wlmesses provides sorne promise ot securicy." Together. mese ptO\'I·
sions give nongovemmentalorganlzadons <NGOs¡ a legitimare<! role 111 thc
eomphlnt protess, expnndíng ihe practica.l posstbilny of br111ging doims
whilc 01 thc samc úmc ensurin¡¡ ihot complJin1$ are grounJed ia, and
hopcfully occountable to, real pcoplc who hove •uffcreJ real hun1"n rights
violoi.ions. The compromises behind thcse provisions balance legitimacy
uoith prncticalil)• nnd realism
Admissibility criterio under the Optional Protocol leave lamude for
Con\mitree mterprctauon as weU. "Ali available domestic remedies" mus1
be exhausted unl<ss they are "unreasonably prolonge<l or unlikely to bnng
effctuvc rclicf."•• Domesuc laws agaum CEDA\VJ violaüons often cxist but
ore not cffccúvdy enforceJ, such as thosc agaios1 domesrk violence; sorne
are lurgcly ineffcctutd by thelr Jcsign, such as l•ws against pornogr•phy.
When CEDAW vialaiions Jrc pervasivdy tolcrmed, cnn formal la"" agairur
rhem be consm1ed •s "1111Ukdy to brin~ cffective relief"? What ~bour
woups of womcn challengin8 partial rcme<lies. such as laws iha1 produce
more womco in pubhc office but do nor sol•-e iheir dramatic underrep.rc-
sen1atioo, or quotas of less tbáll 50 percenc? \'Cha1 01Jgh1 • complamant
be required 10 do to exbaust domescic remedies to compla.m abou1 lack of
legal rcmalies Ior >ex Jiscrirrunarion in civil socicty 111 light of Aruclc 2(cl's
rcquircmcni that siatei partic5 1akc all appn>priotc m..sures ugau1s1 dis
criminarion "b) nny pcrson, organi.ia1ion or en1erprise"? Only Jomei>ric
remedies need be c.luus1ed not intemarional ones. Tndeed, the Optional
Pro1ocol's communicarion procedure (no1 the inquiry procedurcl is exclu-
s"e:"' But will European proce.dures, embedded in the laws of eacb
66 • lhoory and Reahty
•"OUfiU')', hove 111 be <:xhaust«l, or wül thcy be reg.rded os conílicting?
Perhnps íf ,, rcm.,dy is mr;orpormc<l in Jomcstic law, i1 1s rC<¡uircd b), bu1
nt1t prcdusi\'c of. 1hc Op11onal Pronx:ol Exhausting remedies withour ex-
hnusiinjl women may prove challen¡¡ing or unprnblcrnmk.
Cnrnrnunicatioos are examined in "doscd meetiogs.°21 with che Com-
rnmee s \'tews transmined to tbe parues."' lnquiries "shall be conducted
conlideotiall)'." ""h much depcndant upon the levelof cooperatioo of the
state parcy, to wbom the Comnuttee's v1ews are communianed.'1Nothing
makes the foc1 of n d'"Cision 10 holu ao inqwry necessarUy sccret, ho,vever,
1us1 as notl11ng formal restri= tllsclosurcs by statcs ponles subject to in·
quiries or by 01hers in•-ol~d in the pnx:ess, such llS those submitting in-
formnuon rcqucs1ing thot on mquiry be ini(iated. lkt11usc conndcntiulity
of inquiries exists for the beneñt of the sute pany, presurnably me sme
could waive 1r, enbancin11 che vtsibilicy and transparcncy, and with it me
effectiveness. of che proceedings. lt is emisioned mat dec1sions ID com-
munications will be made public by the Commiuee, wlm tbe sme under-
wlung to fal"ilime access 10 tbem.''
Un1qudy among comparabl~ in>trumentS. the Opúonal Pro1ocol re-
quir<$ !lotes 10 providc a writlt'n response 10 communications wi1hin six
months.'' lmerlm measure• are ¡ivoiloble "to avoid possible irreparable
damage.""' As usual with human rights 1rea1ies, the Opcional Protocol pro-
vides no enforcement powcr as suC'h. Ali ouccomes are effeccuated by vol·
umary compliance." The visibllity and leg1tirnacy of the process becomc
parricularly cruaal whon enforcernent depeods on linle more than the mO·
bilization oí shamc. which rdies ruaínly on public press11re. Aport from
thc educauon.11fun<tion of tbe proceeilings tl1emllclvcs, Optional Protocol
cu;cs can help brir\8 ouention to issues in the national context, cncour•ging
Jornc«ic changc agninst systemic discriminarlon in p.rticular .ind sup·
porting civil sociecy initiatives as well as official ones." The procedure's
publicity requirements-"' are designed to susrain tbcsc functions. Hopefully
they will not be ignored.
Una:ied procedures are doubtless daunting, and wornen encouo1er spe-
ciúc barríers for accessing th~i r human rigbts. To date four conununica·
cions hove b(cn rcgistcrcJ; tbe Comrnllttt has .Uso beguo work on an
mquiry in10 thc decudelong und ongoing dis;1ppearance$ and murden.,
many of them ,;cxunl, oí women in Ciudnd Ju<lrez, Mexico, with vinual
oíncial impunicy. '° More communications and inquiries may be expected
as word spre-•ds thar the Committec is open for business. lnvitin¡t inicial
comphunn include the many discriminatory laws, policies, and pracdces
tba1 blatandy viola1e CEDAW's substantive provisions. sucb os citizensh1p.
The Promlse of CEOAW's Optlonal P1olocol • 67
nauonality, inbentance, and propeny laws tha1 g¡vo women lesser rigbrs.
domesttc \'lolence cases wherc nauonal law has not provtded an a<lequatc
remed}. ond labor laws 1ha1 exelude ca1egor1es of labor commonly unuer
tuken by womcn such us do1nestic work. /llore innovntive ust!S may • lso
emerge os the jurisprudcnce devclops. Victims of discriminarion need not
be nation:Js of the country they complain againsr, so a survivor of craf.
6cking (for examplel mighr complain against a ratifying destination country
if she was under its jurisdiction when the violation occurred. Evenrually,
broad reservadons 1hu1 undennine the Convrntlon 's univcrsallry rnight be
challeoged u1 uppropriaie cases for mcompatibüity wtth CEDAW's object
and purpose.
l l«man rights cann0t depend exdusively for thcir implementation on
thc snmc stotc cnti1 ies that violate, and permit violorions of, those rightS.
The new compliance mechanism offered by 1he Üptional Prottxol en
courages action on che intemarion•I level by women whom discrimination
has harmed- whose numbers are leg:ion-supponed by NGOs in ex-
posing govemmental fatlures and social pattems of abuse, and by lawyers
mdependem of their govemments' concrol and unafraid of thdr displea-
sure. As tbe proce>S brings inttm aúonaJ credibility to equality seekers.
women will bring credibility and vitality, irnaginotion and cnergy. 10 thc
Conveniion, illuminoting CEDAW's upplía1bilicy tO thcir lives in dh•crsc
cultural senings. By handing women rhemseJ,·es t he pawcr to complain
agaiost discrimina1ion direcdy, the Opcional Protorol holds out ar once
the possibility of reinvigorating me internacional human rights frarnework
and hope for equalicy 10 women.
 7
Making Sex Equalicy Real

part two This moment, 0 1 the dawn of C11n11do's né\\• 0.•ncr of Riflhrs ond Free·
dom<, is full of possibilities for ali Cinadians. lt is also o ¡¡ood rime for
fundamental reconsideration of equality cheory
struggles within states Mosr countries do oot eveo have one equal cights amendmem to
Canada's two. Secrlon 15 is che mote abstnlctly framed provision but con-
tains tbt crucial subsrondve clemem of disadvamagc.1 Sectioo 28.spcakíng
o( m.Jc ond Cerualc person> concmcly, is even more subst.anlively framed.'
ln my '1Cw, theorctkal opproachcs to legul equollty noc:d 10 be n:unoly-<cd
in light of thc gender incquality thut socially cxi.srs. Can1Jdo's Charter pro
visions cnll for an analysis of thc social inequality of 1he sexes that opens
onro a legal equaliry rheory chat enables sex ioequaliry to be identilied
wbere sex equality is legallv mandated. Inrerpreced as proposed here, the
Chaner would dtaw a Une and ser a tone as weU as cast a shadow thar
becomes a standard, givíng equahry concrete meaning in women's lh·es,
making sex equality real
1fürorically, equahiy law ,1nd philosopby hove b«n crea1ed in • \'Olcuum
o{ critkal arrention 10 sex as an incquality. Sex h•s more rypically been o
coumerexample to et¡uality orgum<:nts proper or rhcir reductio ad ob-
surdum .• As 3 result, equaliry theotics bave not adequately addressed the
inequalicy of women relacive m men, makiog them inadequace and incom-
plere as rheorics of equa!ity per se. To amicipate the conclusion: if Canada
mterprctS cquality as us11al- including Lbe way mosc U.S. couris and main-
meam commcmotors in the Anglo-American junsprudtmial tt•<litioo <lo-
it wiU m.' íntnin tl1c incquality of lhe scxes. \Vornen will rem411l a pC!Cpotual
cconomic, sociu.1 and policicllJ underclass. \X101nen·s 1nferiority. po\\·erlcss
1

ness. relative neglígib ility "~11 conrin ue, both 1hrough positive acts of gov-

Thlf 1.tk wsu ftrq publt5hrJ in Ri¡~t1q tÑ 8.JJ,,a- c,,,_,,11J.'1 °Nf'fl' &¡wl1h Rtr}tt )7 flynn
Srnllh él .i.. ..i... t98) 1
71
7Z • Strugglos w1th1n Slates
cmmem 11nJ neglccuttg, hence penni111ng, social ¡uacuccs like marital l'llpc
•nJ 1he pomogrophy ínJumy, oca •nd in<tirutions so socilllly systcm•tic
th:tt po<itive law hos :¡c)dom been neccled to enforcc them.'
Equalit)' theory can ~ read as an 11nswer to a qucstion it docs noi pose
directly- "Whar ís an equality question a question oP" Tbe standard .tri·
swer in faw and philo.opby has beco that an cquaüty question Is a questton
ol samene>s and cWlermee. to be resoh eJ by treaung ükes >llikc and Wl
ltkes un.tlike. The word "equru• means "same." lt "codo for •amcness.
Ji. nonnauvo thrusLas a pruiciple flow~ from an cmp1r101l dctcrminnuon
<>Í similar•t}· or dís.imílarit) Hence Americ.m judkfal cqualii; mcrhoJ-
e>logy's fixarion nn catc¡¡C>ri:.>1ion, thar caregoríes firempírical rcalny Wben
it is srud rh~r me>· must be cntional' ir means they must 6t tbe world as it
is. "fit"' meaos rhe étllpirical term and the normatíve purpose must cor-
r:espond-the dass1ficatioo must, say. 6r a val.id srate purpose for wbicb it
ís drnwo. Categonc.,,, 10 fu, mus1, in the som.,,.•hat carruvorolll> language
of iwo Am~riain commentators. cai,·c the social worl<l ot " natural jrunt.
Wlm mnkC$ a joint se= nntu r.J, or whethc>r punishing sorne peorlc•
n.11ure Jn<l privilcging other pcople• is wh3t cqualít)• menas, is often i~
nora!.
This mamsrre~m npproach fllves women rwo altemarive rootcs to
cqu:tliry. One, be the same as men. This is tbe leading rule, rermed "gender
oeutrality" or "the single standard." The altemarke lS to ask for reco¡¡ni·
uon of our dilfereoces, 1ermed tbe "specíal beoelit rule" or the "double
st1111dard." Tbe sameness Stan<lanl gc1s womcn, wben thcy are likc mcn.
a~Cd!! 10 \\hnt mcn •lréady have; the Jifferences rule seeks 10 cush1on tbc
impacL of \\·runen's distinetiveness or value \vomcn as they are under ex
i<tíng rond1tiom.. Stdln Blíss. unable to work bec;iuse shc 0..11• pregnnnt.
mer bmh standnr<ls <0 got the benefit of neither.'
The sameness standard is rhe legally and thl!(lretically preferred pnnciplc
m exisong lnw aod tbeory, indudin¡¡ in Chartc:r deliberatioos and among
mos1 úmadians. Usually it is siroply called "tbe equalicy rule." Womcn
who wisb 10 be equal to roen musL show thetnsdveG 10 be lhc samc a.
ml'll. This lS .m egu:tlity orgumem. Most proposed tntcrprernuons of Scc-
uon 15 rcvolvc around tl11s ;undnnl. h shows how subsc•ncc bccomes
form in la .. that this i• rel!"rdc<i as "formal equnlny." 1ñis appro•ch pri·
oritizes 11s equality íssues those in which wi;>men 's sociul options and con·
dirions ""' alrc.idy most like men's. [1 als9 prioñtizes the daims of chose
women whose social condinons are already most üke men's, tbe moo1 pri"'
Jc11ed women. Aod tt deJiocs worncn's goals m terms of lsomet mcn 's
ACCualiu.:s.
M1kina Su tqu111ty Reol • 73
As thr;s rule ha< workcd out concretdy 1n Amcricun l.iw. 1t h.. mo1nly
~'Otten men thc benelir oí thosc few thmjls \\'Ornen hove histOnl'nlly h:id
In family l.iw. ir has transformcd custody and di\'Orce by jllVing meo an
equal chance at rusiody ol c:luldreo and at alimony.• It bas gotteo meo
access tO wamál'S schools,• womeo·s jobs.1• and motbers' benefüs.1 lt
mobtli.zes thc tdt."J tbat tbe way to gec tbmgs for wpmcn ts to gec tbcm for
mcn_ ll has also gottcn for womeo-those who CllD sho\\· tlwc we 1rc tbc
samc a> men-somc thin@$ to wh1ch men h;ive previously haJ olmo>t ex
cluswc ncccss. Employment ond cduc~uon, che publíc pursu1ts. have been
priori!Uc:d \X'omen hove receivcd ~me acress 10 acndemic and profes·
Stonal advancemcnt. blue-collar \\'Ork. rbe miliuiry. and more th.in nominal
access to atbletics. This approocb has nor allowed W!>men ro question the
pballocemricíty of knowledge, éompecition as the point of spons and ca-
reers. do1D1Daúoo as the modd aod meaos of power, or WJr 35 a peculmrl)
ejaculutory means ol eoofüci resolucion.
This <locttme hns broken clown "·hcn facc<l ",th real >ex tlifforenccs,
for insunce, pregnancy. Patcntly, thcre are probletl\$ ..;,h nn equnluy prin-
cipie that <loes not know how to handle dístinctions 1h•1 .J,'11.ntage ooe
llfOUp at anotber's <ysiemotic expense.u Sucb problems include socfaUy
situated differenre; sucb as the de facto sex segregaáon of rhe labor force
resuláng in lack of equal pay for work of comparable wortb, so 1hat women
on <1Verage make mucb less income tban men. Equality law m i~ main-
stream form caoooc address tbe mosr syi;temacic social disadvantagcs. the
most sc.x-differentíal abuse; of women. lndudcd m rhc.e abuses are not
only se¡;rq:¡auon mio less ""lucd iobs. bu1 also the tange of íssucs of vío·
lcnce •goinst women 1hn1 hol'e bcen systemntic:tlly 1oler• ted bi \Írru~lly
every aovernmen1 in the world, despite e1.1lrural diffetences or $imilar
formal equJ.IÍJy guaramees. These abuses índude the massíve amoum of
rape and anempted rape about whicb virruaUy nothin¡i. is done; the sexual
assault of c:hildren endemic to thc patriarchal family; the bauery of women
tbat is systcmatic m homes: prosutuuon. \\'Omt n 's fundamental economi<
opuon: anJ pornograpby, wh1ch makes mcquallti sc>.1• 10 tbc tune ol btl·
hons ol dollors m profit evcry year.
Thesc issues are silencc<l ouc oí the sameness definition of equalJty
lar¡:dy because rhey hnppen olmost exdusi\'CI)' ro women Under.ioncl for
thís reason. rhey are considered no/ to raise equahty íssues. They bdon~,
tf at ali. on thc criminal side of the la\\". 1 think thc major r~son these
abuses are oot reganled ns raising equaltty issucS is tbat tbe 1reauneot tbey
10\'0l\•e is l'.égardetl as a prcs.mg • tbc """ dificreoco. • J.rophcít 10 tbe no-
tton tbat equalir:y is,. quosnoo of samencss and Jillcrence ís tbc: seuing of
suuulu Wllhln Statu
.1 •ub•1anuvdy male standard for women's trea1men1 undcr equul1ry law
aillín11 tha1 sameness. and predudin¡¡ fr(>m bcing addrcssed 1hose problems
thru pmlomiMnúv \\'Orneo hove. calling rhem differena:s lt adudcs from
attack sucb treatmem as lS S}-Sr~maiically. almost uruqud}-, done to "·ornen
by assimJaun¡t tbose abuses 10 "dte :>ex diíforence. • In tblS fromc:work.
rnpc. baneey, prosuruaon exprcss "tbe scx dif[crmce." Ccrtwoly. tbt pr-.ic·
ucd> 1ba1 cnforce women .. particular >ubordítuuon .are dtffcrenL• Thc
whole poult of womcn 'o sooal relcgauon 10 mfcriarit}' i> tbat tbese thmgs
are sddom done 10 mcn. But 1hm docs not make them cs>enrially female;
it onlv m"kes thcm rcrvasivcly im~ upon women.
Observe that meo •te as differem from women as women are from men
The ~cxcs are equaff1 differem. Meo. howe--er, are nor paíd half of "·hnt
v.-omen are paid for domg the same things on the baslS of tbeir equal
d1fftlencc. Evcrytluog tbey touch does 001 rum valuelcss be.muse th<}
toucbcd <r. Wbeo tbey are hit, a person has been assaulted. \X'hen tbey are
=u:tlly violate<i, especiaUy if tbC)· are maight and wbitc anJ a<iult, 11 tS
nor gcnerally disbdi....cd or simpl) colcmcd or found entcn•imng or <le·
fcnded as rhe nec•ssary <tructure oí the fomily or the pricc of civib.zation
Tbe quesrion "Whnt is an cquulity quesrion a qucstíon oi?" needs n new
answer. a realisric one in the context of actual inequality. An equality ques-
tion lS a quesoon of dominance and subordíruuion. lnequalicy is a question
ot hierarchy. The fundamental tSsue of equallty ís oot wbetber ooe ts tbe
same or dtfferent; 1t ,. not thc gcndcr dill'crence; lt 1S tbe difference gender
makcs. In this perspectl\'c, equ.tlit) 1s not txdusi\'ely or .,,.en primarily an
issuc of <liJfcrcnuJtion thot is ruuonal or noc.. To be on the bottom of a
h1crarchy ís ccnninly tlífforen1 from being on the top of one, but ít is not
~imply diffcrence that mo•t dístinguishes rhe iwo. Ir is, in fact, tbe lcsser
acccss to resourt-es, privileges, credibility, Jegi¡imacy, authority. p:iy. bodil)
integriry, securlcy. and power tbac makes che two unequal. The issuc bcre
1S not entirely ho"' ro roake access ro those thmgs nonarbitrary, bcowse
tbe situaúon we are confrondng lS anythíng bm 51mply u bu.raiy, lt does
ha~ ao moer logic. The issue is systernadc malc suPlemacy and bo" to
enJ u. Confronltng thi• problcm requircs • lcss absuua anJ more sub·
stanuve Jpproach 10 cqualitv. Under it, to be equal is not to be subordi
natcd on n 11roup 11round. lf systemnric relegation 10 mferiorit)· is what ¡,
"'"'"K ..i ch inequalill, tbe L1Sk oí equaliry law ís ro end thar status. nOI to
focus on conditions uoder wbicb it Cllll be just:ified. F.qualirr in thlS scnse
is not voided by diffw:oce and is saus6ed only by real ¡nriry.
lí íoequaliry es subordtnaooo, to manda1e equalny on the bllSls oí sex
legally means that a decis.lon has been m•de: tbc proposwon th•t women
 Mak10¡ Su Equahly RW • 75
cm be treJtcJ as ;,ubhuman i> no long.:r Jcb•l•hlt. Thc only quoúon "'
whctbcr or 1101 • proc11cc or d1>llnc'l10ll ¡, C\.LUal or u""qwil. ,uborJtn111Jns
or not. \'<'hctltcr IJw~ or pr11cuces reílecc existmg ~oclal rd11cions or are •
mor.JI, grod ideo 1s 001 rdevum Antlsubordination could be thc di<tinc
uve ~uidin¡¡ inrerpretive principie of Secnon 28 m particular anc.I could
also be buur toro Stttion 15. Under Section 28, equalil} bcrween womeo
and men IS guarameed "notMtbs1ancbng anythin¡l else m this Ch1rrrer" and
IS also not subjecr to legisLuive O\trndc.
Scction 28 was fought for bi women to mean somethtng more 1han the
m1Jtlional metmmg of "nonJ.i>crim.inaLion on thc b..sls of scx," and it del<."'
Nonsubordinat ion, op¡ioSJt1Qn to dis:id,·an1.1ge. is o sub,tantivc: prinople.
Í thtnk dm iÍ yo\I eicpose. •s Section 15 could nnc.I Section 28 p•rticulnr]~
could, the substance bencarh 1he gloss of ~enc.lcr neutrali1y. u subsrn.nti''C
approach ro mequalicy issues could emer~. Wheo \\'Ornen are raped. for
example. .ind rbe srate effecuvcly condonés tl, women's equalirr ngbrs
would be viola<ed. Ccrram uacbtional eVtdentiary •t:Utdards, eroded to
sorne tkgrce but still cauuoning tbat \•ictttns o[ se:xual ossa.ult are especiJll1·
not 10 be bd1cvcd," would be focially inv.ilid. The) assumc: thot womeo
!re. S<>me subordinoúon of \\'Ornen 10 meo porrially but incffcctu•lly pur·
sued b)' tbe m11e-for ex,1mple, ics regulation of 1hc pomogr•phy in·
dusuy-migh1 n.lso be challen¡¡ed Compor•ble worth for pubUc employees
should be ochievable. as shoulJ pre¡¡nancy !cave. Such an approach will
begin 10 revea! and dismnncle the comphcity of law in rbe sex-unequal
Slrucrure of Anglo· American sooét), whiclt op<:rates as an affumam•e ac-
tion pl:rn for wh11c ml'll.
lkeausc sex inequ:ility is pervruvc: and potcnt In chis. sm11:1urc, e.'pressli
lcgalizmg 11 has oftcn nm bL..,n nccessary. Women hove had virtu11Uy no
vo1ce m 1he design of ex1s11ng luw or sC>Ciety to d•1c, hovmg bet:n k~t out
and down For chis renson, to realize scx equality will require more affir.
marive j;OYemmental action than che simple nc¡¡atioo of exisrinF. law. To
che e~'tent thc C.nadian Charter is in1c:rprtted as a neganve documenr. irs
assumptions about sootty will not apply ro the snuation ol women-for
cxamplc, ú it assumes that speecb Is free. anti. therefore. rhe pnncip'11
tbreut to íreedom o( spc'edt is govemment inter\'Crtuon." or that •ocicti
1> equal, and 1hc princip.J threat to oqual1t) "Liw> that imp~ inequ:1litlC$.
fo, cqu111iry pro>isions du not h•vc 10 be 1nterpreied in t.his way Resisr
this ft is not true thot womeo's speech is free and its resrricrion comes
onl~ or ~ ptimarily from govemmem. h i~ nor rhe case rhar society ~
equal and tbe problem of mequalicy es onlv or even pnmarily cxpr<-ssl}
legi~laavely l.!Tlposed.
15 • Strugeles Nltftm States
ru W()nlC!l "he> Wc>rk wltb tbc )dW 111 )"óUr lutu.4, wbat ÍS tbc ffi""1nmg
til yoor proc:n<e "" l•\\')crs •nJ juJges in 11 •ystcm that ktt)l> women out
unJ Jown? CompJreJ wnh mos1 women. we 11rc in ond up. r helieve we
ore let mm this •>'Slem on the condition that we nbide hy its norms, one
of which is 10 keep women our 2od down, while our presence conv'1''S thm
thnt is no1 rhe sys1em at all lf we do abtde by tts nom1s. most women's
U\..,,; wW remam whar they have alwil}'S been: a cyde of dcpendencc. pov·
eny, lorced l11bor, forced sexual uccess, forccd rtproclucúon, :md for m:my
an wnimely Jcuh. 'Tñc posuion tli•t .omc of us havc mo1·c'<I up 11Dd out
uf wiU be ñllcJ by 11nothor w<1m1m. \X'o1""11 wlll be usa! until wc 11rc w.ed
up. 'l<'omcn will be boro. de¡¡radeJ, and die
1 think th111 'lections I~ and 28 are " po¡>ular nnd principled m•ndatc
for a chan¡:e in this. To malee ibe1t promise come 1rue. women who ue
now tn po\\·er in ibe exisung svstem mus1 not accepr anythm¡t less than
real social eqLuiliry for ali women. \'Ue mus1 nor allow ourselves ro be used
10 sbo11 we mude i1, ali women can. As i1 is, all women can'r. U the
combination of the principies oí Sections 15 and 28 is kep1 in tnlnd-if
ibc .>Ubstmttvc mandacc oí Seruon 28 is ob~n·cd 1oge1hcr wltb tbe mor~
fonnal mMJntc of S.:Ction 15, togethcr with its subst•nuvc anttc.lisadv•n
taging nonn-if wc do not forgct 1hat Section 15's "•ex" d1scnmination
prohíbition 1s reall¡• about whar Sectton 28's subsrnntive ¡n1nl'Jntees to
"women and men" ore nbout-Susan B. Amhonv's goal will come to pass
sooner in C.nacla than in the United States: "mcn, t:hcir rijlhts and nothin¡¡
mo~ womeo, tbeir nghts and notbing less. •n
8
Nacionbuilding in Canada
After succes<ful uwtution, Canadian women Se("ured in Can•du'~ new con-
sticurion, che Chartcr of Ri¡:hts and Frcedoms, sex equaltry J!Uarnmees witb
more potentfal to produce actual sex equaliry than wt exists in aoy oiher
roosticutional language. These equalicy provisions. which carne imo effect
m Apnl 198,. probibit Jiscrimínation on tbc basis of sex 1hrough Liw• ond
also t!Xprcssly gunrantee ali Chruter rights equally 10 • male •nd fcmak
person~. "' Thc 6rsc i.lecision Ltn<ler tbr broad cqwtll1y righ1> provl>1on,
1\ndr.,,... v, Law Socicty of Btitish Columbia begins to delhu upon the
promise of che Ch.rtcr• lan(!'.1•ge. Ir openly re¡ects tlie usu•l "similnrly
siruaced" appr<111ch. under which equality means treating likes ulike nod
unlikes unalike. anc.l takes a purposrve and substantive npproach. aiming
ro equahze the disadvan1age of htstorkallr subordinared groups.
A defcct in ibe J 982 compact tbat crear•d the Charrcr u•as its lacl< ot
•ppcoval by Quebec. A long-term teosion has existcd in C:madian sociciy
betwcen it• Englhh mJ Frcnch bemage, cul1ur~. l.tngllilgc, and pcoplcs.
Francophonc. are 1n thc minoriry except in Qucbec; Anglophoncs tlomi
note throughout Cinndll but urc a numencal mmority in Quebec. The
c:ulrnral digniry and panicularity of the French are folt ro be insufficieoily
respecred by mucb of Ao¡do Ganada. producin11 a Wllrincss of tbe Charter
as a poss1ble device for unposing Anglo·Canadian valucs. culture. le¡ral
trad1tions. aod language. At rbe same ume. tbe nonaccq>rance ot rhe
Charter by Quebec leavcs for man) a legal an<l pohúc.J g•p. o ser= m
wbich the nation is no1 whole.
Elei.-en mcn- ten premier. :mJ the Prime Mmister-mct 1n 1987 to
Tlul tcstunony •-u dd.í\•ertd ro tbc ~~Wl\-'e Ats:tmbl\ Ot ÚOt.lrio. Sdect Commiu«' on C..00.
•ttrut'4'inal Rctorm, on ~'an.b ll, l98S S« 191'~ C'..on11uru1K"1nJJ A«Olr..t Jl.i~rd Of6aa.1Rej1'Jrt
<"Jfilcbt~r-, '41h Parl ls1 ~.e: IJ62..Ctl7i 1~1 .... ll 1088) h.""• fint pi.abliihcdm 1' T"!w
l.a:. Joomul 'l5 119'!0).
17
78 • S11ugsles w11hin S1am
nuempt 'º Jevisc "'rm' tor confcdcnnlon 11eceptnble to aU Thc Mecth
Llkc ¡\,<or.I "'ª~ the resuh. Tt proviJc~ for the rcco¡¡n1tion ot' Quebcc •IS
"a di~tinc1 socict)' • 1nthm Cun•Ju· ond als<> renerates the reco¡¡niuon of
muhicul11m!l und aboriµmal d.,lns. 1houµbt to be in jeopardy wi1hout re·
aílirmation '
Women, mdudmA sorne m Quebec. reacred 1mmed1atdy 10 the lack of
rerogninon of sex equahty rights in the Accord. At rhe same ume, 1111y
critictsm of the Meed1 Lake Accord has often becn mkcn as, mJ bus olico
bcei1. unti·french. A; thc debate has progrcsscd, concems with thc Accord
th.1l n01létheles. respe<;I thc Frcoch "Jisuncl SOCi<'ty" hnvc becn virtually
drowncd out by oftcn vicious (and somc1imes subde but cquolly invidiou•J
anti·frcnch sen1imem Tt has become nlm~ impossible to be henrd ns
unvthin¡t otlicr tban anci-Quebec u·hen expressin¡¡ resen.':lcions abour 1hc
Accord
Undcr ruks that seem m require unanimny, by the deadhne for rat1fi-
cation by the provmces,Jtme 2J. L990. two refused 10 nuify amJ one talked
of rcscinding. Tb.c oppos:iuon of one Maniroba lcgisL1Lor, a Na1il•e mon,
prcvemed iis mt1Jicauon. Altema1ives bcmg acr1vdy discus>'!d •Ílcr 1his
failurc of ratificouoo indudc furiher negotiation of terms, poS$iblc com
panion reso1u11ons, conunucd limbo, or the pnrtinl or complete: separution
of Quebec.'
\\'lhen tbe Ontaño lcgislature approved Meech Lake, women saog
soogs of protest in the gallery: Perhaps the 1esti.mony here, given at the
request of the Omaño lcgislature a1 beariogs oo the Accord and slight:ly
revised, will resonare elsewhere, such as in Eastern Europ<:. lts argwn<:nt
is that natiooal unificanon should Ml be acconiplishcd at worucn's ex·
pensc.
Testimony Bcforc me L.'illslative Assembly of Omario:
As an Ameñcan coosmurional lllW}-er and polícical sciemist worlung Ín·
tcrnacionally in the area of sex equality, 1 will offcr for your coosiderauon
a comparauve perspective oo the po1enual ímpact of the Meech Lake Ac·
cord on women's equ;iliry in Callada.
\X'hen womcti ask abou1 thc 1nipact tbe Atcord moy have on 1hcir legal
righ1" lhcy ure rcassurcd 1hu1 the issud are no1 l"flal, but politicnl, hence
nonbindin1111nd ne¡:11tiahlc, Whcn 1hL')' ask about the impact nf thc Accord
on rheir rolitioal <tatu$, they urt IC'J<sured 1hat 1he issues ..re legal and will
be dealt wí1h by thc courrs. This supports a crc:>ss·culturnl suspídon womeo
have abou1 thc relatjon berween law and polítics, whicb is t.bar the pohtics
ff•hanbu1ld1•1 10 C•••d• • 19
of meo are the la" for women. a1 the same ttme that thc laws of men
determine women's st1111ding m the poliucalorJer To O\'Oid this m CanodJ,
we n1>eJ > j!rasp of botb.
Compar.ufrdy vicwed, thc Cun.1dian Charicr oí Rights llll<i Fr~Joms is
11dvanc:cd beyond sny comp11r-Jblc in>trument in 1hc world 1oday tn prom
ising full cítizenship to women, les combinarion of equal protcc1ic>n of the
laws wirh speciJic noodiscrimtnaáoo guaramees, 1ogether with i1s substan-
tive rec:o¡zninon of dlsadvaorage and suppon for affi.rrnaave celief on a
consmuaonal leve!, sin¡¡)es it out in laying a legal foundanon for some of
che mos1 significant ud1111nces in se). equaltty ever to be made for women
undcr ln11.
The Conodian c:ommí1mcnt 10 divcrsity, with the polnicol mobiliz;ition
of 1he women's community tluu the Chaner has occasion.:d, hM pmduc:cd
a.n equipoise omong 1he >-arious bases for nondiscrimination under Sc:ction
15. oncl olso 1111 equipoise between eqoal1ry riglm und other ñghts
throughout the Charter. This means. for one ching. thar women's mreres1s
are noc d1vided between those based on sex and those roored m language,
.:ulrure, n•uon, religion. crhmcicy, ond rac:c. A unified approach to .sociJll
mc:t¡u.tlity i.~ possiblc under Lhc Chnner. Thc Meecb Lakc Accord Jisturbs
this Structur.tl cquality among cquality righ1s und thre.11ens to quolify, limn,
ond undennine bo1h che Charter's clistinnivc lcgul contrlbu1ions in thl$
ª""' and the di01ate of polirical will so cn1cial 10 ~ realistic dclivory on
their promise.
For purposes of comparisoo. the experience of the Unired Smes witb
sex cquality agh1s-more accumely. the lack of them-may be insrructive
as • negauve object lesson. Sex equalny ín the Unhed States bas coosli-
uwonal dunension only by analogy. The Equa.I Protection Clausc of the
F'ounceulh AmcnJmcnt wus po~d to r~~pond 10 a perceivcd emergtncy
to the tmity of 1he nation, specificall)' 10 whitc Amcricis imposítion of
cnattcl slavciy, social se¡:regation. 11nd disenfranchíscmen1 on Blnck Amcr
icans. The Equal Prorection Clause \\11S, in curtent parlance, pan of a
nauonnl reconcíliarion, che oeed for which had beeti creaced by mese in·
stiruuons of racial bigotry.
The Equal Protection Clause tS gender·neutral on iu fuce, e.'cepc thar
the pan on \'Otiog I! con6ned to male aliuns.• The reSt Joes no• menrion
scx, hut then again, nCJrher does it menti<>n r.ce. Auempts to •dd .:xpl"C$S
sel< cquulity g<1arantcos to the U.S. Cons1íiu1ion, which would removc thc
quesrion of rhc U S. ¡¡ovcmmem's commirment 10 <ex equnlity from the
viossitudes of politicol winds and thc conrin¡?encies of shíftin~ m•¡omies.
bave foiled, So the constitunooal text is no< in cquipoise ln 1971, tbe
80 • Slruggle> wllbln Statu
l'.qunl Protecuon Clau.se was firsc appbed co gender and has tncréasingly
bo:n useJ •U1ce, mo.in¡t lol'\• •rd lnrgely througb an uneven and oftco
irudcquatc proc:es. of nrologiiíng <ex to race. The expericnce of rhe J¡f.
fic:uluc:~ of 11nempung ro ltchie\·~ scx cqualil~'· not on i1-s O\\'n tcrms-as is
¡><'ssíble umler thr Canadian Charter-but throu!!h analogiC1ll method,
hí¡¡hlight< 1he d:ingers for ali \\'Ornen, indudmg women of rnlor. of struc·
rural~· elevatin¡¡ sorne bases for probiblted discnminaaon over othcrs.
Secnon 2 of the Me.:ch Lake Accord emers the field of rights sdecti,•dy,
potenually de.varlng some cultural rigb1s over equality ngbts. Secnon 16
<loes a$ wdl. 13. combmation, rhe "disunct society" dausc. \\'IW the guar·
nntces and rct~gmtions of oborigin:tl •nd multicuhural righrs, is •tructuml
10 C•nadrnn fcJcralism, and equuli1y rights are nm. Sorne ri¡¡hts urc more
importo.ni than others, and ~me equality ri)lhts are more equal, in George
Ül'\ve!l's phrase. rhun others.•0
This poses concems for thc. dfccrive pursui1 of a sex equaliry that is
rele~ated to a nonsrrucrural constitucional plane. It poses concems for lhe
vuahry oí Seccion 15's protecuoos from dtsctimutation oo the man)' bases
S«uon 15 COV<IS, aUof wruch are crucial Cor the ndvancemeni of \\'Ornen.
lt pos<.>s concems for thc cohcrrnt and pred1ctable d~'Clopmen1, even the
Jewlopmcn1 at all, of Stttion 15 ¡urisprudtncc. lt • lso pn:senr. concems
:1bou1 balances co be struck m cn"'s of potenlial conRicts of ñ~hrs. both
under !ieccion I" ond otherwise, becnuse i¡ome constirutional riphts are
g;,-cn more wei~h1 than others.
Examples ba.-e proven creacberous in this area; no one "'antS 11 tmplied
t.bar he or she would discrinunate. h speaks wcll for Canada that the value
ot equaluy is so wtdely beld tha1 no one wishes 10 be considered as e-·co
a hypotbetical perpetm1or of scx d1$crurun01ion. But u 1$ a fact that, across
cultures. se~ inequah1y ;. more rule th.,, exrepuon. Most cultures 1111d
groups discrimtno1c on the b.1SÍ$ ()Í scx, t>f1en without íntendíng or meaning
to, Scx discrimin~ti{ln is rypic:Jly ~nrded as nor sex discnminntion btin¡\
valucd as culture, reli¡¡loo, privacy, or expression,
There are rwo sides m e<'CIJ' sex inequaliry datrn; 'the issues bttween
them are often decided by 1merpre1a1ioo. lt 1s when 1herc is doubt. and
"~th legal accions mere usuall.y is at leasr sorne, lhat a structuml weighting
can be disposiuvc. lt is also a bu h•trd to be reqwred 10 givc examples of
wbat migb1 happcn under a pro¡ecred le¡¡.I st•te of .lÍÍJi.r>. only 10 be told
1hat bcc•mc 1nc•e thing> h.we no1 yc1 hoppened under o legal r~~mc 1hu1
is •> yer untcstcd und uncerrain, che e•amples ore merely hypothctícol
To hazurd lltl cxamplc: Wcre a si¡¡ni6cam odvance 10 he made in an
are-J co•-.:red by the Accord, analowes to the oreas che Accord does nm

mcnnon mlj!hr no1 he .iv&1lablc .. , 1hc-y 1><hcrw1sc: "ou!J, •"1111 IM nghi.
'" cqwpo•-c •• ""'' MC' In thC' e h•nrr wuhoul 1hc AnorJ Suppo.c: úut
i1 1i1,gn1ficant 01J\:anf..."C' "ere m.1Jc 1.n , ••, , thc rC'ct..i:n111fln Ñ somc ~rour·s
cultura] rights, and In anaJol!)' ,.,.~ ll0t11lhl lo Slll'P<>M a rar.úJrl mulnivc
for womm'< MRh"-""º""'" 11 <>n..., h.1\1ng a cuhu~ and h~'1n¡¡ httn
d=ed a cu hure 1hrnugh U1Cquabtv. bm both '"'"""" and thc 01her cultural
group bong úm:a1cncd b1 1he Jomanam cuhurc. O,., Accord would mil-
nat<' aganm lull •pphcaoon of .u.:h an an..Jo~r a. prc:ccdem an • >CJt
~ U><: Suni.Lul1 . coulJ hatc: luera1wc: 1.1,.., be: urhdJ 01er an e~
pre.SI\.., n~ht> chalkngc as •rrlicd 10. for c:nmplc, ]<"'>. ""h 1he •UrP<>R
oí ~ltech L..kc, but noc, ,.ere 111<.h La"• 11mc:n.léJ 10 cU\<r sex, •• •ppltcJ
10 ali 11-omcn. \l.1thout thc .\ccorJ'< suppon?
upposc: ofter .\lcc:ch Lakc. N11"" "-om<"n ch.,.., to challcn¡:c • <a in-
equalny ,.,thin tMir nauons. 1nd 1he ruk t~· challen¡¡ed a< d1scnmma1ory
was defenJeJ a. a nece»a" and 1ntqiral pan ol ahorlj!anal culrure and
abonguial rigbt>. Po:.trnntd.:t tribal rulo coo.IJ be: ar~cJ a> no< culnualh
Judienu.- But J.I Natl\c 1'omcn chuoc 10 U) to use the Chaner. thc ques-
non thc AccorJ rJU.:>,. "'h<:thor they 'llou!J rnt'Ct a Jede •r.ckc:J agatn'I
thcm .. wo111<:n \ lecch 1..ikc coulJ •ell >1ruc1ure the Ch•ner og.uns1 the1r
claim.1us1 "' many (c.11urt'I nf An¡¡lo cuhurc are prcm1;cJ on <c:-x incqu.tl1ty
md couJJ be defended undcr muluculiural n11ht• You mi\ find thi< fur-
fetched. but con<i<kr 1f • prn\'i<ion re<1ncun~ pomography wcre passed
10 tunber women 's equalny riWits Ir could be atucked not only as a
rcsmcnon on Subsccuon 2\bl exprcllsivc nghi., but al.o po1cnt111ll) ltS a
re;rrícuon on culturo! righi,,, rí¡iht> that, w1Jcr Mc:cch Lakc, could ou1-
wc1gh se' e<¡ual11~ n11h1> for American P<Hnogr•phcn., 01 any rau:,
norhíng ¡, forfctch<"<I. Nme 1hu1 n<>ne of 1hc:se cxJmplcs 15 bmi1ctl or par
ticubr 10 Queb«'s W<'mcn, wh""c r111h1~ unJer 1hc i\ccord ore pr(1b.1hly
m no more JCOtlarJy and ¡¡ivcn Qurbc:c" law. nnd rnli1ictl culture-
po«ihly Jess 1han those W(\llléO OÍ dSC\'·here In Ú nada "
The potnt ts, sex equaltt~ l11111a1ion and le~1slat1on can alre~d1· be op-
p~ under CXlSÜn~ Chaner prov1~1on>. The Mc:c:ch Lakc Accord ,.,,.u)d
ll" " mott suppon to .orne ol th<l><! othcr Chm~ prov1>1oru. Eqwluy
nght> woulJ finJ thcm•ehe> uneqwlli •nuatcJ tn thc Chartcr m • wn
th11 Ú1r) ue n0< °"" wnhout 1ho A«orJ. To a.'k whcthcr thc Acrord
ovemdcs thc Cluner is 1hus not rrc:c:udy ,¡,.. 1,,.ur or 1hc only li•uc. lñ.!tt
11oill he rontbcu of ri11his within thr Chaner 11IC' Acet>rd tal<t\< >1dc. an
~ ol tho... d1<pmeo an .d\11ncc in wa¡' 1ha1 can hum "-ornen and the1r
equalily.
Thett has bttii -omcthm, ol a Jouble >1anJard m tbe ~ on
w hc1hcr equ.iluy ngh11 •houlJ be aJJcJ to thc \lca:b Lakc Accord Th1$
n•mmltl<"' ha< l,.,<11 ll•ltl. lor cx1mplc. 1hM Sccuon~ 2 •nd 16 of J.he Aceord
are hon.t<>I') nnJ l•r¡:cly symbt•lic, no1'1ncily1~1 Ye1 onc ~~rchco your
líJ:Oq"nrJ!j 10 \~in fnr ('{l0("(f'IC' examrlcs ot htt\\I thc "'distinet society"
et.use, utuch is clearl1 <'l''cnnal tO the l•ir dcal tlut Qucbec w¡s prom1sed.
15 crocretcl' C<>n1emrla1ed to chan~e ICRal ourro~ m parucular cases.
Y et u wa. mcl uJcJ beouse somc:on<: thOUl\bt tt ..'OUld makc a dúfcrcn<-".
Thc clilkren<" h.IJ bct:n expl.uncJ an thoe te=. O l lt V.'IS unponarn to
bnng Que(,.,, 11110 thc confcJer.uon. they ra¡wrcJ tt and they count. (2)
lt ~ranh lc~1t1m•cy anJ rcco11nuwn 10 tik' Ji.una MXÍc:ty Thcn Lhc ra·
1100.J< 1 •r Sccuon 16 " pr<>VulcJ on • umiLo.r kvd. lt pro'1Clcs O 1 l'CIS
<ur•n<·e 1ha1 1h.· nghts oí cuhurol 11rnupo ami ahori¡:inal peoplcs •'ill be:
respC<1ed ~n 2 m.1) no1 be a&q""t" íor the n¡¡hts of Frcnch people
oomde Quebc:c~ and Sc:cuon 16 ma.- nor be adequate for the riglus ot
man1 cultural grnup> or for aborWnal peoples. but th<: •Otee of women
""" rq;arJcJ a. so ncgh¡ublc an thi. pl'OCOS that tt ..-as sttt1 as somctlung
th.11 coulJ •Ílord to be 1gnored enurdy \X'hro ..-omro ..k, in ~.
pou1dy b111 firml} lt1> one Jocs 1n C•n•da). · b 11 not unponant 10 bring
'"'mcn int<> 1hc confeJeniuon~· thc:y are trC"tcd ns 1f thcir cansrn1 to tha
•truaurc of ¡:ovcmmcnt c~n be ~-.umcd No one 5C'ems '~ worried that
th.·v rniRht he ahena1ed from 1hc: smc or tbat they migh1 reµ rd thdr
irnplie<I con.<ent o• cClC'rccd -os thev clearly do, for cxample, en the manta!
rape come<t.
Do womcn not requm: nauonol reconciliauon? \'<lhen women illk for
legitirnacy and recognttion for womcn 's c<1u..J plJcc in the swte, thcy are
tolJ thnt 11 1s so ubvious .s to be rcJundant. lf u is rcdundnnt for womcn,
why li it not 11!<0 roJund;nt for nborigmal groups •ncl mullieulturol ínter·
cs1s? lí u ¡, inerel> rttluntl•m, wh.i harm is 1hcrc 1n statinA it? Why thc
re<Í•l•n"' ro ic? Ap¡>arcncly. 51..10" il would add something ma1 soroeone
wh<> counn d~s not wont •dded 11IC' only other argurnenr l bave heard
is 1ha1 if women ore ~ron1ed equaln:y n¡¡hts under thc: Meech Lake Accord.
many other 1;sues will have to he reopcned-thc percnnial shppery~slQP"
quesuon \\'ornen ª'" º'"r half thc popul11uoo anJ half o( \muall) "'"'Y
othcr group invoh cJ in 1h1> 11roce.s lbcy ttc not likc any othcr group,
I"''
th<:ir 1ntert-.1s •n\ 1n1cro1> Or, pc:rh;ps thooc oth<:r wucs should bc
reopcncJ •• \\ cll
\\nen "ºmen ......k 1t•ssun1nc... that thc pact 1hc Chantt made 1lith
thnn ,. "'" hc1ng irnpLedly •hrogated. t~ are tnlJ thac i1 is onlv • maner
ol 1n1crprci111nn ~· \lary fl...rts pu• u 1hey are 1old. ·Trust us. • Real
~r&nlcn 'l<ett con$Ídcred appropru1c 10 rcas.w... OO>cr ¡troups-odicr
N11ionbulid1n11n Caoada • 8J
group• thJI in;ucr, othcr ~n>u¡>• th•I on< •~ne " ' hdr noun~ in el uJe mcn,
.,. "·di ·'' lx-inp h11ll "•>rMn Thc A<t-.•rJ •rr.ire111ly ¡zJvc J -.itbfoao"
an¡,.·er w the qu..,,unn '\\'h•t ,],,.,, Quch1:c w.1n1>" lt <lid no1 .an>wcr thc
quesrioo ·1,X'h•1 Jo womm wam•• becau~ • ._,ha.' so nf1en bc:c:n 1he case
,..orldwidc. u was not .,keJ.
In 1oor heann¡¡s. 1-ou h8\c bttn told 1ha1 the m,uJ, ol "'ornen 's exdUSioo
from thc .\lccch l..&kc AccorJ "'*• no pracuol >1¡zruhc:m<-" becausc the
ArmrJ 1; mcrd' lnterprctl\ e, ,. hile othcr k.-.:Uoru ot th<: Chaner att
nghr. t"antlnR. Wnh rc.~1. thli •• a l•l.c Ji,unru..m an k1!.J prarucc.
For C'X.ample whcch "as thc \f11rtt'IJIJ/a CllSé; 1 S.'CtJUn 7 b) ll> l.tngw¡;c
doe> not grant ""rnen 1 n¡:h1 tu ahonion. 1' But , bv 1nterprcra11on. 'ecuon
I ,..., siron11 cnnu~h 10 tn•aliJ•ce thc procedure< for acre<< ro 11 as ün-
perm1«1bly mmn11~.
F<"'· consnruunnal nj!ht' •~ en11ttlv ...,lf~xerutan¡z Those rhat are rarelv
•nnJ up en coun. MO'o1 ol "<>nlCtÚ n¡¡hi. Jre noc m 1lu1 aitqtorv. MOS!
wom1:1ú ngh1> are c<.>ntclll<.J. wc ¡;t~ than an •ppbcauoo .mJ by en1erpre-
1.1uon or not JI •11 To 00.crvc Ú\,. thc ~lec:ch Lakc Accord "' only •
m•ner of Wt'ghc " thcrdorc n1>1 rc:a"unn¡t t'Uhcr In Lm', intcrprewion
b everythm11. •nJ, m incerrre1.111on, cmrha•i< cun be oll Alter being 10W
1ha1 11 " ali ¡u<1 interpre1i,-.,, m.1km~ Wl'fTlm'< J i<qu1et <eem O\erblo.,11, •
most b3'1c canon ni 'ltarrnory mterr,.1a11on i< left oui: excluJio umus, cha.r
wh1ch is nor mentioncJ 1• cxcludcd
Lons1dcr, in h11h1 ol the une<¡u•I " t11ation of women, wh•< the Charter
ol Rights and FrccJom>, oi tt "'bc:11lnn1n¡c 10 be l111erpre1c:J now, c-an offer
Womi::n h•vc hi>1onc1ill) lx-cn scmnd db.> rnizeru m Can•<l• "' clsewhe~.
with ind1tc• oí J1<aJvanu11c 1nd11J1n11 11111:411.11 puy. ull<11:•tion ro dtsre·
sp<."<.-1ed work. an<I Jcmcuned 1>hy'lirnl chor.ic:tcriftlC!<. \~'ornen ha•e bcen
tor¡tetcd fnr rape. domMlir bancry, sexuol abu<o as children, •nJ sys1cm-
atic sexual haro«mcnr \'Comen h.we hcen cleper<onalized. uscd in deni-
gralm¡t emcnainmcnt, and forccd inco prosmuuon These abuses havc oc-
curred in a hmorical co111cx1 characterized bv dtsenfrancbiseroeru.
exclus1on lrom pubhc lile. prcdui1on from propeny ownership. sex-based
(X>\<M). f<>rccJ mJl<'rnuy. Jduuuon Ji •~xual ob¡eci., Jepm·a1jon of re·
pr<>Ju,1i1c contml, •nJ Jc,a]u;uon oí wumcn·s contnbuuon> m .úl
;ph<rn of so<1al lil<"-1 •llllJll<>n thar wnun1.1C> to tho 1'"""'111 da~ .
Con,utuc íon, are h.>th m1emcnts oí bc:hcf •nJ 'diid.,. tor acrwlizmg
1h~ bdids ~· 11t ••ptr111onal •nd a.lm<'rnto"' as ,.·di '" declami,-.,
and prnlubnorv In thc la.e oí 1he ~ real11v of «:x mcqual1cy. and m
hglu ol thc Chaner'> in111.J mterpm.auon. ns oqualiiv ptarantc:c:s are po-
>1uonc:J 10 he ~oel-oru:nrcJ ... "cll b ll>pcrauonal h bc.:om.:s a manc:r oi.
8' • Struules wJ1h1• Slatu
mrcrprc1•t1<l11 whcthor the Clwncr will trcat equ.ility l l a positJ•c goal
nee<.l111g to be 11f6m1ed. ntenJeJ. ond rcaliz~d. <upport1ng and C\'cn re-
quinng posnivc lqci&l.uion, mdudmg <>ver conílictÍnJ.l cluims <>Í nght h c•n
~ applied in •reas wherc cqu<1litv is urJ.lcntly needcd, such llS rape and
banerin¡¡. Or cquality can ~ toterpreted in ne~ativc renns and ronsídercd
:ich1eved so long as the srate does not ítsdf discnminate acuvelv. keepmg
!(ovemment out of tbe social sph<!re, leavmg most scx ineqwli1y in place.
Perhaps the de.:~1 cuuse for conccrn is the e!Iect LihtL ~ Accord in
ns pr"""'1t form "'uu!J ha\'e on the .ocilll procas of ronnitutíon-buildmg
"" 1he Charter's poliue1u culture bt-'¡¡ins to dchvcr promised nghts. [quality
guarnmecs do n(>( change societies only when 1hey are strktly •pplicd In
couns In addition 10 bcing a species of low. thc Acrord would worlt in
civil socieiv 11 would set priorioes and •¡¡end:is and \'lllues and alíec;t
resourcc allocacions. As constitutional law, the Accord is also a poliucal
act ol naoonal self-defimtion. lt enters into the atmosphcrc lhat ddines
the lel'cl of commitmcm to equahty riglus on • <lay-to-<lay basis. Tbe.1t, a
constuurion becomes mcurungful or die> usa picce <lÍ paper.
On thís bd, whcthcr or nm ti is impleme111c<l concretcly or can b"
invoked 1echn1c•íly, o connitution offects perceptions, octions. nnd out
romes from f•mily rourt •nd rnpc uiols lo humnn riglm ndjudications T1
sbapes women's fortunes in the boardroom and at the bar¡¡alnin11 rnble in
the home and oo rhe srreet. "·here it is raised and when i1 is oever men-
uoned alike. A poliacal act like the Meech Lake Ac-cord either supporn
or detraccs from this duna1e of coocern. affecting outcomes in particular
coses e.·en whcn ti does noi technically apply, shifnng the ground bene11th
leg.J argumeots, determmlng what i> petsullSi\'C an<l whar h•s to be taken
>Criou>ly. wha1 has ro be proveo und what can be wken fot ~rnntcd. h
beromes part of what 8JVCS lifc LO l11w.
On this lcvd, ronstirutional process be¡¡ins os poliLies, beet>m<S law, ;nd
f.10<!S on as social life. Tiús is wha1 Que~c wantcd and why it waoted it.
and what it got in the Accord. lI whac t! gcit was ooly redundan1 or ¡ust
tnterpretl\~, why bother? lt is on this leve! also that mulriculmral groups
and aborigmal pc-opb wcre regardeJ as o<c<ling rcassurance-ihey got ít,
•pproptiatcly .o. Thh "' also m< levd oo whích thc cquaüty nghts of
womcn are a -.liJ ronccrn Thcy were n.glected The place of M:x c.¡ualit)·
•S • fundomcnml comm1tmen1 is os much constitutcd by do<.-ument5 likc
this •• i1 15 n:llccted in t hem. l\lake n<' mi5tokc, lcoving it out does Sii>
'°mcthm¡z. aod it docs do •omcthin11 In choosm~ to reaffirm sorne rights
and 1merests and not to indude cqualiry, some ri¡;hts are made strucrural
to Cana<lian íederahsm. Equalii)" mcludlng sex equaliry, is not ooe ol
thcm.
Nahonbulld1ng '" Canada
Thc U.S. Consuiuuon'> rccorJ "" womc1ú equaluy mak<-. •ll mo d..-.r
th•t ncflléctin¡; to menticm womcn's ri¡!hts .11 conMituti\'c mumcni.. likc thi>
one is prcJicrnbly not gender ncutml in ÍI> cÍÍcC1$, ponicularly under con-
ditions. like women's siruation, 1hut requirc acti\'C chon~e in mC$t3!US qllO
in order for equality to be crea1ed. Lf lca\'lng ¡¡ender ouc of Lhe Accord 1s
considered ~eQder-ncutral, it should be noted that facial ~ender neutraliry
in a non-gender-neurral world does not even guaramee gender neucralny,
far lcss actual Sé'.1< equilllty.
1bc chmiljjc <looc 10 women'• riglm in Conada Ut thi• poin1, oí concern
10 ,11 wonien worlclwidc, \\'lll be especiolly ;tcu1c ií no rcmt-díal uruon is
taken. given 1ha1 the issuc has bcen so dirccdy r.tis<d. Meech Lake fullills
the promise madc in 1982 10 Quebec 10 acrommodate its aspimtions
within the Cbarter of Rij!hts. foilinp, m indude refel'ence to Seccions 15
and 28 of the Charter in it, or neglecunr; to malee clear mac notlung m the
Chancr IS abrogated by me Acrord, squarely poses the quesuon whether
s"" equality is basic to the Caru¡dian poltcy. As thmgs stand. it scnously
un<lcrnunes thc compact that the Charter mJde berwecn womcn anJ thc
Canadian sLJt~
9
J\ilisogyny's Cold Hearr
Fi¡¡htin~ pomo~aphy in the Uníted Sraies. feminisis ha,·e found tha1
women lt"" m a world the pornogniphers h11ve made. W/e already knew
\\
0
ha1 Sttmcd ükc o1 lot ahqut sex inequolity. sexual objeenbcarion. the
>CXualiL:111on of malc dominance and Íemalc subordtnacioo, aod sexual
,1buso. espcaiJly rape, sexual abut.c oí ch1Jdren, prosmuoon, sexual ha
l'\l!iSmcm ••inJ battery of \\'Ornen Bu1 finding porno!lrnphy "':ts likc commg
upon • sacred, secrcc codcbook that ha<l boLh obscurcd .md detc:nnmed
qur füoes There laid bare was the cold beart of misogynY' ~xUJJI ,;ofation
enjoyed, J>O"'Cr and powerlessness as sex . Porno¡;raphy linked sexual use
and abuse ";tb ¡!ender inequaliry b) equatin~ ihcm.
Women in pomograpby are bounJ, batrered, tonured, lurasscd, mped.
and somctimes killed. Or, in t.be gloS5}' meo·s emenrunrncnt magazin"'I,
they ore mercly humíliatcd, molested, obj=i6ed, anJ uscd. In üll pornog·
r:tphy. they ill'C prosrnuted This 1s done because it meaos sexuJ! ploasurc
10 pumopraphy's consumers and profits to i1s providers. But to the women
•nd children who are cxploited rhrouµh iis nuking or u<e, it mean< bcing
bound, bartercd. tortured, hamssed. raped, and sometimes killed or mercly
humiliated. molested, objerti6ed. and used because someone who has more
powet rhao they do, someone ,,.ho maners, someone wim nghrs, a lulJ
human betng anil a full atizcn, gets plcasure from seemg tt, or doing 11.
or scetng tt as a form oi doing iL
Specilic.i.lly. m che hundreds and hundrc<l< of inagazines and pictures
Jnd 6lms and vi<leocDSSetrcs and so-called books tha1 ro1mnu1c the por-
no~rnphy ind11<try, womon 's legs are spld\Cd in [)C!lture; of -exunl ~ub·
mission, di~pbv. and access. We are named after men's insults to r•ns c>f
our bodtes and mated with animals. We are htm_g like meat. Children are
presented a.s adult womcn: aduh women are presemed as children. fusing
86
 11110,yn) s Cold Hurl • 11
thc \'lllrlcrJb11il> vi • ch1IJ •uth thc sluuúb <Jgcrnn> for oex •.uJ to be
o.iur"1 10 thc l<rn.al.- ,,f e>cl') llJrl'. R•ci.J haucJ " scxu.1liRJ h• m•k1ng
C\el') r.ci.11 '1<rn>l) pe on10 • sexual íensh Asían 1''0mcn ""' prncntcJ to
P"''"" !he:) can!IOI ¡,., JJ1d 10 be •ll\'C, bowid 'º thC) ""' 001 rrcngnuJbl)
human, h•ng>ng trom tre1'S and li,dit fixtun:s •nd dothe- r<'P in do.m
Bltck "''OOlen att pttKntcd ._, anunahstic bncho, brw~ anJ blero1114!,
sU\lgglm11 ·~n<t the1r bond,, jeu1Sh u'Omeo or11a.m 1n rtt1U<1menis of
death camp 1onura. In so-cilled lesbian pomoiiraph). 1n>mcn Jt> 11.·h.i
mcn unag1nc ~(.'mcn Jo ,vhtn meo att ntlt .;irounJ. Ml mcn cdn \.\111ch.
Prcgnant won1en nnJ numn~ mother., Jmput<c• .mJ t11hcr J11"1bkd or di
womcn and rc1•r<k'tl ~irl• 1uc u..,J •• dccrncJ 1exuJll) cx<itinj\. In s<Jmc
porno¡¡rnphy callcd "snuff" wnmcn <Jr children ""' l<>rlurcd 10 dca1h, mur·
dered, to makc ~ se• film Gocbbels's film documentlnll tht <low mnure
morder by h•n,inp frnm piano wire of che ~ncrals 11·ho plon<'tl to lull
Hnlcr may hJve b«n a lorerunner. The pomographe,. 1owv ha•c !carnal
somcthmi!. thoo¡¡h. bccause ouJteoces do no1 run 'º""''"~ lrom thc
thtitr<s as Gcnnan> Jid thcn. They stay and th~ mJJturb.<te AnJreJ
l>..orlün llD<e u1J to me 1h.it ú lútlcr lud d1'CO\creJ """' thc potn"ll
r•phm luiow about 1ex, thctt ..-outd not be •Je-. Jlw.- in EuK•pc for
womrn, lr>'lhll in thc world thc porno¡¡raphcrs ha.1' mJM nleilllS """I!
""h tbc 1mphcatioo< oí 1hat.
On tht ha-1s oí thi< cnuquc. Aodrea Du-orlan and 1wrott • law 10 place
~ powcr to op~ thesc practices where n belon~· rn 1he hands ol the
vinuru. AoJ wc d1rcctcd u ogamst tbose uiio should •n•wer 10 thtm the'lJ'
virumtters. Ow law mokcs the women bctng ral"'J more m1pon,ut1 llun
die pleasurc tif thc mcn who likc to watch them h ••» th.11 buyin¡: anJ
sclling womcn is lnwnsiotcnt \vith •ny •criou> mand.11c of \e• cqunlny. In
domg tho<, wc took on or¡lanizc:d cnmc, which run• thc porno¡¡mr hv m
dunry, buym~ ,.;,h rcrror ony suppon it cnnno1 buv with monc). the ld't
and the m1cllwu"I' thJt ddeod pomoimiphy as sc<ual lthcrnunn and. \l.1th
tbc liberal ptts•. as freroom of speecb; tbe right rhat coopct•tt> b) pu•hm¡l
uscleso monwsm anJ worse·rhan·useless legal apprnJches. thc consumcrs
...,.¡ tb.- couns u ho Jo not >e<: "'°'""" ~ h = beini:s: anJ 1l;w, mU.b.
or.iors the ""xnrn IOIO!otl, hbcr.al l.w\1'T> .nJ acoJcnú~;l who Jd'enJ thc
• < •
p1m¡n. 1':01 •urvn11t1¡rly, 1he mun> hdd Uu! !he US Consumuun prn1ms
pomO@r1phy •• "•pttch" lxcau.e-gra111cJ that n J.x-i all 1hc h•rm 1'c
prnv<d 11 don-n ilio expr~ a "poúu of ,,• ..,, • Our fi~ht c<>nllnU<'> ••
you ttad thl\
Becausc 1he ¡ilca•ul'C pomo¡¡raphy 11''~ IS se.xual. u ha. bccn cons1deted
CJ<cmpt from !>Cruuny, rcprcssive to qucsuon. We havc l>ecn c•lled lasc1sts
tur rc:IU\lOJ.C hJ 14.:(\"fU ns authont)llt1J unsl1tnttfic.: fl,r bchC'vLng •·omcn's
IC."•Um..ny •hout 111 1mp lct 00 th.·ir lívcs l C> f'Omlljl,_f'h\ " propJP.UlJ.,
'""· 11 "an o pí<'S1K>n oí malc 1ckolo111, )"" 11 "hale l11cuture, Y"' ll t5
thc tfocum.-ntJ11on ol • cruoe; ~..., 11 L• <tll ar11umrnt fnr .exual lllSCÍ<m,
) CS. 11 "• wmhol. • represemation, •n •rul ...1 , • "mrtom ol malc Jom.
inan<-c: )"'• 1c <C>O\'e)'> ideas hke anv Sl'lCllUlllC >OCUI rrarucc ~ lt IS
Jlso ollc'll 1mmo1".tl, tastdess. u~\" <l!ld b<>rm~. 801 nonc o! thi. IS wbat
pomu¡:r.rh• Jnuncmdy "'· ho" 11 wvrb. 11·hJ1 " 1••n1cularli wrung 1'1th
u, 111 "h, "e h.ve to stop u. \\'as thc C\ J t•f 1hc llol<ic•11>I wtw. 11 ,,,¿
.11"'"' ll"ll•I \X'., .-nt!m¡\ i1 a íorm oí 1hn11Ahl <unirul• lf Au>ehv.-i1r haJ
ht' ·n rrqui r«I 10 m•ke anti Semi tic ¡m>r11g.111<ln. •houlJ ir h:wc heen pro
tcctct.l ' l«ch? Porno~raphy is a s~~tcmAtic atl a¡ram.i w<>mcn <m every
le-.d nl ii. 50dal exis1eoce. 11 takes •Cts a1111inst 11·omcn ro makc 11; scllin¡r
11 I' a <ene• of acts fuansactionsl rhat pro\'ldc 1hc mcenuvc co make u and
m•" produo: !he abuse; coosunung lt 1> an .m u~amsl "ornen anJ spawns
more •<ts th.i makc many mott wo-n·s 1<1u.t h'<'> JangcroU>, mean·
m,lc>J anJ unc.¡lllll. le i. rhcrrlore ;lll Ull u,;.1111>1 11oomen to protcct anJ
<lcfenJ 11
Thmul!h "' pmductJOn pomograrhr i• • traffic m fomalc ~xu"1 <ll\CI')'
Thwugh 111 coo<umpripn, pomo1tr:irh1 íunhcr 1nst1rut1onalv"' a sub.
hum.m. \1<11m1zrd. <ea>nd-dass <ratu• tor womrn h• cood1tioolfll! or¡rasm
10 ''" 1ncqual11) Whcn they use polllO)!r•¡ih) , mcn expcnentt m tbeir
boJi<.,, that un1'31cnl ;cx-scx berwcen a pcl'1i0n and a th&nl'l-•S sex. rha1
~clual U!I<' 1~ se>.. ~xuaJ abu~ 1s scx. &c:xu.11 Jomtn.auon u1 scx. Thts lS thc
'<'>.o•llly thC)' then Jemand, pr•clJce, .uit.l ¡1u1th~'<:. l'orno¡¡raphy makcs
5< "'m •<•Y· lt " • ma¡or way thut gendcr h1crard1) ¡, cn1oycJ anJ pra.:
ti•c<I The ¡iroblem with p<1mngru¡ihy •> nm wha1 11 '">' hui whn1 tl dOC!I:
vil'll.11c women'1 human riRhts
In nur hearinRs in Minneapohs. whcre our la" wa. fim 1ntroduced, the
hann ol pomn¡¡niphy wos exten<ively documcnted 1n proceedm~ one ob-
'<'r>cr liken<d to the Nurembcr11 rnal• llee•rther. and dirucians docu·
mcn1cJ ,. ha1 wvmcn knO'l· from We: pomo¡iuph\' mcr<:JSCS amtudcs and
bch.ivwn ol •f\!?res>1on .md 01Ji.,r di$Cnmm•uon hy mm a~81DSI u·omcn .
\\'onirn t<>ttheJ th.1 pom<>f?raphy ,..., u~ 10 hr..U. tb.:ir "'lf.Cllccm, to
trun lht·m to 't"Xu.al iubmb.)ion, to K""J.'4.>n th(_n1 h.1 Íorll,J sn. to 1n1i.núJ.. c:
tbrm 0111 pf tob opponun1ti<s, to blatkmJ1( thcm IOIO rro<t1turíon and
kccp 1ht'm 1htre, 10 terrorize and hum1lwe 1b..-m into Sl"xuoal compliaoC1',
Jnd tn <rlencr 1he11 dL<Sem ThC)· told hou 11 tokt'> CO<'TCJOO ro malee por·
n01tr~ph\ h"w pomo¡:raphy is lorccd on .... ornen and children in "'1i)'S tluc
¡¡1• e thcm no d><>JL"<: abou1 v1e11.~ng the porno¡:r•ph)• or perfornung the seic
1hcv 1old how pornogruphy •timulate> und tondon,.,. rape, baucry, sexual
ll•SOflny s Coló Hurt • 89
h•ra"mcnt, ~xu.11 abuse of chJJrm . .mJ lorccJ pr.,.t11u11<1n \X'e ICJIDCd
thn tbc more pomo¡tr•phy meo occ, thc m••re abu.l\'C anJ '1oknt ~
,....,, 11 h• he, the more Jhru1"" anJ \1<.lcnt 11 lx<11n1C'S, ihc more thé.") mJOY
11. tbc morl' ah11SJ\c anJ \ioknl they bttomc •nJ die te.. harm lh<") ><e
in 11 In "'her ,...,rJ,, pomo¡:nrph~'s ron~ b<-t-omc umhlc to>«',..
harm bct-ausc 1hé.-) •re rnio)111ll 11 =u.di) Mcn c'lhrn thmlt 1hat 1hcv u~
pomo¡iraph\ l>ut do n<'I do th.,.., thm~' But pomography mak~ u 1m-
pO><iblc tnr thcm to tell "'-hm scx 1> lorccd. th•t \\<>lllrn are human. anJ
that upe " r•pc. Pomo¡?Taphy makcs meo ho;uk and •¡lares•" e 10..·ard
womcn, and 11 makes womco sdent. Anvonc who Joo not belie\e this
•houlJ Sf'C1lk OUt •g.W!>l pomogruphy In pubhc \Olllt: IJRI<
In our human nghu l•w, which pcm111s "''""" '" •e<:k ci•·•I d11m•gcs
unJ t!llf' th< rornographcrs when thC\ <•O f'íO\C hnrm, pomogmphy ÍS
Jdincd •• 1hc ·~•uallv cxi>licit <ubordmJt1on nf womrn thrnuMh pícturcs
or wnr.1< th>t al«> mdudcs women pn:.cntcd Jchumanm'tl .. scxu"1 ob-
fcct• ,. ho en~•) pam. humiliauon. or r•pc: womcn bounJ mutíLned CÜS·
mcmlxrcJ. or ronurcd: "'Ornen in ~turo <>I <en1l11) or >ubrruss1on or
Ji.pl•v, bcmg pcn<traccd b) objeas or animab .\len, chilJrcn, or ~·
ocxiuh. oll ol "ham .re somc:umes \lola1cJ W..e "onl<'tl are through .ind
in pomo~rarh•, c:&n <ne for >imtlar trcauncnt \uhorJmuuon "' an t<.~1\1'
prawcc oí placm¡t "'mc<>nc: m on uncqu.&I p<»llloo or m • Jl<"lll<>n nf ¡.,.,,
of 11<""\'r To h.-• wJ,.,rdim11c Í< thc opf""llC .,f l>cm3 •n equal Prisoncr1
¡:uard 1c:ochcr1<ruden1. ix..S1workcr ddinc suhordmalc rcl•ttons Our idea
is 1ha1 man/"''Oman not be such a rdauon Manv pc<>plc apparcnth· caonoi
una~1nc M:X w1thout t.his.
Our dcbn1uon of pomography sunpl" h>ts wh.i l1Js 10 be 1n 11 for 11 co
wo1k. scxually. Pan oí rht mulc dclinuion of 1101·no¡1.r.1plw hJS beco ns
1111,lchm1bd11, :'llo man 1.L11u .kfinc 11 bcc•U•c sorne urh~r rn•n mii:Jt1
111duJc "h11t lll• ¡'CnÍ~ l'C>pood< to Our <ldinlll<IO 1\ th•• pomo¡tr.1pher'•
JeÍlnllJ<>n Porno~raph' " cn:a1cJ b\· formul• 11 ""'" n<•l \'ory. ;-.lo pN
no¡rraphcr h» an\' trnuble kno-.'in¡; wh~t to m.1kc. No • uduh • bonksrore
ha• •nv trnuble ko0>nng \l-hat to siock No CtJstomcr hn ""' rrouble
kno...1011 ufat 10 bu)· We ooly descr1bcJ y,·h.r thC\ •lreadv know
t:ndc:r Atnt'ncan 1...,.., speech m1eresu ar.- oul1l d¡r,bed 10 >nme dqirec
"'""'" p1<1ur.s and •·ords are found f.Jsc, <>hocen<, <n<h'Cftt, rarut, eott·
c1,~. thraucrunt:. tntn.bl\"C", mconv~rucn1. 01 maothc-tac Ustng A dulJ to
malee kX rw:1u~. Of J1uributtng or tt'(elVIQg $U1..'b JHiLlU~ 1!\ • cri~.
Yct "" are mld 1hai beau~ pomo¡¡NIJ>hv C'lf'"''"'' • \1Cwpom1 &hou1
1''0lllm, tt does not maner 1Í 11 i• also c:nem,J, .-~ulmc or dt""Cnmmaiorv,
The cnum h>ve $O lar dooded th.u an mure da« ni wnm<"ll '"11 be rre.ied
m the<e wa» so that others can havc what th~y coll lrcedom ol ;pcech:
90 • Slrvuies w1th1n Statrs
lrctc.kun mc-.n1ng irc..'C' Jlc..~~!ri. ttJ "''01ncn's boJ1cs. irrt Uk ol u·omc:nºs livcs.
~rttc.:h ml-.ln1ng uun1l·n·,. bt,Jll') 1ts u 1ncJ1um fl'r thosc otbcn."exptc1s1on.
A< Bl•ck •l.vn ""'" <'0«' ... h11c nwn"s pr<•¡1<·nv unJcr thc U.S Consti
tu11on, u11mrn <1rl- no\\· mi·n 1 •torn-1.:h .. lt ICCrn' thJt nur p;.Un, humilla·
tlf'n , 1c,n11rc, Mhl U$t... 1s w1nnlung 1hcy nn1 '" '~'
P~rnfl«riiph, ,·annot 01'1 ;11t 11 dclCS now v.·nhfllUt hann1n, Í1' '-iictirm,
"""° ...,u mnain \'l<llm• unul ""1lcth1n11 dJc:ctivc an he done. "" Ion~ as
che pornc.•¡¡uph> ""'"' as 11 Je>c> """. "''ma> and cluldrm v.1U be used
.mJ .ibU>Cd to m.dtc 11, •• th"' are """ , anJ u will be U>Cd to abu.e mcm.
as lt b DO\\ l1x: quc.."SllCID tor •orocn <\d)"llhc:tt b \\ñrthe.r \\'C: wtl1 \\lll
lor c:-Kh .. ,1 ot 'h..ltmUolUon to CX\.""Urth.n "T knt..>'\li' ",n occur, confining
oursdH.. ro dc.uun¡¡ up aftcr thc J>0mo¡:upbcrt onc bod) , ooc •ptnt, onc
dn•'1•t«l Jale 11 • mnc-ncHr notl<tnR thc it<-nJcr oí thc boJic,., ""'"'r
nll'1cm11 th•t thc '1<run1uuro is ccntr•ll> J<'IU••liz<:J throUl!h picruiu and
"-ord'. and newr nori<'tnR that ""' mrountcr thc pomo1m1phy m the In-,,
in thc coun< C'\'CI) nme "·e tn ro pr""c that • "'·ornan ~ been bun.
\X'omcn, 11 is >a1J, <hould be lo)ill to porno11reph~ becau..e our treedom
anJ eqiuli~ Jcpcnd on protcxunir 11 Thu Í> bcuu.e pornograph' IS
frccdom anJ '"lu;ln). >u tfom~ •n)thmg •bout n " rcprooon. {lbCJ>m,
JnJ ccn.,mhtp In prJ<ll<'c, 1111• mc.1110 th.11 wbJtt:\cr thc pornographcrs
0
Jo [, '1'<'<-<h." ''"'' "h•tc•cr 1hot1C "ho <>J>Pl'1<" thrm do " ccnsorship.
\\'omcn "rc.1min~ in p.ltn m » l"'rDO¡tr•phy film ¡, "•pttch • womm
SCttanung Ín th~ a11dt<"OC."'1 tn C•J're>< thl~r pain and J15sent IS breach of
the reacc anti mtcrtcrcs "'nh si=ch. "'inuW ""speech," but dernooscra-
tors who u;e s1mn~ lan1111<11tt to JHOtc>t lt are arre,ted for obscem¡v. When
Prntl'<luu h•n¡:s Asían womcn lrom trc."'>. n " •speech·~ wheo onripor-
oograph) a<11v1st Nikk1 Crnh lc•llct> w11h th~ snmc photugraphs m pro1es1,
shc "dfrc>tcJ tor oh..:cnll) \\'h<1l P<lrn<•111•11hct'> makc pomogrnphy oí
Andrc.1 Dw1irkm, 1ho1 ... ,,...,.,,h"
wlm1 rubh•hcr. rcfu,c lO publ..h her
w"rk. •~>in¡¡ 1h•t 1•uhhshm11 \ndrt•• r>w1>rkin ts b.td for frccdl"ITI of <pc<:ch
becotl'e of h~r 0rpo<itíon to pomogr.iphy th•1 " 1hc "J\ frccdom of
speech 1< <upp<'Wd to w1>rk Nor coulJ •he jlct .,, •rticlc publi<bcd Jj,.
cussmR 1he<e example< \X'h<11 the An<>mC'V C.ent"ral's tomm1ssic>n on Por-
""W"Ph)' v;ro1e ~ kuer 10 ">11<11 mlonnauon on pomOj(l'aph) sales. n w-as
<ucJ by pom<.>~ra¡ihcr> '"'Y'°~ that tbc-c ll·ord> 11·ere mumiJ.u.ing, and a
cuun COJ<.>JncJ rub1a,..11nn ol thc roulu. So "''"' me pornOf,rtphcr> CdlSUr
1he ¡:mcmmtnt 1n 1hc o.une <•I fr,,·Jom t•I 1p<'C<h, and AnJrca Olrorlan
>nJ 1 are puhhd¡ l1kcn<.J to ll11lcr for rdwmg to >top 'rcak"'l! abou1
ll1lmCll '< ni:ht• awun>I 1fx.m h " lxJ:innm¡1 10 k'm1 rh•t thc ocxualit}· of
pom<!ftl"llJ'h) ¡, rhc fa.asm oí conu:ml"'r•ry Amcnca, exponed wNldwíde.
and ~are m the bst J.,-s of \\'cunar
On Scx an<l Violcncc
lnrroducín~ che \nripomography
Ci\'íl Righ1s LJ\\ in Swcden
<¡,.cJcn IS iamouJ\' for SCX .mJ ·~'lln•t nnl<fl<-.,, Thc IWO •re dcfincd b\
distincuon ..·ha1 is """ c•nnot be \1olcncc, ond -.·hat Í• violcncc cannot be:
sex. Rq!re!Llhly, thL\ distmet1nn Joc, "'" holJ m che poroo¡¡rapby sctrin¡.¡
In Sweden. as dse.. htte, porn<>11rarhv " brj!dv unJcrstoocl as a maner
<>t moraluy. of ~ and bad. Thc nght'~ moralny oo me sub¡eet m-ohes
arounJ sex. 1hc ldt's .roonJ '1ok1lcc. Tbe rigb1"s moraluy """'S poroog-
raph) "' ob.cme. mc.ming r.cx th•t i> b•J ur wrong 10 Stt: 5<!X is lilthy,
womcn'> bo..lu:s •re .l111y, homo,,.x11•li1v " pcrvcr.c Thc mau:r1.Js are
>mu1 Thc ldt ' nuir •l11y \<"<:< a problcm w11h ¡>t•rno¡trtph). if ut ,¡JI, whcn
it show< violcncc SL..,in¡t vmk·ncc in p<>mo¡m1rhy " hdpful But ndther
opprooch solves rhc r..-.ol prohkm ¡X>mOANPhy po~ for womcn Ideas of
p.ood and baJ lll wha1 is <.oid and ><:tn do nor ~.tch thc hann that is bcing
done. Nenher left nor rt¡lht aJdreS<"> thc re1wue> oí who pomography
hurt>, how, why, and how thcv ¡\el ""'•'>' wuh n
C\'Cl)thing 111 pornogr•phy is se' for oomcone, or 11 would not be therc.
Th1s mduJc~ ony ;nm11n1 <>Í viulcn<c. iuth •s satlomasodusm·s tonure or
•<>ml'Ol1t bc1nA k1ll<"J ur J,.mc1nhcn·J. 1onurcd m dt·a1h, 10 m11kc a snuff
film. lf >(ltn< con•umcr 1fid nm c\pcncnc.: ali 1h1' ·" «?X. thcre would be
no porno¡vaphy maJ~ nf ít, ycl 11 ¡, voolcncc b)' ony •1andud. Pomo~rnphy
sewalizes violmcc. The violcntt d<>e<n 't cancel thc st« 11 rt thc sex. The
reahrv IS clciser to the sex c•ncehn11 thc violentt: the consumei s sexual
response lO 1hc \IO)<:nCt m.J.cs htm OOl S« Wt "'b"1 IS ~ done IS
nolcnt.
Scx l' tm.t¡tincJ 1<• be rnhcrrntl) .-omcmu•I. •u>lcncc. 1nhcfdltl) <-ocr-
no. b ... ab1cd "~""'el. tpc<eb ....... "-1.l>olm. , • ..x... ~......,¡,,., :
~ -• 1 ....., .i..i.i, .,._,ni "' i.... i..m ..lcJ ·~ .ddr... , '....ini. ~
....,_,.,.. ond - - ~...w. - - '"""""'""'' 111 .........
9? • Struu1es w11h1n Stalts
me Th'-' «•ulJ nie.111 thJt Mn)th11111 \1oknt " undcr>t<X><I •• noncon!.l'n·
10 01ul But m J'<•mogrnphy , u m<-an• th•t force e.in be u"<:J 1<> lon¡t as .ame·
c.1n<"- 1hc cc.lfl~Um<"r, "'11.1lly ¡¡ rn.1n-cx,~ru.'1lceJ u J!. ~xulll. \l.·hich thc:n
~•n• u " fch h\ h1m to "" ronscR'ual, indudon¡: for the pcrson beúig
fom:J fhc ur>hoo " bccau-c thc u...- " ~~ cnl"}'lll~ r.uchin~. no
mmcr ho"' mu•h l<•rcc h lnfüctcd, no maner how much tbe woman os
bono.: "olatcd. he expcncoc~-. the matcnili 3$ pre:.enang a consc:ntml(
"<•m.&n In othcr "'<'rd" •~>« thc mJtcn.U. produce an erccooo. thcy m:-
:k.-"'l. 10 thc ...:<.truumcr fttls. thilt thc ,.,\,mm \\.ºAnt~ u, no martcr u:hat u.
bong Junc 10 her To suppon this pem:pnon. u ;, common (or "-omm
m pomlli;r1ph¡ 10 be.- m1hn¡; Ol1cn "1.- " forttd 10 ~milc The ron<llm<'r
1• oftm nnt <h0\\'11 rhc force th.at cncm:• her to •milc, "' rhc, pem:prion
oí thc u<tt 1• that <he" consen11n11 bccau<c >he ;,. múlin¡:. 00( rhat shc 1s
<m1hn11 becau~ ,¡,., i• bcin11 torced to
fa en moh< Jeccpm ch, often thc \loknce is olf-sattn. ou1SJJc the trame
OI "·hJt )OU .a:. lñc Jc»cr punp .. ho abJuctcJ Or entrappcd me u-ornan
~nJ so)J her to 1hc b1¡;¡¡cr punp-mc pomop"aphcr-uso force th.u you
Jo noc >« m thc lilm Snmctuno '"º cll.n """ the ""mJn's brwsc:s ., \'OU
«>11IJ "'e thcm nn l.iml• "l.o\dJc~· 111 thc J'<>rno¡;raph) ñlm D<<P 'rh;..,t
brui<"' Ínim thc ho11in~ <he ~Ol Íff'm her p1mp, OÍ wbom shc 11.·..s ~cap•
lÍ\e, dunn~ thc •hooun~ But \'OU have lo look for rbern: me> ª"' DOI me
sex in th" particul.i r film O.·ep 1'1>rr)ut show• no explicn violence. yet it
took •·1olé11cc 10 make. \X'hatcver people mean by nolence. the fortt that
~01 LtnJ.i into D«p l'h1'•tl os not v1>1ble in 11. Wh:u you see is an actor
ponraymg •n cc>tJU< smJin~ wom.1n who )oves 10 take • perus 10 tite
hom>m of her 1hrci.11 hcin¡¡ >cx11Jlly fulíilk.J by Joing 1oO. J lcrc ¡, .i 11oman
who "'·" violcmly rncrc<-..1 intn pornll11r11phy. doong fcU.ido •he h.id to be
hypnori7C<I ICI •UJlJ'l'l"S lhc OlllUJ'11i ¡ta¡:, re>¡....n...- lO accomplish,' \et me
¡><>m<'jlntphy ~h"" • no "nlencc 11 1~ ali off sr•~c.
,\.latenai< Jikc TJ~r{' T/m14/ and what IS knm1m amund 1he worfd as
S"'·cd1;h em1ica are thc matemils rap•Sts fa\'or Srudtcs of rnnm:ted rapists
show tlw thoS<! ª"'
thc matcrials-oot the so-callcd .,oJcm material$-
that me) mo•t ohen u'c to gct thcm aroused lor their ra~ anJ 10 hclp
thcm •d«t wltont thcy ,..nl 10 rape Sómc r.pl.\1> Jo 11><! \'IOknt por
nogr.aph~, l>ul rap~t1 n101c- t)-¡iÍail} \\·ant to ~"C '''ºlilftl v.·31tmg and
\\ltnltng 10 ha\c done to thcrn "·h•t thcx l1l<'ll want 10 do and cnjoym~
b..'"I! rapcd at k-a.1 by thc enJ. R.p1•t• a)..., use pomo¡inphy 10 decide
u-luch ·n~ ol" """'"" 10 •mod,, wnmcn rheir hod1e< thcn come 10 believe
1000. Andru
Jeme 10 he rapcd lt 1> a dn run. Tht< ondude. materUls tha1 are not
thcm-.:J,.,. \'klknt m thc u.ual scnsc ol ,,bo,.mg ,1<11ro1 acts but prom0<e
91
 On Set 1nO Y11Jen<' • 93
\'1olcn<0 ·~•Wht '"""''" ID !he wotld. So-.:alled "po>1tl\c-0u1<:<.•mc nopc:"
pom~r•phy, m "h1<h ,.."""" Ullu.uh ""'1>1 but <H'fltualh c-cst•ucaJI,
•ubmit to • ..,xu•l •tta,k, " Jocumcntc:d to be th<' "'°'' "'''°"' pomo<.
111ph, nmk In trnru of arous.tl anJ rtlox1> • h 11 ~x or •11&-nce? \\'ho
Jn:u.J.,' \\'ht-n Jlt'fTloo¡¡raphy th.i Joc,s noc .¡.,.,,. \1<>1m,-., " m... lc 111th
•íolt'nce •n•I produ.-..'I \1olcnce. wbm <exwl ma1t'ri.ih that do •ooll· •m-
leoce .1.rt noi c'P<'rl<'nceJ •s m>lem 10 the extmt che cc>1humcr '' sexuallv
arouscJ b• thé 11okni:c, when aets a.re preseoted as '10lem but a.re .ho11~
lO be cx¡,.,ncnccJ b) thc htr¡tet of the v1olence .t> .exu:1U. a$OU>IOI! Wld
sat1>1}1n~. which i• the •ex .mJ "'h1<h IS thc \'tolen<ef
Othcr th11n thc n•l!•tivc v•luc ¡udgmcnt thc worJ "v1c>lencc" wnl'eys. u
¡, \Cl') <li1•1><ry •nd <clJom, ti C\'cr, dclineJ. 1 hove ohserwJ it hr1n~ uscJ
tn Je§cdhe "·hott rncn t-IC1 ;1" men tn hurr f)ther mC'n 11 11 m.astuliné" co use
p;un< c>n nién, nicn cut mc:n "'ith knive• So the hop<' 1n callmM pnrno!lf'lphy
violence 15 tha1 1f men u<oe ¡nins on women ond cut \\'<>mm u ith kni\'C>,
that .,..,u be >ttn to be <1olence, beoce 001 ..U°"·ed becou>e mm kno" thev
do OOl u-.nt 11 .nJ do noi l.tke IL \\'ell. dream oo. \\:'hile mm wmcumo
Jo r.pc mcn uswlly th...) upe ,.olllCfl. Aum ute, "f"' 1> m ...-1 111 ,.hich
thc pcrpcitaior u ¡;co.kreJ mak anJ tht ,;mm ,. ~enJcrcJ tcm.ilc. so-
áJI) -;., u "unhkd) h> be .._-en J> \'Íolmt "h<>n ...r thc mi1m " b«•Uk'
1hc "" Jdill('S thc v1et1m whcr th•n thc 1>1hcr \\~)' an>unJ But more
directlv tll thc prcscnt p<>1m e.-.,,, whcrt thc "'°"' thmp mcn <lo to mm
tC> hun them arr done to \\'Ornen. thci-· oftcrt ore not <C'cn u bc:1n~ thc
same. \X'hen J mJn 1; cut. be screams, he bleeds. he hum. he 1; in pain.
Thc blooJ "' r<:•I Thc hope in aJdressin~ pornogr•phy o1> \IOlcnce. not
sex. 1> thJI whcn women are cu1 and "-e scream, maybe 11 w1ll be believed
tha1 tlllr p.1ln "rc11I •nd th111 the bl00<.I is human bl0<><I. Th•t i1 '' \'1olcnce,
•o 1hc lcf1 1hmk• h " "ron~ The problem. 1hou~h, " th•t " cx11cdy whJt
pomo¡iraph\ Jc,lr<•y• thc 11bilil\· 1<> >ec 1hat \ 1olencc ·•~•1m1 wnnwn 1s
0
violence «nd thAI "'"°"'" are human Pomo~r•phy tum• 1hc ""'k-n~-e in10
"'" Her K""1ms """'me <creams of pleasurc; h<r \1olat100 hcromcs hcr
fulnllmc-m; her """'ªnce becomes btr affirmaúon Her "olau"" is ,;ex, >0
th.1 blo."1. her blooJ. "' not human blood.
Alter 1v.cn1~ )C•t> oí ..iurauoo o! SOOC'I} "'th pom<>11niph\, .., lw
h•ppcncJ licrc 111 S" .den 11 1> OOl surpnsin8 th•t 1he i..,. prolub1t1'1l'
•rrc•Jms <kp1.:11<>DS of ,,..wJ \10lcnce' <- incff.,.;111.J anJ rntcrprct.J 10
•rpl) tn .Imoo1 no1h1n¡i Once pomo~r>phy has ct>nJiunncJ a popul111vn,
•1olcncc <lnne to ~ W<>man in media no maner ha" much " v.·1.kh per·
ceived R< <ex.'" "'n""'1<u.1I, >< not ,;CJlence ar ali Alrcr romo.iraphy h~,
SOCtaU1 cx1stnl unrcstt.uned, passin¡z a law apms1 sexual \10lcnet" 1s ea""
94 • Stt•Ult> w1t~•• Stat<S
l><•h l..,,.u..., "'"''e ¡><'<'ple "tll be u¡hcl aboul 11 ll.nJ bcuuk <u<h ~In.•
" unhldv 10 "ºI' '<'"Y much Thooc v. hu h"c !"""' ,.._..,,unung th<' poc
""l'"rhv-U>11all1 induding 1hose "ho ,. nic anJ ..ntor.-,, 1111J m1npm
I~ 1.,..,. anJ hJ,.., p<>\\"'1 ID <O<ietv-do noc 111u¡;inc that ""'h a In· app!IC'S
10 mam motcn.ds dm are ac:ruallv there Thc 1cnn 'v1<ilence" mttns ncir·
•m•. e\<ep110NI, extreme. n0t C\"el'}d>), n<>t P'"''"" The pkasure ol
'<.'Xll.il JroU>.1.1 L> a ¡>O\\'erful po51uve r<.1ntor.cr l'ornopr.phy com.:s 10
>l•nJ to1 ti>~ ro>•m·c ".tluc rudi!mmt 1hJ1 ~·""- w11h ,....,, no m•ttcr how
111uch '1<•lcncc 11 ~hov.-.. Once \1tilcncc ,. ...:xuahtcJ. u .., le" hkdy to be
'<'"" ,,. 1wlcn<c h mll lx: nu:rually 'w11d1.-.I mtu u 1.tm••> rc.tlm thJI
m.1kc• 1he \'l<llcncc un real so the sex <>Í u <-111 ho cxpcncnccd ,,. r leasurc.
111c ,bc11'i1itJ1ion thu1 pornC>¡\r.1ph1 ,·01!Sumplion -."Compli.Jtes thus
worb to pro1c<'t it, t\•en unckr a la\\· 1hu1on thc •urfacc "'Ould seem wnh
• lmle cnucal d1S1ance, 10 make much of u 1llegal.
AJJr.,.,,m~ the reaht)' of thtS probbn. AnJrcJ Dv.-orlun and 1 have
crc.u.J 1 (.¡,. Jgamst pomograph1 th.11. •lthou~h 11 rown ,,oJcm 1runertals,
cJpl u= th• real 11olauous pomograph) J,.,,.,,, "hich e.tcnJ beyond "'""'
1> called Holcnt. Our •pproach .JJ...,..~ .,.,1"""'' ol ""mcn th•1 exmin~
IJu miu h 1> • hWlLln ri¡;lm ¡,,., an "'1Ual11y 1... ¡,, bJ.,c kka i> to
ho!J 1hc pnm<>¡:r.phen •cwum•bl., fe>< 1hc sexual 1h11.c th.:, c<>mmi1 and
cau-.', 10 make 1hem ¡>•)' the CO!ll ol 1hc d.l.m.ll!C 1hC) Jo, .ind, m dlli "'"',
e.-.nnuU, ro stop them from dom~ u
Th•, bw " b.1$cd on the reCOjlnmon 1hJ1 pomo¡irnph~ lS a pracuce o!
''" IO<quJhty. h aJdresses me <Oncrc<C pUCllCClo ol this in"'!u.Jny. not
1dc.i. Jbt>UI \\hJt 1> ;e= and s.ud ubou1 •e~. Tfu, low 1> nut prcdtcatrtl oo
wh.11 W" <lü no1 cn¡oy !L"'111~ Or JrC (>ÍfcnJcJ by 5CCIR)I lt uJJr.,...,. wruu
hurts rrul J>c<>)'lc in re>I '"'l• rh.11 e.in l.ic proveo. \X'., h.l\·e th• \'Ícúms 10
>how fur u /\11 wc nccd is B chance tn prow thc c<>nnecnon wirh the
r••rn1..:r1rh• 1lm harmed rbem
TI"' l•w I> based c>n che rerogrution 1ha1 cotreton, m a society of sex
mn¡wilu), "..U <omeumes appear in a lonn l'C<'O~ll~ <l!' \10lmce but u-tll
m<>re olt"n •ppcar m more S)'Sletruc. m<t11umW1alucJ anJ m1cmaliz.ed
fonm lncqwlm .. • íorm oí torce m•y 11<>1 k>ok hkc.- uoknce ~ though1
w kool h look> Id.e age betn~ • hule <h1IJ h lc'llk> hke duabWI}. de·
pmJm, -e vn • <Arcukcr h lo<•h hkc thc outhont¡ oí thc """"' O\'U
pcopk l>C"mg .trf\">tN or inc:an:cutcJ h l.1Pks l1k<' the omhomv 1ha1 romcs
"'r~h 11.1rria1 r. •uh ~x.ual •can being n)uun11ed .inJ ,1"-.'lo\Ht~d. 1n most
co intn<.. cootcxt e>t the wite', economit .lcf'l'nJcncy lt looks hite bein~
a non ~c•ndmav1.m unm1~ram to Sclllldtn.l\IJ, .le¡>enJen1 on another to
\[¡y m th• countn .md tac~ wnger 1! tor.'(d to r<turn dS<.·where. The
On Su ••d Y101ence • 9~
c>ampb th., are 11<>1 gcnJt-r b....J .re llt.ld1 re'"'"""J ~· "~• "ICLll
1nn¡11•lm "or¡:¡in1ttd bctu·cct1 guu.t••11..l ¡msmcr>, =r~•)er. anJ em
pluyl"C> 1e11ehcn and ,tuJen1<, CJIUc:ns an,1 •llC'n< ¡>ol1ce un.1 cmzcn>
JJuh1 •nJ <hildttn, arcukcrs anJ w.rds \11 Jrnn~ uncqual !""''ª
-..1Jdv «<n &> hierorchies m sooety. Thc re>iliuuon 1h•1 1t.e. are r""1
comes lari¡C'h, 1 dunk. lrom thc tJct. tha1 mm arr C• p1,•ll> J' cm the boctom
ol th...m .. on thc 1op. Being oo thc bouum proJu<"<'> .,, unJemandtn~
1h•1 \Oll •rc ¡,.,,,.,.,¡, >Olll<!QllC ,..ho lS un mp ot ynu !king on tbc top
•ctn\\ to """"re 1h.11 po•nion. h h.is h..'<'n d11f1rnlt to <"'ll•hl1Ji 1hc h1er-
urc.h)' thllt is ttcx bcc;uuse mo.,tl} mm ¡are ntlt ''n th . .~ houoni of thh~ onc
1.1ml thu<e who •rc 1cn<i 10 be «>cinll)' fcmmi1ctl 1h,'rchv1nn,l1hc Jrron¡tc·
nient " sc•ual. Gender is no les• reJI :1 hierurch1 howevcr
We tlcline pornograrhv as sexually exrlicu lllJl<.'nJI, thJI <ubordinare
womcn through p1crures or words. wheo the m;11tri&h .U.o include women
betng dchumantzcd as ob)CCIO or thmgs or commoJ111e>. bemg penemued
b) oh1cch or Jmmah, presemed tn >CCOJM<" ot 1onurc or d"f'rad.mvo or
hl1h. l>eu1J hnu..,J, hcatcn. humilil1c.l upcJ. nr ""~"'"'8 '""'" anJ r-•pc,
•nJ ,,m..'f panicular>.• Thc 11>1 oí p•nicula" Jc.cril..,..,. ha1 '' 111 thc m•
serial• pn!duccJ b) thc ro""'l!raphy 1nJu•ll') The Jl'fmu~m of pomog
raph) c.·nien Ol1 abuse of u'Omon becau..c 11 u rnmanly ln>mcn u·ho are
hun by and 1hroo¡di pomognphv on the bJ,,, ol thc·ir <;ex Bue the Jeli.
niuon ol..o cO\·ers roen wbene<er 1he same 1h1ng, ª"' done 10 tJi<,rn becouse
1hcy att ml'O. or members oí pamcul.v ~roup> ot mc:n. and romewnes
1hcy ore. h n>\'Cl'S both boys ond girls, to whom thc >Jme things are com·
n1onl> ,1.,nc, 1ndud1ng here m Swcdcn. <1111 h tnduJc> trans•cxu.tls, \\.'bo
tcnJ 10 b.: rtM•trJcJ by c:quality IJw l• ncith'" w1•nwn ""' mcn thus nccd
•1x...-i!ic mcnuon Thc\ """ uscJ in pe>m<~r11phv 111 ull thc ~umc way-1 J~
wdl.
Thc 1enn -~ubordinanon" means social rroet1c~ 1ha1 keer reorle down,
cntorcc hicrorch". keep 11 in place. Subordina111>n rcícrs 10 the concrete
Jm;1.mic and nwenal •ets ol soctal inequal1n ber...,.,.n 1hc sexes. whicb
mu.1 iKtualh· be done to be CO\'CfcJ b, 1ha la"· ¡ ¡.., nwcruilo musi also
bé M:•u.Jly cxplmt mcJmng e•phc1tly ,i,."' 11<"X Thc Jchn111on cncorn·
rasscs the lull range vi pomogr-•rh~ from 1'/nbov to mulf Pon10j!111ph)
" an1m•1nl by • lottic oí 1hc >CXUabiy of Jcath 1b.1 bci;in• "·uh the most
pnmllnc of h1crarch1es ~ <J\-er 1hinM. ll\-e 1>1tr JcaJ Pomógt:1ph) ..
• thmg Thc \\'OO'l;lO in PL.~lvy is. m 11, md\k mtc> an of.1«1, an muln-e
tma~c ,he t\Jncall) J.,,.issociates from her º"'ll 1Jcmm 10 m.tltc, th~
wh1<h lu•u.Jl)l •mm experiences lus ><:xu•lll) lle 1> a pcrwn. He buv.
her in th1> thm¡.¡1hed fonn. He btl! acce» to her, he con U>C hct in wba1cvC$
96 • SttuUI•~ w1th1n Stalu
"•v he "¡,hes 1k J,..,.. l lcr 10 ••llcJ "'"" 111 " 10 un1"c".ú U>C for
m..nirbatioo h) m1llu•n1 .,¡ mm ohc h•, IK'\'rr mrt Thc •exualny hi< bodv
leams as a onc sidcJ , ....,u•l11> l><IW<'t"n a pc.-.on anda thm~ bem¡¡ accessed
Jnd u<eJ lt " no surrr1«: tl onc tcd' L1kc a 1hm¡¡ .,.·hen C>ne has sex with
• m.m -.ho ha.< lc-•meJ h" ;cxu..tny from pomottraph, , He has bttn
h..ing '<X anh thin¡:.. Jc.J. n.1 -.omcn Jcb,crcJ l<' him bi mcJJ.. t<Ch-
nulo~ "'"'" lor u>e lk'*I m11111a.) a. lk>I powble unJcr thdC cuoiliuora.
Th""" elle.u u11110 lrom "hJt 1rc u>rnnl<>nl) rckrred lo .. "onlv" thc
PW.boi l>J>c nurerrol Thc l<>w< hoJJ, •nJ CIClllJl<-s •• thc •wesm>0 that
¡, 1mphl1t m hi<-rar<h) h«omn <-iphrn h ~.1.,.,. 1hrough <womaso·
cb1,m and t'\cnruat~ m muH, m wluch a p<".-.On bn-omcs • rhmg lncrally:
a lning wonun ~"""'her corp<;e. her hnal 1hmg This ,. porrlOjlraphv'~
mner loi:ic. "hcre u ali b k•Jed Ktllm11. murder reall•. is the ulama1e
<e>. act m pomo11r•ph1·. h " thc ulumatc ••1 of crouCl>lll rcqujred by
pomoti:r•rh> '; mncr k'f!i., by th1' h1crJr<h) ut pcn<>n º"'' th1ng, tlm. m-
cquJluy 1n "hrch rn.an 11 pcrwn unJ ,.,lfll,1n m chilJ "' thtfllt \\'e bcgm
rcdu.cJ to• Jc.1J oht«l, tJ;¡ 011 • p.1~~. to be m.i'111rlu1cJ "'"'· JnJ cnJ
littrall) ktllt.I 10m1kc J "'" "''"'º A110 thc murdcr, whcn <-nmercJ. thc
pom•'f!rophcr. .1nJ th"" Jdcn.lc"' Ín<Í•t it i• ,u >irnul•ted. sorne of i1
Joub1k-., 1< Bu1 1hc consumcr sr•ualh bdtC\C:S n is r<21. and thcre is
e..1Jencc that ""me ol 11 1>.ª
Uur t.w reetigmL"> CC)flcrcrc harm>. !>-.·ed.:n'• ob><cnuy laws prolulm
thc J1>pl.ty ...1le, ar J1>1r1buuon ol ccn.un mJterub Uur la", b) con1NS1,
stJnJ> a¡;•ln>t 1hc real h.irm> bcmg 1/u"" UnJcr u, 'urvlvors could >u• for
bcu1g c0<t<cd tnlu ¡wmogrophy. /\ ¡>cr~c."1 Qught l<l be •ble to •lop the
l'l'n"'~"ph¡ ol her nnJ rtrcrvc d.1mn~<"ll Írt•m C\Cl')'unc who hun her and
henetited f mm her cocmon Whcn n woman " haul...I off 1hc street or
lured mto • linRenc modcl1n~ J<I ond suddcnlv linds her;df in pomog·
raph\ ued up with u man \\11h a ¡¡un 01 her hcnd savma. "Sm1le or fU kili
you. 1 cm ~et a k11 ol monC\· lor ""'mcn who smilc whcn they'rr ued up
likc>""'•.., tl1Jt woman woulJ be Jblc LO .iop thc pomO¡?raphi· madc oí
her J\ \\ cll ~ r~<:CJ\ 4: munc~ Jama~c) for the: .it-U ol JAAl'b~ion Jl took to
makc thcm. n,,, 1.\\ In v1hcr \\<>rt!., .. lll!I "'d""'d} abow \\bJt "
dcp1<,cJ lt '"*l><•ut "h•• h•d 10 l.: d<'nc IU tlu· "om•1Ú bfc 10 mllkc 1hc
pomo11rarhcr1' •<> ,.11.,1 drplCtl<'n• ond .,1.., 1>111 bc Jonc.· heaousr it is
w called ,JcpiCled
\X'Clfllen could 11'0 suc whoeH·r !orce.'$ thcm to consume pomo¡:rarhy
agam't thc1r \\ill, •• h•I'~• m marn~ 1n hom.~. m ..1xx,¡, Lntle ~
are torced 10 -..:e thc :at<l'<lllo bc1~ •»mmmcd on thor mothcrs aJJ rught
J> thev b..-Jr thern ""'""' throu¡;h th.: , .._ ~bo-. ~ ha thc pomo¡;npby,
On Su and V1olence • 97
l•thcaJ}> 10 Jc1u¡¡htcr. lll c•'en«, ·11 )'<'U tell, 1h" '""hAt 1'11 U<H<> you," '
Wornt.'11 •r~ fu1c.eJ tu t.,;00)Umc: Pt'rnt.rttrh~ Jll dltelnn' ui hc.:t:t> . So1nc
wutnm h.l\'t h«-n forccd to rci1J 11'1' .\to'1' ,,¡<> 1&1at.f to 11.c.t out u1 ~ccrur105
IO thdr J.t1h hfo OS pon Of tl1'.'lr lhl'tap\ ll S.\11lC V.Timen ho\'" pomoi:raphy
forccd on thcrn m th<'lr rrnploym...nt •" J lmm <>I -r•ual haras<mem • A
-..·oman's <prcad le¡:s look al 1hrrn from thc rldlm ol 1hE'1r typcv.'rllet Or
tht'."j open thcir locker to pomo~r~phy 'tullt'd tnsidr 11 " Or m cold
"°
weath..... on consirurnon )<>b>, 1hey tu a rot >luack tor lunch and there
IS thc pomo¡:rophy Thc only warm pla.c on thcu wurksite 1> p.opcn:J wnh
thc open •a¡:mb ol orhcr v.oml'11 1• Pomography " ' torm ol workpLtcc
>Cpejllltion anJ K'Xu.J h•r••"'1l'111, .u "di u tcrron>rn, 1nduiling ID thc
home \\'<>mm ,..¡,., •re hun whcn 11 ÍI uoed apin11 thcm m the<c Wll~'S
should be abk 10 ¡ict a rn<irt ordcr tn Jtop it-ollld J..m1~n
Women are .Jso a<-.1uhcJ be<• ..,., ol po.nicufar pomo¡!raph•· Prosn
ruted women are told, a. thc 1n,k J!<!b more and more •ÍOlcnt, "I know
•ou lave n, 1 saw 11 ID."." o111d tl1cv m<:11uon ~peahc pomoi:raph}... A
youn¡t bo) brin~ pomo~uphy -. 11h ltb tnc:nJs anJ tlic¡ ¡ump bis ltttl<"
>Í>1er, holJ her Jo,.n, holJ up thc J'<e>rfk1gr.1pby. 1dl her 10 put your •nru
like tlu,. •our lep ltkc rh•I, "''"' sm1lc likc •he ,. 1n thc pr<turc, no\\ .-y
this. They i;•nll r•¡>e 1hc ~irl 1um thc p11~c. tum rhc ¡?1tl, 8·'"l!·rapc her
ogain for hours ,. The pomo~rurh> is nm S<"!'J"1l" from thc<c ucts. 11 1s
rhere h is nn 1ns1rumen1 of the as<•uh h 1s • scnp1, a dircction book: 11
says here how 10 ne the knots. · \\'hcn pomo~rJphy can he pruvcn 10
cause assau.hs dtrecdy, pomogr.1phets ou¡¡l11 10 be ablc to be s1oppeJ lrom
sdlmg iL 11 pornogruphy is provcn ro J1r~ctly c.1use an nssault o[ oru:
woman, it will <•u•c "''uults of more w<1mcn lt sbould be stop¡:>eJ.
Pomogr.1phy •180 1lcl11ml'• w"mcn. P11nítul.1rly lc1111nisis who oppo""
porno~rnphy hove l'>l'en '"""in ¡xir110Rr.i1•hy 111 1h1< w11y, indudmg Glon.1
Stcmem, A11Jrca O...•orkin nnd Sus.n Brownmillcr.' \X'11h Su<.m Brown
millcr, che 1><>1111 wílS 10 say she rcally wnmeJ m oo rwpcd. that's wh)' shc
wrote 1his book a~ainst nape ... This false md Jefamatory he 111 thrs por-
nographv rtponcJ a ¡iu1auve Jate: 1 haJ a c.l•re with Susan Bro\\mntllcr
we were •bout 10 havc hot .ex, .he v.'ll' very arou<ed. ali ol a suJJen she
stancd Sl'ttdlTUng •boul rarc Yuu'rc nc.>t ~""'!! 10 rape mt. att you?
You're not, 411! you, t>h rcJUy- 1 hvt"' you'rc not gmng 10 rape me! In
<exuaU,· "'PIKn 1cims. po¡:c ah<'f ¡~c.· aft.r l"'H<" Suun 8"1"-nmillcr"
lll i><'r'R01!'"Phl' "' • l>'Oíllan whn wanu to l>e \'iolared \\TI•~ no means
ves Consumc:rs of th1' ¡>omoiiraph)" h.vc • S<:xu•I cxrcncncc of "usan
Brownrnillcr 10 m\'ahdatc her opposmoo 10 rarc lf '-u<an Brcnmmiller. a
kadi~ fcrntnm opponcnt ol •nJ authonty on rape. '<-crctfy 'll'ants <0 be
98 • Suoules w1t~in Stalu
rupcd \\hi11 wom•n Ju<'>n'1 • Ou1 111-. \\'OlJJ cnJ th= lics by mnking 11
J'l'>"hle to M1c for J..t•mllllon 1hrou11h ¡>omo~rnrhy 1hat, bcClluse i1 is
«.,.u.ti, h" ~ 'l~'<·1al trcd1hiluy th•t othcr s¡x-tth do<'• 001 h"'" md othcr
srecch cannot countcr, onc tha1 Jc,IJ'O\'> women in Wll\'S that cxisti11¡1 law
on puhlic women m "'"" coumne. does not re.ch.
hnalh , trafh,km~ m thc produl'tion. >.ale. c.xhtbmoo. or distnbunon of
pt>m<>J!raph¡ •• ddmcJ >houlJ cnJ. Pomograpby 1s • W\'c tra.k produccd
by 1hc coor..1on ol pm.c-ny •• 1>dl J> by phy>ic.J lon:e, Jrug ad<lictioo,
JnJ homclrnnns (whcrc >tJta Jo fk>t prm.idc home» and bi anplO)mcnt
dtknrntnJtM>n b•>«I un scx anJ ,.,., So long'" \\'Oól<n are discnminated
~m>I 10 tlx- ,,.,J 'A'orlr.for<'C Jnd kcpt poor a> "'''"""'· as they ª"' m most
rl""'1-'\\'0men ol color and forcign hom and noncinzcn womcn m par-
tirular-women w11l be 1n p<>~rarhy and promrunoo. pomOll"'phizcd
anJ pro>muted As lon¡t •• !Orne countno arr unpo,~rished ,.-\ufe othcr
countn<:> are n..h. womcn lrum poorc:r roun1no will be srxually ptt)ed
upon b) mcn m n..hcr countna Pomu¡tfdph)' "' an ann of pro.>uruuon.
T)p1<>tll\ , sc:.u.il .ibwr t>f yaung "º"""' 111 1hctr familics moke. thc strcct
look like ''" 1mpr.,wmcm The .cxu.11 tortu"' unJ •bU><' \\1th 1mpuru1y tn
1hc ÍJm1ly produce •n rntin'.' popul.J11on uf voun¡¡ ¡¡irb 1>·ho lc•\'C home
1hmkin¡¡ 1h01 noth1n~ muid be 1"'0"< and cnd up. in 1heir own country or
half a "·orlJ ow•y, tn thh slovc tmdc 111 womc:n, this traf6cking io women
unJ chíldren th.n ,. thc pomogruphy 111c.lumy
AU thc: hann> th•t pomo¡¡rapby produces m sooery as a wbole rhtough
11> consumcts, mduJmg through che sexuatizeJ b1goll) agamst women ch.it
11 cn~eiiJcts, woulJ be « IJrcsocJ through 1.hc trafticlung provis1on. The
c.lcgraJi111011 oí wonu.-n in pornogmphy. this scxuahzed lowcnng unJ Je.
hurnani,,11it•n oí womrn, rcíl«1' unJ tclnforccs ond reproduces and reines
thc lt>wcr lhllll> c•f """nen 1hm11~ho111 sodcty Thc womcn who Jre in
rhosc nmennls. who bcromc womcn in ¡¡cncrnl. nrr nm the pcoplc who
bccomc authoritk.,, po\\·crful, lc~ítirnote, rcsp<"ctccl In pomo¡¡r•phy,
women bewme cunts. \X'ould you want onc operaun¡: on your braio or
headm~ 11iur llº"cmmc:nt> Pomo¡¡r•phy crcatcs bl¡!OU)' hostiluy, and con·
tcmpt tow•rJ v.omcn, ... wdl u a¡:¡¡rc;sion IL engender. that scnse you
nnnot "'"'" tu break 1hrou¡¡h 1ha1 ) uu are 1101 mtl to thc meo MounJ
)'OU, no m.tllC'f "h•ll )'t:•u '•I) t.lr Je, lt ~ng:cn~D rCSt"ntmmt of your pre
Cll<c when '"'" voirc rc¡:iMcn. m thc lu¡;cr JIOCICt) , the scnse that you Jo
noc he-Ion¡¡, ~ IC'l\llC maJc •·1-.ccr•I hcnce fdt "' natural ""'"" ~rualized
1hmUJ1h pomogra¡ilw \Xñcthcr or not am· ol 11• othcr ,;olat10ns hit mdi·
\'1Jual u t>mcn, thr>r lu~cr 11111udmal and ulcolo¡ncal dp1amia affcct ali
w<•men 10 \'U)'Ul~ JC1trce> m a !>OelélV a. sa1ura1cJ by pomographr as
s,. c.Jcn 11.
 On Se• 1nd Vtolenct • 99
Se\'«al addtuonal fi:•rnrcs oí our human right> Liw conm1>1 w1th <!Xi>Uog
SwcJlih l•w un pomogr,1ph) f'irs1. t>ur pruJX>sed l•w has • Jcfin11íoo of
¡mmography l luvinM one make. rhc m.11crial• idcmifinble ro p<.-ople ond
¡¡iws lcss room for discrction by amhontics to foil m apply i1'''10 mi>.lpply
i1 A concrete dcfinition like ours makcs it difficuh for the pomograrhers
and their triends to say that 1t is impossible to know what is nod is noc
pomography This is• srupid 1hmg to say in wiy evem. The pomograpbers
know wha1 pomography is. They know how ro make 11 and \l-hat 10 put
m 1L The poople who order u for the storcs know whm to orJer. unJ thc
pcoplc who go ou1 to buy it know wh•t tbcy •re looking for •nd whar ro
buy ALI 1hes.e ¡><.-oplc know how to dming111>h pomograpby from 01hcr
m•1erials Ali wc havo done is wri1c a definition 1Jrn1 captures what oll
1hese people already know: cverything that is pomo~niphy and nothin¡i
1ha1 is n0t. Politically •nd lejlaUv, the definition says what pomopaphy is
by descnbin¡t \\'hnt ir does, whicb is subject 10 evidencc. rather than em-
p)o~"Íng vague moral or senumental judgments like obscemry or violence.
1t <.bcribcs only thosc múterials thJt Jo 1hc harrn of sex inequality ro
w()nlcn in thc wny 1ho1 only pomot:mphy does iL
Leg:illy. nur law locJtcs 1he in1ury of pomography in rhc ri~ht pl!lcc; 1n
the lnw of equaliry. He.re m Sw«len, you •re surrounded by • rheroric oF
equ•liry. as we are in the Oniced S1:11cs, with less ba<is m renlity Thc
rroditional concepr of equali¡y that you use, and is commonly used iorer-
nattonaUy. may be difficult ro imagme 6ráng ·wirh the harms described.
Thc reccived norion of equality in Sweden 1s. to the extem one is the same.
one is cnútled w cqual rrcaancnt. lf womcn are like meo, they can be
Lrc.itcd ~ wcll :is meo. Tllli tmd11ional notion of cquahty <loes not ask why
mcn do not bo\·c to be the '''"'" os anyboJy cxccpt onc anmhcr to be
trcotcd os equals or why women ore rcg.¡rded :u 1he ones who are differcn1
irom meo, Men are jusi as different from womcn-equ.Uy different, lt
docs not ask why the consequences of 1har equal difference are nor the
s-ame. and are worst" for \vomcn rhan for meo.
Standard equalicy law is most at home at work. where the coorribution
of the sexes is most likdy to be scen as tl1e same and valueJ accordmg to
ú gcnder-neu1ral work proJucr. Libor is .liso a place whcrc mcn c.•pcncnct:
inequ.Uny. so inequ~liry on v•rious >eb1trary growub is more likdy 10 be
proh1b1tcd 1hcte, if anywhcre, bccau~c men undcrs1•nd 11 thcre. if Jny·
whcre Bu1 che ide• oí cquality rcmuins the male smndard: ií mcn don °1
need n, 1>·omen don't ¡¡et it. Thc Swcdish Consutution hBS improved on
thas notion ro sorne extent: "No law may unply che discrimirutrion of noy
citi2en on accounr of his sex uoless die relevam provision forms pan of
efforts to bang •bout equalicy· berween meo and women. '•• Sorne steps ro
100 • s11uule> w1thln Sta•••
bnng abou1 c4wl1ty "·bcrc "'umen n<eJ 1t lllld mt:n Jo not are allowcd,
but •> cxcc¡>ll<ln• 10" rule Jg.iinst ducnmin.1uon Whcn you an: promoung
c4u.1luy. you m•y discrunmarc on 1hc h.1sis oí sex. Thi• doe> nm con>idcr
th.i mlmsin¡: >CX·based subordinauon in which womcn ore disunctivdy
dama¡tcd ir¡ W3>'S thac ovetWhelroin~ly men nre not mi¡¡lll OOl be discrim-
tnotion at ali. but racher tts op1>0sire.
lJ Liws equalizinl! the sexes would be co11sidc:red sex discri.minauon UD·
less un escepáon 1> ere made for iL lhc queruon is rru.sed wlut Jiscruru-
0
nauon gt:net.Jly mcans and how cquuhty ~ gencrolly promo1eJ. lí giviog
che uncqu.ll what chcy nccJ 1<> cond incqunliLy is the cxccpuon, wh:n is che
""'"' rule? Thc mam co11cc1>1 oppéllrs to be wlw i1 usually is. to addros
incqu.1lity be<1 whcn. ln fac1 i1 cxists the leBSt. Promonng cquality in ..,.
ciety in the sensc oí cndin1t sex-based subordinntion. transformin~ the scx·
ba<ed hierarchy. rcquires addressmg inequnliry m substance. whcn it is
1herc the most.
More groun<led clues to Swedish equalny tbinking perunent 10 the sub-
í~ ol pornography emerge from che well-kno1>"fl 1981 repon on pn»LÍ·
tunon. Tuis rtport criudzrd uslung only how ~nJ why wumen could pl'O!I
Litutc thc:mb<:lves lnstc.1J oí asking how and why men dcmunJ that 1hcy
e.lo so. quoun11 Johans.<0n, • uiticnl mcmbcr of 1hc ¡¡ovcmmento.I e1>m·
tnittee on tbc reguLition of prostitution. who Or¡lUed b.tck in 1910 chat if
all cu<romers-for insrance, because rhev wcrc concerned for soc1ery's ge11-
eral well-bcing-suspended 1heir rclanons with prostiruted women, the
social insarotlon of prostiroaon would ccase 10 cxisL" This repon noticcd
that prosmunon-of which pornograpby is a form-is supplied beciuse
it as dt!m~nded. Ali is oot equal ouc théte. The traffic is pullc:d by men.
thc dcmand, nen 1>11sheJ by women, the supply. Rc.Jiry ha:; boen rccog
nized: meo's <k"n'lanc.I creures prosmuúon. If mcn did nut buy pro.u1u1es,
thcre w1)ultl be no prosmuaon, ond if 1here w.1s no prosritution, 1herc
woultl bc no pomo¡¡n1pby. Women ha>'e ro sell sex hecause mcn wan1 to
buy it. Beoause this is not a symmerrical world, tt cloes not caJl ior a
S}inmetncal le¡¡al solution. It is ao unequal world and cal4 for a law againsc
tbc men usmg the women. nor Jg•inst the womm being uscd.
While thc repon m<tkes Vl\idly vasibk: men's violc:nce against womcn 10
prosutuuon -1he subsiancc 1>1 gendercd inequ.illty, mt,,,'s pornogr»phy
us pl11ycd out in womcnºs world-it nusses 1hat pro<iitut1on IS .1muttcr of
••>< iMqu.1litv for prc'<:•sdy this rea<on H•ving C..ced the vicious realitv of
rhc •Ítuatinn, Md thiu it cannor be (1ddre<sed by lookin¡z n1 1he women
alone, 1he repon goe• off the raíls by not ~eem¡¡ beyond tbe convenaonal
equaliry model. For example, ir regards crimmaliúng only the cus1omers
On Se• and Vlolence 101
us u practica! anti eth1c11J problcm, • doublc ~Lmdard reinirusccnt m rev1:rse
of the moralisuc !>weJ1$h •tale rcgulations oí 1847-1918 that dlspropor-
iiona1cly burdcnctl the womcn 1n prostitution." Convcnuonal ubstracl
"'lUaliry thcory hlls symmcLl)' problcms likc 1his. In 1hat modcl, similorly,
cqualizing do\\..n-men proqitutin¡i, ar arrestin1t mcn for prost1tution as
ofren as womcn-would be iuSt as sex-equal as womcn not prostitutin¡¡ or
as nor arresting womcn for prostitution would be. B)' the same lol\lc. scx
equality in pomography would be achieved by w-omen sexually conswning
anJ violaung mcn, or by pcoplc consumuig and víoJ.1ing pcople oí the
ll;tn]c scx to tbe 5'11lle extent th.u exlstmg pomography does the opposuc.
Bue just •S the f.1J.e symmctry in lhe currenr low of prosutuuon nccds 10
be: changcd to fncc 1hc for-from-syrnmctrkal reali1y, thc tr•dition•I lc¡¡al
conccprion of cquoli1v thnt does noL reco¡¡nizc 1he scx incquality in pros-
tirution needs 10 be changcd as wdl, facinjl its unequru realicy. To do
otherwise makes a mock:ery o[ women's substantive degradation, wbich
ool.y runs in one direction: Irom che top clown, \1°il.h womcn on !he bocrom.
H che repon had pursued irs initial insight and the vis1on dr1ving irs per-
tepuon of reality. ít would bav.: seen tlm en<ling prostitutlon by t:nding
1he dcmand for it is what scx equ•lity undcr l11w woulJ look Uke.''
Subordin.iion conoo1 be ended by ussuming u symmctry tho1 Jocs nrn
exis1. lt cán be endcd by lows dire.:ted 10 cnding ¡:roup·bJsecl, iop-down
social rcllltions. ending hierarchy on the basis of scx. No exceptions are
needed to pursue this rule. Consiscem with de1•elopments in intemaáonal
hiw, this concepc has beco adopced in Canada as the imerpretaáon of the
new Cwiadtan Charter of Rtghrs aod Freedon1s," mspired in pan by the
Swedish modeL In tlus upproach, equali1y is promoted when less fooorable
tret11men1-suborJination-bnseJ on sex is cnde<l. Becausc pomogrophy
is o pract1t't" oí ¡¡cn,k-r ineqwJny, injuring imd cxploiang women becuuse
they are womcn, ending ir promo1cs equulity. This is 1he no1ion of equaliLy
mobilized in the work of ROKS'º (thc National Orgnnwuion for Womcn"s
Shehers in Swedenl and che other Swedish organizations 1hat pursue
equaliry for womcn.
This is not only a political approach but also • legal ooe. lm~ine a
wonw1 is raped and therc is a hiw ~gamst lt, bu1 thar law doe> no1 envision
thc way the woman wa~ mped. Imagine rhere 1> a law ogalnst bauering,
bu1 thc police do no1 cnforce 11, lnrnginc i·ou ha\"C u guarJnttt of >ex
equality ut work, bu1 1here is no law •gains1 being sexuull)' h•rnssed there,
so your economic surviv•I can still depend on bein1t sexuallv ovnilahle, 11.nd
me law docs noc reco¡¡nize itas sex discnmination. You do not need much
imagmarioo, do you? Women ottd dfectivc: legal guarante\!S oí personal
102 • Slruggles •1th10 Slates
..,curuy ami scxwl 1niegrlty to h.ivc equal11y Thc Sw~ilish Consmucion
aJdrC>se> the bw h h.1s .1 rcqulrcmcnr of sex cqL1ality \Phrff tt vour f~g11f
r.¡1111/11.1' L• it in your l•w of mpc? b.mering? workpl.1cc discrimin.. uon?
pros1irurion?
ls yoor legal equalny pnnciple alive in )'Ollr lnw of porn~raphy? The
Swedish law ol pomo¡¡raphy, w1th respect, is clie wrong law. li is not based
oo 1he realny 11 proh1bus. and even the J.aw you have JS noi enforced. You
have n law agamst Sé.xual violence 1t1 pomography, and you aresurrounded
by s..xu:tl \'1olent'e in pornograph). Notlung is done abow it. lt scems that
thc mo>t thc outhonUC$ cun cvcn colll!ider Jddressing legally lltC thc c.11·
won., which llfe bud cnough, but no llesh-.10d-blood "·ornen •re immc·
diarely abused to muke chem, which mnkes • mueh le>s real case-almost
so to spe<lk, a canoon case. A law against sc.-.ual lurassmen1 has beco
recommended and hopefully •11;i.ll soon cxiSt," bw no law addresses the
harms of pomogrnphy.
Your luw ag;iinst pomography dOeS not promote sex equality. To mllke
it possible for Swedish womcn tó ad<lre•> the harms of pornograph)• woukl
implemcnt the COMutuuonal l't!quirenlC!lll of cqunl laws. 11 woul<l funher
Swcdcn.. 1nrcm11tional humnn right> con1mitmC!lll$. conventions under
which M:>->pecific abuses are beginnin¡; 10 be recognized as sex inequalicy
violarions. lntcrnational law has ret to realize pomo¡¡rnphy's pl•ce in 1his,
but Swe<len could exercise n:s tradicional world leadership role in this area.
UnUke your pomography law, ours is civtl. not criminal. This is crucial
Your current law agaiosr spreading depicrions of sexual ,;oJencc is a good
cxample o{ how criminal laws agruns1 pornogruphy tend to funtuon.
Nothing hap¡~n>. Those wirh power can act ag;iinst ll; they \lo not "aru
101 so they don ·1. A civil In", womcn kccp in our own hnnds h empower1
wc¡mcn to •et wi1h >tole suppon. 11s if our livcs are •t srake hcre. whkh
thcy are. As if we ore the on"" who nccd to ucr, as we do. As if we know
bow to do it. and we do. and they don'r. Women would 110 to civil cou:n
when we decide to go. Not lirst the poUce. then a prosecutor. theo tbe
ornbudsman 10 get the pollee aod the prosecuror 1ct do whac they were
supposed 10 do and tlon'1. antl theo me ombudsmao Joeso'r ms.ke r:hem
do 1t cithet. \Vle Jan '1 need their permission. Women who ure coerced c.on
use 1he couns to light 1he pimps who cocr<cJ 1hem; women tJn wc rhc
mcn whl:' forccd pnmogrnphy on dicm, 1he mcn who ll•>.mlted cl1cm be
c.1use of pomn¡;raphy. Women can brin~ • lc~;1] .iction OJ111ins1 the por
no¡¡ruphcrs who moke, and unyone who sells nr exhibits or discribute$. rhe
ma1erials char 6c our deíinruon. showin¡¡ u subordmates women and stop
them. Any one ot you rould go to civil coun and get an arder 10 s1op
O• Se> aod Vool•nce JOJ
1h<'fl1. lt mJk'"' each woman into • potenLial rcpresent11U\'C for .U u·omcn .
c1npo\\·~ring euch \\"dm.tn who can prov~ harm to ncr fnr "-·anlcn .as <uch
unJer law.
1f you iniroduce rhis law. it is uncle>ir whar "íll h.1ppen. You will be
told a 101 of lies Jbou1 how pornography does no1 do any hurm, w•hen in
facr it docs and the "'idence shows rha1 tt does. But you have ulreadv
probably beard thesc lies, and you know thar i1 produces these burros. You
will be colJ thm pomograph} 1s sp<ccb nnd thus must be presen·ed, and
tha1 b) comparison, women's lives do not mJner. Sw«Li"1 l•u· is begiMing
w gct u 118111 oa thU quest1on. In tbc law of Swcdcn, Jcpic1ions of sexual
violcnce, chUd pomography. ¡¡roup defam•tion, and 01hcrs urc lis1eJ "'
"offenses ogllins1 freedom of speech" mther rhun free speech ;cscJf Tn thc
United States, it is the laws a¡r.iinsr rhese pracúces tbat are c0mmonly
1ermed o!renses against freedom of speech" Laws rha1 resrrict this craf·
lidong LO sexual violauon may be decried as offe11ses a~ainsl freedom of
speecb." .Bu1 rhose rhings thélllSdves-the pomography. the defamacion-
are no1 even im;l!Jllloble therc as offenses againsl freedom of sr>eech.
Swcdisb law recognízes 1hese ming• for wh.u they ure. Bc:causc il <ilences
womcn, porno¡:raph,· by our definltion belong.< un 1h;1 li<1
lf yt>u do nn1 1ntrnduc;e rhis law, what will happen is dC11r. There will
be no real scx equaliry as long as pomo¡¡ruphy satura tes )'Our sociecy. Rape
and bauery will incrcase, and reporting of 1hem mar decrease as dese:nsi·
tizaoon to sexual abuse and women's pe«:eprion thu1 they will not be
responded ro if rhey rcport oncr~.ise. As the real rape race nses. tf 1c 1s
nooced or repotted at .U, ll will be mirumized as an mercase in reponing
Wdl. suppose therc u •¡us1· an iaerease in reporting. Now ¡·ou kno\\ hov.
much rupe thcrc has bcen al! ulong. Why 1s • cunsuint b·cl of r•pc ne·
ccp<Jblc, cause for wony only ií ll increases? Then we find tlw 1hc con·
smm leve! is twice what it was rhoughr ro be. Why is no one worried>
Policical acrion against ali of this is crucial and must be coounued But
law is pollllcs by other means. \Y/e ure told 10 use educa.non. aot law;
change aul!udes. T ranslatioa: li:t mea conanue 10 enjoy rhemselves abusing
w~en wí1h unpun11y wbtle u•t try to make them tlunk better thoughts.
U ¡ou m Sweden figure out how to •rguc with un orgJsm beuer than "º
hJve ín tM United Srn1es, pleasc !et us know. TI1cre;,. Utt.lo a. cd11c.umnal
•s knowing you u·iUbe n 1ed, and lmlc thut e..lucures pcople 10 the mcunmg
of bigotry bener 1han civil liabili1y for dhcrirninntion.
The 'ª"'· as you knou', as all women knów, is not ou rs. le is rreacherous.
Ir is slow. lt also should nor be Jet off the book. lt promJses you equali¡y.
Ger it. lt "' too powerful 10 be igoored. ir says ot is dosng someduog abour
11)4
se~u•I \IOlen<.'C. h> lcgiumacy is a form of pou·cr in usclf. Anyt1n<! who
want• 10 .rop oomcthin~ cannor j¡inorc Liw's abilnv to do notlung whtle
lnokin¡¡ likc il i~ doin¡; 'Vmc1hsn¡i How do people plan 10 srop pornog·
roph)' \vithout 1he force of l•w> Why is it rhar when women u"1o are hun
d=and redress from thé si.ate. <.'\·cryonc sudclcnly disco•-ers the limits of
the law•? \X'hy is 11 that whdl we ask u to do somcthing for us "" are
lectured on our lndh1tlual. responSJbiliry 10 Stop rapists and how tb" law
re:tll¡-, sacll¡. can only do so much? \\('orking "ith law 1s an unpro,•emcnt
on '10ldlce. if not b¡ much.
M>1vbc thc Liw would be les. lunited JJl our hands than it has been in
thcir.. lf onc cmisions tumin¡¡ 11round 1hc ennre Swetlish s1a1e to Stop
pomn¡¡ruphy af1cr rwt:nty years oí •aturnrion. thar poses d:oe limits of law.
But if you imagine the law in the hands of several million women acúng
againsr their own onjurics on their own behalf, more is pOS$ible. Thc mee
does nt:e<l to !l'VC women this law. The ~wedish sr.ace, the beacon o! affu-
mati\'c go..ernmerual eoncern m tbc wenem world. hopefuUy does not
intcnd to ruro us bnclt on Swedish women 111 th1s respec1.
Perhaps 1t á ume for thc Su•cdish cxrui1ple ro 1he world 10 bear the
n1"rk!i of thc paín of Swalish womcn, nntl of cl1cir ·~•lidanty with wamcn
here ;ond 1hrou¡¡hom the world. with the bauered women who Me thoo,e
sh:idows walkin¡¡ pas1 the windows in the Women's House, where we ha•·c
nnly to see 1he pomography to imagine t.be eleccric sbocks, the dogs, and
the beuan¡¡s cbar pu< t.bem mere. Sohdamy with the woman rapa! tn the
subwav wh1le a hundred people ·watched, as the} \l'atch tn the pomog-
raphy. Ancl solidarity with Cacrine da Cosw, who was prosútuted anti
di.smcmbcreJ, whose lifc w11s pomogruphy, wbose death was poroog-
ruphy 1• You can .i.tnd with 1hcse women. \\'e hoJlC' you wil1

11
Equality Remade
Violence Againsr Women
Equality IJWlranlttS are ev~rywhert, bur nowhere is there equality. Eqmtlicy
oo the basis of sex is widely guaramecd-m Ausma and other European
countties, io !he Uruted States, in sorne rcgions, and mr~oatio.oally--bu1
wome11 are unequal to men in ali ihcSc places both undcr i•w and in ti.fe.
This disp:uit)' between principie and n'1illty is promored by equnlity's ttn
di1lonal logic, partícularly as opplic<l to violcnce "l!•inst woml!n.
Equ•liry is thr dcmocrnric norm for l<tw. Formally, i1 i$ central 10 the
nde or l•w as ruch; law's ;ippiia nion is supposed to depend on whut people
do, 001 oo who they are. In posicíve law worldwíde--intemarional, con-
siicuüonal, and smrutoiy-cquality is also a leya) domine. Funher. it is a
rwi.sprudence. a pohcy nonn for law's .rdanon to society, l'\·en wben re is
not doarioally ÍO\'oked. Pa.ralleling thc'SC ilimrnsions. t brs r.alk is dt'~ded
0
mro thrce puns. Equali1y oiade" crltic.-.ill} Jc.sc.nbo t.hc trod1tionul ap·
proueh "Equ•liry rcnrnde" rcframcs equalit} '"th women's incqw1lity pri·
m•rily in mind. "E<ruolit)' rcvisioncd • linds sex equality bcginning lt>
emerge as a \l'Orldwldc jurisprudemial movemen1, onimaung social chan¡¡c
for women a1 the point wherc law nnd socíecy imeracr.
In what has become a1 once the common seose a.od common law of
cquaHty, Arisrotle ddined equality as trcating hkes alike and unlikes un-
.Jtke. Trcating those who are the same the same, firs1-dass cquaiity m chis
approach, 1s termcd genJ~ nruu'llii.I)· for sex, colorblmdness for roce. hs
sccondary rule, accompa1ucd by nn aur• uf iofononty, trcats difforently
!hose seen os diffcrcn1; it is 1ypic0Uy termed "spccial bcnefics" or "spedal
prote<;tion • Legal equalily hu• acrordin¡ily revolved around nrgumen1> oí
Thl• wlk Wil' ~kh'<lcm.I •1 tht 1'01 dx 'X'c.-1 Co11fcrt"" 'J'1<>nt0ml l'Y lhC' r\uurl•n l ~rJ.:r.S
\1inuuy of \\"omca's Aífat:tS and 1ht- fe'\kttl Ch.ncdkn m \'imDI, Novmibcr 1*-lS, 1992. •nd
ori,8iNll~ pubb:sbedm Tw ~ Wm ~11;k, °""'1t><r11C) •nJ \ roiA«tVk'Dua. t99·U~
1
10~
106 • Sflue&lu w1th1• $tates
s:uncnes> ""J J1ffcrcnte l:qúuluy "' b:is1c•lly c4uiv.tlon1 to samon=. \l1th
diffcrcn<t:, wh,.,, unJcni,1blc, brinping up 1hc renr. In this fnuncwork,
womcn cloimin11 e<¡"alin h•vc 11r11UeJ 1hat '"" •re 1he snme u men when
\l"C." can. Jod difforem from men when uoe can'1. men's equais because we
are !he same, enmled m compensa1ion when \\'e are differem 1 Thac prcg-
IWlt')' benefits are tenned ·posim·e dtscriminaoon"' m Europe, for ex-
ample. cfossilies them ,¡s Jiscriminaüon but of an aeceptable son.
fbe goal of legal equ~lny eampn1~ns lor U'Omcn has been 10 secure
cquitln¡ on the>e 1enm. Thc cqu"lny concep1 iisdf has nlm0>1 ncvcr becn
qucsuoncJ Thc dose<11 10 u cr111quc hos bccn thc cultuml fcmin1>1 pro1es1
1h•1 wom•n" diffcn:ncc ,Jioultl be seen os a goo<l thin~. no1 a bnd thing
But the samenewdifferenre nation :is funda.mental to equaliry has rr-
maincd in piare.
Missing m how Ariscode's theory has devdoped unJer law over ttme is
an accouot o[ th~ onginal disn:ibuaon o( goods accordiog m parocular
troics, o thc<m ol the social creation of dtfí<"tellce, o craneal •wareness ol
the Wú} 01111bucion of dtffercoce can suppon sysrcmalical.ly worsc 1rca1-
mem, on under;;1anding of 1hc st.tndard against wlnch Jnrthm¡¡ else is
deemcd Jifferent, hencc les., os bcinR o •trnlegy far social dominance J
ª'
¡¡rosp of 1he resuhin¡: sy<1em reproducin¡¡ social supeñoñty ond inferi-
ority. and any conception of the foa that those who set rhe dominam
standard presumpth-ely !!•• firs•·class rreatmen1 wiihout havin¡¡ to be !he
;-ame <IS anyone. Pclnctple. m dus approach. has been delined as i¡¡nonng
"·bciher J ¡vven ¡!toup begms or cnds brtter or worse ofl. lfimed "neu-
tmlir~." Cruci.tll) as opplieJ ro sex, ihe wors1 inequalitic-s of women os a
gro11p, such •< l~ck of a¡u.J pay for <ex-<e¡;r<;¡¡~tcJ work of comparable
valut and tht faUuro of cqual prmtcuon of t.hc fow for crimco of géndcrcd
m>k·rK-c becomc unrccol(nizable JS se• incqualides bccausc they Jre
mer¡ted with 1he sex Jifference. Treatin11 such siruations less wclJ becomes
treanng unalikes unalike. bence equal.
Tlus equ•litY logic has descended tn an unbroken line from Arrstotle
througb 1he .Enh¡¡hcenmem rrad1rlons of EnPish and r rench ~berali.sm cha<
gavc birth 10 httmJO righis, 10 the sLwe lml's and legalized mcial segrc¡¡anon
in rhc Unitcd 'irn1es, to rhc Tlurd Rcicb, to the libera1ocy movcmcms of
1hc 1960., arriling fun<i•menrnlly unchJn¡;cd in rhe cquJlit~ J,w of Europc'
unJ 1he Unnc-d StJte> 1ooa~. ~fotoricnlly, 1hi; •ppr.:iAch ha~ mionaliied
SC}\regaiion in the United S'rn1c:s <>n !he ..-iew ihul Bliick people are "dif-
íerem" from wbüe people, claiming equal bu1 separ:11e IS equal.1 The Th1rd
Reicb adopted the same approach. treatin¡i "ooo-Aryans" differend)• from
• Ary•ns • oo !he bJs1s ol d1ei.r 'dJJfereoce. • One chillin~ emblem of ih1s
Eqnllty Remide 107
w.is "JcJem d3S Seine" =blazooed ovcr a coocentnmon camp "To cach
what tbcy dcset'\'c. • As you are,'º you are 1re<11ed. Thc d1fferen1 >re 1rca1cJ
J1ffcrcndy· extermuiared. Aris101clliin cqu,11iry is saa>fied. Of cour«, thc~e
rcsuhs m bot h Europe .1nd rhr UnimJ Srntes hove bcen rtpudi.ued, bm
1he « ¡uality lo¡¡jc 1ha1 <UStamcd them h:u no1 been Thi• is an Jpproach
rhar secks to h•ve law mirror lile: likes in life trei11ed as likes in iaw, unhkes
in lifc rreared as unlikes in law But what if social life is unequal? Legal
equalicy 1hcn becomcS a fom1ula for remlorcing. ma1mifyin¡t, and n¡ndi-
l}ing thc .soruJ mcquahties ic purpons to be <:<¡ualizmg ond m1gh1 havc
rcculicJ.
Cons1s1em w1th thts logtc unJ ht>wry. mlbSivc rns1iiuuom of sci<-based
d1Spari1¡ like sexual vi<•lencc are seldom nddressed b) equaltty L1w-typ
icully only when • focial sex-based disúnetion is maJe, usuall•· one 1ha1
dislldvnnta¡¡es men. 7 se.~ual violence seem• as<imilured ro che dtfferencc
berween thc se.xes. so a woman is not coosidered creaied uncqually wheo
she IS sexually •'Íctimized. jusc rreated differently for her d1ffcrenct$. Sexual
a>.Sáult rs seeo as ine-itable. The foc1 iha1 womcn Are ¡¡cncrally vicum12éd
aoJ meo generally perpetrate is nQt constdered sub¡ect 10 cqualmmon.
\X'heo \l'Omen are ircaied "diffcrcnrly" from mtlll. Crom .$<!xulJI obJcctifi
ca11on 10 sexual murdcr. the U'aditioruil cqualicy rule is no1 seen as vmi•ted
becuusc thc Jis1inction made by 1he practicc ñis 1he empiñcal dcfinition
of thc p;roup. \Vomen being delined a< rapl1ble, rapin~ 1hem doesn't ,.¡olatc
tht:m; ir mereh trears 1hem as women: unlikes unalike.
Embodied ~ the law of t:hemale state, this equality intrrpre1atioo builds
aotidemocraüc noons imo the very docuin•s ihat most prombe democ-
rlcy. A1 the oucsei. 'J pcrcem of thc popul.Uon or so" largdy dfeccivel>
excludcd !rom 1h1s a¡u.iliry. plU> mcn uncqual on tbc b.ms oí thetr race,
ethn1ei1y, rdi¡?ion. nnd ><:xuality, plus dass, and ali chaidrcn are cx<ludod
;, wdl Add<.-d 1ogeihcr equaliry b\\· buiids m trenring ·diffcrendy," in
cluding worse maybe nine-temhs of humanicy. The lc~al cqunliry priociplc
is <aid ro be satisfied when permanem undcrclasses are b6n¡i m.1.intained
h is an exrremel'( sman trick.
A wocldwíck ~ovemmt of womcn movin¡t •!l•iost theu dcterminants IS
remaktng equallty. ln us pracucc. >CXual violénce is recog.oued as ceottal
10 our mcquahty. Tboo m1sogyny UDl.llUlÍog ;,ex u.ti \10lcncc i> re<."Ogmzed"'
a mamspring oí tbc mcqualit) on thc b...,, of scx tlw dc,;tt0ys our !J,,.es
in rc11luy. The movemcnt ·~•inst 1his nbu~c is no1 •bs1ruct or universal in
th" usual •cose: it i• everywhtrc bul con4're1e 1od al"·ays social!'' specific
wi1hin the culrure uith which women idenrify. Women's divemt\' is ex
0'3ordinary: yet C\'erywhere, alwars in socially particular ways, wonx:n are
108 • St1uu1es "'th11 States
iound 10 be bclow some men.• lbe equaliry ol Uu.> mO\emcm is not prcm·
1sed on belll¡z tho snme as mm. bue 011 endm¡¡ v1oln1ion unJ abuse and
scconJ ·cli1'$ ciutt.-n~hip becJusc onc is a ''"º"¡,1n.
In 1h" movt'ment, Afncan vmmcn opro«: clnoritlectomy •nd in~hula
1ion Philippine and Thai •nd Jupunese anJ Swedish u·omen or¡znruze
agillnS1 the m1emotionol sex tn1dc. \'\'e>mcn in Papu<& New Gumea and
women who work for thc Unitcd Nations resist seJ<ual harnssmenr Brn·
zilian and lrnlian womcn proccst domestic banery ®d honor •s • m•le
excuse Cor kilhng thCJtL lndian women prote.L dowry and >Ullee ns a malc
excuse fo1· ltilhng 1hem, Cnnadum womcn pro1cs1 the use of fem1msm as
o malc excuse for killmg them Americnn womcn protcst dumestic baUCI')
.1nd n11n,1mic ]ove u• ,¡ mnle ex.use for killmR thcm \'\lomen e-·e"whcre
ri~c up ai:ainsc rape, cv''" in cultures in whkh wc are 1old it doe.. nm exis1
or is rurc, rulrures in which \\'Ornen uncil rcccntly have bttn regarJed as
chaucl c>r are snll defined as se,'Ual objecrs. Forettl motherhood is opposed
írom lreland 10 Gem¡any ro Ban¡zladcsh. Fcmale infancicide and objecu-
fymg ad•enis1ng are denounced ond legisl:ttcd againsr en lnJ1a. \\ºornen 10
the Uruted Sraies. Scandma.fo. the Uruced Kingdom, and tbe Philippmes
rcsist porne>gr>1pby.•
Thts mo\"cmcnt Jnei; nmic<' 1h.i mcn ure no1 usu.ill)' treatcd in thcse
"'""' Mcn Jo no1 hiwc ¡i.1soline 1hrown on them nnd lit ond hove it cnllcd
n kicchen accident Mc:n Jo not hn\'e 1heir 11enitals sliced up and tom a¡><1n
so mar HTV is e-~ more likelv and imercourse is excruciating or pl~s­
ureless. But t.hts. does .not Lmit ;_,ornen to unmmng men. No on" dcmands
the equal n¡:ht to co\'er men wuh gasoline <md Lip;ht n. Pu1 conceptually,
women everywhere appreci.lte that dúfercnce ttselí <loes not mtrui bemg
$<'.conJ.cluss. lmposl.'d infenonty does. Th1s rnO\"Cment shows a kcen sense
thJt <oc1.J.ly organizcJ dominoncc is 1hc problc=ni •s wdl as cnuazes it>
excesses. \'romen e\'eryu·herc reulize boch that mcn huvc too mucli po"·er
anJ thnt power i• based on rh~ wron111hin¡¡s. or¡:.1nizcd in the wmn~ ways
Women wum pC>Wer redistributcd as it is ~dined-rcdism1m1ed ro
\\"Ornen as tt 1s redelined so thot someone ts noL al"IX-'ays above someone
else, m an 3rranJ.temrm at once íorced and sexuahzed. defuung who cm
do tha1 as a mm and a supertor being.
from thts -.·urk h.ts come a concept of cguJfü)• ib l•ck ol hierarchy
r.uhcr thJn s:imcness or Jiffacncc. in u rchnt\.lc universn1uy th•lt ~mbn1co
n11hor thnn d1mJnu1e. or Jo,cb pani<ulnnty. A rcfu•al 10 ~ttlc íor .1ny1hinp
1"'5 thon a sin11lt stand~rd of human di11mry •nd entitlement comhines
here wuh • demand that the sm11lc stand.uds themselves be equ.Jizcd Ali
chis lcJ1vel< An.<totlc 1n thc dus1 The scope and depch of rh1s upmm¡i for
Eq .. hty Remide • 109
social equalicy. sponraneous and mdigeoous across cultun!S. offcrs • prio·
aplcd bastS Cor a posmve equalicy. h:s prinapks mduJc: il mm Jo 001
Jo it to coch other, the)' cannot Jo ÍI to us, .u1d endm¡¡ the >ubordlllauon
oí \\"Otnen becJusc voe are \\t.lmen.
Tn \V'On1c..-n's cxpcticncc, sexual vio1cncc LS central ro gen\kr ancqualrty.
nót oui<iJe i1 or a subdtvision of gcnder-neutrul violcncc 1ho1 just hnppens
to lut women And sexual violence is sexual. Thc C\·Cr\'doy sexuali"· of
masculinit)· and femininiry eldsrs on a conrmuum with che BAAression thac
becomes violencc~ againsr \\'Ornen that is e.xprcssed in rape, sexual. h.arass-
ment, sexual abuse of chlldr~. prosntution, bouering, pomography, wd
sexual murder around the world .
Legal cqunh1y 1heary 1s emerging from this work In onc pince: CmaJn
Cquat.q rcnrndc 111 CanucLi imcrpwcs the consucuriooul cquulicy lll•nd.1Le
in li~h1 of histoncal rcality. Tu., Supreme ('.oun of O.nada asse1ses lc~is·
larion, poliC)•, ond official proctice in social context with the 11001 <>Í clirn
inacing grou1>-based •ocial dkadvanta¡te.'" &¡ualiry law's acüve role in so-
cial change is chus pan of conStirutional doctrine. Tbe C:madian approach
requires rhar laws promote equality 10 bé consutuúo"al: go forward. not
just >it here aod rellect extSting tnoqualiti.:s. Once social reulny comex-
tuuhzes the calculus, gcnJcr neutr.J law• may promoti: ineqwliry. !'un.her.
1f luw ctther promoles iuequality or eqwliLy, wh1ch tS it doing 111 on uncquul
sociery if i1 is dom¡¡ nothing? Once th1s lcver is lnsertcd, che mc-unrnin
moves.
The Supreme Courr of Canada has recognizcd that to promote equaliry
rcquires prornoting a sociery in which alJ are recognized as ha.,.ing equal
human d i¡utiry, rcsources, and acccss to social power. lr chus '"has a large
rcmcd1.J component":" ofttn,somethU1g has IO change for a consriruuonal
equ.illty mandnte to be correctly mtcrpreted. C.U1adlans tlo not J i,•itle uf·
firmau'" nctJon úom 110od1scrinunauoo; 11 is JJl one 1h1ng. To cnd dis
crimmation. pcomote equolny m soc101y; it 1s thnt >imple Fundamcn1alJy.
rhis approach reco¡;ni7.es that social inequ.11ity exists and sets out to chanAe
11. Sometimes 1his 1okes diffcrcntiarion. someti1nes reco11núion of sameoess.
but who is bein~ hun and how is always noticed wd pu1 in bistoncal.
context. The point is to eliminate che inequaluy o( lustorjcally disad•-an·
tagetl groups. \Xlho people are and how they bave beeo treatcd, who bas
bcen ndvanrngeJ ut whose expense-ugain. concex1-is kcy 10 thc tloc-
1.nnc.
ln work with 1hc Conudian ¡¡roup W<>men's l...:g.U Educadon 1md Acuon
Fund CLD\ Fl, which argucd tlus op¡•roach to the Supremo Coun oí
C•nnda. equali¡y principies hO\'e beeo e"«ended to sexual hurassment. so
110 S1reu1u wt1h1n Shtes
that u is seen no looger as scmply hou• men behave 1oward womcn. but as
a torrn ol sex Jiscnmmation." Pregnanq beocfits thaLwcre not paJJ undcr
thc m1d1uc-nal eq111aluy •ppm.ch-no rcgulul' d1s.ibility bencfits bcC11usc
P'<'llD.tnC)'w11, t1ot • regular c.l~Jbt!it) , <mJ no prcgnanq benefits IJccausc
thcy <liffcrent"1ted on 1he bJSi• <>Í sex-ure now required To ,lo othennse
cli>udvannlj!cs women b«nuse they are women" LF.J\f •lso orgued 1h111
crinunolt.Zinp, pomo~mphy because i1 is offeosive or disgu¡ring or lmmoml
'~olares rtghts of freedom of el(pressíon. bur s1oppin¡¡ it beamse pomo11·
r:ipby h.arms \\'Omen is consrirurional on sex equalny ground.. The mjurie.
it does IO womeo-the rapes. che sexual hara.<smcru, Lhc baucring, thc
sexual Jbuse ol chiJdren. thc pro•titution thuL are rcquirL.J to mak<' it anti
aro nccc:ssary CQl'S<:(Juences of its usc-make criminilll21ng iLconslitutional
The Suprcmc Coun oí CunaJ• o¡¡reeJ, upholJing the provision ng;iinst il
on on cxplicit sex equality mtionalc.1'
1n Canada, as equali1 y is becomin1t a robusr docrrinc. i1is also becommg.
more broaclly. a jurisprudence. &¡ualiiy is being reenvisioned. LE/IF ar·
gued tbar giving meo power to veto women's abonions violares women's
equality righ1s'' and th.at "Ieral rigbcs" sbould be women's rights. 1• The
Coutt agre.ed with the resulcs without using seJ< cquality logie cxpLiotly.
We Jrgued that the stnru1e of liJnualioos íor ine<:St \\'dS too short because
it d1d not rccognize the reulincs that vtctims of scxunl nbuse focc. The
l.oun rulc.J that the rcquircd umc for brin¡<in¡t that legal claim runs írom
che time you know thar he did i1 to you.17 How simple: Your ri11h1s da1e
from the moment ir is real to you that yoo ha•...- them. Anoiber case rec-
ojlllizes the reality of batterin11 in marriage from women's point of view.
~ain wirhout sex tqualtty docuioe cxplicitly." Another upbolds a publi-
caúan ban on the namc'S oí victin1s of sexual asSllult, solving • problem
c.xpascd b¡ J criuque of se.-. lnequalny but ool U>IDg scx cqu.Uity doctrine
tn udJ=s ll C.\pressly." Anothcr e.se takcs utequality in the wsucuuon of
mumuge in10 •ccoum in ollocacing spousal bendi1s on dissoluuon u<ithou1
c•lling thc problem • sex inequali¡y rirnblem or gÍ\'Ín g womcn sex equoliil'
ri~hrs.~ The new equnlity loRic als<> serured relief for u woman kept Jd
dkted ro drn¡tS in excha11~e for having sex wirh her doctor. The rraditional
common law appr011ch held it her fuuh bec'•use sht wem along witb lt.
Thc Coun •Areed "'th LLAFs analys1s that the powcr rclntioosblp be-
twc'Cll thc malc doctor and thc lemnlc paut:nt hacJ bc'Cll exploireJ anti WltS
Ulcg.il.
GrntiÍyiug as u is 10 w111, 11 woultl lx beuer tf ch.,,., •"lctoric. were
grounded on scx cqu.1li1y ri¡¡hl'I exprcssly, rnther thnn 1reaun11 cqu.!il} .1s
one more ~ood iJea Good ide.ts ollow those \\•th powcr 10 pick JOd
 Equ1l1ry Remide • 111
chlX'Sc whcn 1hei· will be <eCOj(llized and when not Women's expericnce
wirh this has not been good. Rí¡¡hts (lÍ\'e rou more cntulemem ro stand
on. One wonders what it means tha1 • body of hiw i> b=g bwlr tbat
promotes sex equafüy in reality ""'huut call1ng tl M:X cqwiliry by ru.mc.
In any event, this le¡tll rhe<iry of cquality, th,: Jim to dllerge írom •
sub¡ccted ¡x:oplc. is m•king bw 111w a pot"'1tt:tlly acu'c 1001 for soci•I
chon¡¡c. lt confronts male suprema<)· in socieiy ,.;,h rhe democrotk tic
mand that lc~a1 instiiutions work for ali of ns. Based on gcrting cxisunl'
insúturions to face women's realtty, Ít olso potrntrolly rndistributes power
[rom tbe sme to women. One example ís the pomogrnphy ordinállce coo-
c-eh"C<f by Andrea Dworkin aad me that would allow bun womento hold
pomogrophers accoumable dircctly, r•tha thJlll rdyíng oo tbc: b!Jlte to takc
action thnr it \\'W oot takc ot doe:s not takc '.J
Neme of this cxpresM:S faith in bw. [t ncts on detenmoauon 10 pursue
l•w's proinises anJ possibili1ics. Whcn ali 1he fonm of violencc •!t••n>t
\\·omen in sociery, and impunity for it in l~u\ are rttt'>J:nizet.1 ~'s sex in
cquality víolanons, law will he made new in womm's haads
12
Pornograpby's Empire
'X<'hcn tb~ Ilriúsb Empirc was a1 iis hdgh1, tt w•s said t:hat the sun """"'
set on Bríttsh soil. ToJay, thc sun """º' rises on tbe pomogropher>' ern·
pire, wh1ch Bn1ish-based laws help kcep in the dnrk.
In n night thnt cncírdcs tbe ¡tlobe, somewhere on formcr ímpcrinl
¡:rouod. women and childrcn are every moment beíng violated ro make
pornogr.iphy, bnnalized throuj!b íts consumprion, bou¡¡ht and sold m chis
tecbnologícally soplusricated slave craffic. Because mcn en¡oy pomograpby
sexually. because most of iis abuses occur in privatc. lx-cause tlS vicrims
are rcgardtd as socially wonhless, and bc<:ause pomogrnphy as oot scen as
an officilt! inva<ler áD<l occupier, idtnu!icd ""'h unothcr staLe, tbc pornog·
rt1phcrs' cmpirc ls largely lnvisíblc. Societies kecp ít ip >hado,.'$; law lcavc>
it b.?hind u veil, hcighteníng its d..irobiliry by periodic spasms of prohi
bítion. Yet any man who wom• it, \'Írtually onywhere, can get ir. Thc resulc
is that tbe pomographers, largdv or¡zanized crime, make off with immense
profus-and tbe equaliry, freedom, and human digruiv of women tn tbe
process.
Bntish Jaw being one of tbe most durable fearures of i13 ero.pire, the
closest tbe law of Common-alth countnc:. comes to addressing the
proble.m oí pornograph)' 1s tbroug,h its adaptation> oí the English cornmon
law of obsccmty. This is ""' "º'Y closc. The obscenitY,, upproach takes the
,;ew 1h11t thc hann of pomographi• is Íts tenckncy to • dcpra'"' nnd corrupt
thosc whosc minds are open to such ímmoral iníluences aod into whose
hands a publícauon of this son may foll." • Althougb exactly what ibis
means is uoclear l think it meaos that obsceruty scimulares men to mas-
turb•te, talung chcm furcher from CoJ. In secular terms, the obscmity
llus ulk..., rter«<d fCr 1he l\tndi An!l\lal c,,,.,.,.,.,..caJ,¡, Law Coofutn«:, Arnl lb-22, 1990,
AudJ..nd. Ncw ~4.nd. The ttSetn:h llSStmm« 01 t..mnd.a C....1cll.aoo ¡llt.tttfull) ~.f.
cda«l
112
Porno1rap~y·s E111p11e 113
approach c:nforces morals. In pract1ce. tt prohíb11s dep1ctions of sex t:hac
some meo find offensive-tbat is, tbe puhlic showm¡t of scx that some roen
wam to SJY the) do not want otba mcn to stt. lt takes the vicw ih:u scx
is cliny, women ~re dítty, and homosexwihty is batl-in othcr ""rJ.<, u
tukes thc umc vicw of pomogn1phy that pornographi takes of scx. In t he
wakc of British coloniali~m. itS l<'Rfll lyi:tem colom2ing rhc ¡tlobe lonj! ;ftcr
Í!$ military h;s left. tbc obsceniry conccpt, ._,;¡h mínor local variations,
woonds the legal approacb to pornQW11phy from India' nnd Austral.ia.• to
che Unned S1a1es' and Ganada," to Kenya' and Zambia.• lt cares more
abouc whemer men blusb thao whether women bleed. 1t is designed 'º
suppress, not eradicate; does notbiog 10 hold pomographers accounwble
for promoting aggrcssion, bigotry, .u1d dtscrimioation; and cannot em
pow~r pomogrophy's ,;cLisns. \firtuc and vice i:are its roncems; wo1'Utn uoJ
children are not
Tts hkelíhood of acrually doing anythíng •bout 1he índustry approaches
zero, although what chese governmeots do about the pi:esenceandvisibiliry
of pomography in che oame of obsceruty regularion varíes consider.ibly.
The varlance seems to depend, amoog other dungs. upon cultural supports
for 1ts supprcss1on, such as a sense tbat pornography undeanines cultural
spedficity and tr11d111onal values: upoo tbe govemmcm 's pttccpuon thJt
us suppression it politicnlly uscful, JS in South Afrlca;" upon how dc1er-
mincd the =sors are, which ebbs nnd íl0\\'1; 11 upon women's level oí
rcsistance. which in sorne countries. such os lndía. hllS been substantinl~"
upoa how detenníned rhe pomographer$' marketin11 srrategy 1s nnd
wbetbcr they have goaeo tbere yet.U The publk l..gitimacy and '1Sible
presente of pomo¡rrapby are ooly ooe level of iis in¡ury, 1he lcvel of ac-
knowlcdged public standards for womeo's crearmem. Addressin¡t íts pubbc
v1s1bility, whích 1s tbc n>OS< obsccrury la"' does, does nothmg about the
nonns of 1ts production nntl rnnsumption. To tbc bc:st of my ínfonndlÍon,
nou·herc tbnt pornograph) has once penetrated hos ít hL'CJ1 cffectively con
1rolled b)' obscenity law.•• fa-erywhere it hns cver becn, it thrives. etther
above¡;round or in a black market."
Tbe inadequacy of the law of obsceniry 10 address che harms of child
pomograpby has iatreasÍngly been recowuzed by Jaw, On me VICW tbat
makm¡¡ sex pictures harms thc ch1ld 110d che distribuuoo exceods that
h11rm. '' Thc total ínndequacy of the obsccmry approacb to pomog,rapby's
hanns to womcn has virtually nevcr becn recol)nizc<l hy law. l 11din cnactc:d
tts lndecen1 R.prcscntnrioo of \'\lomen Act, which Jt 1• .,,t notíCC!i th•t
womcn ore affected, deíin~ women's incleceni represcnt.uion ª' <lcpictin¡¡
rhc figure or ª "l' pan of tbe womea'¡ form or bod)' when ir has the "effcct
111 • Suuutes w11~1n SI llu
of bcin~ mtkc.:nt, or dr.,,~atol\ 10. '" denil(r.lllng womcn. or 1s ltkcly 10
Jc:-pra>e. wrrupt or mrurc thc pubh< mor.l11v or moralJ. ' \'('h.t1 ibou1
uirunng ""'ml-n" Cun.iJ• a l•hsccnll\' l•\\ h.11 come c.lOM:st to such a ro:·
o,;nuat"ln Ponr•~i.tl~ c..t toc:'Xuill \:1olnlcc.- <1);.a.tnt.t u.·"'mcn cotn btt pan t'f what
m•k..-. innal mattn•l• .J.-,.-mcJ lt¡tally obsccnc " Y et mu ch \"M>k"Oce l<
dooe 11> mokr romoµr•pliv 1hJ1 " not sh<""'O in 1hc m•tcrul"" and much
v1olatK'n 1< done u a '"'"h "' thc coosumrnon of ma1erials thai do no1
t~h"' ,.¡,.,,. l¡!Rn"<IM b, COO>'CflUOnal <tandards. Acrual harm is
stnctlv mdc>ant to 1h< swidud obsccnn~ •rproach. mak.Ín¡? 111m:nnsu:ally
U1Ubk to n:m~.Jy the rc.J hum• of pon>Oltfapbi l'bcsc h111D> happcn 001
m thc mmJ but 1n thc ,.,,,!J, att m•ttcl'\ nOI t>I monlit)' bu1 ol º'il and
potittc..al :>l.iatm ,.nJ croumcnt. JnJ •r< mounl) Jc-)rw: 001 lO c.'Onsumc", moc:I
of ,..¡,.,m •r• rmn hui 10 1h.- co1m11ncJ. mm1 o( "'h...., att woa><t1 Ob
<C'Cfllty is ahout "'hat men 1hrnk of ....-x Pomo¡tr•rhy i.< ahou1 what men
do lor <e"<.
,\Ion pomo¡miphy of aduh v.-omcn m thc ,.'Orfd tod.ay "produeál and
dmnbutcd br or~an1:tt'd mm.-. .\luch i-f 11 comes from thc Urutcd !:>1.11es.'"
althou~t. subst.mu.al amouni. a\.11Lablc 1n thc Commt'flu.nlth come al.so
from Bntltn and Luropc.11 Concrctdy. the Jl<ln>"t!raph) tnJJic tS inu:grally
conn<-.:tcJ v.1th 1ralfíckm~ ¡.,, mtcm2tinn.tl pr0>utuuon of both 1>omcn
,1nJ dulJrcn 11 Amcncan. Brru•h. anJ Luropc.m 1><>rno11raphc"' also pro·
Ju« pom<'¡¡rn¡>hy tn thc rnuntn<'• <'Í ·•le (a•y Au.trnli•I.'' "·hich g1ves it
1111 ind1¡¡enou\ •nd lnc•I fod " \mrrican promo¡rrnphers ¡;ro<s btllions of
dollan n year dome<ncullv No one even trie< 10 c.tim~te the1r mtemarional
gross
Qualiues charattern1 ic ol but not umque 10 the Unned States-m·
clmling co1nmon und cJsu.11sexu•I "olencc w1<l racism-are, 1hrou¡;h por-
nográphy, prommcJ throuj!hout thc wurlJ ..., 5'!X 1rom American
womc1ú sund1>01n1, the 1ntcm,1t1<'nal J'<!m"l!'"l'hY trnffic mean~ th•t
Amcnc.m "omcn orc vi1•la1e<I .md tonu..,.J and •~rloncd th•ll pomo¡;- '°
raphy can !.., madr of 1hcn1 1n order 1h111 w<•mt'll m thc T<"llt of the w<>cld
can !.., \1ola1cd nnd 1nnurcd and cxploi1cd 1hmu¡:h it< º"° In this way
m1~1~yny Amcncan <tylc co1Clnl7ct thc world on 1he 'K>CUI !e,.eJ os ob-
sa:rut' ª"' Bnu•h s11lc, ha,1n~ coloruicd the w<>rld oo tbe leiial le>'el.
mako sure nothm2 r> done ilbout 11
To unJc,.,,tanJ ho" p<•mog,.rhy work. ilnJ,. hat u Joes. n"' DeCCS.at)
to k.no,. "'·h.tt tS m 11 \\"omm 1n P<'"'''SUl'hl •re buund b.ttcred. tOf>
turcJ lw-JU<"<I r.IJ"·d. onJ 1umcwncs killcd Or, 1n th.- JÜo"> mcn.. en
tcrt.arnmmt magannn, ·mcrdy" hum1ha1<.J mol..-.tcd. <>brcculicd. anJ
uscJ In ali pomOflnrh) . th.-< ~re rmmtutcd Th" n dnnc bccause 11
meaos scxu:il pl~urc to J'omo~r•rhv'• e<.m-umers anJ ptobts to 11> pro-
' 1dcl'\. lar~d\ orit•nllcd rnmc But 10 tho'<' "ho are Clploucd, u meaos
b,,1ng bound, b•ucrcJ, 1unu1cJ, h•r•;..,·J. u1x.J. anJ '"mcttnlC> lolkd. or
mcrdv humilutcJ, m1•l...,1cJ, uhJC"rnficJ, •nd ""'" li " Jt,nc l><-.:•usc
IOror<>llr "ho ha< more rCl\l.•cr th.an th<'\ J,>. "'"""""" \\htl m•ltrr<, IOITlt·
<>ne 'mh n¡¡hi<, a ful! hum•n bctnit and ,, tull ctt!len, ¡:<1< p]ea,Utt fmm
stting 11, or doing 11, or l<ttlng 11 u a lorm o! domir 11 • h 1< dooe bccausc
he ,. ants 11 done In ordcr to m.tk.e wh.t1 thc con>umcr wams to see, u
mll>l hr..t br Jan., to sornconc, u.,u.dJy a ""man. a \l."Om•n ,.,th ¡.,,.. real
choi<o. M0s1 "ornen in pomo¡:rapb,, ti thc) ur not dm:ctl) .ibduacd.
.ue poor, &.pcr.tc, •Jdictcd to Jrugs. xxu.aJli Jbwal u ch1IJrcn, orare
chilJrcn U •pr.-...11'1¡1 rour lql> lor .1 camera " a u.»m.an'1 •utonomou.
chC'ltel:. •• thc m\lh gon, ,..ooldn't )-otl 1hmk that 1hc "'""en ,.,1h thc
m<m choi= rat~r th>n thc Í<"U'C>t u.1th 1he mM rttrondmons ior au·
tonom\ rather than the lcatt, would be thc women ck-mir 11>
In the hundrcds anJ hunJttds i-1 m~zmcs •nd r•mire< ond lilms and
ndcocassmes illld >0-c.allcJ b<>ok.i. that compo>e th" ,J._.., rr•dc. uome1ú
kgs ltt s¡>l.iycJ m po>lurcs ol ..:xu<&I >ubm1">Jon, dr>pla) , and •cce>s. \X'c
are n.imed .tltcr mcn-. msult• 10 ¡>Jru o! our boda-. .nJ m.icJ \mh an1
m.1!. We are hung hke mcat ChilJr.:n are rrc><ntcJ a. uJul1 w"men: •J1d1
v.·omcn •tt pmcn1cJ "' ch1IJ...,n. fu.m¡i th~ \'\1lncrab1l11y of 11 chiltl v.·11h
me <lutti•h ea~mess 10 be ÍU<kcd ,.,J to "" nal\I rol '" the fcmale of C\·en·
•~e. <Pom~raphv exi<t• of an •duh man ottcmpttn~ to penetrase Jn ei.W~·
momh-old girl.l Raoal hatred t> scxualtzed by mak.m¡: every racial smeo-
i:ype mto •sexual f'eush. A>Jan w1>men are pn:sentcd so pa.sive they cannot
be slid to be ali\'e, bound •O thcr are not rcro11m,.bly humllll. hangmg
from trees und light fixtures .mJ cloLhc, h<>ok.. m clo;ets. Block women
are proen1cJ •• <tnunnlistic bnd><'>. brut>ed and blc>cding, •tru¡¡_¡:hn11
"l!llln<1 thc1r bonds. kw"h womcn orllo<m m r~nJéllTlent• of dt'uth comp
1011Ur~ Thf' Í;t\'<ltÍtc fllCi~m (lÍ ta<:h l<"C..tlih· 1~ m.1dc into ~X 1n romo)!
4
r.iphv In <n·oilleJ lr<h1.m romo~roph\·, womcn de:> what men ima¡:ine
,.·ornen do when mcn are not around. <0 mcn can w.ich Pre¡¡nanr women
and nursmi mo1hers. Jmputct" anJ t>ther d1,;iblcd or 1U women. and men·
Wl} rcurded ~rl>. thcir condruons or stwnp> or pm>mc:>c> leushtzed.. are
U>CJ for "'"'~ exrnemcnt In •t>mc pomtlJ!taphi calkJ "M>uff," •·ornen
<'r duldrcn •tt tunurcJ h> Jc• th (usu.alli throu¡:h Ji.n>cmlK-nn<'llt, su/
focation. or h""l!tn¡:l, mur.Je.red I<> m•ke • se• film
Ht'llnnl" h<ld hi tM a1y wunnl m ~Unncarohs. ~hn~• tn 1he
Unítcd '1.ic:< rn Oett~r 19,l don1mcn1eJ the 11.nn< of rom<>¡:uphY'•
makin~ anJ ~ · The <tudtct i-1 r...nrchrr; ond clin1oan• Jocumcrued
116 • Slruures w•lh1n Sum
the umc rc.ilm u.<>mco d0<umc111eJ lrom hk pomoguph) mcreascs at·
utuJes anJ llt"h.-11>11 ol ·~~"' >ktn anJ othcr J,,,cnnunauun by mcn
áli!JIR-"lt '"om~·n \\'c.Hntn l('IJ ho\\ pornn~raphy v. as uM...J to break thcir
11e:lf Nt«m 10 1r11un thc,:m h' M."Xu.al ~uhm1J.s100. to ~ason tbcm to forccd
\CX tO lnllmtdotc thcm "Ul of r'h orr<>r1unmcs, to blackrnail them llltO
pro<tuunon •nd krt1' th.-m thett 10 lerr<>me and humíliatc them uno
snual romrli•nc...., anJ to <tknce 1heu dMcnt ThC\ t<>ld of bein2 use<! to
makc porno¡1rarhv unJC'I' ~mon. ol thc force that µ.e them no choice
abow 'ieu111~ thc pomo;?rapby or pcr11>nrun¡: thc ...._..._ Tbcy to!J OO...
('Om<\\:rtphy >11mul•tc• .mJ e<>ndona rape. b.tttef) , S<'llual har.w.mcnt ,
l<'Xual abuse ol duldttn •nJ lor<ed pn»utuuoo.
In 1h<1C hcann¡;s, "'"rnc:n and rmn spoltc in pubhc abou1 thc deva.1a111>~
1mr.i<t P<•moi:r•rby had on their l"cs \X'omen •roke ol bemg cwrttJ
mto scx 'I<> th.tt romo¡;rarh, could be maJc oí 11 Thq- •roke of bcin~
r.pcJ l"'ttcmcJ on •rcufic J>O""'llflrh> tha1 wos resd ind rd'crrál to
dun11¡1 1he r;¡~ or ttpcatcd ltke a mantr-• th~ut thc rapo:. ol bein¡:
turnn! O\er as the P"llcs ,..=turna! ovcr Th<ry spoke ot ln.'lJ!l! or v.'Orlung
m nc1~hborhoo..i> or t<ib >ttcs ••uuro.tcJ wuh pomograph, . A )Oung lll.1Jl
•rokc ol ~row1n~ up !!•V. lc.immg from bctcroscxual pomography rhat to
\,., l""cJ b) ,, m•n mc•nt to ot.cpt hu Vtt>lcncc. nnJ u • re-ul1 •cccpunp
thc <k•tnt<llVC hn111l11v of h" lmt m.Jc lovcr AMther >Otlll~ man spokc
of h1> •trtt1·~1r 10 rc¡t(I thc thrill oí scxu•I dommJncc he leamed from
romogr•phv anJ 1n fínd u way of lo,1n¡¡ a woman that -.'llS not pan of it
A yuun¡r wom.m <roke oí her father usm¡: pomo¡\raph)· on her morher
and. to s1l.:nce her protci.t ·~•mst her mother's >Crcatns, threinerung to
enact lhc >ccncs on thc d.iu¡th1cr ti she told anyonc:. Another \'Oung womao
•poke ol lhe C><"ul•un~ use of pornt>gr•phy m her mart1age, unu,,.elrng her
•df rcsrcc1 •nJ bdid In her futurc, dcmoying •ny possib1li1; of inumacy.
'1<1li11np her rh>·,icl!I 1111r¡¡r11y Shc >r<'kc of finwng the strength to Jegve.
Anothcr >"'""P "on10n •J><•kc of b..in¡t ~an~-r.1rcJ by humers who loC>kcd
Up fmm their p<>n>f>¡lr>phy Jl her •nJ <;1,id. "Therc's O IÍ\'C <'OC• formet
rro<lllUtC• <¡><>ke <>f bcrng made 10 WlltCh [>Oml'~raph\· anJ thoi dupliCJlC
rhe 8CI> cxactly, u'uall> >tJ.rttn~ •s duldrcn. M:my spoke of the sdf-
ttVubton, thc "'"'"n c>I mumacy. tbc unbcarable mJwuty. thc sluttcred
,.,u, thc ,¡.,.,,.,, anJ .¡...., thc on¡:cr and ·~W. 1.11d outug,c and dcs¡wr
at lt\tn~ 1n • roun1n u.he-re thc1r 1t1nurc- '' m10rcd and tht."lt scteam¡. ~~
h<"•rJ onh •• tl>e "1¡><.-nh· nf thnr ahuseR Thl') •rokr of, and oot <'Í
1he .,1,..,.-e 1ha1 pomo¡trarhy h•,I m>posal on 1hcm
Thcrapiu1 tt'ld of b•ttcrcd ""mm Ut.J m lront c>Í Tidco sets and forced
IO \Ulch, th<11 1'Ar11C'll'AtC tn , act.\ ol <CllUal brutalirr J>sv~ w00
 Porno1raohy'1 E11011e • 111
workcJ "'th >wvhor> ol tlK<'>I •P<>kc <>I thc r<•lc of ¡x1mo¡tr.1phy 1n ><!xwal
ronurcs mvolvmtt ''" "11h Joi;s •nJ elc'<:tn• •hu.el> Ono •tutly Jpcu
m<'.lltc.J more ra¡x-. mwh1,h pomo~niph) wa• 'l''"'""lly 1mplt.-1cJ than
thc 101.il numl><r <>I r~I''"' rcportr.1 •t thc tune in the rnv "·hm: thc •tuJy
u•¡¡..; Jone Anochcr ~tUJ) c.hn\.\.\."ll c<lrrclau~~n,. 1n in .. rt"J5t.·:!f1 in thc rate of
repomd rnf"' "11h increJIC' in • m<'ll•urc ot e<>n<umpu<>n hgures of m.IJ<>r
men'< cntertalllment rNRJ71nes LJoon1m" opcnmcnt> "1oue.I tbat por·
n0j?l'llph1 that ponn11• scxu.d •¡¡¡ere"'°" a. pk..,.ur•blc for the \1Com l.,,
"'mu.:h pomOl!TJphy J,cJ Ulcre•scs thc ••<"<:plan<" of thc u:.c ot éUCtClon
10 .aual rcUttQDS. th•I J«ept.um: <>I CUCT<l\c sexu.!111 •rrc•<> rd•icJ to
k"Xual a~m..;;.100. .and th.u C!\ptl<JUfC to \ 1olcnt Jlllmn~naph" 1ncre.1~
men'< pun1<h1n~ bchJ11Clr tnYJrJ """>ni 111 thc lahoral<>C) "Po>m<>j!TJ¡>hy
~ thc pcrttrt1on1 nf mm v;ho are not prcJi1posc<I to =ual llg·
¡:re-•inn that "ornen ...mt r>f"' and are Mt m1urcJ h) rape lt mcrea<cs
thcir ,;~· that women .irc ,.·onhJc<,. tn'1al. nnnhuman, obiecthke. ~
u~ual 10 mcn
The tesumom, taken .. • wholc, mealcJ that tb.: more pomoj!raphy
men sce. tbe m~re abu¡11c anJ 1k>len1 1h~ '""' 1110 b..~ tbc more Ghus11c
and \'IOlcnt 11 b«omc•o. thc mm.- thcy cn1oy 11 ,,n,J 1hc mt•rc arou><..J thcy
gt1, thc more obt"we •nJ v11>lcn1 th<"v lx..:01nc, anJ the le:.. harm they sce
in wha1 thC) are S<~in¡¡ or J..1in~ Men nhcn 1lunk 1hn1 1hcy use pomo!'
raph) but Jo no! do these thin~ The t'l1dencc •hl'I>'• 1ha1 they are poor
autborities on 1his •uh100. The u.e of J>Om<>~raphy makes 11 impossible
for thern m tell when sex is fom:d. 1hat womco ore hum11n, and 1ha1 rape
is rape. Pomogruphv make. men h~ufc ,inJ aj!J,\<C>S11c 1owMJ women,
and 11 makes "·ornen ~1lent.
In il11S light. pomo¡:rn¡ihy. thruu¡th 11s pruJucuon, is 11 traíftc in fcmnlc
scxuol sl.wcry. TI11 nul!i> 11s wn•urn1111on. pornoµru11hy funhcr in$titution
.alit~ u 1ubhum¡1n v1c111ni7t."\.I iiLOIU~ for womm hy con<li11t')nin~ men"s
or¡tll~m 10 se> incq11.1ltty Whcn mm ll<C J>Om<>~ruphy, thcv CXf)Crience In
thcir bodies. nOf JUSI m thcir mmJs, 1ha1 onc·"dcJ scx-sex be1ween a
persoo (tbem) and n thm, {111-1s '<'X. that >cxu;il u,e 1! sex, sexual abuse
1s sex. sexual Jommauon 1s "'" lñ1> 1> t.hc ,cxu;il1cy tbey chen Jem.nJ,
pracucc. purch.ue, ""J ~ve out tn thctr e1c,,.J.11 >OCl;i) rtlJuoo• w1tb
otbcn. Pornogr•phy ...orlu hy mJkl.llg ocxtsm ""'}, \, • pnm.! <"Xpcneocc
of genJcr hlcrar<h•, pornc•gra~>hv 1$ • mJfCl1 v. J) thJt •c11•m 1> m10ycJ onJ
pr.1cuceJ ., wcU u lcamcJ Throu~h th~ ..... ,,¡ pt>m<>f:<•ph" r<"'·..-r ,nJ
pov•crJrt,nc:s> are upcrtcneeJ ,,. ICX The 1nc.1ualtl) het"'ttn wt>mnl
anJ men t< "'hit L\ !C~\ Jbo111 pom"!lroph~ e--e" <0e1.! on~¡ualitV U·
plouo:d to ho¡¡hten thc plca•ure, thc more uncqual th., ..ener.
118 • Struules '"'~1n S11tt1
On 1hc hrni t•I th" cviJonu: JnJ dn,1Jy,..,, ícm1n1S1 wnter AnJrca
O..mkin .111J l J,.,.1~11«1 • l•w 1h;i define! l"'""'~r•phy u• prK-ucc of
"IC'.°< J1.,(ttn11n.1tu•n \\'e:! J.th11t·d n as "hJ1 H a, tn tcrtN of what ¡, thcre
JnJ "h•t h.it 10 l><· thcre for 11 10 "'''" 1t••ph1c m0t<ri1h thJt <uborJioaie
women 1hrou1th <e1uJll) oplit11 p1<1u'" .md w<>rds." :-.!01 "offensive Je.
p1<:uon' • or "1nJccm1• rcpl'<"$C:ntJc1<>n' tn ol>Kenirv's moralil)· ot tbe nghc.
or \loknt p1c1ure' 1n thc moralll\ ol 1h" lctt. but .m acrual pnicuce o!
•ub<mlmAllOC\ 00 thc D.t.<l> ol "'" f l\C pracnca MC dCtlOlllble: coemon
1nto f"•mogr.phy, lor<llljl pom<>¡Z<•ph) ''" a pcnon, ._,..uh Jue to >pcalh:
pomogr.rhy. c.kt•m.it••r> 1hrou¡;h pc>mo¡;rorb), .anJ 1roifidun~ •n pomog
raph)
\\'e Jo noc d.11m tlut M hum.' th•t h.lppcn 1hrou.:h J"'m('l!raph• e-.-er
happen •11hou1 11 Wc .ay th•t ~<1~ 11 is bceaUtC of pomo¡:nphy
tb11 thc) happen. anJ v.·hm th") do. """1ethtnl! <hould be able to be clone
about tt \\'e Jo not cla1m 1ha1 1hesc act< are the onh- tbings tbat bappeo
bccau.e ot pomo~raphy. \\'e'ª' 1ha1 no m•uer v.bac dse bappens. tbese
Jo. \\'e also thmk 1ha1 nnc ol thc rea-..•n> eXJ.>tlDg UIV> a~aúm tbese acts
aro '°
111ctfe<111al ts th.i pomogr.1ph) ,. p.:rmmrd 10 cxlSI, .ocung as an
cÍÍ<'<'ll\cl) f'C1llc<t<.J "'XII.al anJ hn•ooaJ 1n<COti1c lo pcrfonn them. In this
\'iC'll1, J'l('mn~n&ph\ IS nnt ti rr<.Jittlon {lí lll~t;ant rcrla\ Or rcprcscnt.ition
of •emnJ da» c1111cn•h1r ,1ctccl 0111 ci,.,,..h.,re. hut an acti\'C, llllCJlral pan
ol the hC."re-and-nnw CXf>"nmcc .,f 'Ce<>ncl da-s atizen<hip for womcn. As
llll excepuonallv pntcnt anJ ,..,Jc<prea<l l'th1dc lor thc <exualizat:km of
tne<jtulm. p<lmo¡traphv pla)' a ma1or rolc-Jorcct anJ subdc-in esca·
Lumg Jbw.e anJ Ji.cnmm•11on bi• mcn U~Juht womcn arouod the world
h 1iobtt'> human n¡¡lm.
Unltkc the obs<enny ap¡•ron<h, the 1m1iporno~raphy civil n¡;bts law
w<'ulcl work Unlikc obiiccnh>· lol''. 11 is ci11I, ncu criminal. I• pu1s cnforcc·
rncni Juthonty in thc h.inds of vicums. om thc s1ate empoweriog vicrims .
no• thc \IJte. \YJc know how "-ell ,tate a111honrics proicct women 11nd
chilJren through cnm10.1I fow from 1he1r d1mml record oo baneno11. rape.
sexu.d abuse ol chilJren, anJ prosmunon. Unlíkc obsctmrv law. 1t ,.-ouJd
oot crrulc llll unJcrgrounJ h bnn~ thc pomo¡;raphy mto the light ol day.
bL..:Jux tbcre •• no pla<"C whcrc pom<>j:raphi º'""
th3l u J..,.,. not mak~
\lctuns L'nhkc <•bs<cru11 wv. , tln• aflf•rua<h Joo not makc pomograph)
more •11t•lll1c thr<><1Kh proh1l>111un Makin11 pomograph) actiorablr '1S •
form ot le'.'( .J1'tr1m1n.1unn und1.·muno rother lhan hc-1~htcns in. attractn-r:~
ncu h1 c.kftoong u; prod<U·<n a ptmf'I anJ •t•
con•ume,.. as ""' ~
For ~ rcu'<lO' 11 15 pr<>pe'rl) a mil n¡:ht• bw, meamn~ a la...- thin
cmJ'<"'er< mcmbe,.. ol sociallv 'ubotd1na1cd group• to acr throu¡:h Ja..· for
Po110111phr'S Empore • 119
tbeir equal11y Ul avtl ,tx1<~t1 l ur t.h1• m """rk. thc b" roust be avtl ratber
th•n crururt.U. 11 Dlll>I Jchnc f'<>m<>¡tr•ph)°> h•m1> u> thc pomol'raph) in·
Jw.tr) íoflk1> thtm 111 re.lit) , 11 mull r<u>gn11c 1ha1 pom<>jlraph} is ''"
.hJdlMl.llJllUn 1nJ 11 muu •JJros thc m•tcrul• JnJ thc tr-Jffu: ll'dl ""
... di •• thc onJiv1Ju.t hArm>
Smct thc <1111 n¡;h" approach 10 porno¡traphv ''"' croteJ. e.el') official
c<>mmL>.•ton oo l"'mo¡:raph1-10 thc Unur.J '-u10. Can,1da, and :-;.,,..
Znlancl" •pec1hcallv-hJ, rcc<>mmcndcJ 11, con<1Jer•uon or adopnon m
~ fonn lt 1... uli"' 10 thc """"' ol 1bc pom02raphers and tbe Pº"'""
~ ol porn<1jtraph1'11cum> that no countl') h.1> •et C\<n muoJuu,d
tbe 1.a.. on • tc..kr.! '"' d 11lé 1..... h... bL'Crl r.wcJ ""'-cr:d tomo 10 t.he
Uru1cJ !>111<1" but be.:au~ ,,¡ thc k~I mtrne1111on c.( tbc pomographcn'
fro<m . .i h•' n<'lt )ct lxcn pcnn111cJ 10 go 1nto cffcct In 1hc coouolhng
CllSC, ali thc ha""' that Jl<nno¡:rtph¡ J,,..,. ,...re conceded bu1 1he coun
meaurcd tbc 1·al11e <>Í thc material~. hcncc thcu ron<urunooal pro<e(TI<>n
as speech. b1 their ettm11't'Oes> 1n clc>1n' tho<e harrns " These results are
001 lq,:alh tina! m thc <en<c that tbc U.\ ~uprcmc Coun could Y"' línd a
avtl nght.> urdma.n<e "" pomo~'"ph' consuruoonal 1ll a propa c•Sc.
~leaoume the JbU>C continuo •> tht •nu.aLt> ot l.1.sc1sm. c1>loru.Jilln ra-
'"'m, cxourn.m, onJ con4ucs1 " trathckcJ 10 the 11,,.JJ b) thc imperw
pomo~r•phcr. •• the scxual11) ,,¡ hJ,.rou<>n •nJ <"<111.iln)
\\"om•n "' m.1ny wuntncs m.• workmN 10 1n1mducc this Ja,.•. adaprcd
10 tbe1r •rcdfic conc:-ern• nnJ le¡¡•I f) &•cm•. Thc re<iswice 10 acrin~ a¡¡•inst
pomo~raphy ruo¡¡e< from dmial th•t pom<>j!raphv si¡mi6camlv nffects
women s hves 10 eb·aun~ 1ts value ovcr women's value Counmes when:
ceosorship os mo~1 dtecnve are olten thc mos1 complaceni because toJ\lllc.>
.re most h1dJcn from vicw, but thc complnteo«y swce¡makes pomog·
rJphy'> has m•ny tt:'mcnJcr~ Our cxf>eticncc imcm.mt'n.Uy i> thut tbc
t1vil nl)ht\ •'l'Jll'l>Jch m t>om1>~r.1ph) ~·h·,1n11t.. womcn "'"''~ cultures. h
1dl• thc 1ruth ami ¡>lit< • 10<11 in ,..,,m,•n\ h.mJ., offering, on .\ndrea
O..·orkin'• ""'"'' wh.11 thc porn<'llr•phcr• h.110 1aken oway· "hope rooted
l.ll real pCK>1b1l11:,- ••

13
Sex Equalicy Under che
Constitution of India
Problcms, Prospccts,
and "Personal Laws"
The trnditional le¡;¡ul approach 10 equality rhat comes from the \'\'est is
p1tdominantly used worldwide. A promisin11 alrernative that is gainin~ rec-
o¡miúon can be found already implicit in the best of the lnclian constitu-
úonal equality tradicion, as well as m sorne u·esrero equalny law Tbis
nhcmame ha> r<:Jll potenúal for funbering womeo'ssocial eqwtlity duough
low, mcluJmg for rcsolvmg the diflicuh pohucal and legal quesuons pre-
seoted by lndiú fomily lnw tcrmed "perrona! lows."
1 J1fficuli, Cl-'('ll ugonimng, for this cqualky thcory (.tnd produces d1ver>11y,
The meaninJI of equahty in law nearly everywhere dcs=d.~ in a direa line
from ~ñstotle's dic:rum that equality meaos treating alíkes ahk.,, unolikes
unahke, As de\•eloped througb the Enligh1enmen1, this contépUon rc-
volves around sameness and difference. When pcople are seen to be: re!·
evúntly the samc bUt ate not treated che same, thcir trestn1eo1 is cons1der"d
unreasonoble and >rbitrury and is prohibired by luw as unequal undtr the
"likes alike- impttutivc. \'t'hen thcy are sern as different, they ean be
created differently-unlikes unalike: rhnt 100 is considered 10 be equulity.
This standard, renned formal equality. is trnduion~lly rell"rded as faír
ol>jective, and neurral as well áS socially pro¡rressi'"· tt is in u sense ero·
(n 1t't: oriJtn.tl form. du~ t.tl w., dc:Lv1:tc1-I to 11w Sec-orkl ~ Golkcu'"c U'(llntn'• 'Rl,hit:
l.ruwuiw Colloquium on Josa~ tor \\omcn-• E.m~'tcmmt Th~h L11r'1·_ Guidu jUSQCe aod
PC'hUU.t.I l..n.·~ A Con.stuuuunal Pi:rtpc:etr.:C. · Ncw ~lh1 Dctttubcr J.._lb 2001. 1n 11n éll.t:ÚcJ
ftwtn, '\lo•" J>uhli,h,rd •• ª"' ('~V h ¡~ •IM> rut-.tuhrd iD úJ11Jr1 ,..,. ,,,.J '""' Prt.pk •lnchr1
1r
.I~ cd ;-./ew l')dbi· \t'cmm Unhmítai. .2'005) md -also ..J l111crnM10.fllll 1owmM o/ Cor:p.triUlt~
LA.· t l.CON' 20llb. Jth...nl lnJn J1tMng tur bcr f.'.1Jl1rgt.11Jn,_ .ind sup;pcM"L Jid:pful commou' .ad
índtlh •J!.Wilil,11« '&'CU' p1-ou.!t'd h~· Ll•ll c.rJ,·n, ftt;t.cat NC'u•1r11\. '\hirlu Kecm Chotn Ot11nJ11,
iand s•.11 i \lcht.
120
Ser Equahty Under the Conshtu11on or lndi1 • 121
puical· law is 10 reilcet realicy. The problem 11 seeks ro <ol'-e is misclass1-
6ca1ion. Peopl• "ithtn a classilication are 10 be the same <lS one another;
peoplc ui dillerent classilications are to be drlferent from onc mother
Equahty conruts tn treating the ume peoplc \\'ho ar~ accuwcly cl•~>ilicJ
as stmJnr difft:rently pcople who urc: accur•lely daS>1ficJ as diffcrent In
rnany quartcrs, 1his lo¡¡ic p;u.o;cs for rntionubcy •mi common sense
Without havin¡¡ bcen ¡¡i\-en much crirical thought on the l""el of fi rst
principies, this equalicy model has been explicidy or tacitly accepted as che
ol>vious comenr of equaliry in mosr jurisd1crions lha1 have legal cr¡uality
guaraotees. lt predominares under intemattonal law and Europcan Unioo
1iw, guides the imerpremion oí the United Siates Equal Protcction
Clause,1 and has pnnianly defined the Suprcmc Court of lndia's appltca·
tion oí Anide 1~ of die Consmuuon. ll$ se= m thc fourtduuonal Roy•pfh1
and DtÚnu.I cases.• Ccnainly, this moinsrream equalitJ thcor¡ can be useful
for addrcssin¡¡ sorne inequaliry problems, prominently inducling 1hosc •Í·
OictinR elite indi,-iduals, as well ª'" some members (of1en the least mjured!
of subordinared groups: rr may. with crearivicy. be helpfuUv deploycd in
the hands of thos.: already comminecl to produdn¡¡ social equality throu¡\b
legal equabry. Aflirmam-e actioo, wh1ch m:ats unltkes alikc on the l>am oí
thetr unalikeness. is entirely unAris101el1an. For this reason, 11 has been
• whoUy unAristotdrnn good}.' The subordinate status of women rcbtive
10 mcn is noi promincnt among the inequality problem< thc Aris101clian
model hns soh•ed. The questions are wh¡· and what 10 do abou1 it.
This framel'•ock. when creured. was not predicated on an undcrst>tnclia¡¡
rhst women are men's equals kept pervasively unequal by social ordenngs.
Conlinmg women to the home, excluding them from voung and public of-
6ce, predudtng them from gamlul employmrot, rapmg lllld prosdtuúng
thmi-thos.e wcrc not -'<'cn as mcqualities. Bluntly pul, women '> tat:qualiry
10 men WllS not > problcm that western cquahty thmking """ credted 10
soJ,-c, betiluSC it did not see women as men's fí.JI humon equals. T<> tclescopc
a long >toty, it imagined them as differem. which rranslated into inferior
when measured by the mcitly male standard for the human. Womcn were
thou¡¡ht. by ha bit of mind , to be not fully human b¡ vinm: oi their sex. Ooe
paradox tli1s has gC!neratcd IS that bt:twecn thc imagc of women being placed
on a spccial pcdc>tal or espedally protected fot thcir dtfferences u·heo, in
re.ility, they are u1ddy violaced, e.xplo11ed, and murdered \\1th -.idespreod
1mpunuy ID connecuoo with tbc same sottings and J11nbu1cs. Thc re.uh has
bcen thc rntionnlizouon of •y>tcm.uic 8ndal 1nfcriorit1• by 1erming it diífer-
cnce, l'Cndcring moSl scx-b~scd subor<linaúon no1 ~n inequality problem a1
122 Strunl•s w1tb1n Sl11es
aU. Tht- fac1 1ha1 eqwilir¡•. as ongmall1• concel\·ed m the W<:St, "as n<.-vtr de-
signa! 10 alter women's petVastvcl¡• Jnfeoot socul 11r1d le~.J status 10 men
¡¡ocs a long w.t)· 1ow.uJ esplainmg wh) it h•s not done so.
UnJcrstJnJmg that thc mo>1 wiJcsprc•Ú J.Odal inequ.Wucs oí wumcn to
1ncn hu\'C l-.ccn imagined ol:t '1r'Om~n '$ \1iffcrcnc~ frc.1n1 mm, hcncc not inc·
<¡u.1ltt1c•. hdps cxpl.un why equ•liry l•w hos trnditionolly not bccn used to
•ddress vmlcncc a~ainst womcn. one oí the most commonly occurnn¡¡ e•·
amples o( unequal tttatmcnt based on sex. Rape and banenng. it <;L'ems,
have 1>tc1tly been re~árdéd a.. a fcarure of thc sex differenc<:. Lookmg across
cultures. we do sec womea abused, exploitcd, 11nd violated m a range oí
prJcuc.:s iliat ha"e mcludcd rape, Jomouc \'tolence. prosutution. and
>t:.xulll harasi.mem in thcir culturnlly 'P"cilic forros, with <:qu.ilit} law th"ro
standmg on thC' siddincs. Most cultures .,mply 'CC thcse pn1cuces as inevi·
table or criminal but not ª' unequal in the legal sense. Practioo; seen TO •t
tach 10 differences do not ~Í\'e nse to doims for unequal treatmem because
the sexes '"e seen as diffetem rother chao unequallv trellted in those respects.
Unlikes are, in Aristode's cenns. simply bein~ rreaied unalike.' So, lntle to
nothmg is doneabou1 such practices, cenainly na< by equalny law.
l:lemg dofincd lb rJúfercn~-sex "' generaUy soc.lally seen as "the se~ dif-
ferenc.:" -thu~ can. undcr thc: tradttional eq11al11y modcl, result in l>r:ing
1remcd wotS<: or us Jos; without that being re¡iM<led os uncqual treatmcnt.
Far ins1ancc, u·hen women pcrform diffcren1 work from men, 11s most
\\'ornen ID 1hc u~>rld do, 1hcy may be p•id less for it. •nd thar is nc:>t secn as a
rroblem o( inequaliry because che v.·ork is diffcrcnt work This often rcm:úns
rhe case even if the work is of comparable valuc.• Disadvamagesarear1ached
to pregnancy because pregnancy is a dilicrence berween women aod men.
w1th the result that dtsadvamageoU> rreatrnem ot the actually or potenoally
pic!lJLlnt is d•»ically 001 ;een ¡\; sex incqUJ.Üt). \Xlben subordination traoo
lioes o( !o<'lcUU)' recognlzeJ di(fcrencc. and it u>uaUy doo. womcn cJn be
subordinutcd 10 men c:ons1>1cn1 with cqualtty rulos bccouse the t.reatmcnt is
><:o:n .ts IXJLial trea1mem for equal differcnces. Never mind thnt ">0.11subor-
<lm.cuon i1sdf Cdfl ere.tenor onlr difieren ces, su ch ;15 I& arces< to iob qual·
i6cation< among cxdudL-d 11roups and 1hc view that pre¡rnancy is a jnb dis·
qualüicaoon when it is not, but can al so e reate 1he perception "f diffe1tnces,
induJmg sccreorypmg and intemalizd oppress1on. Bec-Jusc unlikes can be
treateJ unahkc. indudlng wont:, dominatlnn .mJ subordmation-wlucli
forro " luer•rchy-L-an ond do CO<!.'Cbt w1tb scx cquallly rult:> arounc.1 th<
U<irld, 1111h male dominance ;1oc.I fcm.tle suborJinadon senmlt.,,.1) bctng
m•im .. incd undcr lcg•l e<¡ttaltty reg1mes.
ln the main~trt'.am <.-qualit\' th('On·. d1srnmin.Ulon i~ trcannJ.l sorneone \\·ho
has 1he <;Jrnc unk. status. Qr qulllicies as if chcy wcre not tfre samc as othcrs
 Su hualoly Undtr lht Ct•st•lutia• ol lod1t • 123
c-1 tba1 ¡.\roup. Bu1 11 'omt-'Ofle" not alrcac.h C1i that ~r-<>up. 1hev lite not relc-
' amh thc -.1111e "' 01h<r' in u •nd <•n be tr1:•1cJ le»" di. ami that IS not seen
a) unrG.t..!i.onable or .ubJtr.iry lt 1-, fU'l tre111n~ tht"m •" \\h{1 thc.-v are GJ\'t"l1
th.;U llt.Ot:Jalh 1m1~c..J 1nfc-r1onty ha re.il <dllK'~U\.'tK~.,, or lt \\"tlUIJ he h.arm
lns. h.,.. orhnra" u ti, ul11mi1d1 10 in •t ••-'mcone \\ho h.. bccn dc-J'"'cJ
.,f a!ucanonal •.h anu~' a 1<~• C<luctt"f t Th1t <t¡u.W11· ap¡m,.ch thus c.1n
m•r """" nnto n1•11n~ t«>ct•I h1crnrd11es, rauÍ)1n¡¡ rathc:r tlun challen1Z1l\I!
thnn In tbts L~ht, 11 mak~ J'<"rle<.1 ....nse 11u1 h>nn•I eqll2hl) rould t11Snl)·
racial ~.won as ti did unJ.:r thc LquJl Protecuon <.1tu'< m 1he Um1ed
~uies lt Jr....- hn.:. ol Jurcrenc.-e \\hcn:: '<1'1etv drc" than AD "bo """'
raci.illy ahkev.crc trc-•tcd alikc-1n ><:par•rc: wh..v c•n. 'lt abo rn.ikti "4:JUc
thar thc pol100 ut Gcnn•nr" ThirJ Re,h wuld be and \\-erC' k¡;.tll) IU'ubcJ
.., cqu.J ·~un ,-\l)ans """ tn:;ttcJ d1lícrcnilv lrom •,\eyans" by hnn¡; n
1.:nnina1cd. Whm r••--i1<e> ..e '""Jwliry ..... 0()(1.J Ulutolo¡;>e>, thC) can""
•<
nuilied cqaal v.-ith no lo¡:u:al dd't,1 Altho11~h thc.c- mlmfZ' h"·e bttn rc-
pudiarcd. the loi:>e mat pr00uc-N ih..m h.i• not bttn
So racber man betn¡t • mean< ol enJ1n¡¡ h1cruduc."21 •rrJO.:emcnr. hased
on group r.mk. torm.il cquJhtv cm be • "•y m mJlllt.wt oocqu.J •Lllm
lnJceJ, ns ouc,;c» con be 1nc:00>Mcnt \\llh •11b.1i1t1m1' cqu.altt}, "hidi
ma~ rc:qu1"' wc:ul c:h.1n¡lc [¡, mcth1...Jol<l¡t) ol .t>c.cn•uun¡; rc.u.>n•blcnc-..
tn cuq:onuuun 1; ro rdle<t rc.J11~ '" 11 11. 11 a pcrwn hil! m.uugcJ to
CSC!pe 1h<ir Rroup'• h1cr•r<h1<nll> 1mp'""J •t.uus or tn•n•~c' to ·•rrcar
equ:il in spiie ol s<><i•I U"i~nmL-nl J< 1n unL'<.IU•I, 1he mocld work. ÍC'lr
them Bur it is not des1~ned 10 work ior rhosc who have not cscapcd 1bc1r
starus. wluch by debnmon most mcmhcr< ot soc1allv subórdmawd ¡troups
will n0< have. 11 w1ll thu, bcc:ome l'CJ«>n,1blc, nm .1rllltrllf), t<> rdlcc1 1he<r
cx1Sdn11 su11u;-1hm ts. thc unc411al •tlllll> <1Uc>--m law l:quillny bccomo
J nght thJL ili<»e \\ ho nt'al u mo•I urc lca>t wdl \llUJtcJ to d.um and
th<»C who n,..,J 11 le.1't .lle nl<l>l >UCC:l->•fuJly ('O•llioncJ 10 .!>>en
Pwple who tre alrea<h cqu,11 tn 01 h,·r "''"'''· can m''" 1.-ad1lv ddlm
miu~ when ireued •1S th<•u~h 1~l are nm cqu•I This " mll to •.1y 1ha1
pec>ple who lack qualificanon< or nicriis ,ho,JJ he 1rcarcd as thouRh the-.
ha\'e them lt l< IO a<k u-hen IS the c.'qllJIUV J'Uidl~ itotng 10 di,,nwnle
lar~ ¡rroup-b3!icd mcqualme>' \\ hc:re tloe< tlm mo..kl ká>e tbe scructur-
¡¡JJ, UDe<¡ual for our purp<»c:> hcrc oo thc bll>I• t>f i<'X' Tbc roult ol tbe
cXJ>ung cqu.aluy th ..·or¡ > log1C.tl appl1L11t100 lw beco il>•t thc,, dc..TC>l •nd
mos1 -..1dcsplt'Jd tn<'qu•lmcs, mdudmg thtl$C OÍ r.cx. 1ht1K' l1"'QU•l1t1L'S th•t
mtbct thc ¡!tGllnt d.inu¡:c •nd ¡,.,.., h.-.:omc the mir>l 110CUlh mstuutJ<•n
.ilird mdu.!ang thok '1rn:<>1ypcs th•1 h"c b.-.,:omc rC'Jl anJ 1ho-e or
pmsions thar h"e hc.-..--o""' m1cm.J11..-d .is "di "' cul1ur.1l •n: •ddrcs<cd
ka<t. Bec.o<e "' docmn,.. '' <trum1red to iÍltnn ...mene.' •• • 'lutq;y for
Strunto w11n1n S1at1s
promoun¡¡ l'\jll.Üll\ l he h1¡;hcr up thc "nen <>I >UUltny ooe es.:enJs under
thc U S &¡ua.I l't<'IL"<ltcltl ( !Ju•c, thus "~n.al111- ¡:rca1cr .oncem for m-
O<jUJluy th.- ¡;rtJltr thl rc.!111 of .. ..._1.1J tn<-.¡u•ht1 one t~no"'•· The ob-
sc""'"'" h1 '"""'" .\1ukh11111 m l'l~J 1hJt "[t ht erare h>r \rntrican pn:c
ed.-n1' OUI snon l'<'t:omc a •nuc"" •1•rlie< \\tth to= hen:
TI><- pnmt " noc 1h•1 11 " lmJ"'l'<tble \\1th m~enuJ[\' aod hene-.-okn1
dc1cnninanon ond sman la\\·yenna, 10 make th" model worl< for sorne
cqual cnd> oo thc mor~m.. Thc poin1 " that 1h...e uc ruargínal, mJ 11 is
JUSI ..,, po<"hlc 11 not mo"' ;o ro ""' th» th<-on 10 crnn:ndi nisuog soóal
1n.:qu.ili11<''- e>pcdalh "hcre ,i.., ,,.,"" md will 10 produce cquaht} are
l•clung. 11 an cqu.Wl\ dtl<tnnc can ~" c1tbcr ,..._, dcpcndin¡t on cxlrill>lc
inpull, " 11 rc•ll) JO cquJllly Jcxtr1ne? lf 11 JcpcnJs on ¡:o<>Jwill aod
pol111<•l u>mmumml to W<>rk, 1ts ..-cubr t<-nd<-nt') \\1U be to f..J cnctly
for r~ peopl.- •nJ at thosc 111n.-, whm egabwun spint is ladtin¡¡, ..-hich
ts i= wheo 11 i< nec.kd mo<t And that, m fact_ ¡,, wh.u has •l}:Uabl)'
happencd Scx cqwl1ry IJ11 "'~1,1 ncirly cw"-whcn:, <1J1d sex a¡uahty c:.xl>l5
vtnuall) no\\hcre.
u mant ¡troup.-. uhcn prc..,d, ~Jll'C ,,, thcir tncqualit) r ormal ~uJlit}
Gni\\·an~ 11ndcrncJth, thmu~h<'lll, ond n ·xi ltl 1hi, d<>mmant mndd has
bttn •nmhcr qui1~ 1lu1int1 cqu~lity th<'Ory or1¡:1n.11cd by peoples subor
dinaccd on thc b"'" "' r;1ce and <ex, íln 11hernativc rona:ption th~t has
anunate<l sorne lc¡:al work "~ª'"'' raci>m in thc Unucd States and a¡rninst
violence a¡¡a1ns1 wunicn \\Orldw1dc. lt 1.tk<.,. 1ht po.iuon 1hat mequaliiy is
001 pred1cn1ed on sJnicncss 01· viUJtcJ by ilitfcrcncc but is o procuce of
soc1.1I subot<ltnn1inn, of •ccond-cl~" srn1us, ol r~nking os mfnior. of his-
l<'<ICW hierorch) In 11> v1cw, tite OJ>JK"Jtc of ct¡u.ilit) i• n<>I dtffttt11cr but
hicrurdiv E•1u•l111 1hu• rc<1u1r<-. J'lomoun¡; cqu.iliiy of sutus for histori-
<ally •uhordanamf ¡;rnur•. <li'ltlontlin~ ~rnup hicrnrch~ The Suprcmc
C..oun C'IÍ CanoJ.1. -ccm¡¡ that l ~ Arí>totcli.m par.1d1¡¡m ~· opplicd 11·ould
not dfeéuvdy pnxfucc ;ocia! cquahty an a d1ver<e •ociecy. embraccd this
altematl\c ronicxtuJI nnnon ª' "' ,LlncJ.rd lor measunn¡¡ 1he constnu-
tiooal equabry <>l lqi1'IJU<>n.u '!111> •ltcrrutll\c 1> mlluamng the ¡unspru-
dcncc ol Si.>uth Afn<• • Con.,utuu<>n.U (A>un md mcn:"'11lgly m1mJung
1ntC."mo111on.&I rulan~ 11
S..-xual hn•ssmmt '"", \\ hi<h hni •rttuc-J th.i lx1ng m • mborJma1cJ
kllu.J J>O>il••n "'" noc •se• d1ffcr.-n<<c 1lu1 JU.iificJ "'1!Ual abo<e but ,.-as
rathcr a •iobuon of sn cqualn¡ n~h11 11!11,tr.11a 1his oltcm•m·e model"
'lñat selN.ll haraS>m<"Tll, b1 ~nothcr nam<:, " a common and rulrurally
Str Equahtr Under tht Co••lol•I••• ol lnd1a • 12~
m~r.uncJ ptadllc bc:twcrn nl<:n 1mJ \\<lffi<!ll, .u~·wbh p.1n ol wbJt IS called
thc ><:~ J1lk1cn<c "" ""' allO\\'l.J to oh.cure thc l•a tlut u 1s A praaice
t1I 'ºl,.)rdmat4.: t()\:1ad 11oto1tui hnu.:c: ;1n Jc.:t of un~u..J trc:J.tmmt. lf uomenºs:
1111J nl•-n'• t<xual J11f<im<U nl<'•n 1ha1 m<"Tl """ Jau.tll\ bar.i.-. \\omcn-
m thc •i.n<l•rd modd's 1cnn<, ttt•t thml ddtc-rcnrl> ;h_,n th<)· Jn mcn
"-"'u.tll) bcca11S<.• "nm•-n •nd mcn are •cxuallv dilkrcn1~i1hc,,r ~xu.J ha-
rasqnern ... nett ~' J1"°1m1n•uon f't • ne11· \1... JM pf cqualirv as needed
One ctn •arce \\1th the carhc:r rouru th•1 <.crwal har.i"mcnr IS not se•
disaurunauon ' or """ that "<Xu.J hal'll».mcnt IS pm:1i.ch ...hat scx d1s-
cnrrunauoa looks lilic: and un~n<: • lléU C<¡u.ilil) moJd: n<.-1rhcr pn:tru>e<I
oo samcnc:u n<>r n<:g"J1<.J by dittrrcnce. nc:1thcr pwu.hing dúfctcn<c nor
pmJe¡:m~ urnencu. hut uri;ctmlll t<><1.al h!<'ruchv by mJlun~ mili) ac-
1101ubk as k'X cln<nmm.uaon • rr••11<C' throu¡¡h "htch memhe..,. of onc
<OCial ~p !uve bttn penn11tcd to trc-at Olhtt< 8' infcnors 16
Thus -..~ the Gord1.m knot cut th•1 ochcnr.-i<c ('rc\-cnr. cquaht\' la...-
lrom remedym~ "1bordina11on lt d1J. anJ dce, th1> b, coolronan¡¡ di-
n:ctl- the problem th•t mcrnhcn. "I ><>cwh suborduwe<l ¡:rou¡» olten an:
1101 -.1m1J,uh s11uJ1<:d"-1h.11 b, rhe 5.lllJC-JS m<lllbcrs ol soo.1fü dom-
c.n prcduJc >llh>t.inll\e e<111•ht) h<'<•Utc m 111 <o1kulu.. Jdlettncé-ln·
ClfU-•lm «•n be mc-tn.1) 1mnÍ\ wonc trCJ1mcn1, thu• d1uhling formal
cquali"· lo~1c Ír<lm ,,J.Jrc,stnM '0(1.1! h1crarchy Mmrly bccause it cmpiriNlh
el<ÍSts The staru• quo Jimibution of c:n1i1lemcnt• Wld rc>0t1rcc< is chus
buik imo 1he tradmon.il west~m cquality anal)~is m wh1ch dominant
¡:roups. who are JUSI JS Jilkn•nt lrom suborJmate<l ~roups as the reverse..
hove not ha<l IO be hkc JO\Onc d'c 10 ¡lCl mJ keep what me) ha\'é. Thc
ahcrnauvc rhwr) cuumtrs thi> dcq• bius b) tM¡1euog dU"<:ttl) anti in sub-
•tuncc thc problcrn ul •\<Lcm1c sixml •uhurJin•tion ol groups tbat hns so
comfon.1hh <"OC'"'"" "11 h 1h< t"'""i'c uf cquali1.- 1he law has ni•de but
Í•ilcJ to delivrr upon for '° lc•n~
To p1u n sli~htl' J1Htrcnily, \\hc:n inc:-.¡ualn) •• '"cialll m5urutionalized.
11 c"'ai"' d"nnmon< betwrt'n pe<>plc that can them<d"es serve as r<'llSOns
thltl trcaung J><-'<>ple wo..e n01 c:10lv "'11 'ppear m be, but \\ill mdeed be.
reason.blc and 1101 arbura"' at .tll \\"ben u-•scrnablene:.s IS esrabhsbed b1
m1rror1ng ..X><:l) .- 11 1s 1ncqwtl11y is '•li<l.icd b' ~n oocqu.il natu. quo.
Thc .ahcm~U\'C' con<c:Jltton bt."Jin' Ul thc -.:c.tnh"Xt . not flf thcw ab'.\lractk'lnS
of urncncu and J1lform«e 1><11 ni a;k1ng "hc:thcr a rnncn:tc, h1<1nnctl
S<>Cial hll'ntrchy c.-x ..u On the •uumrnon 1har no 00<1al group " mfcrior
to any 01htl-, u 111 mm.ben are ' I tem•nC11l1¡ 1hm lound f'l<Ullvuncqwtllv
ranked or rrearcd or s11uat..I, socul 1ncqualny ha< occurred md ln-s and
12• • Struulu "''"" S11i.s
pul" ta anJ 111•<11.c:.' th.i <oltibowe m the ><1<1al 1tic4U<tlil\ ol th..t l'roop
~re ilkg;al
e oum H<' w~ll ,w1cJ 10 •rpJ, 1his •rrn-•,h 1ic-,.,...., u os rr«1.d,
concm<" bistnnc.tl rnlll\ tlut t:t>m<S co cooru thro•1i:h thc fa<t• of n.n
rhat th<'Y are tttlted 10 ad1ud1ca1e. A<lcmg ,. hcthcr a panicular group IS
hi<tc>ncnlh J1,aJvan1a¡¡ed a< the aliemJm e .-on<<"!'llllfl Jo.... " • factual
1n.¡UI<) lh.u bu1ld< hi-toncd conr""t tn. lt re.¡wrcs '"""' to lt>r>k at thc
rcJ.Lty of \(-.:1.al h1crou-'-h~ . nor 3\\.'a~ frum 1L lt a,s ~ubtc\:l ro
m•kcs 1hc rno¡;ntllon ut hbtOm:ol rc.tluy mtu •n ;J¡uJ1cJ.U>c pr111<:1plc,
C\1Jl!flcc It
ra1h"·r thíln oa Ju.rL"pu1.1hle t'mbi.1rr~~n1ent tu pr1nc.:1r1I(' or ;t rco1J1~t .>tratl-gt'
t:<•n\uJ1,,•r&1tH'n for thc: 1r,;ynic.d liugator, Tiu"' llhern.11l\1.: thcury n:t1111rl-.. that
the 1111> ¡>rrnt1ntc c.¡w1lny for subordina1ed ~"'"I" h~ cn.lin11 >UhorJmJ1mg
prJcllcc' th•t pmmote ¡troup-ba..<ed disad••lnt•~e lt J,.,.cr-·c, the name of
•uh~1.1n11w cqualm· because 11 takes sub<unnve 111equ•lll) ;1< 1t< p<>mr of
Jcpanurc anJ rroduces equali~ m substance at ll< po1nt <•f arma!.
m o¡;nm<>n ol \l"C><Tlt'fÚ une.¡tul '°";.,¡ '~"" !>) f'Cl1111tttng lp<'CU( pn>\1st0m
lnJ1• • c.¡u.Jui ¡un'f'ruJcncc h.,. L>t1~ cxh1b11eJ mklmgs of fomul
C<{'l•lu) • ltm1ts undcnmn, mrran'I"""""· JoJ h•cklJ"1 ¡x•tc'flt1al •nJ J.is.
plnrd • "¡;orom knoe 1h.c a more •ub.tanti•< n<>UOO oí equ•lil\ h,u bttn
n,...J..J "' for back as 1963, lustice Rao'< Ja<S<"nt m [...,¡,;.....,,, ~r la-
mou'I" <h•llcn~eJ d.issibauion theory as thc be-ali and enJ-all of
c.¡uality He ¡1r.1speJ thc esseruial po1m: .1> bt-rw~n c<1u.Wi. o.nd ci:ISSl-
buuon, thc 1.úl has bo:én wagging the dog A ••milar f'Crccpuon •mm.a1eJ
lt1c 'cpur.uc o¡,.ntt•n by Juwcc Bbogw•u. jo1ncJ h) .lu>ll<c her. m Ray·
t1rJIJ, "'hcre u "ohwrwJ of the MHJ!lecl 11cw J<>clrinc thJt cqu.Juy lbº•
~hn,1m1<; c.:c1nt·c.:r1t \1tilh OlJ.Jl'-º 1.u.p<."Cts .anJ J1n11...n1i+1on,. .1nJ u c.anoo1 be
'cnhl,.-d, rnhrn<~l uncl cc>nfinrd' within tradirmnal und d•><:tnn•n·c limus.""
Tlx-ir •n11.11!-11r.nnc" <tandard wa' r<'<isnn~ thc \.1me c<¡ualm 1h1nkin~ 1
h .. c 1<k·1111h<d thc tradUJOnal liln11s ol wcstcm equ•lll) thtnlún~ Úl11 have
• cnbbc:J, Cllhtned .and roofincdº c<¡uali1y ¡,,. m lnd!l, tt.¡1.111"~ 1 new
Jcpanurc 10 be true 10 thc o>cncc ol thc pnnctplc ••>J pru..futoe equalir)
m rcalih
On<c 1h<.' potcmi.J .h IW1ll>m inhcn:nt m thc e.¡u.dil\ roncc:rr ,, m-.:..lcJ
m d•un• h) "1bonl11u1rd pcopb as forq;rounJ<.J m 1hc ahcmJtc con
rcrunn, 1 nch tuhJr¡¡nti\<! ~ualit) traJ111on I~ fC\Cllal ht-neuh C'l'U~
<qu.11111 ~1mpruJC1'n' m lndta AJong v.ith thc rrom1nt"nt ca..:> l'n C;L<tC,
J'<'rhar' us m"'' \lsihle oexcmpbrs. 1• <l'me c.l<o on ,.ornen'• ngh1<, by
talun~ thc ><•<tal comext of sex·baseJ <IL<:td• •nt••>\t: clr.irh 1mo Jccount.
Ses Eqoallly Uoder lht Con>lllullt• ot lno11 • 121
lorc..h.Jov. ""J <111b0Jv 1 tUbst4nu•c e.¡wilui •l'P""'h ¡., '<-X lltc ¡u
nspn11ltn.c 11pholJn1¡1 •ex rcsenat1<llh m crnpln1mcm .1,,.,~ 1th ;om.:..
1>}1lllllCl11<..,.I lo..n coun n¡1wí1T rul1ngs 1xm11ttm¡; ,.¡,..¡ u 1om<1tmn
tmncJ d1S<runuut1•1<1 bvor•ble 10 womm anJ 1hc sexual lurmrncnt
ruli°" m \ 11/J..l:i" and Chopri" dmrinit on inrem•uorul Liw, along ...-uh
~ da:a'"'"' oo <"q•ul p•.-• ami romrarable """h" ar.e •11 arunwc:J
by • ,ub.t.tnll•< '"' <'qlW.11\ concepL ~ 'upremc Coun , .... rcc"l!IlUes
1h.t1 pn..mu11un h •n•thcma ro = cqu.Wcy '>omc ot thr :,upri:mc
l~uun·~ rc.-ct·nt pr~r~J\I! Jel."L\.ion~ on rJr< nhibu .. ii.n c"'lu.alit) 8d1)1
balll\ 1hJt •w•U' 1•nh hcm~ tl0<.Lnnully "' l•bdcd
C.ni<1.1lh und lu11J.;mcntJI 10 these deci~ton• lmhú wn,11n11111nJI tc\I
hold< ~reat potcnu"I to amelionne the sub<>r<linJt i"n ot wum<n to mtn A
s1~nal bc,oron <Ompared with =m· \\'CStem equalir\ j\uar•ntccs, the teXJual
lan)!Ull~e ,,¡ Anide 15 CCCOjlIUZes m the strucrure anJ rro"''º"s of t:he
Lon>CUUll<>n ol lnJra u<ell that sex has been rruade m1<.> a ,cxr.il JiuJ, an-
•"l!c l<>r u "mcn, m \10lauon ot rhe cqualiiy pnnc11,lc. \long "'"h C.Aru1J.a's
SC\:uon 11 21, lnJJú Aruck 15(3) <peolic:Jl) oug¡:t'"' 1 -.1b,,11ntnc ra:
"' m:nty thnr •""'!u.lny As • re.uh ~1<1" '" ..nd 1hc hícur.h' oí mcn
m-.:r u umm ar.e IK're ""' \1olarions of .an e.¡u.alit) rule 1ha1 .ire n.- cnhdc-s
pennmrd ll«•u"' ''"h steps prooJO(e equalny. they ore noc occ¡mons
ro an 11111dtscnm1nJt1<>n rule: thet" are noc discnmmanon .u .U Cemunh
one coúlJ not lcgJll) promote women's mequalm b, J.¡,. coo<blent ,.,di
Anide 1' ~u<h a ,ubsldnuve aw•ren.:ss IS l.iclun~ •• ~ b.ist> tor 'J.om.en's
n¡uAltt) n¡:hu in m'"' 01h<r u>unmc:. in rhe world. 1w11,ulorly rn the
\\"t"l. C.r ft.,¡, Juc:s u tukc lcX<wl form. Thc pr1>v"'""' 11( Art1d~ 15 offcr
• 1ul>\llnll\c kn. thn>ugh which ,...,mcn' e.¡11Jl11y ri~ht• <'1111 l><: tcJd.
In lnJin' le~.1! tound.cions anJ cose l•w •re,¡,,,. •tron~h· prdi¡:ureJ a
.,r
ba"' ond • readtnc" l<>r the next • next srep • m rhe cvolu11<•n ¡uJtcial
c<¡ualtt\ 1hmkm¡¡-1his ttme. for v.-Q!l1en Formal equ•hr; rould be, ron-
tmcd to Amele 14 Artidoe 15. through \nicle Ut31 tn r•mcular could
prO\1Jc thc N>I> lor a >ubswiavc equ:ilm d0<1nnc rh..r •l•nJ., :l¡.\óWl.Sl
.fu:idv;mi.~c· thc bía.uch¡ of mm"'"' U'Olllcll ª 'i..-x "ould m<ompsss
i:rnJ.r, 111 c-Juclikc so..bll> J,..,h.,.nugmg fonn ... rJthcr 1han brmg ron
6ncJ to hrol•it:Jl-.1 ICll •,,..)y" or so; • •loncº in thc ruttrount 1cttsc.'
S.lfllC t'U$O not lorrm~rh C<><Ndered ~x c.¡wahry cucs <loc1ruully, such .,
the ,\luthuna r.apc ca...,, m ,.·luch a siirrecn >car olJ tnhal girl >auall,-
~<sauhcJ h) ruo policemen •ta pol1<:r: <tanon •-.1, lound h\ thc Supmne
Coun 001 to hJVe bccn raped, ,..ouJJ be unJcm0<.J as \IOl•t ion> ot con
>U1u11onal ..,, «¡u.1!11v n¡?htJ>. U rhc sa equali1, m >Ub,tan<c •<hi,-.cJ for
1U • 1ttuules ••thl• Sll!es
"omen un.Jc:r "'her >u<-h leg•I Joc:1nrws '"'"" mmbineJ u1th J.,.-c(op
mento m rqU<ll11>· La,. m ><•n:h •'>I an .1.J..qUAtc umh111Jl rall<'nak, •urplnn~
• 1hron t<> llllllch IM •'Won anJ t<xt 1lti1 are alrradv there, the pi\!tt<
u1'UIJ !ali 11110 place..
IV
1nd11 ' 1umpruJcn<c hJ\lng <omc thb for lor "omcn, bcanng such cn<•t
111ou promt~, <'OC m.tJOr e,_,-cpUtll'l litJnc!, t"-ll Clur t.lÍ 'ittp lS thc juJi~ial
rclun tncc ''' appl\ scx cqu•ltt) pnnoplt'< 111 1hc rcr<<•nJI l.1ws. To VOl)1111t
dc1tt'tt'I, rht f>Cr<onal ln\\'I ní ali of India< rdi¡uon< have conrnined facial
11nd •Pt'lieJ scx-base<l Jistincuont 10 W001l'fl's dt<JJ«ama~e. Ye1 in the
tamil\ ltl:<I. thc rourrs often permit thcm l'\ell as the prmisioos are
'ltJincd tsomdltnes 10 the brcakmg pumt) to pr0>1dc ao approxmiauon
''' .tppc.u.u><e of >~ equAltty m ""uh In rhc employmem >dllllg, the
J¡..,, Coun unh,.,.,ianngl\ mv.tliJatcJ • nil< 1)1.r rcqwrcJ 1 \\"omllll but
not 1 nwt mcmbcr ol thc lnd1an ft,rc1¡tn \cn1<c to obt.un ¡xmm.ron oí
thc flO\<nmtcnt lo mam C.ontcmrlmn11 1hc l•cial <ex Ji"'"'1tmJlton
the!T i... u<oe l¡-,,r ...-ondered "v.-hethcr IAnu:ks) I~ ;md 16bclon¡¡10 m,~h
or realitv • \\!ten ~•larrd m thc fam1lv ¡..,.. c:oo1<xt propc:r. faciallv ,.,,..
uncq~J pf0\1"10ns are repeircdly ¡xrmmeJ t<> <ll!Od.
Une ..,·on.krs wbcre thc Coun's dant\ on se• tne.¡ualit\ ha. ¡!Olle whcn
,.,..Jm¡¡ "• upholdtn¡? m l 9'lc; ot tht: pn>pcrtv r•ruuoo pr0\1>10ll> of thc
l ltnJu ~11c<e"100 Acr. Son> ol mle>hlto v.cr" 1hcrc .JlowcJ to urulatcr..U}
hl1><k J"·"1on uf propcrty on ••le of • Jwdlin~ hou~ b) lmng in u re
vmll<'I• ní mllnt.11 swius, so ¡,!Ju~h1c" wuuld mhorit nothing until h11er,
wh1lo d•u¡¡htér- c<>ulJ lin· in rhc h1111>e onlv 1Í 1he1 were unmnrried ''
Ahhno¡¡h wnmcn had feu-,,r ri¡¡hts than m.-n. the 'ª"' was •llou·ed to srand
t>n ~ rauonale 1ha1 <ug,llesied u ali carne 0111 rou~hl' equal 1t1 1he end
Gnh• H.r"1.aran's case. challen¡un~ a Htndu ¡¡uJrd1anshtp rule prondmg
th•1 ••her the liletime of the lather, thc mother 10 rhe child's guard1an,
!l"e> me 10 >unilar UOCISC. ºAlter""' mterprt1cJ "'mean "tn thc ab
smtc of • as ú Ibis sohcJ thc "'' 10l·..¡u.al11¡ Thc mo<her ,...., thc chilJ'>
111Urdútn onlv m ltcU oí Úle foth.:r, not 1n ha ""11 nght, her ~1nli211"1íp
onc Sl«J> bchmJ thc sitc .,( his ah.mee' l 'nul \"'&'!)' rt"Unrlv, 1hc Cbristun
¡x-rmn.tl I,,..,, prc.cnb<J Jifforml gniundt <•I Jtvmcoe for mcn and \l"'O!TICll,
mcn bctn¡¡ pcrmmeJ 10 divorcoe on • ••n!llc !!""'"d. v. hile women b:id 10
have more than one.'" ~luslun reN'ln.tl la"' ra¡wre • Muslun ....fe to be
mon0¡1Jm00>, whJe • busbanJ e.in h.,e up tn four 11.1\i:s ~ also allow
h1"b•mls hui 001 "'"es to d"'º''" urulJlerJll\ \\1thout iaúlt,msruuuonaltie
 Se• [qu1lllJ Un<ler 1he Conslllut1on ol India • 129
Ju\lier .rran~c:nicnt$ tl1J1 •1gu;bl~ JlllOunt IO . .lling '"'mcn in marria~c.
~r-Jni nulc hc11'11 t"kc thc .h.trc ol km.11< hcm. •nJ J., nol olio" moih<n.
to be glLuJ1Jru ol num>r dulJrcn ' i\hth ''' tt•lot) , 1nJ<T\I
fa..,n whcn le~.! Jcó<ion1 in 1hc lam1I, .,...,, I~'º' '"'mcn's <qu•lm in
outro~. " «•me h...-. from lliub 11.Ptn" tn l.1111/1. .. couru re<•~t predi·
c:ann¡¡ iM n:sults on "'-' <qu;1.biv gn>untk lt " no• unusuul in such ca_~
for th..-re to be no Ji>CU>Ston ol ~J< c.¡u.ility 111 thc lqi.J 'ICOSC at ali. Thu<
r.bc Coun w1>1eJ on • N.ttutory grownJ lur •·1>1Jin¡: tbc ..,,..,.,J m•ITLlj1e
ol • tormo: HinJu mm "bo <un,cncJ tu l<l.un,' 1 utl1cr tb.m holJm¡¡
po1,.,.. "*
m, 111 thc: •h,cn<c ,,¡ rulvan.11') ur mutu.il """""' ali, • \'ioltuon
ol on <qu.Jit, !l"o'"'"'ca <:U..ns 1ppcar more rorolonable ,-.,nsuum~
•1.1tutcs tn intcrpm ~....,n.J la\l-s v.i1h1n rd1gious Jicu1..-.. "'-"pite ""11C
o:nbarn.smcm 10 °""'º' '"'º'""'
ni mrcrpm•unn anJ thc mk of tunhcr
cmiosm ol iM luod Sbtzh a.,,,,, ~cratN, whcn tbr Coun \\'U bmerly
resemed for pn:swrun~ to ro11>truc rchtJOU> conecpb m thc: lamilv arca
v.'Ubout the rdigiou> •uthonty to Jo so. lt appc;al'> to be more tmponmt
to lca\'c thc Jercmunauoru ol lmiily ble to reh~1un 1han to Jd" cr on tbc
""'""unon.J anJ 1ntcm;11011al >ex co,¡u•l11y nght> that thc Coun ha.
sh.'""' n>elf capJhlc <>Í ¡¡u.ir•ntc.:111~ "' <•thcr ~rcni' anJ the ch.Ilcn¡1cs ro
famiJ,· l1ws ha\'é so 1m1>ly 1w11JieJ \\1w•
The decision in MaJhu l\íshwar' s case in 1'1% expre«ed <h• concem
thar ID\'alídatinii cxisung la" ·would bnn11 abntu 1 cha0> in thc exisrmg
srate ot law • ., ll existm¡t law t> unequal. rcqu1nnp 11 to be equal u1ll no
doub< be unsetding. bUl surdy that prov1dco éVtdcnce of 1hc P""•St\'cncss
ol th< mei¡unluy to be 1Jdrc»•.J r•thcr than a rt:>><>n thJt no mcqualuy
CxtSt> to be rcrneJ1eJ A mc>re h.tsi< rc.t><.tn bdunJ the rclu<"tantc 10 opply
;;ex equ•lity pnn1.1pb 'º rer>t>n.111........ i• thc (urcu but for írom toothless)
chargc thnt se• eqcrnlit)' is • WC!llcrn •nd h<11cmomc 11.lca 1h•1 6hows m
suf6ciem respcct tor cultural divcl"ll) A• thc i11111al un.11'"'" •howed. con·
venoonal equalicy anah,is is we.rem, •nd thc altcrnauvc conet'pnon
sketched ts not pMncul<irlv f oo. womcn are not equal to mcn m any
wtstcm culture knou-n Uearl' scx c.¡u..Lt) IS not vcry wcStcrn, "'"'" as
se.x C\ju.ilit¡ I> harJli unk.nown m nonwntcm culture" To ~l\é thc \X'c:.t
equaluy oh>.;urc• "' prcscn«:, 11$ divcr.ity .uiJ Jy0An11>m •• ~n 1Jcal anJ
p•rti..t ""'1uy arounJ tbe "<>rlJ le •lw J1•ll>rh anJ tn>uh1 thc 1ndi¡:cnou>
tn0\·cmcnt> of womcn Íor cqu.1l11y nerywhcrc-u• 1t thcu Jc,sirr for
cqualif) wac not th"1r °""" .,. tÍ 1hc.. .ore nOI 1u1on<1mOU> a<ton e11p•hlc
ot recognizmg anJ Kttn¡t on thcir ""''" intc...-s1> h al<o oi,..curc. tbetr
leidcrslup m tbe ¡¡Job.U nl<>\·cmcnt lor the bbttaoon ol women. h ns
H.mu ~ldua. not Ek.mor Roooc-.dt, who '"" rcspon>1blc tor tbc uaces
ul '" c.¡u.1.l11¡ cmb<.Jll..l in 1hc Unl\trlJ.l Dctl.w1on ol Human Rights."
Thc U1utcd Sut<.. •1111 hJ' not r.tttlirJ CEDA\\"; lmlLl h.s
l'hc c::h.1r~c ch.u '~" c~u.J11" t\ • lort1~n 1n e-rnuon
1
t"\ 1 fc-.&tu~ oí mc:n ·,_
C11lturc m moll pi •co. lt "thc nc•r-unÍ\'él"al '""P""""' b' mcn around the
°"'"
,. 0 rJd 10 •••nrnl·n ,....,ng th"1r value m term• mcn havc dcrucd them,
,. ben ,. ,,mcn nrl"* thcir Jcno~rauon a• aU 1heir culture has to otfer.
:-;onwc.tcm ••ornen n.:cJ only <Ufllp•rc therr treumcnt not with western
,.ornen s but "1th roen m lhtv º"" tJtllum to ~ce th.: problem. Thc W"'1
tb.11 \\'C:.tcm lcm1111un luncuum to Jtlltify at1'<k on mmoruy rdigion. to
suppon thc wpenuruy ••I thc \X'at anJ to 111-uly 11> in1nmon has 1 loe. of
cur...-ncy, u h.. h.ip~ncJ m thc past But v.·hJt thc We<t ha> to giun m
promotm~ ;-.¡u.1l1ty lor v.'Ol'llC'n m lnJi• today, 1111 equalU\' u does no< pr>e·
ucc or .,ftcn t"H'fl prcach at home, 11 selJom <peahed h ts ~d irony
"°
1ha1 thc pnnople of culrural p.antrubnt\ is oíten inroked by 'll"esretDCrs
m Jdcru.c <>Í mcn ni ,uborJinJteJ mmonuo subordlluang wocnen u'tlhm
thor °"n culturo. 1111J so lmk rn¡>e<:tcJ othcrubé ...
1 malh, somcwno thc 1nong pcuplc h"c tbc ng)u iJca. C\'C21 if they
ex pre» ·.. 111 ~ppallm¡,: "•)'• rhc hbtoncal •~amplc romo 10 rrund of
clC\Cn )CAi olJ l'hulm•nt 8J.1, who J1cJ In 1891 of ;;exuaJ 1ntr<COutSCWÍth
her hu,b•nJ Thl" 1>arliamcnt•ry '"",."'"to raisc 1he a¡¡e of marri¡¡¡¡c from
ten 10 twch e wa• ºl'f'l''cJ ewn h) m•n\ "·ho ia\'Ored 11 bccause thc
Br111>h-\\ ho wcrc '"'d therchv to he 1n1erfennR 'll11h rehgíous .iífaus álld
rooched the1t oh1o1C111'n in rehR1<>11> terms-were for IL Witbout doubL
\'OUD!\ women's wdl•rc b<'C•mc a prelc\l lor colonialm culniral ll'tten-en·
uon.' But Joc:s thot mean th.it ¡ltrlo who are raped to deu•h in mMru1ge,
behavlor hJrJly conhnc.l 10 ln,h•. urc not being hormcd by ut Docs that
mean notlun¡t should he du11ct Dcfcnd111g somethin~ thot huri. your own
¡x-oplc lx:<o1u'~ l"'ºl'I~ who hun you urc ·~ninll tt sccms to me • sign of
a <olt1n11L.J mtnJ
Thc unJcrlun~ aim1"t axiomatic rc,1<0n fnr the rducrance to in•11lidate
~' hi•<Cd f.1mih lav.·• .ippear< t1' be rhe fact that thcse laws mvolve the
l•m1lv Lrolon¡¡ m<•rc Jceph 1n cro-.s culnmi.I li~ht 2t tbe realiry of this
l.m>Uy >pbcrc, tcnncJ •pcr.on<ll. .ilonj.\ \\1th attcntion to che 11-ay .,'Ornen.
a oub.unu\'dy hi>l-'rll<AÜ\ Jis•J, ;tntJgc.l group. are tte:uw thcre. onc
M:L'S th.at 1hc: larruly is,, <ruuhlc ol wumcn'a unc..¡u.il swus anJ subordtn.uc
uc.atmcnt sc:xu.illy, phrnC11llv, "'""'"mt<aU.., anJ <1v1lly. The fomih, across
~ulturo 1 n a •ne oí \14..knCC' a¡J1nst V.:<Jtne\, 1ncluding ~xual use. a
pina: v. he...- wom<·n are \'IOl.atcJ ""h 1 J1 .. inct and .1lm.,.t inddible 1m.
purnl}' * lt " a conté.'1 m "·htch, on tbe N•e .,¡ <a, sorne arc not per-
muud to be hom, are not f....:! or nunurcd, are nnt "'en allowed to JEJO".
Su [quallly Under lhe Conslllu11on of India • 131
up to be ba11ercJ. r•p....l . .inJ murJer<.J In tbi. pclliOn:il • sphcrc, across
cult<lf<S, wom1.n ore <>ircn c<;cnti.tlly ><•IJ to mcn •nd º"n<.J bv tbem,
worncn'w IJhor 1s cxplt>lltd wHh ludr or ntt 1.:muo~Jll<ll1; worncn are
oftcn •• nicn'• pl<Jmrc, kl')•t <1<1'<'"'1' 11' vmh1n • rcfo11on>h1p o.o loog.,,
11 ronunllC'I ,mJ ,h..-.orJ(.J rnto J..•,rnuuon •nJ .iv1I txile "hcn it cnJ,; In
mteracti1'n v.11h thc mu of SO<.-.cty, in "hkh wnmen •re discrim.iruucJ
a¡uun<t on the OOSJ> .,¡ sex 1n cmplO\mem. the-· ~re tmpovensbed. Tbc
lanuh- •> .IS<> a place -..hcre v.'Omen a...- rc:<¡U1re<l to uke rcsponsíhility for
chtlJrm anJ •re ohcn ~l\cn ¡.,.., rcsour<cs to e.are lor tbcm and hule vo1ce
m Jcet>1un> that •llc<1 thcir J<>tnt lnc~
StJtc> •re f•r frum unin .. PlvcJ in th.. ,._,·c•llc.I pcrson.il sphcrc. ThC)
entcr u . .mong othcr ,...,.... b) lcj(l'llaung anJ cnfomng family ¡..... that
efícctneh· •url"'"' the<e rractitt< Onc k1nd of c.¡uality qUC'>non t> pnsccl
11 the sure nntr cntm •n ª"'" •t ali Bm once emerin~. under welJ.
"'ublished con•11tunonal and 1n1emaoonal rnnoples, ther ha>·e ro emer
on a >E'X~ual hb!s. C~ainl) whcn mies IC1?1Slate sex discnminatioo.
roforan¡? thc suborJin.ucJ >0e1al >t•tu. ol women 10 mcn on tbe hoes ¡ust
Jo.:nlx.-d. mn>utuuon.I and 1mcrnauooal obh~auon> >re \iola1cJ no les.
!han "hcn >Wc< J<I 1'fft<J.Jl) 111 •n~ othcr arcJ OÍ soci<1) to 1.h,, dJsad\'an
bt~C of t_\nC ICX
Noncthcbs, wc cnrountrr J ~" ,_¡,., anJ catcgnrical reluoance to t'CC'·
o¡¡nl7c ~•• «¡ualny ri~ht< 1n thc fomilv. This reluctance is nor unique to
an) one culture but rather i~ ~h.red by riatríorchal cultures (and most ere
malc dominan<. althou~h forms varyt oround the world The Supreme
Coun of thc Uoit<..J Statts, lor in>t•ncc. w far looks at lamil)' law under
equalny rubrtC> only for f.d•l d1s11ncuon>." when m re.1l1ty fanuly law m
the UnitcJ S1<11e> upcmc. 11> 11 dyn•m1c m¡;mc for 1ntpoveri>hi11g women
iJ.nU J'lroduc:ins an<l rc1nforti11A 1hcir untquul stntus as a icx ~c.Kict)'--\\'tde.""
t\ ma¡onty of wnmen 111 tlic Unítc.1 Si.ue< marry under l.m , .tnd most
Jivorce throu~h thc judicinl prtX'C«. Rrn no •e• equality >tandnrcl, have
been applieJ to thc re<uh• nr 'tandJrd• ol cither pmc.,.•-with t:he rcsulr.
for example. tlm tht mJrnJ¡?c comroct rcmams unscruunittd lsay. for sub
r°"1 vou:lmg thc r~pe law v.here manta! rape 1s 001 rccognlzcJt. anJ
womcn'$ 'tan<l.rJ ul bvmg 1> ¡.erimttcJ to plummct alter ilivon:c. • .Be-
cau.e courh ><<'ITI m>t to w1"1 to rcc<'!lnlll thJt thc famil> is J sphcre ol
'"" incq""I"' und.:r '"", ""' 1ne<¡u•l1ty 1uthm tt .,.J on Jíssi1luuoo h.>.
bttn l"ÍÍCCU\d\ c>t'ITIJ•I l'wm l<"PI scx «¡UJlll) intcf\<'l'ltion. Tn 1hc re.ult,
thc fam1I¡· '' puhhdy rc¡iul•tN to ""mcn'• Ji.aJ,;nrJ~
Thc Íllnul\' is "cU rrroim11cd 1> 1 central force in thc rubhc or~iution
of rclanons betv.·ccn thc ''""' and. 1n all ns '"'"°u< form<. as a cruoble
132 • Struults w,1h1n Slltu
ol thc 1Jcol••¡t) 111J rc.11!.<.lll••n ol m•l< domm.1n<e 1rnrlJw1Jc. ,.,. thc uttft
(:C,urt l'Ul 1t 10 th~ f1&1rUJ't c.:nfU~~I lO fndLl, ª (01o-hon tttx:lcty l' m.elt Jomi
n.rcJ, hoth ccononU<"JLIV •nJ ,_,..,u, .in,l wmn<n lrc a1si1ncd, mvarfably,
o dcf>':lkl•nt rol., orre•p«Uvc of thc d."' ol <0<1ec:y 10 wlnch <he ~­
long:;"• In m0<ot rdil!Jou' •nd culturnl ~n•uf", ti tn dl\-er<e tonm and ,.,th
unJuoo<, •he l.1m1l1 1< Jn líl'utuuon ot thlS male dommance Pcnooal
1.,.., ollcn tel'\e '" lq;.tluc 1h1s Jom1n.1n.:c .,¡ mcn 01cr uomcn m torn»
part.Kul.v 10 •'ll<h n:l1J1on-undJh:r.U J1>orcc b) mcn m '°""'· mJJcquatc
m.u.ntc:nanc.:c 4lter J1,11h.C' an .u101bcr. 1nhtn1a.ncC' h) mcn only m .inother.
K'll busc.I '"'nc:nh1p anJ Cl"11rol oí ¡m•rcm anJ succcssiuo rul.s 1n
ochcrs. rnulurk m.arru~""' only for mc:n m 1ornc, <"\hrody oi ch1ldren ro
mc:n ou)y 011 WW>IUllOO líl aíll'<hcr JnJ 10 nn Thc common bctor l'i llllllc
donun.&ncc-rhJI "" .ex lll<'<¡u.ilm-m cuhurall) ,p«itic 1111d JlO{ mire·
quenth rdl!Zlou'h rat10nal1ttd torm
1k 11--e anJ rekrcnl of 1hc 1>'\'lrJ "pc..-onal• an tlus scmnp, is remml"""11
ol 11; pl.i.cc in thc Jnc1"pmcnt .,{ thc La" ol sexual hal'llS>rncnL Sexual
lurti:>JDcnt "a. Ion~ rq:•rJcJ ,. pcr..10.i in that "ben • man >CXwlJy
har.,..,J a ,..,rn,m. 11 wa. trc•tcJ as •unply bch•<'<'ll hun and her, mcaning
pcrM•nlll ra1hcr 1h•n Jcm 11111 fr<•m th< collt-t~I\ e r<>pt-cll\c M><iil i-nions
ol 1he r•rtt"' ., mcmhcr> oí 1h"" _..,. or 01hcr haerorch1c. or 1mplicatinl!
<oe1ctV •t 1..~c h ..... e't'L-cially rc¡:arded e< pcr«>nal b1 mtue ot bon~
<exual. thu< 1nJppropn¡1e ~nd otl ·hrnn• for le~al mmvenuon Wben
sexual h.r,.,,'<rn<:m "a; hN brou¡:h1 to roun •• • claun for se.x chscruru-
nJtion. thc coum rcJ<UOn "" prccisel) 1hat 11 ,...., personal, 1bt:re1ore
no1 >CX b.1;.,J." \\'bat they mcan1 ,..,... bccJu•c ,,,.uJI h.1rassmen1 is sexual.
11 ¡, pm .11c. antima1c. unJ rnJ,.idm1I hL'llcc imrm•ic"1ly umuital 10 legal
tcMubuo n, wh1ch ¡, publiL. in•1il11rinn11I. 11nd cJl<:J;<>roc.11 In mpon!>C, i1
\\'J' ar~ucJ th•I 1hc J<I~ inH>lved m.1~ luve hten 1niirn111e 10 1he man, but
1hc onh sensc in wh1eh 1hc h.11·11<>nicn1 w•• imimJre ro the w(lman was
thJt she ",. anrim.udv <·iolm:d by 11 h rnay ha\'C been personal to tbe
perJ"cm11or 11> the •cn,c ol tnld\ m~ him as Q un1que indl\1Jual, but the
personal "''h'"' .,¡ the "ornen "ho J1J 001 w•nr 11 "-ere not bcmg 1aken
uno Jccúunt. h w.Jlo .!w nol pcrwn.J to 1he >·1cum' 1n thc """"" that they
nrc bcanll sub¡e<tcJ to 11 bcc•usc: thc:) v. ere \l.omcn, .. membc:n al thcu
.,,nJc:r.hJ<c:.J group \\'hcn the "'""' ""t"'nJ.:J favorobl) to th1S Jr~u
mcnl untl c.1n1c to rl"~1&.rJ "<"'\u.&1 h tr;U.,rtk'nr .a JC110n.lb1c .as scx d~cnm
10.JU•-.n u "h.n chn· 'Gcre e.loan~""~ rc:c.:ottnuin1t 1hJt 1c mtack no smse to
call 1has ahaa.e pcr11<10JI. •mee 11 lul"rronl ltl v.'\'lmcn 11 womm
\\y pomt hcre 1~. whcn law anJ 1rcatmcn1 are bascd on <n. thett is
nothin(!. prororh l'C""'n.! about 1hnn To .:all ln11ha1 ts ba....,J oosa ·per-
Se• (qyal11y Unde• the ConsMullon of India • 133
wn.t.l"' d1cn bct.:tlmo i.' \li.J) ut 'J)U18 th.it ~'lH»c:n, J 3roup v.h(l)C stoJt~ ¡.,
"' Jcc1•11'cly cvm1r11< '"J m >1n.I oí thc .ren.i' Jcoonuna1,·J pcrsorul. will
h•1..- "" ""'o¡:niud le~.U n~hl> 1<> ttluJl11v, The m1ur1 m" cut clo<e 10 tho
renon, QS m.ny ••rect• oí 11rnup 1Jc-nmy •nJ laf~ Jo, bu1 when the ex
penencc IS shaml "'11h other "c>mcn, 1nduJin11 01her wCllTlcn of one's
relt1t1on, u becomes se•-b..<eJ h is no cmnrnlence tha1 whJt 1> <lenom1-
n•tcd the pcNln.il 1> often preasel1 v. htte .e• U'l"'!ualit) ol ..-amen 10 men
.. crudill) C'll.lctcd l'be cxcmp1aon lrom sex ~ualll) prinopks tor the
•pa<on.11• "' • w•i <•Í U)10¡t th.a1 ""mcn h.,.., no c:.¡wluy ri¡;bb unJcr
l.w 1>·hc:rc thn mos1 m•llcr As thc 'iuprcmc Court oí In.fu forthragluh
~nuN m 1h., \fJ11f.tm.t•1 \f,,J.¡/,.,, ""' •¡xrson.al ¡,,.., confemng m
Ím<>r •tatus nn "ornen 1s 1na1hm,. 10 c:.¡wluy • • Once u IS n-cognued
that thc: famih· as a 1em11n ol sex 1n<qu"111y, callmg 1ho !.v. of rhat area
pel'lOnal 1> re\,,.Jed a~ bttk more 1"2n • ,..... ol pttdudmg womaú as-
seruon ol o¡u.illl\ thcrc
In this light. thc phr...., •penoruJ bv.>" m1~h1 be S<UJ 10 be !<llllethin!!
oi an Ol<)moron. onc thc l'>Jwu 1lr~• \f.,¡, h<>ldanJ,? of 19H 111 Bombay
on the Htndu B1gJm<>Ul M.tm•¡;es A<I •t1cmp1cJ IO r.1uon.ilize b) rultog
that bcc-•u~ l"'l'M>nal l•w• Jo not ckm'C' 1hcar Juthonl) from k¡u.lnt10n,
1hev are not •(,,..., m force" 1hus no1 ¡.,.,JI •11 for Artack 13 ronsurunonal
l'"'l'º"'"·M <h n.1'° held. in true formal equ•lil\' ft>nn 1h.i Amele I~ WB•
not offended because maktn¡¡ •pedal rules for H1ndus was -bascd on rea-
sonablc •nd rational <:on~iderauons. ·"I Pe.-.ona.I laws are lqlislatcJ. Tho
srn1e may or mny nn1 be thc uhimate sour<e of 1hcir Juthonty, bu1 it has
maJc tbcm leg•Uy aml Mlrntlly uuthoritall\'C' unJ hru. givcn 1u authoriiy to
them. Ju" as tÍ fomtly wcre pcr.on•I in 1he 1rue>1 s.cn>C ol the "'orJ, i1
,.ould no1 neecl 10 be ~ovcrncJ b) luw, ií 1hc •u1hon1.11ivcnrss <>Í the
pcrwnal laws w<"re othor 1h.1n lc1111I, rhcrc wt•uld be no nc...J m legislare
1hem lnsu:nd the •o-calleJ ¡>erS(lnru l11w~ •re defin.,J ª' off hmii. to ju
cLc1al m1ervenm:m when challenged bv chose they hun and are mhcrwise
otlioallv and ¡udtc1aUy enforted like •nv ochcr law
Sel! eqwlit) s1.111dllrJ. ~ovem l.tw< Or, mher, wbatever dse cbé) do or
aJJgM Jo, ti I> lalli~ that they g<)\CM \\'hcn they Jo 001 becd~ me laws
are c.illcJ penon.J." tbe 1crm 1> tl:\e.JeJ ., coJe lor "" e•cmpuon Jcal
rncn rn•ke ....1th one 11.norher-here, 1ha1 •ome mcn "~JI aU°" 01hc:r mcn
10 h.t>..: ~cce>s to W<'mcn C10 1hc11 º""' tfflns tt1 ochani:c for 1hose o<hcr
mm'< allCl"'ing thr 01hen 10 hove 1ho ameª'""'' 10 thcir "-omcn on tbeir
own •erms lt ts 1> ti mni agrtt 10 mil pcocc aman11 one mocber on the
rondmoo ol respccun11 c-•di ~up's chcn<hcd mores lor mcqualiry ol the
sexo-in 0ther »orJ.. al thc cxpcn1e ol C*'h 11roup ol 'lmmen h IS rhis
1!4 • S11uu1es ~'•h•• S1im
"'101n\t1nJLt\· anlC.lfl)t rncn it,; \Upr~mc rcloul\C: tn women tlut n!'.tcho. u<.:mss
>LllU• ...,J rd1~1<>n, and m•t 1hc11 ddlcrcnt...,s on 1hosc grouotb. thJt cwi
he""" to ,lcrtrrn111C' "ht1ht1 1ho pcr.c.1n.1l L1"~ ..,.,u be govern..l by con
11111Jt1llnJI scx cqu.1luv sunJ.irJ, Ir ;., in 1his li~h1, men\ domÍOJncc in
1hc l•m1lv of <" ~n rcl1~1on 1ha1 1< a1 <rake in v.:ha1 is presenred IS reli¡uou<
and cultural JtH'Oll), thc 1crms c>t men's !>""'et"'"' women rn 1he hm1I'
tha1 '""'" mcn •re .!lu" 1~ ochcr mcn to <;e< oo relij?IOus !l!Ouncb U
pcnonal Ln.>,. ere 'ubJ«I 10 scx cqu.alm >tanduds. tbc d<al ,.-bc,rt"b)· mc:n
mu1u.alh tolerare onc ~nocher'• Jominancc: rr.cr ,.omm, c:acli gmup oí mc:n
m thc:u OV.'11 ""'' "<aulJ hc otf for al! ni them
In 1hc case oÍ IC\ILll h.1usYncn1, untJ 1h1S ScJm<: Jeal '11.U c:xpootd .. a
lorm ,,r scx Jis<nnun•tion, •cxual h•r.iummt Jisiribu1ed <n md mooey
10 kttp control ot horh in mm'< hanJs and to koep ...-ornen poor so that
the1 had to Jd11u sexual!) 10 'urv11-c, with no lepl recourse. When .ex
cqu.1111 prinoplc. tlfC mopcrauvc:. both sexual barassmem and personal
l•w• J""'c ...-ornen anJ mone) 111 mcn'> bands. cbe terms ot thcu- <hstn-
buuon arr.n¡:cd b) mcn amon~ une another Urilikc fonn.al cqualn). "'-hich
un lc.11..: thi> uran~cinen1 in place, >ubu.tt1t11e cqualit) thcory hi~lighi;
"ho •• Jmn¡¡ v. h•1 1<1 "hom. "ho bt'llcfü., and •I wh<»<: cxpcruc.
Sexual hJra 'nlt'lll I~" h'5 prn>cn Ji>lo 10 aJd...,.. multiple grounda of
J1>cnman1111on." • •cnrnwuv hadh nl'('<k'<l m 1he arca of pcnoiul 1.,.., a<
"·eU A d1lhcuh '''ºº for 1 <11h11•ml'• an11h1cnrclucal th.:ory of equalil)
ansc< \l.11h "·ornen whordana1cd u1thm subordinared commuruties, wben
the dJtm 1> maa.lc 1h•1 the subordana1cd comrnumry would be denied selJ.
Jetermm•Uon, >O\erc1Anry, or cqu~lil\ b) in1er1cnt100 in us culrural forms
ol oubor,hn.u1n¡: wumcn Subs1on11ve cquolity has a Joubl~ potential for
rcwfyinM 1h.11 .uhorJ11w1n11, '" excrn¡>lifieJ by thc imu.U cases of se•ual
h~ro,m1en1 1lw wcrc lm111~h1 by womcn who drt' African American and
01 1he bo110111 oí tlw lab"r 111.1rke1.'" Their cOnl'erged d"':rirnination by
•c=-u.11 hJr."rn•·nt, once •ubs1anuvell' addressed. <olved rhc problcm of
'<'XiLll har•>sment Ít>r C\'Cr)c>no, •• weU as exposed rhe wav sexual access
and U'< w"' anJ coulJ be •imult.neouslv l'KÍst and ,;a,xisL
Lél(.U cqu.Ull) ><•luuon' lor those suborJmJIN u;tbm subordin.t1cJ
(úlDrtlUOlll<"> ch.Ulcn¡tc equ.tluy l.aw bm 1115.> prO\ 1Jc an opporturut) 10
promo1e c:.¡u•lll) .1<r<M thc b.1.1rJ. In 1h1• ¡xnpc:cti.c:. the eft<'Cllve "'"
cmptt<•D of lloln ~run1 conUttUlltln.ll anJ 1ntcm..iuonal ~crutlll)' \li:hm tbc}
ore den<•mm•trd per1<•n•I l 1,.., 1h.i m IJCI are public •nJ inJttd polmc.!
m the ....,.., 1lu1 1hn ~nforce 1hc K'll\UI polmcr ol 1he relarionship ber..-..:n
,.,,mcn ,mJ m<"n a< • ..,., of m<nnmonalmn11 rnJlc dnmmma:. subordi-
n.un~ ,.-,101cn by la"' ;\o< ertlnmng equalny m th" la..- of tbe lamil)· IS
 St< EQoahtr U•de1 tht CooshMlt• ol lnd11 • 13~
thu. an ofllc1.il m"an• ol kttp1n~ w1•m<"ll '<:<onJ d.,. clllld'l> m '5Uad~. thc pn11<1pk• ,,¡ pcmmlll IJW> •pplk.iblr lo 01hc.,,, on an chust approadi
Th.1> lar¡;et J)namic b h1JJcn bchu1J rd1¡11<'0 "hcn thc !'<'""-'º,.¡ uw• .irc or un cquJlny pn11c1ple, by ¡ud1d.&! •dl\1'm, is a Jifbcult .and mtnd·
ckb..1ed as J m•ucr c•l cuhural dncn.111 ..J1•nc 1h •1•1•l1rJ to 11...- ¡><:r>0nal b<>¡!1ling etfnn.""' Tu,. •">linio 1ha1 <·qualny muns umfonruty wbcn 11
ª""" rhe sub.rann•c equ•hry 1ppu1a<h fr.11t1C> 1hc .¡ue>Uon ., onc nf Jj, >ht>uld he un.lt'110<><I to m<·•n nomulxnJmauon O.verse "and.rds for
cntllll¡¡lmg male donunancc frnm raltur•I Hll"\l\AI, sn th•t cultur<"' con Jl\eN" commum11<-s are not rhc rrnblem. <tandards rhat subordin•tr
trMv lloun<h anJ wnm<"n can ton 1>'(>1Den m men are 11 chb C<¡ual111 1< too d1f6cul1 for rouns ro rontcmpLtte.
1>-omen ol each rchp'n anJ cuhure can pr0\1ck 11 tor th<:msd\'~ ..,.¡ch che
V baclun11 ol thc 'e.ce. fhe "'"mcn ol e1ch rdi¡tlOfl. malun¡¡ che dtttion. Mr
of thc11 culturo, "° oo culcural tmpcnal<>m 1> uwolval.
In aso c:lull<n¡;m¡¡ ""' inequaluy LO pcrsoruil ¡..,.,., lnJian coun> •ppcar Thu. opuon for rdid ,.ouJJ be miil•bk for "hok rommuruuo to adopc
J'lr.JyaJ b) thc: Icor ol bcin~ t•rreJ b~ thc brush ,,f cultur.J 11ucrum\1t) but •l>0 for "'"'men ol An\ n:l1¡.!1<1US cu hure "hu ...mL.J to dL'Ct u, ooc at
ln.en>Jtmty to mmonty "'OIJlen'• """" cqualiry n¡:his, th<y appcllr •bk to a lime 11, itlf examplc, .\!11J1m "ornen Wett f~ceJ ,.,th matntenmce
live 101th. :\s te> rbe i.mily and 1eltg1on, a; th<-. put u rd'onn h1.' 10 romc enJin11 ,.,,h iJJJJ" 1 •nd a un1form roJc prnv1Jed lon¡icr as a re~· for
from wuhm rathcr chnn be 1mpns<"d lrom '&1Chotit In th1, 1.,lu. onc pos· ""x inequ.aht\ tn thc Íam1h JnJ in 'i0Cie1)' ," dK>Se wbo rouJd nor ruppon
síble W.l)' out of the lcpl and polmcal 1h1cket-• rompmm1<e dw t..ces rhemo;ffles alttr J1vnrce woulJ not oced to im·alidaie 1he \1ushm ¡,.,.. or
che Í.tct that mdlí\ or thoe la11> \1<ll.ce ~x cqu.Jn, <WKl•rJ• bur recog- have n o\'emJdc:n by thc: crurunal L,¡,.·. The\· 11>-ould srmpl) d=&, for
tUZC> che JUJio.J rdu<tmcc tho"C\'cr unpnn<1plc.J1 to mvalidare them- chemxlve. "'htch ICl!al fC1J:tme to dect. rccem.n~ m•unenancc ~ or
could be to c:n•<t • unifonn cU<.lc ol l.tt1Ul) LJ,. pur.u•nr to O.recme Jom1111mh<>ur thc mJ1ntcn.ancc lur rc:li¡poU> rell>Olls. ,U to whahu a hu.·
Pnnciplc: -1-1 ch.u prm ,.¡.,, tor ••• cqu.Juy LO alJ ro¡""" ~.•..., womcn b.inJ coulJ mJrr) un •JJ111<>n.tl 11>1lc, pc:rhap• • untform coJc: would pro·
and mm oo 1ts Íac.:c .ind 10 lilpplu..:~uon,"* \\1th 1t5 we ll¡1t1c>n.tl iat uonu.n·~ .,J., for cw<> pc:1'nn mJric.tl un1u or pcrhJf» for th.: a~rcernent of 1he
di.cretion. mduclm~ "' rchef fnr prmcn o;ex '"'"l"·''"" m a commun11y'< c<1>tm¡; w1fc or ,. ....,. m che ex¡>Jn<ion of the fJmily. on che rarionale thst
personal law. n ;, thcir f.1mily too \Thatcwr 1bou1 chis <phcrc ts lc:giúmacdy personal
Communitics coulJ aJoJ>t thc: unilorm roJc in n< enürctv But for those " i> iu•I ., pcr<onal co che \l'fltncn 10 "· Thc pnnciple adw.oced bere ts
chac clid not. "·h<nt1l!r a prov"'º" of un) reh¡:u'n" personul low was chru· rhat b<'Cause <>I -..:x 1nn¡uaL1y. wl"lmen would make che choice of law.
lenged md found LO dJ>.JJ\',1nta¡:c womcn undcr a substantive readto11 ol :>uch a -oluuon would be cons1~tc:n1 wltb lnilia's r=f\·anoo to CEDA \I!'
Article 13-such llug.1uon mfusin~ hft into thc intcrprcwuon ol 11• sub- 1ha1 lamil) luws not be unpo;cJ on mlnoncy commuoiues cxcept •t tbeir
""ntive prov1>10n• ne die 8(1JllC tune tht wnman woulJ be allowc.J to clcct 1nurnti.c anJ no1 wuhouc cheir <"<>n•cnt. ' UnJcr clu• propo•.J, a •tx-equol
thc remcJ) of J m·il code rromoon <~mlpdrable 10 thc rd1¡¡1ous k1w unJcr l.tm1ly law w1>ulJ he 11v.11l•blc l<l •11 rd1¡tious communiues JI Lhe initi;iti""
which hor fomil> 1sM1e "'oultl 01hoN1<e bc aJ1ud1rn1ctl Artu;lt 15 cnuld •nJ wuh 1hc '"'"'""' of chr women of those mmmuniti"5. Women of
onh be useJ in thJS \l'lly wherc •e• ,. made • Jisádvan1a11e. Once one no1udop11n11 <·ommunnic-. wnuld 1.1kc the iniuarive, and each womao
womao bad chalkn~cd each promion, che >Jmc det'tlon would be avail- would ronscnt N<> womon 11·ho d1J n<>• "'ª"' her marría~e ~ovl'med under
able to all womeo similarl1 '11UatcJ "1thou1 liuµuon, lnsread oí m,-a]¡. 1he unil<>rm •rx C<¡ual codc wo<dJ have 11 enfoiced oh her. lt is preferable
daung che sex-Jc.cnm1n.uory pro•NOns-con"'dcJh prd'erablc oo pnn- that '-Cx-uncqual 1.,., be ch.m11.cJ b1 che alfccted communwo (aod thar
aple but appucntl1 polit1c•ll1 mcxpcdtcnc"-J Jc:duauon would J»U• the t.LOAW "'"'"'""'"be w1tbJra"'"'· Other ..:cuons of CEDAW that
thru •n) ""llUll who so ch<»< wuld thcrcalcer be g<,..cmtd by ~ rodc: are unrcscf'\c.J m•1 <<>tnJ'ICI thc wmc: rouh. lluc ch1> comprollllSe i. con·
pron>1on '""'""d uf cht' rd1g1<>0• one, m orJer ro rrom<"<' KX C<¡u.i.hl). ...1~1cn1 v.-·uh lnt.lt.a'11n1cm•uonal ol'hJr.iltkHl). rcsen.o.l or not.""'
Scx equah" would nvc be 1m1-..d "'" •nyone \\'omt-n who v.'llllt<.J to Th1' pro¡"""I \\<mlJ pr<>m<>lt d1on~c: lrom w1thm Li" would noc be
be f;O\ ern«l by the pet'M'nal l•WI of thcir c:ommunmc:s "'OulJ be But om hclJ not ¡...,,. C1•un• would no< apply fKtollv sex Ji5<nmrnaron lc:¡:iswion
woman, of u"1ate\"r rommun11y, "&-ho ..,...,,.,.¡ to cho.lSC <ex C<¡u.Jic• rould. " 11 11 11 ronmtmc •·uh rormuu11<>nal •nJ mtern>Uonal ..,, c:qualu)· ~ar­
Cowts ha,.., found rha1 "1udiaal1' entornn11 on feach rcli¡m•n or culcun:l anl<"L'> Tonun:J >lllUIO<J rnccrprctauon.• that ratmnalíU' b""' ch:u discmn-
Sil Eouatlly Undtr lht Conshtulion al India 131
in,ue nn thc bJ;1> t>I >ex •nd rd1~I01l comboncJ wuuld be a1·01dccl. Secular
1uJ""'' boJi<-. '""'Id no lon¡¡cr oflcnJ rcli111ou> comonumuco b)· cofbtrwng
thc mc•nmg .,r 1hcir rule> le wouJd •l><1 lx· far more d1ffiruh for rnun•
10 rcÍU'4: IO !ll\'e 1he Wt"llCO <lf •11< h <Uh llfC • ••:X <:qU.lfÍC) opuon ÍM them
m cxermc ehan n ha- bttn tor t h<><• '·'"'" coum rn refusc 10 srrike dov..,,
aws 1h>1 are pr<">t"ntcJ •• the 'ª"" ot each rommunrrv. ,.-hether womeo
""'º had • vn1<e m Jc.;1~m11 thcm or not. Th" profX"al ts ronsistem v.-ich
che 1111pulsc bchmd othcr mno\'aUons m tbc cquallt\ lr.ldmon. m whích
><X-unC<¡ual Law. "'" not "'"11)~ otrudo. Jown but are .omc:um.,. reaJ up...
AnJ u promoco C\Ju..Jll> m •ubu.incc
Th.- Jrn¡ m1Je of thc pn>r<••J IS, OIJ\loush, th.t che burcl<n to dum
and ncm¡c the ri¡;ht• ,. on """""'" mJw1Juall)~ thc: wc1al COl"CJOn anJ
rommunU\ CO\h would be he"' to bc:•r. W11h lnd1•• bberaLzed locus
staocli rule<, che legial hurdm• of esubh•hm¡¡ the ngh" are te.s tban tbey
otherw1sc v.-oulJ be. thoujth. and the burckns are al<o less chan the In'<.
as che\ .ue now, 1mposc Thc:rc ts risk to och womm m ekcung her scx
o.jualny n~hc>. bue •he would n0t be .tlone, on tbc .,..umpuon rhat manr
v. ornen woolJ 'º dt'<t. thc rcsulc. woulJ not only bc group b=d m their
¡:roundm¡¡ but •l"' m thm rc>ul1>. M> c•pcncncc n:pre:.cnung MuJtm
womcn for ovcr • dr<•Je contirms thJI thcy knov. -.cll wh.lt ro do ,.;ch
choice<. C\cn tho.e ..ich ri-k., so lnn11 11S 1hc choice. are maceriillly real ft
would be up to thn<e "·ho work in cach rornmunrtv to rry ro create the
precondnions for the rc.1li<11c •~<:rcise oí che choice. W11h rhe men of each
rc:hg1ous culture no longcr doin11 aU the spcllkin¡t for Lhe culture as a wbole,
"·ha1 is culcu~.tl and whuc " male ln cach ndcure would t.¡u1ckly bccome
vuible. More womcn woulJ li\'c uncJer c4ual luw• thun <lo 10J.y No m11gic
bullet, 1hís hull >1c¡1 woulJ ullow the w11111cn of uU rclig1ons to vote 11.11h
thcír feet, to walk "'" fr111n und¡·r """ b1u1>ed f•nuly '""'" pc:rhílJ>S focili ·
ratio¡¡ their 01111 ·~he 11w.1lid.111em, ww.irJ 1he tune when chese lo11.'S, this
compromise pmhablv indmlt'<l. 11111 look untcn.1blv unpnncipled.
Bmldm~ <>n the ect1mm of lnJ1as """"'"· exemplary and renowned
world\\1dc. on 1he rourn¡\e 11nJ prmople of its progn:sswe 1ud1dary, and
on 11> prop1tious o.JUJlttv tounJauoou, loJ1a 1> petfoL-tly pos1tioocd to de·
•dop 'ub,ranu\'c <e~ L'<¡UWll) le \'Jiu<:> milividu.i. but l<.'I:> group mero·
bcr>hip •• con.li111mc ol hum.o J1¡1011y rather thao in ldlMOn w1ch 1L lt
unclcntanJs th.u therc ,. na «>nlrJdtct1on be""'""' «'<'nomoc .nd socml
n¡:h1> "'ºh •• Í•mil) m•mccnJncc 1ml J><>l11ical and ci"I n8hu such a•
cquali11, k001'1n~ chai cronom1c •nd ~ial ri¡zhJS makc •ce= t<> ri~h"
ot ouzensh1p meamngtul le " • councry thar under<taods chac equali11
and lre«lom are noc oppc><ed, but .. ork togethcr. Bv c.,penmentin~ ll'l1h
138 , Struul" w1th1n States

oew p.¡nne<Sh1ps bt'twtto lcgislacive onJ judicial brnnchcs, Indio JS wcll

>llll•Uetl to cxerci>e lcuclcr:.!Up to prmnu1c >ubstunuvc «qu1t!uy uncler law
bct\V\.-~n unt.I .a.n1ong womc..'fl ltnd mcn-C\1en if lnlualJy 1hruugh le~S·than
ideal solution•-in 1he so <:11llccl l"'"onol re~lm as well os everywhere clse.

part three
through the bosnian lens

14
Crimes of War,
Crimes of Peace
\\;'hett• .dtcr JIJ. Jo uflt\t'tul hunlan r1~h1.. hcgin? In imull pLt:~. t·I~
tn hOllTIC"
-fll'.aDur Rcir.,.....t'"b
Behmd o.Il low 1s someone's story-someone whose blood. if you look
cfoseJy, Jeaks mrougb thc lin..s. [t is OOl only in roe common Jaw that the
li(e of the law is experience.1 The lofuest legal abstracuons, however ~tren·
uously cmpty of socml spedficit) on tbc surfoce, are bom of social lifc:
amid rhe intcrcourse oí pnrtítular groups, in the pre>ump1 i\'c ense of th~
dcciding dassell. through 1he traurno oí spccific nrr()Ciril!S, a1 1he expense
of the sílem and exduded, ns• \Íctory l usuolly compromised, somerimes
pyrrhid for rhe rowerless Prindple bej!ins in realiry. Law does nor ¡¡,row
by syllo¡¡isric compulsion; n is pushed by the social logic of dommarion
and challenge to dominat1on, forged tn tbe mceracrion of change and rc-
sistnncc to cnangc. Tcx1 does Dot begel text; hfe does. Thc quesnon-a
question of poüúcs :10d history and tberefore law-is whose cxpenence.
Hwn.m rights principies are not base<l on the expcrience of womeo. Ir
11 not that women's hwnan righis havc nen b""n viola1.d. Wh<n women
arr vie>bu•d likc men who bu1 for se\ 11rc like them-when women'• arms
and 1~~ bleed whcn SC'.\'ercd, when women are sho1 in pits and i:assed in
vans, when wt>moi 's hodies are salced awar al the bonom of abandoned
Th.ls koutt\\~~n.it Od(')rd Unrvc-rsnyoa Febru;uy 4, 1'19},ecl bn1 publübc:d&l'I O. l-l11nt~n
ltJ,).•:• TIH Ch/t1t-J A•lft'l.l't LtdukJ '" i 8l (~('lvn Shutt An1J ~llMrl l lurkl. t'dt. , JY'.H • l°hc'
h.:1p J.11d cr;'ln1nburion• of Nataliie> N.:l'litJi( .\Ji• Amunda, Sutannc B«r, .ldfrq ~Wson, JC&Sict
'\ltuWtnh. J~ ~1n;pau1c\~ <.:.S..S Sons~. Andrb Dwomn. !U.ch.ir~ 1Wny. l\cnt 1-1"'"1' J\l1.1
RrnJdi, ~nd die- .......nJ.:rful .. wr .s 1hc Unl\reolt} ol /\1Jc:b1~.u1 1..1"' Llb-r>1ry .11(' 1t•'J1t-r.h1t1~ •t
1w,...~
141
142 ThJOu¡b lh• Bosm1n Ltnt
mmcs or dropp<xl hom planes UllO the ocean. "'hen \\'Ornen 's skulls are
"""' from Auscb\\ ltz to St:n1Sbour¡1 for experimems-th1s 1s noL reconl.;<l
"' the lu,,tory of humnn rig)us auocmes tt> womcn. Th•1 are Argcnunian
or l lonJurJ.11 or jéwlih \X'hm 1h1ng• happcn to "'"nen thdl •4<> hurpen
t<' men, hkc being [,.,aten and Ji,,..ppcared •nJ 1orturcd t•• dcruh, 1he foct
thru <hey hílppened 10 ,.-ornen Í> nol nntcd in thc rerord books c>Í human
<ufferin~. When no wor h•• l:>cen declared ~nd still wo1nen •re bea<en bv
men ~"üh wh<>m chcv are clo&4', '"hen ,.;ves disappear ITom supennarkec
parlcm¡¡: IO<S. "·hcn prostitutes tloat up in rivers or rurn up under piles ol
rags in ubandoncd builillngs, tbeSé arrocicies go unm:arked ennrely in rhe
record of bwnan suficring bcc.ausc Lhe '1cum; are womcn and 1t smclt. of
.ex. IJ('but happcno 10 womcn b drhi:r too parucular to be univcrool or
too una.ces.ti to be p•n1cular, mcanmg cnhcr too hum1m lo he femalc or
t0<1 fem,Je to be humun.
Women Jre violtned in manv \\'UYS that men are not. or rarcJ, ~ man~
oi these violatiom are ~xu~I 3nJ repmdncrive.> Ran¡tinii from objeccili-
cation ro k.illing.' from dehumanizarion and defilement to mutihuon and
torrure 10 sexual murder. this abuse océurs m forms and stnings and Jeg.tl
poSturt'S mal O\'erJap every rCCO!tOlled human ~bt> COO\'Cnlfon bul 15
addre;:.al, effccuvely und .. >uch. by none. \\'hJt most oftcn lwppi:ns. to
women escupes thc humHn rí¡;hLS ncL S<>mc1lung-¡urisJkuona~ eviden·
tial), substantive. customnry, or h.1bi1uol-i• alwuis wrong u·llh i1. Ahuses
t>Í womcn >S womcn rarely S(."'111 10 fil whm these bw< and 1heir enforcing
boclies hav~ in mmd. the more abuses there are. me more they do nor ~t
Whethcr in war or tn wru1t is called peacetime. at home or abroad, in
prirnte or m pubüc. b)' our síde or the other side, man's mhurnani¡y to
u•omaa i; igno•cd.
\\'omro'• ab>encc >hapo human tigbl!l in subsWlcc and m form. cffec·
uvcly dcfuung whJL <1 hum.u1 ;md a dght are. Wha1 <k""' it mean to rcc-
ognlZC a principie calleJ hurnJn raghts thaL doeo not r.:.tlly appli to 1hc
wsremic and sys1ematie violu11nn• oí th~ dignity ond inL'1:fllY und secum)·
and !ife of over half 1he human race? Tt menns thill wh~t violaws the Jilltlil)·
of t11hers is di¡;niry fnr them· whar violare; rhc inte¡¡ri1-. of other<; is inte¡,lritr
for them; whst 'iohue.< the securaty of otbers is "" much secumy as 1hey
are 11oing 10 J!t'l. Even death to a lull human b.:mg is lcss serious for them.
Hall ol humanlt~ ls cífecU\cl} defin<.J .,. nonhuman, subhuman, properl¡·
nglusless crt:Jturcs, bcmg~ wh°"" rc:ahty ot Holauon, to the exrcm ll is
..,n,.,how tcmal.,. lloo" beneuth tntcrnouon.tl legal •P-JC<"
íor J rompr<..-.ed illusira11on ..,f sorne currcnt reuluies tha1 •re at onee
• hair• breadth and • ¡¡endered l111ht·y<iir oway from the Jtrocities 1ha1
Cnmes. or W1r Cumt• of Pe1te .. 143
¡¡round human flllhlS princirles and fill rhe fucn1al repons of Amnescv
lnt=auom1.l,• ronsiJcr tlus é"tlmmunicauon from o researcher c:>Í Bosruan
and Crofillilll desccnt gatb.:ong intoan•uon m Croacia und Bosnia-
HenegovJna;
Scrb1m forces ha\'e exterminoced O\er 200,000 Croaoans and Muslims
thus tor m -an openuion the¡ 've ro111ed "ethme deansrn¡?.' lo tbis t!"UO·
aJc, m Bosnia·l lorzeg<wuu alone "''-' 30,000 MU>hm onJ Cto;tian ¡µrls
ruiJ WllDl<!ll J l'C P"'llDant frwn ma"' r>pe. or ihc lOO S<!rb••n-run C()O-
cen1r.ti<>n NmJl". 1bou1 lO "'" .old) r.p<Y,leath cnmps for Mu•hm ,inJ
Cmo1ion women llnd ohUdren (Thcre an:) """, report• and P"'11.1tcs
here of Serbfon tanks plilStereJ with pornogrurhy-[luid rcports thot
those who) carch the eye of the inen lookin¡i: at the porno~niph) :m:
kilk.J.... Sorne massacres m vJlal(es as well as nipes and/or exctutions
m camps are bein¡¡ videotaped as rhey're happening. One Cro-•tian
'"ºtnan Jescnbe<l bcing IOrtured bi• electroshocks and ~an~-raped m a
aunp b) Serbian mcn Jr.,.,cJ in Croaúan unlfonn:. whu 6JmeJ !he r.ipo
onJ forccd her lll "c:onf"'' • on 6Jm Lhu1 C10011;n, r11pcd her In thc
11trcc1:\, oí Z111greb. UN trt)('lp.s oftdl d>k l<><:.al 'vomcn liu,v much thcy coi;t
. . Thcre ore repons oí refu~ee worn<.11 bcm¡; forceJ to ""'""lly .avicc
them co receive aid. Tomorrow 1 rn.lk to twO sunT;ors of mass nipc.
thmy men per doy ior over 1breemon1hs . The UN passed a re;olution
to eollen ""1derice. u lirsr step for a """ e-rimes r:rtiJ, but 11 IS S;1Jd tben:
is no prcccdc:nt for trying sexuiJ atroc1ries.>
Human rights "-ere b<im in a cauldron, hut it was not rhís one Rape
foreed modierhoo<l, prostlrurion, porno¡¡rnphy. and sexual murder. on 1he
basis of sex and ethnicit)' lOf!et:her, ba,·e not been the horrors thm w
"ouua¡ted the consoence"• of tbe relevant legal world .,_.,to unpnnt thcm·
sd'"" on the mcernauonnl legal order
º'
Form.Uly iUegal or not. ~1olicy or mere!¡ as what is system~ticilfü done.
prncrices of S4'XUW und n:rrodoctivc .1b1Ue occur not only 111 wornme but
olso on a daily basi~ in t1ne fonn "' nnother in cvcry rountry in thc wl'lrld
Undcr domesác and imernational law, u·hethcr "' not pmhibírcd pn their
facl!. tht$e practices ate widely permined as the libero<~ of Lhdr p<rpetra-
tors. undcrstood as cxcesses of passioo or spoils oi vinory. lcgall) nttion-
iilized or of6ciall¡ wmked at or formall¡ concloned; Eveo wbere ullema-
u(lnal mstru1ne11l!l rotdd be Lntcrprcced 10 prohib1t such prucuces, u is
telhllj! thnt thcir cultural suppom""' more likdy to pro,1Je the b•s1> for
exempunp >tate.\ irom their rC'.icb thnn the found.1tion for .1 claum nf <ex
discrirnlnarion."

Th.- war a¡¡ain>t Crroatia and Bosnia-HerURffiina c•cmpWics ~ ex-
"º~ • J>J>rNch"' to human n¡iliu C'dl\ U'l>rk to co'"' up mJ coofuse who
IS oomg "b.i to 1' hom aoJ díccrwch ronJone atn>tl!ICS. Ali Sta!C parncs
.re ,'O\..,rcJ by thc rdc:-.'llflt arucnuuon.J hum..,, nghu ittt.ar>ntCC> la-.'S el
"u JnJ <"Wtom.&r} antcrnauon.J la"'• But ru>1h1n¡c h.a. >"'
lx-cn ln\'oltcJ
t•• ltl>J• thc Jbu...-. .kscnbc:J 10 t~ rommunac•tlun or 1<> holJ thc pcrpc
1ra1nr' ª""""'Jbi< ~ru h thc problcm) Thc í.c1 of S.,rJ,1,1n •W<"•Í<m
" l'OC')ootl <¡11r,11nn, IU'I a.< 1he fact ,,f malc •l!M'"'""n •Ratnst womm is
bcvood <jUC~unn hcrc and "'"l")whcre "Ethmc clClln<tnj( is n Serb1an
¡><>l1cy ol cxtcrminauon of non-Scrb• "1th thc ~rul of nll Serbs tn one
n.uion, " "Grcatcr Serbia" encompaS>mg wnat Wl\> caUeJ Yugostw1a.
. cthn1< d.,arumit" is a cuphcmism for gcnocaJc. Yct 1b1> genomlal war
of •AA"'"""I h.- rcJ"'ate<lly bttn construed "' btl.ucr.J. a t1vtl war or nn
clhnu.:: t.:t>ntlu.:t. tu thc iic.companiment oí muc;h 1ntcrn.auonal \\'Ondcrmc:nt
tha1 pcu¡>lc c•nnnt l!"I •long and p101,. cl11ck1np '1 thc bch mor c>f "aD
ú,li:s • u m • m•nncr reminiscent of blammi¡ wmien for ~tunR 1hcmsdvcs
rarcJ ¡,., mm t~ lmow To call thlS • cl\11 war b likc callmM thc Holc>-
ca1M • "'11 ,..,.r betwccn German Aryans and Gennan '"''
Onc '"'uh ol th1s equalizauon of ~rcsS<>r u11h •AA=-«l-~ami.t 1s rh•t
th<:S<' <•pes ore ooc grasped cithcr a> an m,1nuncmalm of ~cnociJ., or .,
• pr.ac-tu.:t" of m1\C.)li!\'11)'- far lcss as borh 11 once. C1)nunudll) at onct' ... uh
th" <"lhn1< "'"' of .1¡i¡:ro.1i<W> and thc gc-nJcrcJ war ol J¡tgtc:>•1on of C><1)·
J •y l1fr Th" w•r 1' lo cvc:r;day upe whJ1 thc f lolocJu,1 "" to t'\'CryJa)
anu Scmm'm .\tudun anJ CroociJn womcn 1md ittrl• •« rnpcd, then mur
tlcml, by \crbrnn military men. regulars and irrCAulo1', m 1heir h(lfTJes, in
m1>eldca1h camp>. oo hillsides, everywhere. Thetr rorpscs are raped as
wtU " When d11S is noticed. lt 1s ettber as ¡:enocule or as rape, or as
fcm1tide bu1 not ~enoode. but oot as rape as a form ol ¡:enoci.Jc d1rcc1ed
•p~ulically at women. Ji 1t is seen cnber "" p.u1 of • camr•iiu> of Sérbs
•g•m" nt•n ~rl» or •• an ollllaugb1 by coml>•tont• a11a1n•t m1l1ans, 1t "'
no1 ~"' ,,, an a1tJck b) men agolJJllot -.-omen Or m 1hc fcmm,.1 v.hncu..,.h,
11 hn t>m.. 111•• 1no1hc:r '"'''""" e-.! a¡:icrcu1<'" b, •11 ~n .t¡¡"n•t •ll women
ali lhc umc:, ra1hc:r lhan wha1 11 ;., "'hJCh 1> r>pc b\ n:nJin mcn •g.aanst
""'"'"v. ornen Thc pomt SC<'lllS to be lo obscure. b1 ""' mca1u a\ailible.
aactl\ ,..¡,., "' doÍillt -.nat 10 wlmm and wlw ."
\\ hcn thc u omen SUJ\we, die mpes lend tt> h., rcir.rJcd as an anC'\"lla-
bdnv ol armc:J rnnlhct. pan ol che ,.;rol .JJ "l!•mst JJI or .., • ,onunu
•t111n 1•1111'.' hnoultun ol O\il life, ol ali mcn 11rJ1n•t ali -.omc:n IUI"' Joco
occur in '\L1.1r .amnn~ and bcN1 ccn al! '1"'lc1; r.a¡x: '" 1.1 d.111~· Jet by mcn
1
•M·lln"IC WC1mc:n anti Íf\ afway:- .tn act of ilnminacion h)' mt.•n uv~r womcn
Cnmu of Wt1 Crimu of Puce • 14S
But thc f1c1 lha1 thc:.e rapes are pan ot an cthru, "'"' oí extennm.uon
beU\i m"'cpracntt.J ,. • cl\11 ..-ar amon~ C<jwil •~gr•"M<>n • meaos thn
\11uhm JDJ (r<,.lldl\ ""'mm....., lac:mg 1"1ce •• m.an) r•pnh wnh Nltc
as 111<1nv c>tl.da, """ U)cn oi mcn on top of thCJll uthcr th•n une, Jnd
N Cl fa)'<'!'I OÍ IOlJ'WUIV temng LO iusnÍ) thc l'Upd ¡usi U'll anJ ¡lill lifc
11kc •JI rapn, 1h..-.e ra(>C' Jre panicular u "di "' l?t't>Crt<, •nJ 1hc
pan1cuhnt-.. m•ne1' 1lus " ethmc rape as •n ofhcial ¡><>l1n oí war:' not
ooll a pol1<7 e>Í the ple.isurc of male pou'Cr unlea<hc:J; nn1 only • pol¡C\
to Jcfilc. torture. hurrulwtc. dcwa<le. nnd demoralm~ thc 01her <ade: not
onk • poli<)' uf men posturiog to grun Jdvam;¡ge Jnd prounJ over 01hes-
m,•n h '"I'"
is unJcr ordtrs: not out of control, unJcr rnn1rol. lt 1s rupe
unto dc.11 h, 1'flC 11> m11>sacrc, rapc to kili or muke lhc v1w1H• wl'h thc}
"'ere <lNJ h '" N J'><' M un instrumen1 of forceJ exalc, 1n makc you lc•ve
)1lur h<•mc anJ ncvér come back. Tt is rape to be <e<-n .,,J
hc.rJ b1 others.
'ªP" •• <r«taclc h JS "P" to <hatter a peoplc to dnvc • "rd¡:e 1hrouRb
a panicular rommuruty. h is the rape of mi«>ll)'TI)' ht...,rated lw xcn<'rhobía
anJ unlca<hcd b1 olhoal <0mmand.1 h IS rape ¡;mOCJ.k ª'
h 1s rap<! m~dc: SCX) for che perprtrators bv thc deknscJ.,,.,nos and
)'Outh .,¡ many ol the \1roms ruiJ che rap1>t>' ab,olute powcr to !iCkct
\1cum' .i • 111 h " rape nlJkle more U0US10g by thc c<hn1, ho>tilit) agaan'1
• <.lo1¡u>.1tc.J cnem)-• For S..rbia •-and m•tlc m >«ro n11ht b¡ lan about
1he bch.v1or PÍ th•t cncm) h IS r.ipe made e"1tin~ lw kn"'""~ th.r thcre
are no hmn< on "·hat can be done, that the women can t..., rapcd lo d0>1th
M05t ot alL it " r•¡>c madc <cxuallv irre<1s11hle by the foct 1h.i tbe women
are about to be ucn6ced, by rhe ulmnate pou'Cr of rcducm11 a person 10
• corpse, by the po.,erlessness of che womcn and ch1ldrcn in lhe fuce o!
thc11 imm1ncm murJer al che bands of tbd r rnpM. l 1 IS murJcr JS lhe
ulum•lc ><:xu.J •<1. Do not Sa) i1 is not sex for 1hc mcn \\'hcn tbc mcn
•re tolJ to 1uke 1he wumcn •way and no1 bnng lhcm b.ick. th~y "''"' thcm,
tbe,, kill 1hcm, 1hcn omcumcs rape thcm •RllJO, cu1 off thc11 f.rea<L\, anJ
np ou1 1hc11 v.'Omb' u Onc woman was allov.·ed 10 lJ\'C so l<W>ll ts •he ker1
her -...rbian capt<'r hard aD nidn onlly, niRhr aftcr ltlllhl ahrr n1¡;h1."
ThJS IS rapc •• tortUtt and rape as ~tcrnunancn ~e ""meo "'"'ºare
not kilkJ <¡>ca]t of ,.'llflWlg IO cake d!cir O\\'D in.,,. h b at ooce m.u> r•I"'
.nd scn.J r;tpc 1nili.tmgwhable from pro.uruoon h b <00.:dltrauon
c•mp u brotbd womcn 1mpounded to k p......,J •round by mcn llln<>ng
mm'° h IS •lto r•J'<' "' • P"iit) oí cthnac un1formny and cthnl< con4UC>t
annC"xa•a<ln n_nJ c'.\raruton, acqui~rion b~ ont~ nJt"m ,,.t tHhrr1 c."t>lc.,.n11:~11on
of -.omen \ t-h.- •• coloniz•tion of the culcurc lhcy '~"''lx'li"' ancl = snm<''"c'' hum•n n¡ihti nre rc:cogm1cJ •• \'lolJtt.J, he is probabl' a man
bodv a< wdl u o! 1ht' tcrritory 1hev occupy. lt 1• rape hc<·•u<e .1~rb "'ª""
IH • Th1ou10 the 801n1an lens
\'out apanment. h " ra~ tor rcproducunn •• c<hmc laqwdaucm; Croman
and \tu.lun "omcn .u" rapcJ lo hclp malr.e • "erbwi •tate by malung
'icrbtm h•b1cs."
Tlw L• c<hru<' rJJ"C lf 1h1> 'ft're ra.;1.il r•¡,.., u WtJulJ h., purc palluuon
die chJdren re¡:ank.J » du1' anJ <-mlam1oatctl thetr mo1hcri" bahie<, ..
in 1h<" \mmcan <;,.uth unJcr ,1., <'n . SI.el< Nhle"> 8ea11SC it is eihmc
tlJ'<', thc chtldrcn att r~rJed as clcJn •nJ ¡>unhnl· thetr fathers· b•b1e<.
~rh1Jn f,ab1c:>. as dcan as an\'O°" "11h J woman s blood m 1bem and on
them can be. The idea Sttnu to be 10 crc•le • hllh column wuhan Cro211an
.nJ Muslim >0acty, duldrt:11 tnll son>fl "hu w.U nsc up •nd jo1n thcir
fJ1hcrs. Mu<b Scrb1ao 1tfoolo¡¡y anti pr•t11<c iokcs • pagc fr<>m thc N•u
h.~,k. CombUllng -.·1th it the J1'th,11c v1cw 1h•1 1hc &pcrm cnrries all thc
~rncuc m11eri.U, 1hc Serhs hove ,1<h1cvc,l thc ul11muic raci<Jixation of cul
1urc 1hc (rine hopes! final cond11>ion of Nni•m: no"' culture is ~cnetic,!l
The >f)<'ctade of the UN ""'°ll5 »nlaun~ thc rorulauon they sur·=
prn.eJ to protect adds a touch of the pcn·crsc:. \h corre<pODderu observes
1hat • therc are .• . rcpons of U:>. Lfnlll'> parnopa~ 111 rapmg ~tuslun
anJ Croman •·ocnen from thc Scrb rape/Je.uh catnP> Th= pn:sence has
upparcml> mcreased ll"lfliclu~ an -.ornen and !!irf, tluougb the opcrung
ot brt>thclo, brotbd-mibSa¡!C parlon, pccp lhov; >. anJ the local producuon
oí pomo11uph1c film<.,. A fonncr CnatcJ N•11.- Protrct1on for""
UJ\PROf(lR1 comm.ndcr rcponcJly a<ecpte<I oítcn from Sabi•n com
m.mJcrs 10 bnn~ him Mu<lim ~"l' from thc nmps for or¡pes." This par-
•<hl!lllillc mstance of the male b<Jnd acro<s offic.U lmes pomtedlv poo;es.
in thc ~ender contex1. Juv.:nal's quesuon o! "·ho shall ¡tuard the guard·
1.u1s-dlpecially wben the guart!Llns are olrc3dy there to guard the 01hcr
~u~rJ1ons. rhé N:ws took p1uurc:s. bu1 in it> sophJsdCJtal cmploymcm
.,1 mcdi.1 t<"chnology, in thc opcnnn> <1Í ns use t1f pornogr.ph). 1n ita
«>Nctnu• malung of poroograph) oí u• •trorn•c•, 1h1> 1> pcrhop• the 6m
trul\ m<xlcrn u·ar :-'
\\lacre do m1emation•I human righu I•"· and humanitarian f..., stand
<m th1,> In real tl'rms. the rule< 1hai '°'"m thc 1...··< uuuncru of "'otnen
el,,.,,. lwre penam here as v:cll: A hum•n L• not ooe v.·ho is sexuallr and
1cprnducnvely ,'JOlared. Ooc t> 11<~ human •J,,,.n thcrc. • :\ot ts a hamao
riglu ~hmg • = m soo•:t• or 1n a stttc ol ruuurc wkcs au"S> lrom
)"" ~nJ othrn hkc )<>U In l•a. lhcrc are no othcn hkc you, becau.e "a
m.in• defines ulut "m 1nJJ\1Ju>I" m<"lln• and hum.m nghl> are 1n<>0tlv
•mJl\1Ju.Jº nghts. Men h.l\'C thcar humJo rtghu ,,..J1Ued, r.thtr, "hca
 Crlmes of Wn Crimu of Pe¡ce • 10
Men are permmed 10 be 10d1v1duals so can be v1olated as ind'"iduals. lf
you are hun a$ o mcimbcr ol a group, thc odds that thc group will be
recogntz<OJ as violalcd, con>idcrcJ hum:i.n, .irc U1'lprovcd ií 11 induJes mcn.
UnJcr guaranL= of intcm•uon:tl hum•n ngh!l, "" "·ell •• in C\·crydoy lifc,
J u·om1111 is "'not )~ n name for o \\'"Y oí bcin~ huni.tn ""2•
A ñ¡¡)11, as this legal delinicion is lived in realicy, becomes somcthing nu
woman, as a member of rhe ¡voup womeo , has to lose. A right is also
someihing only an ennry ""th the power of a nacioo can violare; it is a
dury of ¡¡ovcmmem no• ro imerfere wirh ctvil and polmcal hberues as thev
soaall¡ ex1sL The role of intemauonal law has been L~ely, m lsaiah
Bcrlin'• sensc,'' ncgauve. lt cou!J bc so much more. but ir 1cnds 10 fosrer
humnn ngbts lcss Lhrough mand•ting g<1vcmmcnt.il tntel\lention thilD
through cnforcing RQvernmenwl abs1inencc. In othcr words, if your hum•n
rí~hcs nre goin¡t to be viola1ed, prav ir is by somconc who loob likc J
gov<mmem. nnd that he already acted. and oc.red uTOn~.
ln Eumpe. ~orne ba~ts exists for mcerpreun~ imemadonal law ro require
rhat govemmcnts aa m Sttuaoons Ltke these; rhe affirmau\'e sta<<' 1s more
congenia! co the Europcnn legal tt"•diuon m any c:ise.... Somerunes mter·
nruiorutl bwnan rlghts law is strctched 10 coumenance acoon against pri·
vate víollllions, hui tbi< is pursu<J sdoaivdy. l londurns w;s hdd rc'Spon
sible for murdcrs by priv•re deuch squaJ~ th•t lxuh 11cted •• if 1hcy were
ofiicial nnd were officiaUy permi1ted 10 operote." "Muinstrc.tm humilD
rlghts ¡¡roups have rnken on rhe pbenomenon oí 'disappcarances' in Ar·
gemina, murder of indi¡¡coous rubber rappers in Brazil. and raciaUv-
motivated hatc cnmes-all abuses perpeuaced by pnvate iodividuals. •
oores Loo He.se, "but when it ~"Ornes to the beuttng :wd murder oí aullions
of womcil eacb ycar, thdr hands are uecl.""'
The violariQtu of tbe human right• of mcn bcuer 6t thc pJraJigm of
human rígh ts violurions bccause tbat paradigm hJs b«n bJ>cd on thc ex
petionccs of men. Mole reality lh1s bero1ne hum•n righ!l principie, or •t
leust 1hc principie ¡¡overning human ri11h1s pr11aice. Men hove and takc
Uberáes as n function of cheir ~ pou'er as meo Men have ofren necded
su.te force to ger away wirh sub¡ecttn¡! other men: sLwery and SC¡lrel\'IOOO
m che Urured Smtes and Hitler's p"'5eCUl10ns were explicitly Jegalized. So
the model o( human rights violauon ¡,. bascd on state •crion. The resuh is
whcn mtn use 1hclr ubem~s soclally 'º dcpm-c women ol thdrs. lt docs
not look likc ,, hiim•m rigbt< violauon. Wh<n 1nen are dcpri, •.J of lhoirs
by f(O\.,,mmenl5. i1 doc..
Tn 1he cuse of "'Ornen. bccal,ISC m.tle domirumce i< built mm rhe '50d:tl
1'8 • lñrn&h lh• e••• ,•• lens
suuaure. social force is ofcen eoo~ to depri\'C them of human righis on
a mass scale. Even so. swces do collalxmue clabonuely, not 1us1 by ulxli·
catln!! .oc:iJ11 lúe bu1 by ltltervcniog legally 10 cnmlt mcn m much of thc
f"lWCr thc¡ socL1Uy cxcrcisc. lcgiumuung what mcn e11t gc1 .iw•y wiLb "'
Í•ct Bul C\en recogniiing 1his fairly active sl.ttc 1nvolvcmcnL, m051 women
ure no1 direcrly rnped, forcibly imprewia1cd, •nd trafficked by scare policy,
a1 least nor most of rhe nmc. Althou~h che srare m sorne way stands behmd
mos1 of whar meo do 10 women, men typrcally bave enough power ro
conrrol and violate women \\othout che scate's exphcitly mrervenmg ro
allow ir. A.\ n resuh, womcn att not seen as sub¡ected by the state as such,
so Lheir condiuon is regardecl as prclegal. social and hencc namrol, md so
llll'{!cly out>1de mtcm•tional bumnn rights accounubihty.
Now considcr th•• mos• humnn rígh1s instrumenrs cmpowcr SllltCI 10
nct a¡¡ninst stare1, rnther chan mdividu"h or gmups to iKt on rhcir own
bchalí. Givcn rhar only state •iolations of human rights are recoj!tlized.
1his is \'Cl1' odd. Srare11 are rhe only ones reco¡rniied as vioLmng bu_mao
~ts, )'el srarcs are also tbe only ones empowétcd LO redress tbem. le is
oot only tbe fox guarding rhe henhouse. it tS tbe gW1rdums guarding thc
guar<llans. Not only are meo 's so-callcd pnvaté ncts ugainst \1-'0men left
out; powc1 to act aga1t1st public nCIS i~ left cxdusivcly in tbe bonds oí tbosc
who commll thosc acts. No •lllLe cffecu\'cly gunr.inttts women'• human
ríght> withtn iti borders. No si.ate has an inccn1i'"' to brenk ranks by s<:1rín11
a human ríghu st.indurd for "'Ornen 's srnrus nnd tteatment tbat no SbllC
ye1 meets. lntemationally, men's srares prorea ellch orher rhe wav men
protecr each orhcr from accountabiliry for violations of womcn within
siates. At leasr this is one explanation for tbe failure of mtemational human
nght5 Ltw cffccti,'C!y to cmpo"•er individuals or groups of women to en-
forcc tbdr own human nghts ag81tlSt individua.Is and pa1cs .Jtke. 11 Whicb
statc is m a pos1tion to cballcngc another •tate on women's human nghts?
\\'htch sutLe evcr will?
Wartime is excepuonal in rhat atrocities by soldicrs agaiJUr dvilians are
always essenrially s1a1e acl$. But mcn do in ""ª' wbat they do in peace.
When it comes m ...'Ornen, at lcast to civilian c:asualties, the complacency
tbat surrounds peacetimc cxtcnds to war. bowever tbe la.-'S read. And rhe
more a conilict can be framed as u:ithm a suu;,. as a ovil war. as social ns
Jornesuc, ihe less human ríghts arr reeognized as beiog '1ob1ed." l.n other
"·orJs, 1he closcr a light comes Lo home, rhe more ·feminiz~-d" ihc vicum•
bce<>mc no mau<'.r thcir gender, und rhc l..s likcly m1ernationnl hum.10
ngh1s \\"lll be found to be violoted. no mnucr "'bar \\..S done.
C11mes of War C11mes ol Puce • 149
1T
The ~..xi,'éd concepi:s at work hcre h•vc ,, compltx history. mosily 11
western onc, wluch c•n be reJd and c~>mpmscd llS follows. The rontrnc ·
t>lrian liberul., building on Gr.-ek .mJ R.1m•n .mtcccdents, oppo,,.,J me
d1eval "ª'"" n01iMS rb.11 miw>ed human V'1 lue within a rigid hiernrchy
b3sed on b1tth. Seekin~ to secure humao freedom against scatc ryrnnny
ihe" posned rhe rndical noaon rhar eacb person. qua human, had, mcarunl!
bad by narure. irrevocable nnd equal encitlements to hfo. liberty, secutiiy.
dignuy, propercy. and so on. Through rhe Amcrican nnd frencb re,'OIU·
tions. this u.lea of in•licnablc human wonh called indiv1du:U rights was
entrenchcd, cht-:king org11ni>.ed powcr in thé forn1 of go'''"nmcm. Sub·
l;C<(Uet11ly, romc tr(1nsna1ionnl Jg~nents fun her ele\'ll1ed and enshnned
the sume recognicions as binding among sta1e pames.
Tben thc Third Reich unerly violo1ed nll such righ1s-inter alia by ma
nipularing rhc pre·l~5 system that left mlnonry procecoon ~duStvdr to
stares" - isoladng and liquidaring those it saw as inferior or poUucin¡? or
oppositional. In P"tllcular. the official aucmpted extcrmmauon of the jews
as a peopl.e galvaniud 1he nocion oí supranational guaramees of hwnan
tigh1s wlr.h o surviw l ur¡¡cncy. This organiz~ geoocide by govemmeot
policy indelibly m3rkcd unJ fun&uncnully shaped the ron1ent, príotitte&,
sen~itiviLi<S, anJ deep si ructure of the receired lnw of human righll> in our
time. ln o reading of this realicy, more than ony other, conrempomry
human ri~rs linds ÍIS principled ¡tround.
Largely beneacb notice m rhis tradition has been rhe status of women
as sucb. socially subordma1ed ro men and excluded or ígnOted, marg!Oal·
ized or subiectcd by suuc policy. Womcn's enforced inec:¡unhty has been a
icahty on which all these •ySt""1S urc mJLerially predlcatcd so seamlcssly
it h.is been i1ivisible Wo111en were not atizcn~ in Greck democrncy: they
were wives, slnves, prostirutes" l n this sening, Aristo1le formulo1ed his
equ_ality priociple as trearing likes alike nnd unlikcs unalikc-u conccpt
fundamenrally unquestioned since. includin¡¡ in the intemational human
n ghlS conrext_ In this 11pproach, it does not maner ">herher one was bun
or hclpcd. pcrmmed to domin.itc or kept subordmated; all thar maners is
cbat empincal condinon. no mau cr how created. 6.ts oormüri,,e rrearmcn1.'
Tiiat women wtre apparcntly so Jifferent 10 AristoLle .ts no1 to be treated
uncqually unde1· hi> pdnciplc wben excluded írom ciuzcnship h"' nor bcen
ctmsídcrcd • drawb•ck or an cnd1cation 1hat somc1hín¡; is omiss.
Building on 1his rrodition, thc original líberals fom1ula1ed rheir social
rompaas in and for sociecies in wbich \\'Ornen could no1 C\'en vote. Wirh
150 • Througb 1h• Busnian l.tns
thc cxccpuon 1>1 John Sruilrt Mili,•• th<-y did 001 s<:e a problcm ta ihls,
pro1ccung thor purponcJly univer•.tl nouons o[ whnL have conlt! Lo be
called hum.m ri¡¡hts in woys 1ha1 Jíd nm cxplic1úy indudc womon •nd
cffc.-ctÍ\-ely kcpt most \\•ornen Írom ticcé~ ll' thcm l lumons own proJle'rty
women mostl)' cnnnot: mon: llftcn 1he~ nrc propcrty Humans are cqual
because they can kíll; u-ornen are s<>cialized not to kili and are punished
not ~lorified, when they do. Humans consent t.o a regime or lmve it;
women ha.e no voicc: lo diss(;[lt, no place to go. and no meaos oí leavmg.'
At the samc umc, guaranltcs woruen spcafi<:ally nced because oJ sex in-
equahty LD soae1y, morder Lo lwe t.o o SLandord ddioed as huroan-likc
freedom fcom being bought and solJ as sexual ch>tLel, au1onomous eco·
nomic mean$, reproductiv~ ron1rol, personal security from 1numnte inva
sion, a crediblc va ice in public life, a nonderivutivc pince in 1he world-
were no< considered ot aU.
\\"lb.ar women need for equality \\'3S not only nor guaranteed: much of
women 's inequalicy was guaranteed in the Corm of men ·s indMdual civil
bbenies." ln r.hese r.heorics. abuses of \\'Ornen were tacitly if not explicidy
conJoned as mdividual righ1s. Who1 \\'Cre called indh1dual nghts have
becomc, in life, riglus of mcn •~ a i¡roup ovcr women individuall) and ns
a closs. \X'omcn'$ rape becomcs men's libeny, l(an¡¡ rupc their fra1cmi1y,
pr0<ti1u1 ion 1hcir propeny, forc;:d pn:gnan1.-y 1htir fomily and thcir prlvacy,
pomo¡trJphy 1heir spccch Put another W•Y· whacever rheir rebdlions ac-
complíshed for hum8IJ freedom, and ir was subscanlial, the American Rev-
oluüon did not Cree the slaves, and ebe F'rencb RC\:olulion did free the
Marqws de Sade-facts conneceed by legiumaring a uaffic LD human be-
LDgs and the sexual abuse of women for economic gato.. Tu.is ts whar the
rece1ved con~pt of ct¡u:úity meanc and lurgcly still meaos.
Bccausc \vomen are a gtoup \\1hos<: clnim 10 human status is tc.nuous
ani.1 Jenfod, 1he attempt 10 opply hum.m rights luw lo womcn a.~ such
m.1kes rwo more general problems -u'Orse, Humnn ri¡!hts hove no J!round
and no ieeth As to 1eeth, human ri¡¡hr< are enforced imemotion.Uy pri
marily berween s1ates, s1a1e> thar a¡¡ree 10 them. Many. such as the Unued
!>tates, do not a¡!'ree to many of them.. Enforcement is mainly through
reporang, meunmg moral force, mcani~ cff~i'"" nonL-nforcemcnt. Sig-
natoty cOun[nb are t.'\·en pcrm1ued formal c."Ccus~ fram con1pl.Wn~1 a
practitc drsproporuonaLely u""d lO cv•Je scx cquahty provi>ÍOLU. •• The
covenun1s ugainst tr•fficking womcn for cxnmplc, 11re mony and vcncr
•ble;"' yet the tr.1f6c continue• unabared, untouched, llourishing. Thail•nd
even rraffics rn women by policy," Chrna may officially force abortlons 1nd
~tcrilizations," y~ notliin¡¡ is done. Enforcemmt of human ri¡;lns •~alnst
C11mts of War, Cromts ol Puce • ISI
stntes' 1'1ck of •Cllon and agamst pnvace pomes ma¡ be poss1ble in pnnaple
but os \-ir1u.illy obsenL m puC'Uce For 'vomen. llltcrnacional hum!ln rights
pr"""1l the b1gges1 g¡ip bcrwten ¡irinci¡>lc nnJ praCLkc in the knO\m lcgul
W<;lrJU.
Many e•isnng rnternotion.11 ins1rumenl' J!Ullr~nrce sex et¡ualily." Yet so
litde nf women's expcrience of violation of human rights hlls b<= brought
under thcm ~al it becomes necessary to inquire into 1he foundanqns of
human ri¡¡h1s LO explain why. The pnmary foundaiion of human ri¡¡htS has
been natural law, a secular rehg100 tha1 moves only those wbo bcltC\1' m
11. !LS contenr tends to redescribe thc social SUlLW t¡uo llJld 1mnbu1e 1L to
nuturc. (,Emphatic use of 1he cxistenriol verb 10 aflinn loudly .uiJ of1cn
Lh•t wom•n ·11n:" human bcings carrios only thc dout of ¡¡, SP<'akcr's
decibd le\-c:l.I Positivc luw hdp> linlc more, sincc women huve had littl•
''Dice in iis formularion in mos1 places. Morality. an ahernaríve ¡¡round.
can be movin11. but does noi mean an~one has 10 do nnyrh.mg, as illustratcd
by the use of the phrase '"moral vicrory" 10 refer ro an acrual delC<lt. Ali
r.bese grounds come dou'tl ro social power m the end. 1f you havc u. you
can meeL r.be tests for "human"; bu1 powcr IS exacúy what women are
socially dcoicd, whkh is why 1heir lnumn nghtS cu11 be vioLttcd and wby
they nced them recogni>cd
At its philosophic1l foundations. Lhc n•rur11ll•w tr•dition on which
human righ1~ remain primorily based has never been deor on whcthe1
women are 1nenºs natural equals. Rarher, ro oversimplify a complicued
debate, it has been relatively dear that they are not and has providcd no
mechod for resolving dífferem cooclusions. each equally 6 rmly srud ro be
predicared on t.be Jaw of oature. Nor has it reconaled its obscrv•uon that
sex is u natural diffcrencc wuh •ts viow tha1 equahty is prtdicnctd on
natural iden111y. To th<>'C who ¡;rouod hu!lhln righ1s in the oppon unicy 10
livc ou1 onc's life projcct r•tionully, 14 tt should be pointed ouc 1hn1, sociilly
speaking, women os womcn hove nen been permined n liíe project" and
are widely considere<! as nor possessed of nuionJliry, or <>Í \1°ha1 passcs f(lr
reason '1lllnng roen. Ot.bers groond human nghts in basic personal libcrty"
or in fundamental human dignicy,41 the problem bcing that you airead)
ha'e 10 have them to havc a humll11 righ1 violatcd when you are derued
them. So, it's back to nJturc.
Morum~r r\iUcr e.xemplifics rnthcr th.m aposes thU circuLriry whcn he
>;\ys, "lf there •r• no n•tural rights, 1hcre ore no human righL~¡ ií th•n: Me
no human righrs, rherc cunnol be any crim~ a~uinst humanity. ,.,,.. Women's
probll'm has bcen that .socitty .ind law do not ·~= tbat nature made them
human, so no1hing r.hor is done to tbem 1s a cñme agains1 humaniry, so 10
IS2 • Throuih 1he Bosni•• Leos
•pm, becausc thcy bu\c nanc. lf society g1ves you no nghis, >Ucb that a
>t.t1c nttcl ncvet deny them to keep you from having them, 1L DlJIY do you
lutle goo<l 10 have chem formally guamntcod in i.ntcma1ional law. Frte of
this esserulAlist circuJar1ty. thc tnsk is to ~mund u claJm to trimes .igam.st
hum•niry clearof nnniral ri11hts, which are not n:co¡¡nized to exist in nomre
unl"'°' they are rernplittd 10 c.xist in socicrr In othcr words. aU disrouri;e
about namrc is n sooal discourse,
Horror ac th~ Holocaust grounds modcrn mocahry. No onc knows what
ís ¡¡ood. bw ncarly ~eryonc knows rhaLthc Holocallbl was éviL \'('e may
oot know whoL human i.~. but the Hnlocausr \\'3Sllthuman. Jew!Sh women
\\ere distmctively ubused in ways thut conncct 10 anú-&miLic mísogyny to
this Jay ami minlingl¡· r"'emble 1he 1orum.•• of Croauan and Muslim
wc>men by Serbs The horrilic tonures Jnd extenninution of million< oí
Jews of borh sexes hecause rhey "-ere Jews has oversh~dowed everythin¡,¡
then ond since.
Considered ín terms of equality theocy, the Third Reich can be seen to
foUow an unbroken hne from Ansroúe through Amencan segre¡iauon of
[feaung "likes alike and unlikcs unaUke"-Jews hu"ng been rendered 'un-
lrke • Aryaruo. • Yet human ri¡¡h1s low srill uses the same equnliry conccpt.
wiLhout rea!l~~menr. Thc dominnn1 le1son 1ha1 !!«ms 10 have hecn
lenmed in<icad wa< that Jcws could be and wcre annihilated bec;1use chey
were "diffcrent." nm tha1 something is wrong with an equallt)• standard
that pennits extermioocioo for "differences." The Jews failed r.he equaliry
test-not the equalil) tese failed the Jews. Nor thaLa bener equality theocy
would have stopped Hitler. Bur wha1 is oue en make of an equalit)' prin-
aple apporenúy logically consment 1'1Lh. and undisrurbed by, genocide?
lf equofüy's nbsrraclions are receptil'e to Nazi substancc, ore they pcrhaps
a tlawcd \'Chicle for social justicc? Thc foct th•1 imcmaúonal law pcrva
•ivcly ~'"'r.>fllC<!ll <ex equ.1lity, yet there i$ no &ex equulity, while mass rape
and for~d childk•ring go on both in pencuime and in w•r. including in
genocidal war, suddcnly be¡¡in$ 10 make sense.
m
[TJ~ relusal to dénnnd _. onc •fnolutc standMd oí hul1Wl
t.hc greau:st utumph of tnufcmuusm º"ª
•!)' 1$
che -.ill co hberanon. , .. A un1·
\-crt.ial 1t.and11td oi llunum dlgltU)' l f tht ouk pnnciplc. 1hJ1 co1np1ctdy te·
rudwrt'!f 'l<'X cl3~, cxplCJHiJljon and .Jso prupcl• all cf w JntO • fururt'
where 1Ju, fond111ncnr>I polmcal qu0St1oa i• !he qualuy .,¡ hlc Íor 1111
humm be-in~
-Aodrta Dwc:idtin. Ri11.t.Wt1JZ Wo""'n (198li
 Cnmn 01 W11 Cromo ot Pntt • 151
Onc appm.ich tn th1< rmbkm m1~h1 be to rnrerpret c.'Xl<URR mr<mauonal
sex equahry guarante<:> ª' ¡imunded m the global "<>m<·n , m<l\Tmmt
a(am,1 ~• tnc.¡u•lm. mcl~ 1>CJ<wl anJ rcproducu1c abuses. and •ppl•
r.hc rcsul111111 con,-.:pts in ¡>e•ce .inJ m •ur A njlht to C'!'J;.111\ boch u •
nght 111 1uclt anJ •• • h.tsis lor c..¡u.J JCC1'>> to oth<r n¡:hts, ",,uJJ ~round
IU dchnllt<lfl of mt•qu.Ju1 md In 1mphc.uon 11< wn<e¡>t <>I thc hum<tn
m 1hc.' unÍH'D.11-nt<'.mmjl \\'<'rl<.t..;dr and ei.'Cl)"'hcrc.' >p<>nhllt<'011•h m
dí~ennu.•-m.wemcnt for wnmen's rii!l>1s
Thc rcal1ty reco~tzc..1 b) th1s mO\"ement ís J1encro11n~ ncw prlllCJpb
ne\\ m comcnt, lorm. re,tch, opcrnt10n. and rcbuon t0 "°c1al hk In '""·
r.hc principies ol thl; mol'ctnent are bcst appro.xunatcd 111 North Amcncun
cquallt~ law. pion•"<:rcJ b) tbc Blllck civil nghts movcm•-nl tn thc Urutcd
Statn m thc 1%0• .nJ 1970s and the \\'Ornen s mo' cmcnt m <.anaJ;1 m
thc 19!.0s .md l 9':111• n.,..., cquah1y ngh<S are 1mplemcn1cd bv UlJmJu.tlJ
•H"""
•nd grours n¡:•m>i <llhcr ínJ"1duals •nd ¡uours as \\'tll •• h\ anJ
¡:n1emmcnc• They ali°" ¡;mcmmem< to procttd hm d,1 Mt hmit tn pw
cmmcnt> thc •b1hn to •et a~ain..<t <fücnmirumon ~ •11°"· c<>mplami.
tor mdm:ct and <\ 1cm1c mn¡ualítv. To~ fulk rcal12ed, thq call lor rcltd
~aw,1 'liuc macuon .a. wd.I a. aCllon. Such Jc:,.1co .JJ cnforn·mcttt po-
tcnual rar.hcr than lct >t.tto olf thc hooL
In thc r«cl\'cd mtcriuuun;t) human ngbrs tudmon, b) <ontrl\t, cqu.al.uy
b.i• bttn more ol,,.troet thm concrete. more tr=\c<ndcnt than Kcul.tr
mo"' daC\'llJ.-J lrom nJlllr~l IJw th.an aJmmc.Jlv 1<>c1•ll) ha.,cd Thc l m
'"'""ª' Dedar•non of l luman Ri¡¡hts ¡¡rnms cqualin· ·w11haut Ji<uncti<'n ot
an)· kind,"' ª' it dminction wcre rhe pmblem • nd lnck ('f dmmcunn rhc
solutíon 'fñc Convenuon on tbc Eluninarion of Ali Fom" oí D1;cnm1
n.1uon Ag.,n>t \\:'ornen ddines cliscnnuna11on a¡:amst \\t11ncn m lar¡¡cl1
geoder-ncutral anJ rderenu•I terms. gwuaniecm¡¡ en¡o) mcnt CIÍ 1111 other
np.hts "on • bJ\h ól e4u.al.ny of meo and womcn. ' n,;, hao "''"th bcen
ín1trprctcd nun,uh•tJnuvdv, hJ> oot .UO\\·ed cLiim• b, mdi' 1du.U. or
@:«XJP'- cl.atm\ ..ep1n,1 ,.,'\l\'éfnmcn1 in1CUC1n or ..-1;.Um' .. ~1nst l'"'"'c p,.t
tics 11lC" rommllt('C.· th.tt f'r\i"fNn.~ u is commg 10 rn-ngn111C", h._l"toC\'C'r rh.u
•ioknce ag-Jtn.i '"nx-n " a form of su di>Crimmaum an,1 sn-b to makc
<tates rcspon.-.hlc for f'nl'llc.' aru" tÍ they faí) to p=cnt, 10\'e'Ug;llC Of
0
puru>h d1.cnm111<1t0<) aru of '-íolcnce." But repon:Ul¡t ,, ns pnmar. toul
tor dll."Ctu..uon.'
A•• b•m t..r an c,¡-.nded e.:¡ual1cy pnnc1ple, "~'m<-n's r">1>1mcc to 11ex
mcquJln~ IS
ub1qu11ous •nJ ncrywherc concrete Jn1I ""''.Jlv opc.,lcc !t
lJ nol b.l\C\.l on l'l<'1n1<
thc '-Jme 1lS mcn hut on re'1't•nt;c 10 \'1tW.1t1on ¡¡nJ
ahu'-C iand ~c.·conJ t..:1.a,\ ciu1en,hip becausc one is .i \\'Om.tn lt l'h•rt" t:luw
to home Afncan womm oppo:;e 11enital murilation Ph1l1pp1nr, Th•1. Jap
1H • 1hrou¡h tht Bosn11n ltns
an~. anJ ""cdhh "'amen or¡!anu.., Jl8"'"'' thc '"" tmk \\~omen in
l'apWI :"cw Gumd mJ thc Urutcd Si.in anJ •orlten at thc UnucJ
:"Jtion• ''"""t scxu.il har.is.ment. Bru1lwi anJ lt•h•n wom<n prolé>t oo
mottc b.mct) JnJ 'honor .. 1 nwl<' .,_,...,,,... lur killinM thcm. lndiJn
"''mxn pro1<"$l J.'"'IJ anJ suttee a • m.ak exrn•c lor killint1 them Amor
h.:.in w'"""' prot~t J.;>~u"· bJUC-í) .an,I mmanth. lovc ª" • mate excuse
tor kilhny thc.'m Canadi:m 1''0Jllen prot<>t the uu ot lemml'm as a m.ale
Cl<CIJ>e tor k1Um¡¡ 1hem. \'Comen even·wherc.' n.,. up 1111aum rape e<:en Ul
culture' whcre women bave re.:emly been re¡¡•rJi:J ~ ch.me!. \Vomen m
tltc UnncJ S1a1es, &anJino1v1a, ancl thc: Ph1hppmcs rcSl>l pomography
1"'""J motherhooJ as opposeJ from 1rtlan,I to Gcrm.111y to Banglade.h.
1cmalc 111fanudJc .1nd objecufymg .1d\c111.,11¡¡ are lc111>l.nc<I lllaJn>t in
lnd1• Evcl)"hcrc womcn 'Ct'k •«<''' to lncr•<Y· whith thq h•vc oftcn
bc<·n <k-nicd ª' women, and ro SUJVl\'ll hasetl on 1hc ""rk thcy Je,, •S "di
as to •ccc•• to dom~ all kinds of v.•ork "
(>ne leaturc of •hi< movemenr" 11< comhmaunn of ""°""'
p.on..,,n-men are not treated th" "·av-\l11h ns rcfus.J to be limued 10
sptt:i6c rom·
1m11J1Urt¡1 or miulaunl! mcn. \'<'ornen'• di<cr>11\ b extr2<>nhnaty, \tt t'\'Cl)·
,.hcre, 1rnh -ui p.amcuLuit). bd""· ,.,..,,., m.tn Thi> proJUCd iln 31>·
pm.'l.lllon lor thc ÍJct th.it diflcrcncc by 11.dt " ccn¡¡nl) not thc """""'
h>r 1C«"1U dllil utiurulup u hJ, h..'\.'Oltlé, but th•t 1m¡""""1 mJcnomy "
ncr¡thm~ 11>e mo1em<n1 cri11dics "'<1411~ or~•mted IK''"·cr u,.,Jf, as ,...,u
"-' it" c.~1.·c.. ~
Th" mo1ertk'nt has produced a rich concc1>t ot cqu.1litt n(l( a< <ameness
bu1 ., lack ot h1erarchy. Irs e1erywhere rel.mvc 11n1versahty. irs refusal to
«:ttle for anythmg less than a single standard ol human di¡¡n1cy and emi·
tkntcnt. llllU it> demand for elevation in that s1.mJarJ have leh Arisiotle
m thc Ju>1. !ne >COpe and depth of 1hi> uprí,in¡¡ l<ir wcw c.¡ualu¡ offers
A nc~Jc<tcd g1ounJ for >c.'X C<JU•fit> o• a hum.in fl~ht Íht RlOVé'lnCRl pro
Hdt" .1 pnnnpb.I hasi• m soo..J ,.,,1Juy for w<mit-n'o hum~n ril'.hL' for t
J'l"lll\'C cqu.1111¡· 11< principies mdudc 11 "'" Jo not d11 11 to cach other
)'OU cannot do 11 to us. anJ mdíng thc 1uhordma11oñ oi '"omm bttau.~
1hc) are "'Omttl.
ºCl\'il n~t'' b.tve beco CO!htdertod • <ubpru•'llk"C ol hum.an ~rs. lfP·
icallv W.~W>hcJ Jrom poliucal. so.:1.J <<onomic, md culrunl riglns. as
1'cll J> ritiht> ol pct><>nbood. A more mibracmg !ICIUC ol C>jUilit) b Je.
1tlc~•tng anJ bc:mit •ppbcJ Ul Nonh Amer1<•, <•11¡.:m.mng m 1hc en il ri¡ih<>
llru!ll(le ol Bl•,b for >ocíal eqti•lny throu¡:h lc~.11 e4u.1luy m thc Unucd
S1.111,.., 11nd CXlc:nd1n¡c [O lt'\ c:urrml p1nn.u;ll· forrnu1u11tln 1n rhc Suprcme
c·ourc c,f C:1n-ida·"' equillity 1un~ruJenc.:c.• nn~1n;atinJ1 in tht< \\'Ornen•!\ move·
Ctomts o! Wu C11mu ot Pu<t • 155
mcnt l'ht, equ.W11· is nm conlined m equal Je<c" to othcr n¡dus. .is 11 ts
m 1011:matk1nal hwnm righis law" illlU mn•t doolC>tlC <qu;l¡ty lau, but ~
1 prtn<lplc.' in n• ''"'" ~ht. Tht> <quahl) h•lu to >0<1.J umt,.,.t, brooJh
anJ an <.1ch p.artu.:uUr. ttl d1m1n.uc rrn1JOSCJ .ir.aulic.:otru.m lt cn\1urms an
IKllH' n•lr fo< cqualU) la" in unplcltlénttng thc -ru.tn ch•n¡:e>
In <"•n.tdJ the arrro.,ch t.ike< thc fnnn ,,¡ r<qumn¡: tlut "'" "rmmote
«¡1ul11, Th" "<nt.til< the promorion ot a •n.ien" ni equ•I dr~mcv •nd
~r«t In the wurds ot the Supreme \.oun (lt C..tnada. "[Tlt hJS a br¡¡e
remcd1.J t'<lmponent "• lt recn¡in12es that S((C1;t) 1neq1tJli1> .:mts and must
be chan~cJ. rJther thnn assuming a neutral and eqUJI so<1.U world .md
•vo1dln¡¡ lc¡;11I J1lleren1wio11 h) prc~rvc lt lt• appr1..1th I• ba.cJ un no·
ttdn¡¡ thc rcJl1ty of inc4uilh1y m ordcr tu cml tt, rathcr rh•ln <ln euforcing
• _.,JorlillnJnc's and gcnder nctn rJllty. \\ hich h.vc <1Ítcn mcant • blmdncs.
10 thc unet¡u•I "'"lmes of color and ~cnder Thi' m•ndJtc " mtcrprcted
\\11h panicular scnsitivuy 10. and prior111 upon, d1minatm~ 1he mequalil)·
ol ~roup< th•t hn·e tradirinoallv been <ocio.111' dt<aJnni.~ed
Tht< cqwlnv loo~ to "cm! soaeiy' on thc 1... c1 of <>r<lin•n irmsaeb<>ns
anJ m1crac11on;. bunng and sdhn¡l. work anJ eduuuon and accommo-
J.111on., home 11Dd thc •t:rttl. ccmmuntcauons JnJ an>urJn•c . .., •·di as
'"ting, dct11u11>, and 1urio. lt encomp.IS>CS pn1hib1t1<>n ol rJcull) >qr10·
~•ted ll•il<t> md tc..:hing ucul hJ1rcJ >au•I <óNCJnn b) dn<t<m. omd
<kn1Jl llÍ P"'~nJnt) bcnelirs. h i< rootcJ m <''t'l')JJ) lile, k..>km¡¡ b."}ond
1he l~~~I formoli<m of formol equolny lO 1no•I <0n«•4uence. Ir under-
<1<mtl• tha1 although Ulequaün• buns md1viduols, i1 hum them as members
ol social groups. lt addresses rbe most sys1e.•m1c íncqu•h~es a< "·eU ;is ones
1h111 huppcn onh· to a feu· individuills. l 1 practire• J social. contexroal.
rdot1(JJUI, •n11h1crarchicul cqualicy 1uri>prud.:ncc.
A• <UJ rcnúy Jdincd. intcmauon•I hum;n r1gh1> •re ><> "b,1r.ct that
pctlplc who t:\1l1L:rctdy bchevc pt)IJr <'lppo~uc~ tun ·•1-trci.: t'n thL-m vn pru"I
llJll< i>nd gl\< thcm equall\ to no onc Boih • St•hn .inJ a Solzhem1>yn
emhrJO! tht'm That ne.,her would likelv 'ª'º'civil ri~ht' J< de.cribed
he"' '"AA"''' thc ten•ion beN'\X'fl <uch "c1vtl ngh1' onJ "human ri,:hts"
0
._, curremly c<>ncen.eJ, m panicular heN'rt'D alxtract ºhum.tn nghrsº
cqualuy anJ ,,.,i,.WUJ,.., "avtl n¡ihrs' equahl\ <.1nl n¡zhr, bqDn ar home
ér d.- 10 11. human ~ Sttm to improw thc tunhcr onc gc:b Jrom
home By• prdcrd\cr lor Jm:u a\il n:mcd•c> 1n r.hc h~nJ. of thc uncqual,
civil n.:ht> J1m1butc Jl<>"'CC from gO\crnm<'flt to l'<'•rlc ••ti"" redutnbutc
J'(•\\tr :.amon~ (14.."np1c- Jlum.1n nghts u:n"f ltl '« 1hc \loltC' "ª' th(' cnem., ot
<<¡11•111" mil rt¡ih~ 'l<.'C 11 as thclf potcnual promo1cr l lum.m n~bt> lo<nte
e<¡u•litv 1n d1minJlln~ irrallon.J Jiffcrcn11u110n; t1\'1I ri~hi. •ce cquJlif\· us
15& • lhra•¡h the Bosnlan lens
much m uihrmam·• cfouns of cultural paruculan[), in enJin~ oppress1on
"heiher b"'cd on rc-.il differc;11ces or no1. nnd m J!tcnn¡¡ thc mJi0>tre.im
ro ucc.:ummudJu.~ m u.ncompromiscJ Jiven;jty.
Thc curttni polit ic.11 forre oí 1hc m.linstrc.1m huninn ri¡\hts '11.'W 1akcs
u~ dce¡> 1ex1, on my •n.Jvsi<. from .1 reodin¡: nf the Nazi «pcrience: Sur-
,;,.u] lies in blendm~ in, in bcin¡? indisnnguish•ble from one's surround-
in)?s, m nondiffereminuon. Cast m equnlity tcrms, ms1ead oí criricizmJ? die
\'l<!W diat lalled YQll for bcmg .L.ffercnt, vou lígbt for die right 10 be rec-
o¡lmzed ru. the same and to bccomc the ;ame because tl will keep you .Wvc.
So m.m> Polish Jews die<l, ll 1s said. because tl1ey only spoke Y1dduh
Thc} ~nulJ not "p<lss· •~ nu1 Jcws. Ary.tn •ppcnrin¡t German je\\..,. werc
more likdy to •urvivc. lt should follow tlw assimilniíon-<Jmcness- gu.ir
antc'd an equal riRht to live. no• to be exrerminured héCllu<e oí who \'Ou
are This is nonnrbi1rar; <CCOIU'Ícinn for meeting che dominan! <tandan:I
in1e¡m1uon over sdf-<letennination Do not think about wh"1hcr inte¡tra·
uon is ulcimatcly possible: do not tbmk abouL those who will at.-ver be:
permmed to meet die standards; do not challen8e the standar<ls tbem-
sclvcs.
An llll1tlogy <oulú be Jrawn to 1hc psych<>fog~ ofbnucro<l women. wluch
is Hlw • d1mension of femininny more gcn•rally. Thc only realily is lhe
power of 1he •buser kecping ynur he.id low kecps )OU uli\'e, Thi<. !OO.
acq111esces m tho dc>minanr stancbrd and concedes the pennnnem pow
erle$Sness of an underdass. Thc shame oí being who you are-as if that
1s validlv a.nd forever the reul .reason for •"Our subordmaaon- leads to
i!lwavs w;mun~ und trying to b"come who you are not. wh1ch women know
is a livmg lic unul thcy betomo it. Tbts is die victim-side adaptauon to the
pcrpctr•<or-ddiac<l rcahty. lt ronvcrges witb lhe final solu11on to thc in
equol11y pmbl<rn: .1nnilúJ.1uon
This ~ th< cquali1y oí Aristotle. oí the Enlighienment of thc NJ~is. oí
che mmnscrenm U.S equnbry 1unsprudence toda" and of intern•tional
human rights law. [1 seems rather late in the pursrnt of t-quality 10 seek
fau condiaons of eKtermmation on 1he basis of speakiñg Polish or lookin¡t
German lt is hke a bartered \\'oman's seeking not 10 be bea1en by servmg
dmoer on time and providm¡: regular ''"'- Such cqual11y dOcS notlung
"°
abou• th.: anruhil.uion mJChtne lt$CI(, long lb 11 SorlS !Jko í rom u.nhkes
ee.:cur.udy It may n'cJn ~urvj\·.J ior wm~ undcr un1..-qual i.::ond1uans, bw
Jo not call 11 c:<¡UJht). Such equ.1li1y mtons conc.oúing 1he ""nd.rd~ unJcr
wh1ch onc is meusureJ. monnonng only their reco¡miti<'n ""hout irwit>nol
distincuoo One can undcrscaod lfYIOll 10 consm1c1 an equality pnnctple
to ensure sul'\ival under cond1tion~ of 11enodde: vel this 1s vcrv dose to
C11mes of War Cramtt ol Pe.ce • 157
con<edmg geoocid.u condiuons m die construction ol die equalny prin-
ople. \\1th the re.uh tl1Jt, '°far<'> ah.o "'IU•hty principie 1s conremed. wc
wJI ""'"' live unJcr •ny bu1 ~enodJ.tl c<>ndi11<.>ns
llow ct¡11Jl11y is ddincd 1n 1hc Nc;)rth Amoric•n muv~"""'"" b¡ n>ntr""t
" sdf respectin¡¡ b111 not 1soh1ionls1 :.elí-detcrminoni but not >CKrc~n
tionis1, 11ncomp1·omlsed but not obsolurist. solid a1 thc core but for11.hin11
•t 1he ed~es. lts equaliC\ is not 3bsolute bm relorh'e ro the bestj;()ciety has
10 oiter. insisang on an expanded role for die subordinated in redelinio~
stanJards trom the poim of view ot 1hose livtng uoder them. Sucb a cheory
may appt.'<lr to luck princ.1pl~d ddininon. grounded as it io in response m
on unpnnaplo..I $<>Cl.U "·or!J. 8111 it> n:bti\ tSm ¡;!,.,,, 11 oub;uncc 1hot J~-
6n0$ rnthcr than unúermin"" it> princtplc Pcrhu¡,. ií whitc mcn h•d been
lynched, as Black men \\'ere 1n che American South. sub.,1,amiw rcla1wc
ri¡:hts would be more of o problem: thc foct is. dicy wcre 1101. Givcn diot
no SOCÍet}' sys1em•rically traffics meo as men for sex. rapes men at \\'ill and
wi:tb impunirv. forces roen to reproduce, baaers meo in homes, sometimes
t0 deadi, on an C\'eryda: basis, pays meo as a group less ch.an women, or
presencs ma.le sexuaht)' in demeaned wa~-s for emertainmem .md pro6t on
g lurgé ><:ale, the comp3ruuve Junension to the SUU1darJ hns a lot 10 ofier.
lt •bo hdp• •Votd imP<J>1n¡¡ foreign t'ultural st•ndllrd~ in divc™' sucial
setung~. ~ince \Vt1n1cn are,; not s'-t:king cquJ.lity \\1fh forc:ign \li omcn but
"'i1h men of their own cuh1lral group!,
Cn le¡tnl pracrice in C.mada. chis 1pproach has proven capoble oí ad
dressin~ o substancial number of re-alities of sex mequality diat ba,•e cluded
prior anemprs. A woman has been peonined ro sue her ciry police force
ior failurc to wam of a serial rapist.'" Sexual harassment' and pregnant)
d1.>cnmina11on • have becn rccognm:J a> human righcs '·iol•tions. Und"r
th~ tutd;gc if not 1he Jtrc<1 t'on1rol of chh .1ppro.tcb. conunon law rcm
eilics for s~xu.\I :abu'-C havc: rct.vgn,,cd lncqulhlich of IX'''·cr, uncl 5'..itutc~
oí hmitatíons for inccsr h•ve been rt.'\·tsed based on thc expcriencc oí
,;ctims ., Criminal law< a¡tainst u'Ífc-banerin¡: havc becn intcrpreted 10
recognize che u•oman's realny."' and public.uion oí die oame< of sexual
:issault ,;cnm< has becn probibited... Afcer die Courrs refusal ro rerognize
womca 's "'{UalllJ ri11hts to keep dietr sexwil histories out ol rape trials,..
a wholc """' rape l.i\\ ,,,... introduced. • S1gnüican1 deasions h.we also been
llLldc in light of th1s •pproach in th• •rea ol reprotlucuve rigl11s, prevcnung
mcn fron1 gammg J. \cto o\cr \Vomt'S'l's nboruon.S-' jnd ~ognizing
women's nghts in and ovcr their fomses.» Perhaps mo.<1 tcllingly when
die rights tn frt-ctlom of expres<1on of ami.Semnes ond rorno11raphers
u-ere balanced 31!8Íl15l thc equalitv righ1s of cheir rarj!etcd victims. equalítv
158 • Thro•gh t~• Bosnia• lens
won. In C•nJdu, sorne of the real1cy of mequahty " bccommg tbc bas1s
for tht legal t!qual11> principie.
IV
/\¡.lillnsr thtS b•ckdrop, what wíll become of the Mushm and Cro•nan
women vlolated b" che Scrbs? The basis ln a women's movement for a
mearun¡?ful equahty exists, but ioterpreung \\'bat lsw( Smce No,-cmlx:r
1'191. lem1rus1> in Za¡rreb in parucular hu\'e been workmg with rdugcc
Sllf'l'OJ'S uf thc 5exual otroo1k.,; ot gcnoc1de 1hrough w:u The11 nccount·
abilit~ to 1hc ürnm• hes 1"'cn continuuus and "bsolute: thctr Jocumen
taticm and rolieí dfort, comn1i11cd und occuru1c.' lí jurisdit1ion nui be
sernred. and it shouJJ be able to be. luws do cxist 10 cover many of the
atrocctics.'" Rape, enforced prostimrion, and indecrnt assault are already
rccc~nized as "·ar crimes.., There IS C\-en preccdcnc for u;ing diem:· Alter
\\'orld \X1ar U. fapanese generals \\'ere uJed for se.,ual atrociues commmed
undcr tht11 command: rape. 1111pnsonment oí girls m botds and sub¡ecnng
thcm to repca1eJ rape, mass t'ltpc. cuu:in¡: off brc'3Sts, killtng women ctvil
ians ~nd .-ping lheir eorpSéS: Othcr 1han 1hc bi'eét.lm¡; uspect, 1his has
luppcno<l in v:urs hdon:, right down to tonurcs of fingcrs ruul Íccl
Therc an: m•ny more cxamplcs in which no1hmg wu donr, a> nmtl)7.:d
by Joon Firzpatrick, "thc m°'s rapes oí women during che war for inde-
pendeoce in Banglacksb. the svstemauc r.cpe of women suspected of com-
phcu;y in the insuf)lenc¡ m Kasbmir. and tbe belated but growmg scandal
coocernmg thc 'comfort women' who were abducted and forced mto pros·
muuon b) the Japanc.,;c ;any during tbe Second \~'orld War.'" füidence
on rape w•s prcscnt<.J by thc Frencb anJ So\'1et prosect1tol'> ut l\umn·
bcr~ ' &xu.11 forms o( tortur~ were documcn1"1, but >CJ<ual •»uul1 w.á
n<11 ch•r¡\c..J in the 1ndicrments. One can (.lnly spccula1e lh•L ll WJ~ not
~ccn "' be within the trihunnl's emphn,•< ·nnt on inJi,,idual bJrbarities
onú pcrversion.<" bm only oo the Nazi "Common PI.in •rr Rape has so
ofteo beeo rreated as extracurricular. as ¡ust something men do. a.s a
product rather tbu.n a poliC\· of wnr.
Proceedmg chrough u-nr cnmes tnbunals on bebal.f of Muslim 1md Cro·
atian women woulJ creaic Jccountability, but 11 would no1 rcJiwibu1c
power 10 U'(.lmcn tn 'ltUJUQO.\ othcr th.in Wílt, On the i:ívil su.le t.'Í hum.tn
right'i, thc!-C' atrociúe... violatc C\·cl)' ~ex ~u.a.lit) guilrunl'-'1! in 1ntcrn.11iont1.I
l•w, p1uperly 1111crpreted, ond thcy do not fml to da so bc<11use this is
\\'artin>e. Surely these ore crimes RF(:J.ln!St hun1anit-y, o "'coosistent panern
ot mass violanoo of human ri~ts ·,. Pcrhaps this would be • good occa·
 C"mes of Wai C"mes ol Pta<e • 159
!t.Wil to u~ t:qoJ..l1t~ gu.arJnfe'---.. to JJJreu \lOlcncc J..:-JIJtst \\umcn, tlkr~
,. no •LllC'-l<IK>n pruhl. m S1..:h .t11 •ppro•.:h roulJ ..1.bl1"1 prccr..knu
for me b) v.·urru.·n 1n pc.&ecurtk: 11' \\'Cll
,\1 a prawcJI m•tter, 11 hdl" mJt ~ mci<lcn11 happmal m a,..,
\lm ""'"' mm hun mcn 111 "'"'·so mavhe therr 1< •n analogy> h Jocs
oot hdp tnr n:<Oll"•nn~ them oow, or tor creaon~ a rn."CNm1 th•t cnuld
atlea "°º"'"' mrrrprcrauons. mat similiir acrs are common C'\crvwli<rr rn
pca<-cum< .onJ ••< u1Jcly uadcmood is sex Yu¡;o-)J\U\ porn<>¡;raph'
mark~1 w..,"1he lr<-e.I 111 thc wcrlif before 11lli m•lc popul•U••n "'·"
offi,1JU. rnvh1J.,cJ 10 c1>mm11 rhc air0<1uc• mci h•tl .1Jrc.oJy bt't'n '<•u•lly
ro11J11it>neJ 1u cn¡o) h Ll<1C1 hdp rh.11 men Jid tlw.c •ll•
in tk·d•rcd
milii.t"\' R'""I''· in~• e•J oí one on one evcrywherc ot unte u11<l ull 1hc 111ne
or in sm.ill p•ck,, murderin~. rapm¡¡, pimpin¡¡. and hreedm11 bur no1 ttc-
Oj!naed as Jn MmV Of OCCUpat10n. \~ilJ mere he rommanJ fCSJ'<'llSlbWt\'
lor me<e ral""'> Will women have co idennly cacb 1Dd1\1du.1I m.m ohen
nwnherm11 m 1hc hundreJs, ll'ho rapcd mero? In k~.il rcrms. 1t Jocs no1
bdp th•t no ~Wtc rJ¡'<d choc ,.'Ornen anJ ~ m"m P"'¡:n•nt. 11 Joo hdp
thJr .a '\tJtc•1 mcn J1d "°'
\\'tll 1h.,., arr.... mco be ICctl u hunun nghr. .buso? 11 1hc Mu•hm•
""re J.,...., wuuld rh., world be .illov.iztil mi• co h•rren> Muu • ~""'P 61>1
sun1'e 1tm<xiJc fot 11 co be rero¡mized nex1 time> \\-.U prm<irlc t «
rcalnw \\ ill 11 eon11«1 1>im <íntilar ara in e--en·da1 lite> Thc murde<'
mJ\-be: rhe rape> P<"•1bh. and rJ so. prob2blv hecausc they att c1hnic,
hurung a iiroup chat mcludes men: the pregnances, les; Lkely lanJ wha1
to Jo w11h thc ch1ldreMl: the prostirutioo. lor •ll me C"'<lll} 1uu Cr•'llllCS
;guinsi u, h11lc <hantc: ch~ p(lmogruphy nC\"cr, mc.u11n11 d nea, pmbJhl)
nut \O('ln
Or \nll chi1 'ilu.111on .mJ thc>e w<>men. ~ere JnJ nnw, lw thc 1íme aml
plao;c in which th.: worJ ""ornan• like me worJ ".lcw." will lin.111, comC'
ro sc.nd, amonM 1c• meaninjlS. ÍOr a realitf oí abll't' 1hoi c•nnm be for
¡roncn, • mumph of <unwal n3lDS< all mat wan1ed \'OU JeaJ. a pnnciplc
ol wha1 cannoc be Jonc to a human bemg> \\-ill ..-ornen • .i 1..,c, ¡?el atn·
l'IC>f\!
15
Turning Rape into Pomography
Postmodem Genocide
"facrychina "'"' d.irk. but the bcd on which 1hcy were rapinA was lit up,
likc whcn chcy mierrop;ate you and po1m che li~hc only on you Only mat
beJ wu• 111 up wi1h a spodi~h1. . 1 baJ a fcdm~ 1ha1 1h~ wcre someumes
tc<:orJm11 or lilmmg · In wbat is calkd pcacdtmc. porno~upbv is made
lmm r•pc m lilm >tu.ha., oo seis. ID pmatc bcJroum>. 1t1 ba>cmen1s. tn
.u.,. . m prison cdb. .mJ m bromds h >houlJ be no surpnsc 10 lind lt
l1<:1ng m;adc m • • ral"' matcr • m • Serb1an· ron contenrranon c.&mp lor
\luJ1ms .1nJ CnunolflS m Bo.ma Hcr1c~nnn.1-a• ttp.>ncd •\>o..., by one
sunnor, a l\lefll)"ei~h1-)ur-old C:moill•n •nd Mu<hm W<>mon SciU ir
como ,. 1 <hock. a clarifyin¡t ioh \X'hcn l 1nda "ul\-elace" reponed her
cncmon mm the pol11Ql(raph1c li.lm f),.ep JJ.mat.' Gl1ma S1emmi re-
uorJed the essence of che dtsbehel an<l hlamc Linda eneoun1ered as
am,>ununj\ to a<lung her, "What m you 1 b11ck¡;munJ lcd you m a ronccn-
tr.111011 c;111p~ U chr; wus cvcr only •n Jlldl<>llY· 11 i>n't •nymo...,.
Ex¡1lt><li11¡¡ thc Sll'•ICS)' pion<"efcJ 11 y<""t 01rl1e1· un Cmotin Scrbian mil
n•ry Ít>r(<" in B0>nia 1lcr>.egovin• h•vc lwen, "" che w1>rld now knows.
'""Y"'ll out • c:amp.1111n calle.! "e1hmc clc.m•m¡1." Thi' 1s • cuphemism
lnr ¡t<ll<><:iJc. h m~ans removal or liqu1J.1t1un ol •ll non·Sttbs from me
cerr11on thiit ..-as call.:d Yll,11os.l.ivia Tht> camr••jln ol exp-.lllsion through
<thn1c nl<tmll1Jtion has 1Dcluded rape. tomblc tmpttft1m1on. mrture, and
murJcr ol ,\luillm .mJ Croau.an "'(}lll<O, "lor Scrb1J • A Bosru.o Mw.lun
><.•ld1cr-nll htm "H•t1>" m prutn~ b1> 1Jcn11<)-who sp1cJ on Scrbr:111
'l\n _,, ... ~ pobl..i..l on ,\1, 14 (Ju!, A._ 1..,1 As¡. ~ .ad :-.0....t..
~- Q;1111ri>.1tal to 12.a rac-an-h ~. and dwtt)i 1\.rt 1h~ Mtd4 l unUllA l4U141 l.orit-a
'rol111 ....J thr ""''""' •uh ..OOm 1h., ...,..¡. ....i. 1hc $0)' pooslbl<. AQ ..,.,,..¡ .-......
ur: f1am 1cshmonin ptl1CRJ ui o~ rctr.1.t<b 1.'Uftd~ttJ 1nJ u.1111.L.uof bf N..u.l.ic !\~
lt1kl A~1• Annan.l• l 01 110..""Wtl'f feih<'ll'. 'H'º'""1" ~u.1h'fil •'" nc>C n.uorJ 11l1hut1;:.h 1 ~ •h•)
thtv &fC;'
160
llrn••l Rapt 1n10 Pornotrapb1 • 161
h>t<n J.,,.mbcJ 1>hat he saw mcm Jo. lrom Va¡:.1n.i~ 1n Scr!Jian-ocrnp.:d
eru.u. 10 G r.bcz ~WMX:Cupu:d & ..nt.L • E\'Cl)1hing
tn m.11\ Mu.wn
or CroauJn, thq ,!Ju¡;htcr. ltill. set on lire. l\'oth111g's >urp<>tcd 10 rcmam
11.1\-e, nuc "'"" • ch1tken, cat. or buJ, tf thq lrnov.• 11', \lwl1m or <'1""111m
Onc utJ, ·~·. a do¡¡: 1t's ,\luslim. kili u '• Thc rarcJ "'""en, che
filmcd "''flmrn, rhe prcgmnr u-ornen, and pwl-•hl) 1he murd<·rcd Vi'Omefl
.. "di ª' thc mcn ruffer no1 onl} irom thc<c anocrucs but al"" from
kno"1ng 1h•1 1h<') •re intendcd to be me la.c ol thcir pcople there
l'h15 !?<'nornhl war ha> rcpeatedly b.,en mochauctcnzed as• "ovil wor, •
•AArC>W• <"!U•letl w1m ucnm, • all sides blJnJly bliunc:J lor cheir "ha-
tred Yet Serbian •ggrc>SIOD agam>t non Scrb. 1> ' " mrnntc>rnblc and
O\'eN hdmmgly onc " deJ as male uggre,sion ugains1 women in CV<l')IJ•y
hfc. Wttl"I alw•).. pwJucc ntrocirjcs copern>ll)· 11~.tinst u11mcn milhtns. Bu1
1herc i• no ~U$lim or Cro.tfon p<>lio· of 1crri1ori•I cxpaMmn of exter·
mmatm~ S.:rb> oí rapin¡¡ Serbian wt>mcn. Th" i• not u rearrocul 11eno-
0Je. The rductance co "'Y wbo is domg what IO whom 1> remmrscem of
the mcnuhiy 1ha1 bLunes v.-omen for gemn~ oundvcs rapcd by men we
know .nJ 1h<n clúdes us fue bavtng a b.lJ 111muJc t<>ward mcm. As¡a
ArmmJ.. ot me l\areu f<:mlllist Group ID Zagrcb, 1hcorucs ch.11 m"
clo$n IO home atf<XlllC> COIDé, me moro mcy Att Jomnlle41ctl, m>tk inCO
lmc ~<>ne\\ rong. Thc mo"' •fcmmu:cd" me nct1111; 1hus bnomc, 1he more
hn11ant 01h.,r m<n are 10 in1e:rvcnc m a fam1ly quarrd, •nd 1hc more
human n11h11 can be violatcd and a.trociucs condoll('d
The r•pes ID me Serbian W3f oí aure..1on 81ll110.1 Botmie Hene¡rovina
anJ Cl'()Jltia att to everyday rape wba1 che H1>locau.i wa• m C'\'cn:day ann-
!>cm1usm: both l1kc 1t anJ oot !tke Jl at ali, both con11nuou; u1m 11 an d a
wholc """' depunure, a umque a1r0<tt)' ye1 tU>o • p111nadc momem m
wmctlun¡¡ th11t ~- on JU the time. As 11 JUdl in 1h1> """ cihmc rape.
h•ppc1u c'cry dJ\" A> 11 Is in this w.r, pr..,.mu1ion is forccd on woni<n
ewl') clai~ "·hai is• bromd bu1 • C-•puve ''"ll"M for orgJmlf:d sena! rnpe?
ForttJ prrgnanC) is íamili3r too. bcyinnang m r•¡'< •nd procecdin¡¡
m,,,..h che denial of abonions; tlu:. occurttd durtll¡! ,f.--en· .,,J <nll hap-
pcn' 10 wom<n who cannOl attord ahomons--v.·ho m 1hc t.: mtcd ~tares
are Ji.proporuocurdr Airian American or uUN Abo fmiiliar"' thc use
o( mcJ1a tcclmology. rncluJmg pomo~~aph), 10 m.ike lutr"1 '4'x}. \\'ornen
""' abuscJ b) mcn in di= ""Y' C\CI') <li) In C'\CI)' wunU) m thc .. odtl.
Scx h.. •l1<> l'l<'<'O usnl beforr 10 crea1e. mub1h1e, anJ mJmpuL.re ethnic
lu1reJ, ln>m thc \\·orld of che ThirJ !k1th lo th.. unrl.l t>I Pr11/~"""' Yct
¡he worlJ h•s nC\·cr <;een ..,x used thi< con<cio1t\ly ch .. C)111a1.U,. tlm
elabnr.1el)', ch1> openly, mis <ystemacic11Uy, w11 h 1h" <lcgrtt of cechnolog-
162 • Throu&h the Bosnlan ltnf
real aod p>ycholo¡;i<al sophisucauon, •• a m~> ol <lcstroying a wbolt
people.
\X'ir h 1hi, w.r, pomogrt1phy cmerg.,. as o tool of ~c.-nociclc:. Natalte Nen-
•<lit. an Americon oí Croo~n and ª'""'ª" heritagc, wri1es from Zagreb
rhat <he le•rned from l\loslim s<>urc:e> rhnt "sorne massncres in villages as
"'eU ns rnpes andlor executions in c:amps ore bein¡: "ideotnp<:d os they're
b:tppeomg." O ne wornan who survived tbe Buqe rape/deatb camp in Ser·
biao-occupied Croaua reports the mak.ing of pomography oí her rapes rh1s
way: "lo fronr of the camera, one beais you and tbe othcr-cxcuse me-
lucks )'OU, he pulS has rruncheon m )'OU, nml he film> al! tha1. ... We evcn
had to sing ScrbMn s<•n~s ... in fron1 of rhe comero • :\ccount aft~r oc·
coum d<1cumtn1s tho1 Scrbiun force~ film n• they rape. As they do 11, they
wnrch, fau!lh, cncouroge each 01 her. ancl spew ethnic CUl$CS and epithers.
·Usta./'a whore• is particularly commooplace. "U.rtaia" is a dero¡¡a1ory po-
utical tenn ihar refers to the fascisr regime in Croacia ! then iocluding
Bosnia-Herzegovmal thar collaborared wirh Hitler. Secbtan soldiers use u
for Muslim and Croatian \\'Omen-mosr of whom were not C\'Cll boro umil
afrer World \X'ar Il.
In u miluury trial in SJrajcvo in March 1993, Borisfov llcmk, a Scrbinn
solclu!r, cc..Ufic<l thur che rapes he commi11..J h.1d bec.-n orc.lered for •Ser·
bi:m mornle." A• nn in.rrumenl for chcir mor.tic building, thc Croutian
Muslim survivor quoted earlier-one of whose t\\in son< wos decapicaccd
in her mns-repom that as they rnpcd her, Scrbian soldicrs "were tellin11
rhem 'Croacia needs m be crushecl again &li¡as need to be crusbed tom-
pletely. You are half this and half that. You need to be crushed to tbe
end. Because you're Croatian, you should be rapéd by five dúferent men-
.w<l bccause you're •Bula, you should be rapecl by fi"' roo~'" Bahja ond
Bu/" •re <lcrogu1ory tcrms for Muiliros. Xenopbobiu an<l misogyny merge
here. crhnic h.urcd 15 >exualize<l¡ bigouy becomes org.1sm. \Vhntever this
rape does for the ropisc, the pornogniphy of the rope moss·produces. The
llY.lteriols becorne o porenr ad•>ertisemem foro wnr. 11 pcrfccr m1>tivaror for
torrurers, who rhen do wh3t thev are ordered to do 'ii.nd enjoy ir. Yes. ir
unprnves 1hetr morale.
Sorne ot the rapes that are made imo pomography are clearly intended
fc¡r maS> eonsumption as war prop..ganda. Onc eldcrly Croalillll woman who
w•• CUmc<l being rupeJ w~ Jl>o iorturcd by clcctric shock> •nJ gang·l'llpcd
m 1hc Bué1c co11cenmui<>n cump by Serbian mcn d•eMe<l in gencnc mm·
ouíl•gc unifom» She w11s forced m "confcs;• on film thot Croo1i:10$ rope<l
her This <lisinforrnonon-<wirchm¡; die ethmc lobels-is especially casy
"·here there are no rocial markers for eiho1c disrincuons Ir is a standard
T•rn1nc Rape mto Pomo¡raphy • 163
Serbun technique Anothe1 sud> mcidem of >wuched v1ctíms and mur-
cleren was dismis"'d as·, shumelcss ue" by rclte( ofllcrals, nccording 10 o
UN •pokc•pcrson in Sarn1evo.' One womnn copturcd by the Serbs dcscribed
hm" .be w.is forc<.J 10 p•rttcip•re in wch lics b¡· rcodrnH • •cripred JJ.!sc
"ronfes~1>n- ahout her 11cth~ties as a "tcrrorist" for 1 TV N<wi Snd camera
She koC'll· thac the fabrication aired becausc.she was rerowiized by a Serbian
guard who said rhat be had seen her on Bdgntde TV.
Serbian propaganda moves culwral markers wir.h posunodem alamty,
muk.ing cthnicity unrcal and al! too real at the sam.e ume. Signs and sym-
bols, wor<ls, im•¡;es, ond 1denthics are manipulnted to mean llDything and
ilJ opposite-nll in che servicc of gcnoc1do. a single renliry that meuns only
one tbin11 \Then humon beings are • rcprescnccd" out of CX1Stcnce, pl•yrng
realiry as n Jt•me emerges ns " smnegy of foscism.
ActUal rapes of Muslim nnd Croatiao \\'Ornen by Serbi:tn solclier.<, 61med
"' they happen. nave beeo showo oo tbe evening oews in BllDja Luka, a
Serb-occupied ci1y in western Bosnia-Herzegovina. The w'Omen werc pre·
sonkcl a:> Serbran, and as being mped by Muslim or Croatian roen. J.n
Septtmbcr 1992, ooe woman :uound agc fil ry, enurel)' naked with visible
bru1ses, wa• showo be1ng rup<!d on television. A Serbi:in cross hung nround
her neck: the npisc-using • u:rm for Strbian fo.scisr rollt1borJtor that has
become a badge of pride umoo¡¡ Serb forces-curscJ her chN•1i¡,. mother;
S<>meone was vclling "harder." The \'erbal abuse was dubbcd-and un·
mi~bly Serbian in intonarion and word usage. The m;tn's face w11s noc
visible, but the woman's wAs.. In another tele\ised rape a few days later. a
woman ru:ar agc tbirLy·fivc, "'rh shon dark hatr. W3S showo on theground;
her bJtlds wcrc sprcad and ucd to • tree, her I~ -..·ere de<l to her hands.
M;10) men wa1chc<l ber raped in person: thous.inds more warched her
rnpcd un tdcyision. This time, in i10 apparenc 1e.:hnical lapse. obout four
or fivc seconds of thc acturu sound trnck was ,1ired: "Do you wJnr ,.,,
Ustaia? Do you likc • Serbian sl\ld horse?" Eorlier in 1he war, accordin¡¡
to Asia Armandii of the KaretJJ Feminist Group. a news reporr showed
Serbian raoks rolhng ID 10 •cJeonsc" a ,,ua~e. The taoks were plasrered
wuh pomography.
How <loe. genocide become S-O expliculy scxually obsessed? 1-low do
real rop...-s becomc ordmary on the evening ncws?
P<1moj<rophy S<lturatcd YugoslJvio bcfore the war lu mJrkM, nccorJing
to YuRoslav criric Bogdan Tirnanié. was "thc freest in the world. ••A m11jor
news magurine, Starl, wirh 11 'ittc.rt1't't'.l."likc formal and the policics of rhe
Natt()n, had Pl11V/>o¡o.rype cO\'ett and a cenrcrfold seccion 1howin11 m1kcd
women in posrures of sexual display and actess. Sdect womcn who wcrc
164 Through U.e 8osn1an leos
prh1lcged und«r tbc G.>oununisr regime, and who proentcd thc:m:.clvcs ib
s¡1eakm¡¡ lor women, rcgularly puhli>hed tberc •nd cven ocwi<>nally
•cn-cd a< eJitors. JThc presc:orntion oí pornogniphy n.s" modcl of fcmmi<m
repcllc<l mom· \\-Ornen from fcmmism, 1 Wben pomo¡cmphy 1s e.bis normal,
a whole populunnn of men is primed to dehumanize women and ro enjoy
inO.ctin~ assault sexually. The Neu: l'ork Timer reponed that "piles ol
poroographic magazincs" we:re found io the bedroom of Borislav Herak.
the captured Serhian sol<lter who calmly ad1mttcd to seores o[ rapes and
murders.• Ai h1s war cnmes ttial in S..tal<'""· "·hen asked wberc he leamcd
10 kiU. he describcd bcmg tramcd by killing pigs.' No onc o>k~d him whcre
he leamed co rupe, although be restilie<l th•t hrs 6rs1 rape m th1s wur w.u
his 6rst <exuul cxperience. P<1rnogn1phy 1> the pcrfect preparJtion-mo
riva1or .md in<rn1crion manual in on.,._for thc sexual ocrocities ordered in
this genocide.
Pomc>¡¡raphy, koown to dehumanize women for irs consumers, pen-ades
sorne rapddeath camps. according to survivors. lo one roiluary prison. tbe
pomography was customIZed to surt thc guards' saual w1cs. in •Ch\><'
Jnd parallcls to the aets they pcrformtd. Ont woman in her mid·thm1es,
• mother of two, rccalls how sorne mcn drcw l.tttle peruscs next 10 w1>mcn
in che pomogrophy with whom rht)· wnmed to havo se<. ond wrotc tbcir
nnmes on 1he peni..,., Next 10 thc: mcn in che macerials, <orne wrote "l
ha\'C • longer one tbon yau" ;ind si¡med their oames. One Serbian guard
"draws a picnire of his own click and an arrow showing whcre he'd ¡:o
with iL" In other words, tbese roen do ro womeo m the matc:tials "·har
they do 10 women m th" camp: • ... the women werc cu• out, but tbe man
remains whole." And spoaking of personahzed \\'alponry, sumvors m the
Bosnht-llcrzego\1na Refugee Women's Group, Zene B11L 111 cxile U\ Z..
grcb, n;port 6ncling 1he n•nle of Jovan Tintor, • chtt111lt commnndcr in·
scribeJ <>o thc rcm•ins oí projecnles that were .1imc.i at, and hit, a Saraíe'-o
matemity \Vard
Wbcn pornography is tbis common ond this accepted. the lines dh1ding
i1 from nc:ws. emenainmem, and the rest of life an: sb blurred thst womcn
mav know no word for u. The woman who surv1ved tbe Setbian military
prtson descnbed a thick sex book that m•de the rounds. lt showed. she
srud, •men wiih ootm•I< .md wornen with orumals, bow )'Ou get AJDS."
Thc book "·.is ·s., rcad tho1 ir "'"' rompl<rdy íalling ap.irt." Ano1hcr
woman •pokc of sccing "tho:.c mugaiines wich che nudc ''"'°'""•
the sex •
The womtn in 1hc milir•ry prison grasped for word.~ to dC<Cribe 1hem:
"e11her 1hcy rcm11in sclltlding :ind ore nudc or . you have a womnn lyin¡¡
on a woman or a 1''0man lyin11 on a man. ali those poses that are done. 1
 lornon¡ R1p1 1nto Porno¡raohy • 16S
don·1 know wha1 those m•¡¡umc• •re c•.Ucd A>kcJ whm wa> on ihe walls
ot lhc room whcrc thc gUJnli ,lept-pteturcs ul pol111eul leJJcrs J"'r·
h.ap.?-Jnothcr wom.m JtuwercJ, "I can't ••V 1 ' " " M1l0>C\1< or Tt10
Th""' pic1url-.. '"'e m;unlv n•kcJ -.ornen • 1h·~ u'u•I p1c1urcs from
S1arl and lh<>K thmll' Malc thmp. •
The condioom in thc camps 1hroughout 1hc <>cruru:d •reas of Croatia
and Bosni1-Henq¡o.,n1 are <ubhuman. Sorne peacetl111c br0thd> havc bc-
come ..-anime rapc/dealh c=ps-a kinJ oí rum:-.al camouthl!" lhrOUJ!b
bl.itanC). !>orne are outdoor peo> nngcJ v.ilh barbcJ v.uc. ~e are: arumal
sulb.. ~me wcrc ¡,¡r<na>. fa.iorto . ...J>uob \\ornen •re typ1cally alloncJ
one thm ili<c oí bread • OJ\ Humant1v " 1ammcJ mio dooct >lle cooc"'1c
cdJ,, bcg¡ting ""cn for i-r.h 10 skcr on. V.'&i!Uljl for !he '"'' m be sclc:ct«I
out ior oystcmauc 1orturc, 10 be ukcn 10 thc room• ,.,.h thc bcJ. •n1h
the blood) sheet• "'"-"hm n1gh1 carne: •• onc <ul'VÍ\'Or pu1 ti, -Jonh in
lifc carne • Tu><e who att allo..-.O 10 11\-c ohcn mu.1 -exuallv semce tb,,ir
captors One ...-aman was forced 10 kc:cp her Scrhoan captor'5 pcn1> lurd
m hc.r moulh from m1dnígh1 10 5:00 A.M for founccn ni¡:hts m a Scrb-run
con"'"1r.uon camp m Voi-oJina. • M)• ¡ob W11$ to pldl>e hun, 10 o:.•ale
hun tha1 wbolc ume, so th•• he -.oulJ be ablc to c¡.m1!.1c. . ~mcumes
1 began to >UÍÍOCate. •nJ wbcn [he,] beg1111 to •run ou1 on thc cro>rnt ht
"-ould bon me up. 1 haJ to rcm•in kncdtn8 •
Often the att'(>Clllts are •n.. ngcd 10 bc wotchcd by other 10ldiers In
tel"'-iscd rapes. the \1e»..,r con sce nthcr boots. s1•nding oround, wolkin11
around The Croa1ian-MwJtm woman quoted earlier SO)"$ of her expcri-
roce: "These soldm-. would lnvue 1hcir lrlcnds to com~ wa1ch 1hc rapes.
That was Wcc in ihc movic iheuicr. Ali sil arounJ while olhers do thdr
¡ob. . . Someun1cs !hose who werc w1ucbing pu1 out o¡:arcue buu& on thc
bo<lies oí 1hc women being rapl'<l. • The Scrb1J11 soldicr BorlJav Henlk
describe<l how othcr solJicu wut<hcJ h1m r11pe <>ne youn~ girl nfter ,m.
0ther-oll of whO!le nnmes he rcmcmbcrcd · This is livc pomo~r:iphy.
We will nC\-er know wha1 hopp<:ncd 10 mO'<c o( 1hc womcn who ""''°
k:illed-until ""' uncovcr 1hc. mass graves or thc pom<>11raphv A gang-rape
observ«I by Hms, tbc Bo>man soldier. ¡uves a rare 11lunpse in10 ihe sexual
specrades sugcJ lor pr~ate v1cwmg, proc:eeJ1n¡i on orJcrs from a supmor
11 Ltlko Pel!ovo Seto, a v.Ua¡.:c m Scrbim ·oc<-upocJ Crom~ Thc woman
1aas ued 10 four 11.akcs m the gtound ·m • 1""8 l""""'n but su.¡x-ndcJ."
While they wcrc rapmg her. thc. s.>ldotro u1d "1h.11 Yugt><l.-1• ,. 1he1"' ••
that tl>c) fought for 11 m World \\~ar ll, ponwm for Yu"°"b'U. Thai
thC\ l!Jl''C CYCl)-ih•n11 for Y~<>J.-u • Thc 11.1110n.! polme> att fu...J .,.,.h
sex Ha.ns repons tha1 the mcn bugh and chodc each Olher for ·oor u1-
166 • Throu¡h lht Bosnl.. Ltns
blym11 her." tor noc bcm¡t •ble co "force .1 smilc out ol her," becau;e shc
"nut .llowin, ""11'" ol lmc. lncy be.e her ond .l>k il 11 1s goo<l for her.
Thc $Uf'•""" who ;, orJtrlllR til<"fll '-1)" "Shc ti ... to knov. thJt wc Jre
rl:.-t~1¡, Sht· hJ' tt> kn<>v. 1hll t' <>ur Lnd Shc ha, co know that wc'rc
comm•ndm11, 1hot th" "our Grc•ttr '\erbia. th•t u'll be chis for everyone
"ho d.,.,.n·1 httcn" o..,. ti ~cr <>ecur m 1hem lhac 1he "'Ornan is a human
bettll!' ·1 J.>n t kna..· il they e-.-er tven 1htnk thtS IS prrson; Haris sa>'S
ls there a reJ.11<>n<htp bt'!wttn 1he pom0trraph\ conswned. the sexu:ili-
uuon of tbc cmironment ol 1onurc •oo pred.mon, and che sexual acis
tb•1 ..re pcrlonncJ• lb1> ,. not an ilcaJcmi< quc,.uon.
Onc Wtllllon reponed th•t .he ""' don<: to a woman m a pom(lftraphy
m•ll'""'" ,. hat v. u al'lo c.lnne U> her DacnbtnJl ma1crúl• m lhc c•m¡»,
she "''"· •Tu...._. p1<tu""' wt1h 1h....: thtn¡¡j \'Ou hu 1hcm wilh • . lilte )'OU
hi\'c a cha1n hice 1hi> •nJ like 1h1> 1hc,y han~ you to a bed He hmi.tS her
from thc. cnhn~ - \\'t1hout mmin• a beat, ~ rnO\·es from dcscríbin¡¡ the
im1criol> to dcscnbm¡¡ v.•hat was done 10 her. -¡ know there was some
lcind ol wooJcn board on lhc ''de, • woman ued 10 11 by chains. sbe had
a mask º'"'her C)e> and he".., ht1ung her wuh some kind o{ tluck whip-
crop. 1 mcin dm v. h1¡> crop rctmndcd me of tbc Begqa concenrration
ump. becoui.c: 1hcrc u1 Bc¡:cjc1, lhc) haJ • thick wlup, • crop moJe like
1h.11 one-frnm ltJthc1 .tn.J tht) hcat the capli'"'' in thal way 1 mean,
1 wa< whippcJ likc th•t once tn Bc~cjci wuh th•1 whip-crop. so 1 know
thot tt hun• •
Many t<'nl•re• tn th~ ramps are or~anized as -exual spectacles. rirualized
act> of sodtsm m which mfl1cun¡t extreme p.11n and deaib are sexual acts,
perlormeJ 11nd wJtchcd tor sexual en¡oymcn1. l laris. hidmg in a tree, ob·
...:1vcu a ~mall concen1tJtit1n c<lmp in Scrbrnn-occupocJ Cruau1 in Apnl
19~2 lt w•s whnlly t>ut.Joor., wioh "hun11r¡ 1onurcd people, beaicn,
blo.xly. • l lc w11td1cJ 11 m11n und • wom•n who appcortt.1 10 be sc:vcn or
e1~h1 month> p'<'¡¡nant hdn¡c i.kcn 1a • cltJrin¡¡ in the woods. The
womJn wa• 110.I vcrti<•lly to • "''"' lc-i:1 prc<1ed tOl(eiher and arms ex-
1cnded They ri¡>ped her pre'1"ont bdl) o¡~n wilh i knife º11 "'llS alive
• ti movc<l fhc v.·om.ln 1ook •boo1 lifreen mmu1es 'º me. The man.
apporemh her hwb<111d unJ fJther of lhe baby, was bound 10 a nearby
tree md torced to -.Jtth Ibc Jtuckcr. •nemp1eJ to force him 10 ou ihe
b.ib¡ •• arm. 'Thcn "thc) h...kcJ lum up, cut ihc íloh on hun so 1hat he
,..,uJd bl~ 10 Jt.uh • \'<'hile they -.<rc ,1,,.n~ 1hi'. lhq -.ere l.wghmg.
\'l:'e'rc ~tlUlll h• hm11h1cr ~u of you Th1> is our Set-bu·- 1-Liris 1>
cen..in 11 ,.,. lil=d
Chantte 1he "'~"'"' or reh~1on, and •ietinu oi ritual 1onure m this
Turno•& hpt lnto Pornocrapby • 161
counm· repon thc wne s~l..J sexual atr0<111n endmg m saatltcc. Sorne
uy the><: ·,nuff • .ceno. Loo. "'e mk-oupcJ
lbc Nrus 11.crc pre<octous wuh ihc mcJ1• ll"Chnok~· of lhétr umc.
They Uied t1 10 creatc un;gi:s of evcnu 1h.. nt-vcr 1ook plJ<c Thcy mo
1ook p1<ture> of -ame <•I th<ir hornfi1 mc:<h<-al opcrim~nt• JnJ cxc.:utlOtl•
They 1mpn;oncJ w001cn 1n bruthd•. for.-cd •h•mcn in camps m run naked
bo!fore om"'"' .and parodcJ nakcJ "'°"'en Í<>< p1crurcs just bcfore lheir
~llOO• ThC\· pubU.hed sexual!\· exrlicu ano-Semmc bate prop~•-­
Smce tbcn, ,,,,ua1 1tthnol~ 1ha1 U>CS human beinl?S as ll\-e 1ar1l""5 has
becomc cbeap. mobilc, and .,~ble. !'\cul} h.dl a tcn!\11\' ol dcp~mcn1
ci. pornographv ,.odJ11.1Jc h•' <><:•l•tcd tts cxpl1cttne». mlN>J\cn<:S>. >nd
~1oknc< \\.tih 1lus ui b.u>J, thc. Sc:rt.. mokt !he :-<~1u' effon• loolt com
pltlU\'d)· pnmtU\ e
Rapt' ,,.., no1 char~cJ 1n thc r<»t-\\'orlJ War íl tooiamena of lhe
~ .... al J'\urcmbcr11, althou¡th "''"') fnnns of tonure. indudin¡l rape, were
clocu=1ed at !he mal< Perhaps thB omm1on was a casualiv of lhe m-
bunal's cmplu.s1s "not on mdmdual barbanues and pel'·ersions" but on
tbc Nazi "Common Plan: Rape m war hll> so oltcn bccn ucined as ex·
tr•cum<ular, as ¡uM somcthing mcn Jo, •s a produet ralher than • poli'1
o{""' Yct ihc propog1nw>1 Juhu• .,1rc1chef< -edi1or of thc anti·Scnuuc
nev...paper Drr Stu,.,,,rr. whích coni.onrJ p<lmo~r•rhic anu Scmnic lwie
prop•11andA-WR\ indietctl for "cromes a11..n~t humanily" for incitemcnt
10 hatred of thc Jcw•. 'º St rekher. <lcocribed b) prosecuuon documentS a1
ihc Nurcmber~ tri.U• as • bnn•I saJi<i who c•med a louher whip attached
10 hos wris1. was fountl Awlly anJ condcmned to dearb by hanging.' In
tbe war crime. mals lor ihe 11cnoci.Ja1 war agamst Bosnia-Hcrzego,'Ula and
Croatia. wtll tbo;e who tnrned tu gen(IC1de 1hrougb rape, scx11•l 1omirc.
illld murdcr-thc Scrblan pomti¡;r•phc~ •• well a. h111h poucymakcn and
1he undcrlong,--gcl what thc¡ """'""?'
Womcn hctttutc to rcpnrt thJ1 pam<>11r•phy ,. m.1dc of cheir rapes cvcn
more than 1h<'Y hc.. rnte to rcport thc rnres themsdveo Oisbelief from
ou1S1de combmeo "'ith humih•1ion. <hame and • sen-e of powerlessness
ms1de. h 15 unbcarable to kn°"· thar cven alter \OU are dead-maybe soon.
on upe--th00>.mds w.U sec you ih1~ wav. The Jep1h ol despair •• sioppmg.
lhc: "'!"' becomC$ an 1nhnoty ol hopdes.nesa •t scoppmg ihc pom<l!lraph~
of u.
faro thou~h •ornen m r.pc/Jc-..h campi1 know th•• thc uro• things
•re bem11 done 10 0thc:r 11.nmen, and somcnmc> are C\'cn forced to wa1ch
tbcm, .iiU 1hc sense of ooliuoo tt wcal A}w.,, 1hey fcar rcpm>l. apc-
dally for spcalún, '''" aga1n>1 1hc pom°'"'ph\, C\'Ctl wbm ihe-, are v.-hat
ltiB • Throu1h lh• Bosnl¡o len•
os called lrce-mcm1mg they and thctr lamohts are not lucra! captoves of
mned men.
16
\\'hat Jo "eº"'" them, womóll Cor whom "»ºº were lucky ú rhey only Rape as Nationbuilding
rapcJ )ou·? Wh.i will m.Jkc 11 posilblc for thcm to speak ol wbJt wai.
.Wne to thcm' As one •ul"\ivor put u, •r have no u-e for telLlng ¡-ou the
rc.t r h•ve no securiry 1 hove nothmg." When the film., of her r.ope ª"'
sold ilS porno¡¡raphy-emblem of democracy and libernnon m past·
Communist Easrem Europe and mcre(lSto¡¡.ly protected as •peech world-
wide- she wtU have even less ibnn ibat.
The coníl~gration in Cro:11fo anJ Bosnia·HerzegO\ina has beco ¡:cun¡¡ on
for more 1han thrce years. The bo<lies of 1he raped rontinue to pile up in
public view. \'(IJ131 is going on here? Argm1bly, we are witncssing a for-
mative intemaciooal as "'ell as oational govemance process with profound
implications.
The conllict in thís region os a ¡tcnocidc éuphe1nized •s "ethnk
deansing."' This campalgn oí cxrcrminatlon. of non-Scrbian pcoples b
bcing carried out by a phnlanx of Scrbi:m íasdsts m coUnboration woth the
r.:gimc in Belgrnde for polidcal cxpansion and hegcmony 1hrough t rhnic
unifonnity, ro ad1iC\'C thc ·G...,ater Serbia• rhey havc long plnnned. lt is
a gcnocidc through war lt is nota wor in rhe usual ;ensc ofarmies fi¡:hñn~
ugainst other annies ret:reating aod advancing over territories, or guerrilla
bands froro one side raiding troops and mvn1s of anoth"r sidc. The sides
are de6ned not by place or go,-eromental aUeginnre or poliucs in Lhe coo-
vennonnl sense, but by ethnioty. l11e objective. what is to be con4uered
and possessed ond subJued 1md sub1u¡¡ared and ruled by force, is J !anti
grob. but the tnrgers are people. Nlnety percenr of the cnsualúes are ci
,;fion.' This is a wur :ig•inst pcople.
fn the $tnndarJ lexicon OÍ \Var, the cJosest term WC nave for lhis kind
of war is "ci\'il "•ar." In Croaria and Bosnia-Herzegovina, tbou~h. it is a
misnomer if it meaos two sides fighñng each other. Or it was unril after
sorne years of describing i1 that way-y= of m:atlng a war of aggression
agamst people who bavc oo armed forces and are forbidden to arm them·
selves, as iÍ this wcre equo.I and reciproca! aggression, ycat> iil which thc
m1crna1ional communil)' triviaLlzc<l the attacks ond distancetl itsdf Írom
them os if rhis were n domestic dispute, yean oí t...,arin~ it the wav mos1
1lu11 tlilk WIU dcbw1ftl C<• tht' GlOO.d Scrut1\lro: Com'<'4.11lwn 1n WotJ=~ton, D ( (In F~hrui&n
S. 190.I. Emma 0r<urc and Anoa &ldwm prm-.kd ,....,ch mut.mce .O d>e Mgho.•t <¡Ualny,
169
170 • lhrougn the lklsmn lens
,mies lftat r.pc 111 m.irr:hlge-anJ 10 Lirge parT bccause 11 was treateJ thot
way now the 1nternauonul communny has 11s ovil war, or elemen~ of one
w1thu1 1L·hu1 ~.uns mtemJtionnl ;\l!llression
Tn rhe genocide that is the cn~ine oi 1he nnslaught, ~u non·Scrbs go.
dend or aliv~. To rhis end, systcmatic rape has beco a prominem weapoo .
plnnned 11nd ordered from the l<'P as well as permined on a widc scale.
\ luslim nnd Cro•t we>mc:n and girls are taped, sometimes killed afrerward.
somerimes their coll™!S are se.'<ually violated by Serbian roilnary roen, reg-
ulars and uregulars 111 '.irlous formations, ao<l ulso by oeighbors, on their
doorsteps, 011 hillsides, 111 can1ps-camp1 that werc faetones. m111es. sport>
•r<:oas, re;iaurunts, animal stalls. Someumc. meo are r•ped •s wcll on thc
b.sis of 1heir ~thnic11y. Somo oí the rapes are 61mc<l and phcitogruphcd as
pnmo¡traphy and prop.agando The womeo ore rapcd to dcnth or capt.- d
and made ro live \vith ha,ing been raped. This is rape us forcd cxilc: to
roake you leave your home end never RO back, lr is rape as spccr~dc to
be seen and hcard and watched and told 10 orhers. !t is rape as.,bumiliation:
for cenain roen 10 take plC11Sure t"rom -.olaung ceruun women, or cenaln
roen, or ro take pleosure watchmg certam mw be forccd to \'lObte. certrun
woroco or girls. This rape 1s 1onure; it is .ex and i:tltruc Jiscriminotioo
combincd. lt is rupc os ethnic expansion through force<l pregnancy ond
chilclbeuring. h is r•pe te> csrnbli<h dnminunce, co •hnner u communiry lt
is rape tO Jcmoy a peoplc: rape as ¡¡enocide. lt is rape as nationbuilding:
to crcruc a sute.
\X'hat has the world's response been? To \\'llrch. let ir go on No doubt
sorne people are horri6ed. But at the saroe time. these rapes seein 10 have
fu.llcn meo some deep "·ell of uuderstaod.ing and empadiy, mm the arms
of de fllcto world condonation. Call it hlstocy, call tt gcopoliucs or real
poliuk. call 11 compLi~cy. c.tll 11 isolatiorusm and !.ck oí o nacional in
t<rcst, caU it fc;ir-whutcvcr it is, J lot oí other mcn havc • lot oí respec1
for ir and gi,.., ít a lot of rope. Tolemnce is.,,,.¡,.¡ emerges from thc foot·
dragging reluctance, the excuses. the jockeying for po.<ition, thc vncilla-
rio11S. the evasions, the denials, the cover-ups. the slippery·sloped sover-
ei¡¡:my ar¡(Uments, the doubletalk, thc proceduml morasses,• as thousands
upon thousands ol rapes smk beneath public VIfW wbile being carried out
111 plain soghL lf you read what the world°s leaders do ruther th:in listen
to what come> out of thcir mouths, what you SL'C ts that many of the meo
who run thb wnrltl rcrognitc somcthlng, 1dcntif) wirh somcthtn¡¡. in thlS
ronílict ír rcmin-4 thcm pf son1ethmg. l11c Serb> coold win This is how
""'es are made.
The foct is. the more rhe Serbs rope md kili. the more respect they get,
 R•P• as Ha1tonbuild1ng • 171
che more dlgnity uad sc:ríousaess the dcmands of chese mrema1ioruil war
crimmllls are accorded. the doSér they comt to bcing able to get awuy
with it ..U, 1uid thc cleurcr IL becomes that this is onc Wüy communnics nre
Je•.UO)'Cd lllld StJLe> urc creoted: by whom you can rope. The ••me ac·
quicsi;ence in d11s procus uoderlies Lhe much-bcanl pallfativc response
thesé days beyon<l c:vcn the ooe that it a happenmg on t1l1 sides hcre.• Tt
is: rape happcns in "11 wa<S nlJ the time. Relax llús is no difkrem from
usual, why ge• so exercised? Wdl, docs onc ha\'C ro be surprised to be
,.;olated? Perhaps i1 is more um'llrnished, uncliluted. uoashamed, undis-
guised, imenuooal, blaWlt 1his rime. This ume, women rcfuse to be silent
•bout it. But suppose it 1s ialways there. They alwap do this? Gcttlng away
'1•it.h 1h1s crea1es tho1 legítimntc monopoly on force of wh1ch aatioo·siat.,,
are said LO be made? This puts mi¡¡ht m~kes right in o whole oew llghL
In this system, vio!Jrin¡1 other mtn's women is plnnting n ílag; i1 is a wa¡•
sorne rnen say to oc.her men, 111 What \\·as yours is nmv mine ... He \vho gers:
oway \\~th this, runs chlogs. Doing this instltutlonalizes rho nulership of
sorne meo over ocher men evco as i1 establishes thc rulcrsh1p of iall men
over ali women. You caonot govern che tlead. Bettcr that those you rule
hv~ m terror, knowing you have something over thcm, knowmg wbat you
cnn do 10 them nt any time. Thls makes the pow~r oí gO\'eromt:nL look
like u forin of tl>e powcr of rhc rapist ovcr the rnpcd. Is this u dynam1c in
how stores ore run intcmally os wcll. in between their inicmationnl con
ílicts? There, roo. men define who thcy are in rehuion ro 01her men •nd
over ali women by "·hich womeo tbcy 01J1 get away with violaring. ln this
li¡¡hr, perhaps rape in peacerime, wbich no state does an¡~hing serious
about. which is seeo 10 violace human righis oowh<r<" bc:."01use hunumiry is
not somcihing women as such are thought ro bavc, cspecially scxually-
perh•ps this is a wly 10 keep Stale power a1 once out of the hands of
women and over nll women. as well ris away from sorne mcn. Pt.rhaps
pcrminmg rape of women by men, or uU women by sorne mcn, is a device
of interna! order withfo st~tes, of delining hícmrchy of men over women
and otbcr men, just as it is berween srntes.
ln the male sysiern, rape of \l'Omen becomes an act by sorne mcn again~t
other men. Women become e way meo esrnblisb iheir pD\\'CC among onc
another. For rapetl womcn, it is always an act agitinst women. often b)
tenain meo ugainst cenaln women. In other words, u may be a s1gn J.Od
form of exprcssion 10 men. :.t w.iy mcn eommun1cat.e wnh one n.nother, but
10 u•cunen u is a rcol v10lauon. As ofteo happc1u when men plum íl•11s.
someone '1·as alreody lhin¡¡ there,
ln the 13osoiao siruation. mstcud ofbein¡¡ understood ns male •mpremacy
112 • Througll th• Bosniao le•s Rapen Hallonbu1ldon¡ • 173
or xenophobia. the culprit is oftco said to be nacionalism. When roen be¡nn A pnnaplc!d vision to animate a ncw iniemauonal ordcr could be¡¡in
behav1ng 10 sorne othtr men and womeo che way thcy hu''C been bcha,vig here: oot only that rape woulJ cnd, but ch.t 1L siops workmg. Tlut men
to "thcir own " women ali alclng, it is 001 cuU~-d mule donunnncc, 11 ¡, callcd scop UWJg vtolat1on ol womeo to get w.hn1 t.hey want úom one >Ulothcr
na11onalmn . Scrb1.1n lu>cists .ire calleJ Scrbían nuuo11alists, Js lÍ chear vic· bccause it 1s no longer funcuonal ar dfecuvc Becousc u get• contempt
nms obJ<?Ct m 1hctr h•vin¡t ~ nauon, 1111hcr Lh11n to 1hcir having a ¡¡eooc1de rnther thlln resptt1. B<:<ousc the world mobilizes 10 gel in úie way of 11
in order to have "ne. fa'Cry notic>n hos it> ["scis1s: the qu<l'tion is. are they msieud of stlmdinA uround .ind wiuching it ond réwurding it with terntory
nunnin~ your ~overnment? Mv clien1s are called nacionalists for describins and rule. &en use 1hose whó do it are CllSt out of thc human cummunl1y
their rapisis in 1he terms in wbicb the tapists describe themselves: as Serbs. instead of being treared Llke diplomats. Violation of W(Jmen should violare
\'\'ornen survívors of Scrbian genocide are c'1iled naúooalists, che same as the real rules. oot jusr che rules oo papcr, nubcr thao being a pan of thc
their tonurers and killers, for thinking they sbould not be 1onused and un"«itten nues, so that s1J11es are built on die backs of womeo on thcir
kille<l beeausc of chcir ethrucity. In thb dJ.cu.s;ion, JÍ ) 'O ll own )'OUrsdf, backs oo more.
daim your.elf .uul idenufy wlth )'Our own con1muruty. aod pubLcly rescm
being rupcd because you ore a member of u, you are cnUed ~ n.111onalísi
1 havc never heorJ N:uive Americons callcd nationalisrs far nb1ectin¡t 10
being subjecred to ~enocide and for wantin¡i thcir own nation lrJd<.
The charge of naáonalism. likc callin!f this a "civil war: is onc more
'111Y 10 avoid calling it what ir is: a genocick. Thc •civil war" cover-up is
the lates< symmecrv rnip, equalizing aggressor aoJ aggre.~scd-against-as if
a will to elnennii;ia1e LS the same as a will Lo survÍ\'e cxtcrnunauon. as ti a
fas051 concep1 of nauon is 1he sorne as J mulucthnk onc. lt is as if those
""'ºare rupcd nnd k11lcd becnusc oí the group 10 which they beloog should
6nd sorne hi11hcr, mc>re cnligh1cnc-d, less pJn:iculnrized grounrl from whith
10 object 10 thcir rape ond murder Objecting ro ir on the ground on which
it is happening npparently is not 1t0<ld enough.
lf rhc pr0ccss wc are wimessiDJl is a parr of a process rhrough which
nation·statcS ha.ve ohen been crea1ed, it also ouses die quescion whether
ihe mccrnatiooal order has becn builr. and will continue 10 be bu1lt, oo
tbc S.1lllc bast>. No nauon, noc even any democracy. is accoumable to
women. Will inccmauonal !.w be? Auscbwnz raise<I thc qucslÍon "·h"1her
pocuy surnved u.• b Lhere lntcmatioo.J law afrcr Bosnia? Or will 1hese
r.pes and the hnmllín¡¡ of thosc chnrsed wíth 1hcm set off o ncw 1·ound of
more of rhe S<1me cm th..- ground, 01 rhe ncgotiating lllble-wherc roen
make deals nnd there nre no women-and in imcrn:uional tribuoals? Will
these Vl(llations of women only imcµsify as authontannn regimes fall and
dcmocfd<:.Y spreads, opening opponunities Cor yet more meo 10 more &eely
'1ola1e ,.-ornen along Unes formerly supprcssed but alwa}'S there? \Xlill ali
thc"" mped und Lortured ond murJer~d womcn bccomc ¡us1 unoLhcr b>r·
g.tinJng chip 1n buildmg J stntc, sutkcJ !DIO mcn d.omg thcir bu>ines> ns
usuul, u:i1h even thc m1crn.1rional 1djudíc11ion of 1hc crimcs og.tinst women
h.:rominA 111.i Jnothcr move in men'< politi~ 1'Vi1h onc onother?

17
Í'rom Auschwitz to Omarska,
Nurcmberg to The Hague
Thc biggCM Jiffcre0<-.: bc:tt.ttn 1hc l\urcmbcrg Tnbun•I af1cr World War
ll anJ thc ln1cm•tK1n•I Cr1m1nal Tribunal for thc l"ormcr Yllj!OSU•1.:1
,lCTY' i> 1ha1 1hc 1cn·, "hich "" 1n thc Haguc, is in pbcc •<
thc
~noc1ck ~ on Thi• Rl\"C11 11 1 chancc 10 cnJ thc impuniry of 1hc rcr·
pctra1ors bc:forc thc las1 \1Cllm d1cs and 10 he part of the peacc proccss.
a crcatn-.: ch•ncc 1hc Nurembc'll Tnhunal JiJ no1 h"'" fe also creates
diflicul11cs thc Nurcmbcr~ Tnbunal d1d no• face. mdudtng problems wUh
defendan1> comtng 10 thcir tnals and oppOrtumues Cor uu:im1dalion ol.
w1tn<0>>d, givtn¡.i risc to n corrcopondmg nccd for >cnOu> ond t000vari'<e
tccurrt) 111ca!\urc..-,.1 ~anee írunllu~s and c.:on1p11ur1ot~ oí \·1cums and v•un~scs
con "ill lx in 1hc control <>I thc ind1e1cJ cnnunal»
Ahhoul!h e.ch ~tn0< 1dc is 11n1que, the annlyuc•I •nd factual parallds
bc1ween 1hc l loloc•us1 by 1hc Naiis ond thc ethmc dean<ing by rhe Serbs
are many and d~e. Both are genocide on ethnic grounds \\'Ílh a relí¡¡ious
dimcnsion, tonducted 1hrough a.11Rression and mvasion, using war as a 1001
of the genocide. Both ore long plunned, with deep roots m perpe1ra1or
culture, cynically curricd out 10 win and dircc1e.J from tbc 1op .,.;th offidal
smc involvemcm. Both sharc un ob.ess1on w11h •bJood." • \lo/k1sh de6-
nmon of ,,.tlon, anJ 11 long nufl<...I sen•• oí griev1mce and persecution from
the pu•t rromo11n¡t • 1ense uf 1he lc¡¡11i1nJq, cvtn SJl\CLily, of 1hcir mission
in thc pre'4:ni Bn1h huvc hMoric•I e.cu..:~ Rn<h lovc symholi<m and ha,•c
• ílair for an,I commitmcn1 in the u~c of pmpa¡¡.and;1 Bo1h líe-a In<
B1¡:otn •nd terror mark • common fasci<m As • post-Communist left-
\\Wll insu~cncy comci. 10 rC1'CITlblc a pos1dcmocro1ic ri¡?ht-Wing ooe. fas-
rum emerge> JS ncuhcr lclt nor n¡1h1 bu1 • pol.1110 111 1t>df.
Altbou¡ili thc ~rb1Jn l...:1'>!>' o¡x:r•tion 1> ¡.,,, >tn-.unhnéd. systemaoc.
TU r. • cdilcd Ullftknpt ol • 1.4 ¡OW"n .af • \ '.lir L.. Xhoal pmd litkJ •f,_. ~'ta
• llomU" oa \pnlZl I~
11~
flom A11schw1t1 10 Ommka • 11>
ond precise than che Naih' w•~. 11 is eaw in 1den1ih in survi'""' rerorrs
trom llosnia and C.ro-Jtia facts rcmmi=nt of thc Nurcmbcrg ond1ctmenis:
thc uuru;poru, selcruUO>, subhum,10 conJ111on>. >y•tcmatlc beaungs. so-
t..Ut:d 1111ecrO&Jt1<"'•· burrun(!> IU>tnll prec:xblin~ cr<!mJlon.1 tn Brtko), J!•S·
Slllg (CO, m bUM:S, wbi<h is how 1hc: f\:Jm >Wr1all, humú1JL1on, dcg~.i
ÜJlinn. s:ta.rvauon. anJ syi.tm1.1ru.. ccrror .inJ h'lu1J..111on. Th~ grounJ.s .t.re
abo pdr.Jld: Scrb. oc:ck Jo1ruc11on ol non Serh< on 1he baU> oí ethmci1y
and rcli$ion (~IU'lims ,.. Mu~hm , <:m.1111n1 •• <:11holid
In carly 1994, SUí\1\"t>l"I rcpmtcd torrure an 1hc: rq¡íoo. Onr Croanan
IJl;Ul descnbcd to me thc boJio he,..., forced 10 d1g up by his ~rbian
aptors from a bolc ihC\ b.J apparc:nth becn m lor ahoot • month: ·w.,
baJ to ~ uff ali ihcu clulh<>. w., cO\'crcJ tht: clotho "'th cartb .nd
brougbt thc rorpoa 10 thc ruad. Thcrc "'" had 10 "uh thcm .nd put on
,.hirc .hect;. 1 "'"" chorpcJ hc:•d• \\1thou1 ey<s. choppcJ arms, scorcbcJ
•-ounds, i:cnit•ls tied -.1th •tnn~ anJ 1•11llcd 001 , C\11 1hm•1s ond C\"ny
ihin~ Thcy made phc>1oa of 11 ., 01hcr sur.·imrs 1cll of si-mbolic u~ of
blood for dq.ira<btion: "\X'c wnuld hnd piett!> of hrcad <oaked in blood
We had 10 tale.e a and c1.t 11 lñ<; sa1d, 'Your blood" diny and )'(>U ha'-e
10 cat cha1 diny blood. • Man) rc¡><)n C\-cn mon: cxphci1 symbolL~m. such
as four Cynllic C.• cut mto m • man"$ back b) h" Scrb1an capton. wttb •
broken boulc. a <roH carveJ tnlO .1 \\'Omon·s check wuh a knút:, an c:m·
broiJery uf• mu>quc in o \\Om.ln ·1 home J<iu«'cl by J en"> cm acros. i1
Pogroms 1¡¡11111>1 Mushms unJ CJI holics -.ere umcd for R.1m•don :md
Bnyram and \.Jrholic holidays. S.,,mc coinm leJ wi1h Serh1Jn Onhodox
holid~y.;, •pparentl¡· cclcbratiMs. \\7i1h nd1ustments for 1hc pamcnlnrs.
none of this \\·ovJJ bavc beco out oí pfocc in 1he Sho.1h
Smkmg parallds cxis1 m thc ways the on,lough1 devcloped on the
ground. Reminisc:eni of the Nurember~ L.iw., s1~1» tlO slQrcs in some pan•
ol Bosnw·I leriegov1Da havc baJU, • No Muslim> or Croowns allowed" for
"""'" orne. Once thc more ocuvc v1c:ilcncc siancd. 1hef1 of prop""Y was
lcgahzcJ. owncrs bcini! forcetl 10 "Pº 11 ovcr m <!xth.mgc for bcmg allo... ~J
IO ¡,,.,_e ahve Prctnlll•I chu,r1 of 11roc111c:a ore levdt~l •M•mst members
oí targcted group< Oc:icton h_.c lx= killcJ for •llc¡:edlv invcnrin~ • way
to s1erilize Serbian "1'men, a psych1a1r1s1 for Jll~cJly bramwaslung 'ierbs.
Muslim and Croauan doctors fe.ir e11,h shih al 1hor hosp11al; iJ a Scrbtan
poll.ICllL dio, ihq will be killed
Socnc p.ualld> •r<' •Wrtlm¡ily prc<b<'. R..Jo..n Ru.uliié, bc.td ol the
Bosruan Sttbs, swcJ m Parh.mcnt thóll 1! 11 J1J no1 tenwn pan of Yu·
~vta, ooc nauonal11~ ,..,,.,JJ be m..Jc to J1••rrr-•r .• Tbi, su1c:men1 ....,.,
undcNood as a thmn 1n .,-.crm1n•1c 1hr .\ IU>l1m na11on•l11y. fl1mmJ<,r,
116 • fhto•I~ lht BH•len ltn•
•peaking oí Jc..1<h ,.·omcn und ch1JJren spcnfially. sutcd diat ·di=
\ 'olk \"<'n Jer Erde \'Cr<1:h-.1ndcn ztl l.s'Cn 1hc>e pcoplc ,.,..u be madc- to
dis•rp..-ar trom thc cmh .' ~rb, call what tbe> are Join~ ·ethnk
dc-.m>1ng."• In l ~2. l lunmlcr >álJ • h "' "'lh anu-Sem1rism as u-uh de-
lomlnM. Kanovm~ ""' " not J mJllcr ol world \LCW, 11 1> a m111cr of.
d~ulC'Ss.., Pmoncrs lrtim 5<-rb1Jn run ckath Clllllpo n:p0rt • curuunt
Jc:manJ 1lu1 1hc:y •mil a ><lllR 11.·nh the ttfr•in "\\"ho sa¡·s. ,.-ho lics. •·ho
''"~ Scrbi• is mal! • Ji wcJ 10 be callcd /,tt....,.,"",..
Tbc Hol.xaus1 ¡, 11<>1 only precnl<'111 and panlld Au<ch,.;12 lr.n on in
Bo-rua Tbc m<><I common cp11hc:t used agamst non-Serbs. íocludmg as
ihq are bcinR tonurcd .ind murdcred. 1> urtaia, a l<nn that rrltts to th.,
l\ui puppt'I Croau.an rq¡1me. (Tha1 there ...-.. also a~= puppct rq:imc
tn !lcrbia, onc C'\'Ctl more cf6cic:n1 m >hUl!h<cnn¡¡ J.,..~· """°"' to bavc
bc.-c:n ÍU<MO!Jc:n.I This \\uulJ be l1ke alling a frcnch penan •\rich¡." Onc
m•n tolJ me: "Thcy <J1d Crn•1uns wcrc • .lldlc:>cJWI pcopk anJ conncctcd
•11h 1l11lcr ThC\ ,111 1he thn..1 of my fricnd bcawc be: u-u blood and
h.1d frttklc. Thr Scrb< d1dn·1 like 1ha1 • AnNher uid, ·r lwd • narne, a
tirs1 and la>t namc. Thm the '"" broke 001, aod I bad jusi one name.
'u,Lb.i ' "
However ""l""p=d or pancrncJ nipc has been ID \\"lltS and geooodes
bcforc, ID Bosnia 1hcrc " cv1dcnce 1.h:u u is ordered as u·ell as orgaru:zed.
in anJ <'UI oí thc r•peidcath c.imps. Rape lO th1s conihc1 has a role. by
an.Uog~ in wh.tl thc Nuremll<!r~ md1c1menu. c.tlled the Common Plan
"iul"Vl\'t\n, c~1·uur-c1d 1ok!1cn1, nnJ '°me extrin,ic n1dcnce support che ,;e-.·
th.11 11 " orJeretl-not 1hR1 11 h<ls m be ordored 10 hoppcn or 10 be crim
mol bu1 1hn1 hcre, 11 is Thc sy<1cma1ic and instrumental nature of thesc
rJJ)e' marks 1hem. POj\roms were one chm¡¡, dcs1¡¡ning and 6dding the gas
chambers was anoihet. Rape as mos1 women gencrallv knov• it and these
r.po have " ~1mil.r d11fcrcncc. Auschwiu: wAS indusmal murdcr. Omarsu
h•• mdu>tn.il rape: m11:ndt:J, pl•nncJ, m•ss-produc..J, scnall} cxecuted,
uu1rumcn1.tfücJ lt comes cl<l>dit 10 1hc c.<pcricnee> of prosu1utcd womco.
sc:ri•ll¡ r.11~d in "hat ,. c.U.,d pcitceumc.
o..11nc11•el" th<lugh <Orne of thi< rape is 1n1cnJed 10 be reproduct1\-e.
Onc m•n who mcu~ra1eJ hi• Muslim wnman net~hbor oí seven )'elrs for
momhs in • <hnck, ,.h<re she "-as rapcd near!y daily b'" manv dtffcrcnt
~rbian <olJ1m uniil sJ,., e<cared, said the tir<1 dav he rapcd her: "\\'c\-e
becn ,.-ai1tn11 lor 1h" for n.cniv ~· lor .\luslim 11.'0llleD. el~ womeo.
to nukc cltt1n:lt chi!Jren .. )UO will i:i•-e bmh 10 a boy cht:tmi< "ho wíll
1i.a,.., • mm on hu brvv.· aoJ v.·ho v.ill kili Mu.,lmu ..-hm be: gro\\~ up. •
In 1h11 "ar, rthruc r<>lu1,.. are ,,,.wJ.,cJ Tbc "º"""' uc \'iol.i1ed ..-11h
 ftom Auscnw11Z 10 Omarska • 177
echnic and sexual rerms rombined, the ubiquirous "ll!toitl wbote" and
•&/¡10 whore." both degradmg 1erms for ethrucuíes' combined wi1h J de·
grnillng term for • wom.tn Serb1an mcn spou1 men'$ poliúcs a. thcy r•pc
"'"'"""' "Fuck you uctbcgovic. ·ruck your God The fucku1g Cod 1> OD
our ~idc, • ·Fuck )·ou. Alija fuclcs you " "Fuck ytm, Fro1njo Tudjmun • Thc1
¡creim chis as thcy ropc. The French prosecutor submined sorne <-vidcncc
of sexual assault at Nuremberg, 1• bu1 nothin~ in this depth or Jernil was
presentecl by anmne. The Bosnian genocide, with irs ecltoes in the Nazi
past, forclronts 1rs sexual obsessions.
Rt:llunisc<tU oí tbc Nazis lOO is thc demasculmi:ution o{ meo of the
•ubordmated ethnicity. Onc Scrbiao man \lho 1onu.re<l • Musltm woman
Sd<uully in u bousc for t\VO 1.L.ys and mghr• srr•ighr ~.1id cluring the r:ipe:
"You Turkish women, your g<ni1.1ls are very goo<l, but so for you wtrc
fuck<'Ci by h:Alf a penis, now we \l'Íll fuck you with • whole p~'Dis, For
Serbs. it's fuck or kilJ " Some Croatinn mcn from CJIStem Cro3tia heard
reports that Mt1slim men are being raped and sexuaUy tonured in sorne
camps. usually former pri(rons. in sorne tnstances being forced w rape one
anotbcr, atting out u ,.¡cious sr:igmatizauon of Muslim meo's sexuality as
homosexual." 1í. insread oí tracing thc Ausd1wi1z in Bos01J. wc look for
the Bosow in Auschwiu. sbimng • light back on the Holocaust from wha1
is known from the Wllr ng:m>st Croaun und Bosnia-Herzegovina, the role
oi 11Cx11.1l abuse stands our as disunct. Rnpe was not contained in 1he in·
dictments of the ma¡or war criminals a1 Nuremberg." Ti seems incredible
tha1 al! 1ha1 abuse could go on withour rape; there had ro ha,,e been more
than reported, if only becsuse rhis is \'ÍrtUaUy always crue. Likely. se.'<Wll
assauk was minimized both quantítatively and in terms of its genocidal
ímportance. Maybe thc Rassemchand• prohibition on intergroup sex
workcd, but 1 profoundly doubt 11. Pcrhaps r.hat oppli~-d only ro ~x. and
rape was con.s1dercd something eh.:. 1
\X'h•te'"' the place oí ropc m the ac1uafüy oí tbc Holocnusr, ns abscnce
ar Nurcmbcrg has had a mojor impnct on che developmenr of incemndonal
faw. Nurembcrg gavc human ri¡¡hts its princípled ground in our time. Thc
tact of, and fC\'lllsioo a~ainst, rhe H<>locau<t iar¡iely 1mpelled and shapcd
1he srrucrure and content of intcmational human rights as we know rhem.
Rnpe \1-.S promineruly included in the Tokro táals. but those cmús do not
occupy thb signa! place. Tbe facr thaL lllJUO<'S 10 womcn as sucb ""''e
invrnble JI Nurembcrg, the fon thar gender '" .1 Íéaturc of hunwnity thnl
could be S)sremaricully viola1cd v. .a not rccogntz<-d 1bcrc. has hdped keep
women from being fuUhumnn bc:in~• undtr in1cm•t1anal law.
Thc incipienc recogmcion of sexual crimes of viC'lcncc a11wns1 womcn in
178 • Throu&h lht Bo•n110 Lons from Auschw1t1 to OmaJSh · 179
rhe ICTY l'{anne dms marks a signal dis11nttion lxtwcxn Nurembcr¡; and For tht survi\'ors and those alive coday wbo "~U no1 swvive, tbe fact
the ICTY. Th1s time. cnmcs a~ainst the humanity of women, such as rape tba1 lbe JCTY comes :tfcer Nu1·ember¡¡, esrablis.hed as tbe genocule goes
JS1J cnforccJ prostiwuon, are up front, at it:OSt initially. Tbcy are not on, ddds a new depth to despair. l..1•iog after Nurembcrg, th<') once had
enurdy •itlc:<¡u.ucly Lhet1!, but 1.hoy •re thorc. ln cbc foundtng •tatute of the hope, Tbis gen(lddc gocs on "" 1he world wutcho. i\u;c:hwlCi w¡ro n<>l on
ICTY, rape and enforced prosti1ulion are menuoned, if nol expressly CNN. As rhe lloloc~ust's Jtrociues cnmc out, ando srunncd world lookcd
under ¡;enocide. In ns evidcnnary rules. Rule 96 providcs tha1 in sexual upon what 11 swd it hntl not reAlly known, thc quesüon loomcd; if 1he
assaults. no corrobo.-.tion is requ1red, conscnt 1s not allow<'d as a defense world had really known. woulJ it have aUowed th1s ro happen? Fifry years
and no evidente of prior sexual conducr is allowed." This is wha1 a rape larec, Bosnia has gh'<!n u.s tbe answer, and ir is yes
law might look like when a contexr oí force is legnlly acknowled¡;ed.
Tbroug:h interpretation, che rapes may lcgall)• come to be S<!t:n as wbat they
are in this conflict: genocicW acts. int<!gral to the destrucuon oí a peoplc
~ such. 111e ICTY stands pois<:d to dcvdop an mternational ¡uruprudeoce
oí >exual as:.tiull as integral to the L1w of nS1ions for the first tlme
Will Nurcmberg and 1hc ICTY fonn porentheses in 1he humnn and legal
history of thc search for internacional jusúce tbrough law, not war. for
buildin~ suites on consent. nor rape? Will the fCTY be a step in womeo's
becoming citizens of rhe "'orld, or will ir berome a sire for revisionism
befare there is even a history to revise? Holocausr revisionism llourishes
fifty years .úrer Nuremberg. \X'hat has made it possible 10 SllY 1oday that
the acl:> documen1ed and uied rhere did oor takc place? Does thar process
tell us .nythiog about the denial of the geoodde m Croaua and Bosnia
Hericgovioa even as is happenlng before our ~? Todoy, • le¡:..J rcvi
sionism auemprs 10 recest rhc role 1hat an1i.Semitic haic propngaoda had
during rhe Holocuust. ron1endin¡¡ that i1 was wroog 10 hold irs publisher
responsíble for incitement ro genocide, as he wus al Nurcmberg. The role
of pornography in Bosnia shows that Nuremberg was nght, Tdford Taylor
""'ong when ~ later implied from a comfonable dlsrance Lhar publislung
thc~ materials \\'as not m mtcmatlonal crimc. 1
To bavc a revised hisrory, you fim necd u blsrory to cevJSt. \X'ill tbe
hisrory of this war be wrincn by those te".tl VJctors, the bystandcrs, the ones
"·ho sar ir out? Will ir say, as 1hey •ay now to ¡ustify rheir inactton, rhat Í1
,..., a "civil war" wirh anciem hacreds ancl imrlacabl~ nationalisms? Will
1hey condemn ar rocities on all si des, equaring the few and rhe many. policy
and larse of policy, official planned octs and a few exrremíst indi,~duals
runníng amok, to avoid takmg sides uotil ÍI is all over? \\1 ill chcv say cape
happens in all wars, not a$ a foct to cnd staning here, but as a boys·u'ill·
bc·boys clcnl(l] ol thc spccific uuocuy thut u¡ hcrc und now, a cover-up
somer.imes evcn par:ided, obsccaely, under f=uusm? lf th~ nt best balf
tnnh•,"' worsr gcnocide dcnials, bccome 1hc <iílici•I stot\, revisionism will
look good They pose o challmRC for rhe TCTY: could Nuremberg have
mude today's real and papcr Echmanns•• impossible?

18
Rape, Gcnoci<le, and
\Xfomen's H uman Rights
Human n~ts ha"' not b«n ..·omco's ngbt>-D<X 10 th<ory or m reahl) ,
not leg•ll) or •oo.Uy, noc Jomouc.JI} or unemat~I\', Right. 1ha1
hunun bcm~• ha•-C br ''"""' of bcing hum.n h.-c no1 becn "Rht> co which
wornC'n h.-. h..d •cce,•. nor h•,~ •íol.i1<1n' of "·omcn .u •ucb bccn po.rt
of the dclini11<1n of 1hc •ie>buon <>Í thc human u such <>n whkh human
righo bu· has rr1d111ono.lly bccn predicated
11us 1s nor bec:iusc women 's humm n~ht> h..vc not btto violared. The
cbdmg of womcn m the human n¡Vii. l>Clllnl( happens m 1"0 ways. IX'hen
womcn •re violoted Wce m<:n who .re 01he.....1>c Llke thcm-\\hcn womcn's
orm> onJ leg, are cut and blccJ l1kc th., .irms and l<"gS o( meo. \\-ben
womcn \\1th mcn, •re shot m pttt •nd ~·•sed m VJns: when "'()mcn's
bod1es •re h1dden \\1th mcn's 111 1hc houom <>Í •band<>ned mines; when
women's and men's skulls nrc sent fmm Auschw11z 10 Strasbourg for ex-
perimems-1hcse mrocnics are not marked m rhe hisrory of violations of
women's human ri¡¡;hrs. The "-ornen ore counred •s Argennnian or Hon-
dtlfan or je\\•rsh-which, o( coursc. thcy ore. Whcn whar h•ppens to
women also happcns LO men, hkc bt:lng bcaten and d1S3ppeanng ond belng
1onured to dcath, thc lact 1.hal 1.ho~ 11 happcned 10 are women is not
rcg1srercd 1n rhe rccxll'd of humiln 111ruct1y
The othcr w.11 v1c:>l.11ions til w<>mcn 11re <>bscurcd 11 rhtS· When n<> war
hJ.11 hct:n drdared. and ltfe gO<"S <>n in • ll~le <>Í cveryd~y hosulities. womcn
an: katen •nd rapcd by mcn t<> "·hC'lm wc ate do..:. Wives disarpear from
supcnnarket parlnng l<>ts. Pr<>St1ru1es íln.it up in n\'ers or rum up undcr
piles ol ~ m abanJmed buildm¡¡, Thcse aU'OCl.ues are 001 countcd a.
I..rt.a ~ Gl t.hb a:acctllil ~ Jdiwrtd 1111 1hc- l'nfttd l'lri•UGftl 'f:odd t:.oruamcc •
Kiol..._ \"""' .., ,.,. 17 l ..}, mJ • 1i.. 7....., t,......._ U.-<..~ 74ni>, nn
11.....,
,_ n. 19'!1 n.........,...
..i _ . , ..,..._.,"' "•'""' ~ ..i As,. .'ummda.
.......... "'m111i...,..¡
~"'
. i;:.,... · - ..¡ ................ ""'"""" .,._¡¡,¡._ h ........
(¡......
..._.., u,.,.,._i, 11""
110
Rapt, G1nocld1. t•d Vtom~• s Human Ro¡Ms •
human ri¡¡hts violaiions, 1htir \lCllms •~ thc dnJr•rcaJoJ of cveryc:Liy life.
In the record <>I human righ1s violauun• thcy are ovcrlookeJ cnúrely be-
c.iuse the \1cums are "')mcn and whot wa. done 10 tbc:m wclls of .ex
\1Chco • "º"'JO 1> tonured in ~n l\r~cntuic pn>on cdl. cvcn "5 ll rs for-
goucn 1h~1 >hr " .1 ,..om.in, 11 " oc:<.1l 1h•1 her human nghi; •re ,,.,Jaicd
bccausc what is done tC'l l>tr " ,,¡,... .tc>nc 10 mcn ! ter •uffcrin¡¡ h.s the
di~ni1y. •nJ her Jearh 1he honnr. and htr )q¡al 'latus the reco¡:nition of a
crimc agaum humarury Sur when a ,.1lman is tllnut<J br her husbanJ in
her home, humanny ,, 001 l«ll tC'l be '1<>Lned. Here .Jic is a woma~lflT
a woman. lntemauooall\, her \10111100 ooua~o the COQ.SCleoce of tcw bc-
yond her fnenJs
Put mott S<hemJUc11lly, 1n 1h., J>Cl"pcclJVc ol human righi... whar " donc:
10 "vmcn 1> ttthcr roo 1pc<;1fu; 10 ..v1n<·n 10 b.: ll«tl .u hum.in or IDO
~cric 10 hum•n bcings 10 be t«n •• .1bou1 womcn . Atro<lltCS rommmed
111l•1ns1 wocncn are nrhcr 100 fcm•lc in lit 1hc concq>I of human or 100
humm m lit rhe idea <>Í femalt •11um•n" and "femalt·- •re mur:ually
exdusi\'e by clcnmm>n; onc cannCll be a woman •nd a human bemj! a1 the
same nme. Womcn '5 rr~hts utt, in otber word>. noc vc:1 human right.S. nor
are human rjpm yet womcn's rr¡i)m.
Ccn1mly, womcn •re v1olJtcJ m mam Wl)'l< u1 which men ore \1ola1ed.
But womcn •re also viobtcd m parurnlir "ºª>' rhat men urc not, or that
an: cxccpuonal for mcn 1\1.my 11f thcsc scx ·~p«ific viobtions dre sexu:ll
ond reproducuvc Womcn 11rc roulincly v1olo1cd tcxu111Jy and reproduc-
tively every d~y m cvery cuumry m rhc w<>rld 1 The idea rhar 1he<e acts
violare women's hum•n ri¡¡hls hns bttn creoled by women. nor by states
or ROVemmems. Netional luw1 sddom effecLively recognizc t:har women
are viola1ed in thcsc ways Jnd somcumcs cven make them cnminals for
bcing raped (havrng scx uut>idc marriage) 0 1 ha\mg obo1uons (redstmg
forcc<l mmhcrhooJI Womcn •ero,. culture> huvc <rcotc<l thc Idea thot
"·omcn hove hum.111 ri¡¡hlh, rdu~ing ro bdocvc thJI l he rcJUty of \'tOIBtion
'fi.T lrvc wnh as ~ hat i1 mC"'-05 for U1' to bt hun\itn-as our l!OVC"mments
seem lar¡¡dv to helicvc. Wc>mcn h•ve CreJled the idea <>Í wc>men's human
rights by n:fusing tn abantl<'n c>urseh-cs and eme another. out of a1tachmen1
to a principie of our O\\'I\ humaruty-one dchncd agam.i our context and
our expenenees. They 11.ve bttn dehneJ no1 by tr'1D.<tcndtn¡t tbc realm,
ol oor ,,ola.oons but by rcfU>mg 10 dcny thc:m In thii. proicct. \\'Ottlen have
lcarncJ th~t ooe day o( '"'°'
C'Xpenen<c: " .. onh "''lumo of ..U thnr thc-
orico. IJ "-e bclin-cd cx1.ung •prn•-.ha 10 human n¡¡ht., "'" would not
bcliC\'C wc hikl any. Ra1her than )ooltin~ •t human nt<ht> l.aw 10 <ce hou
much oí WP<ncn's t;...,. can be lit mt<> it," .... are tallj!ht 10 Jo as lau'\-cr<,
181 181 • Throu¡h tht 8osn11n l ..1
l
look .u 1hc rt'.t!ot\ ni wom~n'• hv0> anJ hold human n¡iht.S lau· accounuble
10 what womcn na..J ilnJ d<1 1101 ha,e.
l'ur&UJn~ tloto rc.ilny b.L...J appm.1th, con.tdcr onc '11uat1on of thc m•»
\'u1l.itH'n ol \\'t,mcn ':t hunuan nght, nnw lXcumn~ in thc heart oí Europt".
In th" <'•mp4Jjln ••Í cxtcrmonotmn, "·h1ch ~an "'th 1he Serhim inva.'1<>n
of Cro.ua in 1'191 anti expl<><kJ m the Serboan •llJ!rnsÍOO against &snia
and Hcr7C'gm1na 1n l'Wl, ~ideoet" docwnems tlm woroen are bein11 ..,,._
ualh anJ reproducmeh •1olated oo a ma.<s .cale. as a maaer ot cooscious
pohC), m por;utt of a ~cnoc1Jc thr~h '""'· In Oc1ober l'J92, l recaved
• communr<••l<lll lrom •n \menan rcsearcher oi Croanan aoJ Bosniao
..k.-...=1 worlun¡¡ ,.,,h rdugc<:> 4nJ gathennl( mformaoon on thb "-ar. Shc
"''d th.i Serlun Í<>r<<'> haJ otcnn•n•t<d Croau.an• anJ Mu.Jun. in 1hc
hunJrals o{ 1ho11sanJs "1n •n opcrauon 1hci· \'c cooicJ 'cthnic dc-""'in~·-.
0
thai in 1htS i:m•1C1<lc thousanch <lÍ Mu'bm and CroJtian ¡¡iris and womc:n
~re rapcd onJ m•clc forcrhh pre~nant in ><:tunR' mcludÍ.nlt S.:rbllln-run
cunccnrruuon camp< of u·hich -about rv•rntv are soldy rape;d.,,.th camps
lor ~lu hm and Crc>auan "·om<:n and childrco ., Sbe had retti,cd repons
ol Lhe malung and use of pomograph} as pan of tbe gcooode.. ·0nc
Croau.in \\ornJn Jt">cnbcJ bcing tonured by dttuí~ .bodes and gang-
rJpcd m • c.rmp by Serb1Jn rnen dtu.scJ in CroJU.tn unüorms wbo 6Jmed
1ho r•pc, •nd for<cJ her l<l ·wnfc• ' on lilm that Croauans h"d rapcd
her <;he ,1Js.> repc>nctl oh•t wme UnhcJ 'louons rroops were 1argeung
wC'lmen "In the <trccl~ oí 7..i¡¡reh. UN rrm>ps ofocn ask local womcn how
much thcy co-.r There Jre re¡ions of refugec \\'Ornen bein¡i forced to seJ<-
ually serv1ce the UN 1rOOJ>$ to reccive wd. Tomorrou• 1 talk to "''º survi-
vors oj mass rapc:-1h1ny men per day for O\'er three months. \Xle've heard
the UN pllSSc.J u rc>0luuon 10 coUect evidmc-e as tbe fus1 step for a "'ar
<rime~ trlal, hui ll i; Mud hcrc 1ha1 therc b no prccedci11 for uymg sexuiÚ
:1troc1tu.·!>."'
\'\'h<1h<'r <>r nu< tht"c ¡ira<UcC• an: fonn.Jly J.lcg.J-unJ 11 is CQSY 10 S3}
"·ilh compl.t·l'l1C\ oh.a rore prmmuuon. rom<>¡;raph.-. and se>rual murder
are 1llttal ·thcy are wiJcJ, pcnnmcd undor both d~mcstic .u1d interna·
toonal l•w They are alJnwt'd, whethcr understood. onc man 10 anotbcr, as
an cxcc.s oí Pª''t0n m ¡x-acc: <>r thc: spoils ot .ict<'I} m war. oras tbe
hberuo, c1\ll or othc,.......,, ol thc:lf pcrpetr.uor... They are legally raooo-
.JizcJ. olh,1ally wmkcd ai, and in >nme llliLrn<b formally coodoncd.
Whethcr en 001 th<i· ~re rcg.irJ<.J u. .nm.,,.. 10 oo COUDUJ are they ctkt•
tl\dy prvh1b1t<·d .md oo place are rhn re..'<lp1ized "" m•l.tuons of the
humin nAf>t• of tht"u \1C um'
Thi, gcnoodal .... r cxcmrltlic- hov.· t•Í·nn~ •rprt>lltbcs l<> \'>Olaoons oí
 Rape, Cenot1de. and Wome•'s Huma• R1ghts • 183
=men's human rights can S<TI• ro contuse wht' ts doin¡t what to whom
and tbus can cover up and worx to condone ~trodtles. lñese Juooaes
olso lll\'C an urgency, lf •ny WJS nec<le<l. to tbc pro¡ect of red!Vl,toning
humJn ngh's ro that v101nuons of hum..init)' are sccn to cnco1np.t..'' wh~n
happt'ns ro women.
'The war •1tains1 Croauo and Bosnfa-Fferze¡!ovina, and their panilll oc·
cupation, is beinll. carried OUI by '><:rbfan forc.-; in coltaboration \\1rh the
Serbian regime in Bclgl"Jde, gO\'emiog what remains oi Yugosla\'ta. Tius is
so intemaáonal war. Ali the stare parr:ies bavc adopted relevam laws of
natfons tbat prohib1t mese acts; they are CO\'ert-J in any case b)• CUStOlll:JI'}'
1nremauooal J.w and jus cogeos.' Y«L ;;o far notlung ha• beco mvokctl to
stop ¡h.,,., .buses ot 10 holJ their pcrpctraton .1Ccouni.blc. Thc excu.'e>
offered for this lack of •cuon are tlluminJtmg.
In th1< wnr the fact oí Scrbinn n¡:¡¡ression is bcyond question, ¡11s1 as
1he foet of malc a¡¡grcssion against \\'Ornen i• heyond question. both here
and in everyday üfc "Etbnic deunsing" ís a euphemism for ~enocide. lt is
1t policy of ethnic exrerminaúon of non-Serbs witb tbe aim of "ali Serhs
in one nation, • a clearly announced goal of "Greater Serbi,1,• of cerri1orial
conqu<>t and .iggr,mdizcmem. Th31 this is " w.ir ag3.lllst 1100-Scrbi•n CJ·
\'tfüns, 001 beiweco ad"ancmg and retrt-aling arnues, 1s also bc}-ond qW!•·
11011 Yot 1!W. war of aggrcssion-once a<lmine<l to cxist 01 11!1-has re·
pca1e<lly bttn constmcd as bilatcrJl. as a CÍ\'ÍI war oran cthnic et>ntlict. 10
the accompanimcnt of rnucb imeroarional he-Jd scrntchinf( ahom whv
people cannol seem 10 get alon¡.i and • lm of pious clucking abour che
human ri¡¡hts viol11tioos of "all sides" as if thcy wc:re comparable. This
threc·pronged maoeuver ís familfar ro thosc wbo wotk witb the issue oí
rape: blamc women for gemng ourselve$ rapcd by roen.,.•• know. ch!1$tisc
us lor not llluog tbem very well afterwar<l, •nd tben criudze ou r lack of
ncu1rality m not considcring rape$ of 01en LO ¡,., a comparnblc cmcr11ency
The obscuring of thc e1hnic spec11iciry of rape is rommon ourside U'llrume
<etrm¡:s as wcll.
One result of this approach is thar rhe rapes m this war are noc !!f•sped
as <ither a straregy w gcnocide or a practice of misogyn)'. far less borh at
once. ThC) are not undemood as conanuous both with this particular
aluuc wnr of aggrcssion and \.-tth the gendcrcd war of aggresslon ol ...., el')·
day tifc. Genocide does nm come from oo••be:e, nor d0<!$ '"P" .t.\• rcad¡
and convenient tool oí u. Nor lS a continui1y an cquotion. Thes.c napo urc
10 cveryday rupc whut 1hc l!olocaust was to cvcryday ann -Scmill•m .
Withou1 cvc..,.-day on1i·Semitism • Holocoust is 1mpossible. but anyonc v.•ho
ha< lived 1hrough a po¡¡rom knows the difference
184 Through the Bo.sn1a,. Lens
\\bat is hupperung bere, m fact. 1s fu:st u gcnoc1d.,, m u•h1ch ethnicu:y 1s
a 1001 for pol1ti<-ill hegemony; 1he WM is 111'1 instrun1l!ll1 of the ~ocide: rht
rapo un: JI1 in>1rumcn1 oí bo1h . Thc Ba.nion S.,rh> under 1hc ~ommJnJ of
R.idov.m KaruJzié do ""'' romrol 1hc sm e; 1hcir wnr is agJin~t 1hc l"-"'Plt
and thc dcmocrnncally oleeted govemmen1 of Bosnin-Hen.egovin3. Tf )'llu
c<>ntrol che state and wam tn rommit genocide. ns 1he Nazis did under the
Third Reich, you do 001 need a wur. You do it wnli the SHtte mecbamsms
at b.nd. 1ñis 1s bcing done n<>w, qu1etly. to Hun¡zana¡is aod Croaoans in
occup1ed easu:m Croaua and m Vo1,·odina, formerly an amonomous rey1on
now ann<.'.l<cJ 10 Serbia, \'irtually mvmble to thc world.
Tht AJbJJlians in Ko~va uré in u panicul.irl)· precariou$ situ.ttion , ti\Jr-
roun<led, wi1hin • stutc. When Sc:rbin m(>Vc> on thcm militanly. ¡tomg
bcy1md 1he segre~nrion Jnd oppression rhe>· suffer now, it may not look
hke a """' 10 anyone else. 11 will nor cross imcmational borden;, thc wn~
much imemaaonal L1w wams ro see before tt feels viola1ed. But it will be
another facet of me campargn 10 elimmate non-Setbs &om ateas targeted
for "cleansmg." a genocide: To call mese campa1gns to extermtnate non·
Scrbs "ovil wur" is likc calling the Holocausr a civtl war between German
AryJn$ •nd Gorman Je\\'S. lf ond when tbc realuy in Voj\'o<li.nu comes out,
or Albaniún$ are •cJcan<c<I,• pcrhaps thot too wiU be padwgcd for \X'eMem
con•umption u ancicrtt ethnic hatred•, • bog likc Vietnam, or ¡ome e>ther
formulnrion to justif'.)· dom¡¡ nothing about it
[n this gcnocide through war, mass rape 1s a tool, a racric, a poliq. a
plan, a s1nuegy, and aa inStrurncnrality, as wcll as a pracnce. Muslim and
Ccoauan \\"Omen and girls are raped, then often killed. by Serbian milita!'}·
meo, regulars and irrcgubus in a •'!lr1cty of form.Juons. in rheir home..., (>n
hillsides, in cnmp~-camps thut used 10 be, fot1orics, schools, forms, mines,
sporu arenas, p06! of6~. rC!>t.turunts, hotel$, or houses of prost:uu11on.
The camps can be outdoor enclosure$ of barbcd wire or buil<lings. There,
pcople are hcld, beaten, ond killed; women, •nd somcumes men, are rored
Some w(lmen are also raped after they ore killed Sorne of thesc c:unps are
rapeldeatb camps exclusively for women. orj!anized like the brothels of
what is called pcacetime. someumes Ul locanons that were brotbels before
the war.
Lo thr \\'cst, t.be <l<!xwl ;urociue!ll m this conHiet ha\'t been discussed
largd) as mpe '" <U gonoc1de, nm a. wlM they are, v.hich is r•pe ••
¡:cn<1Cide, Npe <lirecte<l mw;rd w(lmer1 bc:c•u>e 1hey ;re Mu<ltm ot Cro
.irnn h 1s ,. if pcople cannot think more than onc thou~ht ut once. The
mnss rape is pan of a campoijln by Serbfo a¡¡ains1 non-Serbia, or 11rt on·
slauidit by combata.nis af!ainsr ovilians. or an anack by men apainst
women, but n~er all at the same time. Or- dus is the feminist \'Crsion of
Rape, Gtnocido. t•d Womt n' ¡ Hum~n R11hts 185
the whnewasb-chese arrociaes are presemed as ¡ust onother 1nsrancc ol
aggression b\• ali men a~amst aU women all tbe ume. Lí this were the
opening •-olley 1n a countc:roff<!llsiv~ ag:unst rape as a war >1gatns1 aU
wom"" aU tbc ume. 11 woul<l be one t.bmg. But tbe way Jt works bere IS
thc opposito; to makc •urc thut no ono wbo CMCS nbout rape ukc. a •idc
"' thti W3r ogaill>t tbé'J< r.rucular r•!J<'S· lt <loes not so much gidv~nhe
opposínon to rape \\'henever .1nd \\•hcrc..•cr i1 occurs u:, co\.·cr up thc foct
tho1 these rapes ore bein¡¡ done by some men a¡¡ainst c.rlam womcn for
specific reasons. here and now. The point secms to be to obscure, by ruw
meaos •vailable., exacily who is dotn¡t wbat to whom and wby.
Thc result 1s tbat these rapes are gra!peJ in eitber their ecbnic or reh·
gious partieulanty. as attacks on a cultllft, or Ul tbeir sex spedfi.city,
meaning ~s auacks on women-nc\'et botb at once. Attacks on women, u
scems, umnot delínr anad<s on a pcoplc. 1f thcy are gcnder..J artacks, thc")
are not <thnic: if thC)• are ethnic • ttacks. they are not 1Jcndercd. Onc ciln·
cels the orhcr But whcn rnpc is a ¡.icnocid.J act, as it i• hcre, it is nn aet
to destroy a peoplc. Wha1 is done to women defines that destrucuon.
Bes1des. aren't u-ornen .. people?
These rapes are aJso w1dely treated as an memable by-produet of anned
ronllic1. Evet)· ame tbere ís a \\'ar, tbere lS ra~ Of course, rape d0<!$
occur in aU wars, botb witbin ond bcrween aD sides. As to rape on one's
own si<le, aggrcssion outside borders is customaril} sus1;1i.ncd b)' corre·
sponding •upprdSion and manipulation ut home \'Qhcn the ormy c<>me11
bnck, it visiu on the womc:n al home thc C>Ctllatcd 11:>-cl of a$,~ault the m""
were uu.i¡¡lu and proctlccd on women in tbe w.r zoue. The United States
knows this weU from the war in \'ietnam. Men 's domesac violence a¡?ains1
women escaLued- induding cbett skill at i.nilicting mnure \\'ithout leaVlllg
'~stble marks. Sexual aggression agruns1 Asian "·omen tbrougb prosrirutioo
s nd pomography exploded in the United Swtes during this penod Amer-
ican mcn got • particular 1aste fot violatmg thc:m ovcr 1here. Thi~ mu.t be
h.1ppcnin¡? 10 Scrbian U'Omen now.
Rape ita dail) nct by men a~ain>t \\'Cinten; ir is .1'\\·u¡~ 110 aet tof dvmi·
naáon by men over women. But thc role of these rapes in thi• ~enocidal
war of agg:ressloo is a maner of fact. oor of ideoloAlcal spin or theoreuc.J
analys1s. M"Ushm and Croman women are facing two layers ot men on 1op
of them rathct than on,;, one layer en¡¡aged in exrcrmmanng rhe other, and
two layers of ju.1uliution-"¡ust war" and · ¡u,1 life • A<l<l thc nusrcpre·
senwlon oí tbis war •• • cl\ll war mnong "'JUM aggrcSsors, illld t.besc
womcn are facing three t imcs tbc usu11l number t'f rensons for the world
"' da nathing •bout i! .
Ali 1he covcr·up• si~nnlly 1gnc>re 1ho Fact that thi~ i< u ¡;cno<;.idc. Thc
186 • lhrouch thr 801n l1n lrn1
"civil u~r cover up olncure~ 1he role nf Bcl~.-.de m mncling firs1 Croacia.
thcn Bosm• Herze~ovm•. and m occup)in~ parts of bo1h. A m'll war IS
nor an 1ma.ion bv anothc:r rountrv. U' th1~ " • o,,J war. n6U..,r Croa112
nor Bo-ma· Hcrzq¡0\1111 IS• n•Uon. bu1 bo1h are recogruzcd a. such. 1n a
cw1I u Ar. ~!t""""'n is murual Th1> ,. nol a r«1prual ¡:<nOddc. Mll5!tim
and Croauaru are 11<11 aJ-.n<m~ anJ rc1rcaun¡t mto .,,J out of Scsbia
Thcy •re 001 car~1ng 001 11...-noddc ogamM Ser\,. on 1hor °""' 1cm1or1cs
Thc:rc are no c11occn1raucm OtmJ'I for \crbs in "•íll~O or Zqrcb. Thc
1crm "civil 1A"lt 1ran•la1cs. in ali langwgcs. sn1n "oot rn\' problcm • J1
0
mal<"" 11 domesnc. 1he ,.•., wha1 mcn 10 do u'Omcn evtt)..-bett e\'Cn~
IS ~uc In con<irum).1 thb <nuaucm •>a civil u-ar at bonom, tbc in-
tcmauon.J communll)' has Jchncd 11 m temu of v.·bat u has so far bcen
•-illing to Jo about 11 no1h1ng.
lt "' not 1h•1 1hel'l" .re no clcmcni. of common mhur<' amoog IM p.ru.s
her< at la.1 ª' 1mpnonl 1hru11Kh Jc.:•,lo oí Cornmulll>I rule, mouung
<;.,rb1an hr:¡¡cmon• . h is noc 1hJt 1hcre •re no conlllCtS b..N·cm or ,.,ihin
<1d.s. or sh1fun11 of MdC"I 1n e<>mplcx "•Y'- tl...i promlc elemcnis oí civil
W\lr h is no1 1ha1 1he mcn nn onc ~idc r•pe ond the mcn on che orher sidc
do 001- 1t IS, rarher, 1ha1 none of th~-.e factors defines dllS emergency. nooc
oí them created 11. none ot 1hcm is Jm1n¡i 11, and none of rhem explains
1t. Thesc ate •moke screcn>, propJ~anda 1ools. smcere or cyruetl. behínd
u·ruch ~rbía conunuci. to e~pJnd •l• 1cmtory by ektemunaang people and
raptng women en mJ...,~c
Thc fcmin"l 1cr.1on uf the <t>vcr up i• c;pcc1ally u~ful to the perpc-
""'º" bec•u~ 11 g«nu to acknowlet!Ae the u1roct1i<1-which are hard 10
deny lalthou¡¡h 1hcy do 1hat 11wl-and nccupi· the ¡cround on which out·
ra~e a¡¡ninst 1hcm ha< bccn cffeccively aroused. But •Is function is 10 ex·
onernie the nipí"s and m drilca in1erve111ion tí all men do thls ali thc
ame. C5pedally 1n U"lr, ho" can onc pick a side m this ooe? And sme<" all
men do th1s all the umc, war or no war. u·b) do anytbm¡i spcci.J about
i!t1s nowt Such an•ly•t> ,. oftcn acrnm¡l;llllcJ by L blankct cnaquc of
·nauon.J"m a. if 1Jenultcu11on "11b the ",¡¡ to c~tcrm1na1e can be
c4u31cJ "·11h 1tk-nlificuuon "llh thc w1U to <UJ'\1\'C cxtcnnmatwn. •• IÍ 1111
c1hn1c conce¡>1 ol naw>n •lakc 1he Sém1•n fase"' onel is i!tc •:une J.S 1
muhirthnic conccpt nf naucm !hke the Bo'nian oncl; and as if those ,.iJo
are bon~ lúJled hec:a- ol 1he natK>n 1her b..lon¡¡ 10 should 6nd sorne
loltier 1usnhcauon for su11n~ ala-e and rncnun¡¡ the bai!S on ,..hich rhey
are beinfl extcrmma1cd th.n n•uooal >un11 al TilC up.bot b. tbis coofüa
bc.:omc:. IU>t • form oí b .... ncsa u U>u.L• Bu1 gdloc'tJe IS 001 bU>Ulcss ..
11>ual-noc e\"" for mm
Ropt 0fOOCldt, 1nd Wo11•n' Ham1n R•&hll • 187
Likc ali íaJ'<', ¡tcnomiaJ ropc 1' r•n1<11J.r a.• wcll as r.1n ni I~ ¡¡cncnc,
and its p.arucularnv mmcM< Th" '' cthmc rai-: ~' an otticul pol1cv nl uar
m a ¡:enoddal cim¡>:u~n tor pohucal comml llt.i rncans oot ooh a poli~
of thc pkasurc ol malc pD\l'Cr unlc.i.<heJ. wluch luppcns áll the ume Ul
so-calleJ pcacc; n1>1 only • poli11· 10 tldtle, tonwc, hunuliAtc. dc¡;rade. anJ
dcmoraluc thc ochcr 1JJ,-, uhirh h•rJiall .JI me UIM Ul U"lt, ianJ not only
• pohcy ,,f men ¡>0>1un"ll 10 ¡¡.un ••h an1.agc •nJ ¡tnlunJ "'" <'thcr mm
h is •P<'<'tli,lllly rape unJcr onk" Thl\ L< 001 r•f'<' out of «>nttol h ;,
rape undcr romrol h Í• •lsn rape umo dca1h. rape u m"'s.tctt, rape m
kili 111d m makc 1he \1ctuns wi.sh 1hc, wcre dcad h " rape a. an UlSCfU·
mem ol forttd cxJc, rapj' to makc '"" ka'c vour home: md De\'Ct W'<llll
10 110 back. h "' r.pc to be M!'Cn mJ he.uJ •nJ "atdicJ ..00 1old to odicrs·
rape 3S spn.udc h u rape to Jmc • 11cJ,.:c through a commuruty. 10
i.luucr a "°""'"" 10 ~11\') • pctipk. lt " ropc .. i:enooJe
h 1> •ho r:tpe m.Jc 11a• lor iltc P.:'l"'lrJlo<> b, thc p<>ll'Cr oí thc rapt.1,
\\hich is ab.oluic. 10 ..,1cc1 1hc '1•lltm •I "'11 TMy "'"'"' in1n m<>m• of
captl\1' womcn •nd romt, "You, 'º" Jnd '"" • •nd take ¡-ou nu1 ~11111y
rw:er rewm h ,. upe mJdc more •rou<in¡¡ hy the cthmc bostility lll!illnSI
the des1¡:na1cd ·mc:rm," made to fttl 1u•nfied hv thc nouon ma111 IS "lor
Serbia.· which thc~ ,,.v ª' they 1hrus1 mto thc ••ornen anJ make them sm¡?
Scrbian p• triouc sonp.,. h 1> rJfk m1Je m ><-'Ctn ngh1 b1 Je.:ades of hes
about the suppo>c<I bch.vtor t>I th.11 cncm)-)Cll.tll anJ vcars uf propa
g.uitl• <amp•i11ns. full ,,f h1.t<>r1c41 hrs •nd Í•l<i6cJ tl•1•. 1ndudin1l tn
school" In 1his cffort. rnp<'• .111J murdcrs c11rracd out h) Scrb• upains1 non-
Scrhs ure presente<! to 1hc Scrhi•n rn¡ml.11 1c>n nn tcle\isaon •$ rape¡ and
murdel"I of Serbs by Mu•lim• and Cro.1ts The way m wh1ch porno¡irapby
is believed m 1hc mcn'< bodit-s as well JS m thcir mmds ¡!tves lhis \\'Jr
propaganda a special potency.
Tlu. 1> also rape nuJe csp<:t1all1 cxdtm~ Cor the perpetrators by
kn0\l:u1g th•t lherc Are no lunn• on u hot thcy un Jo, by knou'lllg 1ha1
thc"" womcn <Jn, •nd 1n many 1n>Uncc• "UJ be ro¡.....J "' Jc11h \lthou~b
the ordcrs rrmtdc mtil,.Jllon en<>Uwh. lh<' r.1><.. .uc m.ide 'º'ually <'OioY·
ohle, irresi•tahle "'""· b1 1ht' lact tlu1 lh<' .. ornen are •hout 10 lit-...crificed,
b1 1he P"""'I""'º"' nf thc "·ornen 11nd ch1ldrcn in thc facc oí theu tm-
msncnt murJer a1 1hc hand< ni thnr np1<!\ Thu 1< murde:r os tbe ulamate
<exl121 act.
11 v.'ill noc hdp to say tha1 thb L\ v1"1cncc, not ~. lor IM men mmlvd.
\\ñcn thc men are 1ulJ 10 Wtc 1hc \H'ftldl av.'a\ anJ 001 bnng thcm badt,
hn.1 1hcy upe thc:rn 1hcn th...-) kíll 1hen1, ..nJ thcn """""""" "!'<' thcm
ega10 anJ mt olt 1hdr hr~u ~nJ l<"lr '"" 1hcir ,..,.,,,¡.,." Onc ,..,,m.:tn
188 • Throua~ 1~1 B11n11n ltn•
"''" .1llowc.I to l.-~ Mlv .- Ion¡¡ 1ts •he kept her 5erbian captor harcl ali
m~ht 11rnlly, 1'111\ht allcr n1¡th1 ah<'f m~h1 , frl'm midni¡:ltt to):()() A.M. \\'ha1
he f!OI \\ .1> """ 1M hm1. 1ltc a¡t~rc>!J<•n wa. thc :.ex.
Thu~ 1:-t rJJ~ ~ conurc ;u "i:U .u r~pc .a~ cxtcnn.ublUon.. ln the: ClllD~, u
11 JI on.c m•.. ••!>< ~nd K'n.d r•J"' u1 • w•1 tlw ,. md1'un¡;u1>hablc from
pms.CJIUllOl'I J'ro•lllU11Clf1 lt thAt 114111 of nt:nJ.ay ft00'4il."3r lifc th11t is clOS<..'Sl
111 "hal "e $« Jnnc lti WOllt(-0 ITT lhl\ V.'Or Thc daJ!)' UÍC of prostÍtutcd
"'>mcn <1>1111•11 oí Krtal r•I'<'· r<'CO¡.¡m7<..I V.'lr or no war Thc hro.bd-likc
1rran~m1 of 1hc r•pc/ death camrs parallels the bro<hels of so-called
po!<CllDl'" Clptl\" '&Ornen 1mpoundeJ tO be rasscd lrom man lD man m
ordcr to be upcJ
Th1> " a4o rape u a polil'v uf cthm< un1torrm1y anJ etbmc conquot,
oí ilf\JK'XJtl<>n .inJ c:xpm,1un. QÍ .H:ljlJISlt•nn b) onr nmon oi oWr nauons
lt is ,.pe bcc•u.c u ~rb w•nu your •r~nl1'<'nt Thi< is •l-o upe a> rthm.
npan""" thmu¡;h lo"cJ rcrruJut11C>n Afnc•n Americ•n uomcn "'"""
fnmbti 1mrrc11rui1td thro<1¡ch rape undcr <l..ery. Thc :O.:azi> requircJ
(J<tem Í.uropclln u-ornen m ~et <pccial f"'tml.$SÍOD for abottions íi tbq
were 1mpre11na1td by (,erman IU\.11.u ln 11cnoode. 1t is more usual for tbe
bab1es ''" 1he othcr Mdc 10 be killcJ. CtOJuan and Muslun women are
bean¡t rJpcJ, Jnd 1hcn Jcn1cJ aboruon>. to help make a ScrbWl sca1e b1
makm¡t wh.11 tite pcrpctrniol'll lffiJgtnc llS Scrb1Jn bab1es."
U 1h" v.crc rarnJ ra¡>c, as Amcncdll> nrc f.anullitr w1th 11. thc chJJren
would be re¡:.r.led ib ¡><111111<.J, dtr1), •nd con1nmma1cd. l'\'cn as thc' are
<omc1ime< i:i,cn rnm1)•r11t1ve privaleMe> ba"'d on •white" bloocl. But be-
ceusc 1his Í< cthn1c mpc, lackm¡: nacial morkers. rhe children are regardcd
by 1he tj).A<CS<ol"I n< <omehow cleon and purified. as "cle¡¡nsed" ethmCJlly.
The babies mJ<le 1111h Muslim und l.roatlan women <1re regarded ª'Ser·
btan babies. The ideo -.eems to be 10 cre•te a hhh column witlun Muslim
and <..roo11Jn SCkl<'IY c.il chilclren-•11 Klnsl-who will risc up and 1010
1heir fo1hcN1. Mu<h Serb11m fa,c1.i idrol<1gy •impl) 11dopts unJ a<lapts Nw
,;..,..,. Tit1• t•llt'" 1hc ulum.llc 11<hi<'\cmc111l•Í1h<' N~zi 1tloology thJI cu1
1urc i~ ~t·n4,;Ci<
Th" ¡X"Cta<k of th~ UI'\ 1nw>1» \'101.mn~ 1hO'e 1hq ore 1herc to pro1ect
•dJ, • ll•uch (IÍ 1he J"'l"I"""" My correspondem a<lded thar sorne UN
1roops are pan1etr•11ng m raron~ \1u,lim and Croanan \l'Qmen takcn trom
Scrb-run Upél J..-.uh um¡'> ~he rc:poru thJ1 "the UN presence has •p-
parcn1h &n«<'•'<.J tbc ualhdunR m 1"'0mcn anJ prls throu¡ih the opmm~
ol hm1hds, hw1hd"11•""'gc 1'4rlo" pc:ep ohw-.. •ntl thc IC>Ul! proJu,1100
ol pomugraph1c hlm1 ... nlt'tC .,.., abo f<'J'""' tlut • iormcr Unutd
:>lath•ns l'rolftl!OO 1mee1 Ul\PROI ORI comm.mJer .1cc.-p1c,J offns from
 Rapr Genoe1óe and Women's Hu1111n Ri¡hlS 189
a Serbian commander to bnn¡¡ h1m J\t1'Slim ¡¡1rls tor sexual use." Ali mis
tS an example of the male bond across offimtl lsnes. lt posntedlv poses •
problem \\'Ornen ha\'e always had u•th male protcction: Wbn is gotng to
1i111di thc mei 1>·hu urc suppo;,cdl)• wat<htng out for us? Eucb !ayer of
m•le prore<.tion adds J Liycr to viol~ce ugamsr wrun~-n. Pcrhllpo tnk'.t"\·cn
tion b) • force of urmed worucn should be cons1dercd.
Neow. rh" use of me<lia rechnoloJlY i• hi¡:hly dtvcloped. Bcfore 1he Nazi•
took pictures of women in aunps. forccd women into bmthcls in c•mp~.
and took pictures of naked womcn runntn~ ro therr deaths. They ulso
Created e\'enr< 1hat did not happen through media marupufacion. lo this
u'l!r, rhe oggressors have nr band tbe new ché'.tp, mobUe. üccesssble, and
sdl-conLIÍm:d moving·p1cture tecboology. The >aturation of wlut was Yu-
gosl.via w1th pomogruphy upon tbe dissolutíon of communism-pomog
r;1phy thar u•;15 Lrgdy concrolled by Serb•, who lud thc powcr-ha•
created n population of mcn prcpnred to cxperiencc scxutil plcaMJte in
torturing 1tnd killing women rr al<o p~ved thc u•y for tbc use on tclcvislon
of foora¡Ie of actual r~pc:s, with the ethnicity of the \1crims and pcrpetrators
~witched. ro mílame Serbs a~amst Muslims and Croatians.1• ln the ron·
soous an<l opm use of pomo¡irnphy, m makmg pomography of acrocmes.
ID ché sophisticate<l use of pomngrapby as war propagando, this is perbJps
tbc litst truly modcrn "'""·
Although thesc ~cb !Ligrantly vrolatc provision aftcr provision of intcr-
n.uional 1.,.•. Virtual!~ noth1ng hns bcen done abo111 them for y~.tro Thcn
tbe mtcmational machinery $<emccl iin.Uy to be l11mbcrin~ into •ction.
evcn as more meo. wvmcn, nnd childrcn wccc ltquida1ed daily. To explaio
rhis slow response. 1t is importanr to consider tbat most human rights
1nstrwnent5 empower mues ro act al\IÚnSL states. oot mdt\iduals or iroups
to act Jor themsclves. TblS is parriculacly odd giveo that international
human rights Jaw recognizes ooly \·tolatioos of human rights by s1are actors.
In otber words, onl)· enrities llke rhose who do thc bJrm are m1powcred
10 :1ct to MOp thcm. lt \\'Ould hove seemed cle:ir .lfter 19-15 rh•t >htl<> of1cn
\iolo10 thc ti¡¡h1s oí rhn.c who are no1 staro un.! who ha\'c no Slute m dct
for thcm Thc cxisting structure oi intcmationlll law was subst:1ntially cre-
ated in response to tbís. yet -..ithout for the mosr part empowerin~ indt-
'~duals and groups to an wheo theír hwnan n!lhts were violaced. 1
Tbis problem 1S parricul.irly se-·ere Cor womeo's human rights because
11.'0men aJ'c 1ypically roped not by go\'emme1m bur by wbat are consídcreJ
indl\'idual mcn. Tht govtmmont IU•t Jues notbing ubou1 it Th.1s mJ) be
tantamount to bong rnped by che $l•tc, but it "'lcgally ><!en •I! "prÍl'.te"
therefore nor as a human righ~ viol•tion. In rm intemadonal world ortler
190 fhrouah lh Bosn11n lens
m wlnch primanly >1atcs can violatt bwnan nght5, most rape is lcft out.
Thc role ol thc >tate in pcrtruruog womeo to be rapet! with impwnt¡· can
be e.xpose<l. but thc structural problem lll a<ldressing it remains.
lhe con•ergence bcre between W3)'ll ol 1hmk111g about womeo abd 111a>>s
ul thinking ubout rntc1Tutlionlll la"· ..nd poluk-,, is this'. thc more: a coniliL~
c.1.n bt! frameJ as \\1rh1n u stnte-"'$ a civil war, as tlomesuc, as pnv.uc-
the l.,;; effecuve rhe human rights moclcl bec<'m"' The more it looks l1ke
the consrrucuon of rhe oppression of women. the [.., can >1ructumlly be
done ahout ir. The closer a fiithr comes to home. rhc more "fem1nizcd"
tbe '"ttms bc<:ome. no m•ttcr tbcir gen<ler. and the lcss likdy tt 1s that
tmemauonal human ngbt5 wtll be found violart:<l, no matter wbar was
done." Croaua and Bosnia·Hcrz..:govm1 are being treatcd likc \l.'Omen,
!tke womcn bcmg ga11g-ruJ"'d on • m•~• scalc. This 1S not .m analogy: far
le» i.~ tt o1 sugg~don tbut tltb rape i~ \\'rong only bcctlu>e.: the women
belon~ to u m•n's st•te lt rdentifies the rreotmem of a \l'hole polit) by thc
tte3tmen1 of che women there.~1
In the structure of intem3tiooal human rii1bts, based as it is on the
rnrerest oí srares m tbett soverei¡:ncy as sucb. no srare has an rnceorive to
break ranks by going al!er anorher state ior bow it rreats women-thus
Scmng a srandnrd of hWllllll rights ueaunem for women that no state ts
pr<!pare<l to 01ee1 wtthio irs own bor<lers or is willing 10 be held 10 intcr-
D•Uon.Uy. \X'h.cn meo sh ín rooms, berng Sl3tc>. they are l"rgdy being
mcn Thcy pro1cct e•ch mher; thcy 1demify wnh .,.ach orher; thc)' I'> nnr
to limir cach tlther tn ways rhey rhcmselvcs do not wanl to be limrted, In
orher u•ords, th<.'Y do not represent \Ji'Omen. There is no sracc wc can ¡:x>int
to and say. ·Tuis state effeaively ~uaramecs women's human n¡!hts. There
we are free and t:qual."
ln thts Stált>l structure, each state"s lack of prOtCétÍOn of women's human
aghts ts intemauon:illy protcctcd. and tbat is rnllcd proteruog state sov-
crcrgnl)". A SimllJ.t structure of tn.Su1.ttion bct'\\'Ccn \l.'Ofnen J.nd ac.:ounta·
biltty for rheor violations exists JomesticaUy. Rape<l u:osnen are C'OmpdleJ
ro go ro the srnre, men makc rhe laws nnd decide if rhey wíll enfor<.., rhem
'X'hen women '"" discriminatcd agninst, the>· have to go to a human ril!hrs
commissron and try ro ger it ro mo,-e. This is called protecrin¡¡ the com·
munit¡ lt os the same u1th 1memat1onal human n~hrs. c>nly more 5(1: onlv
the Statc can hurt you, bur to redress u you hav<! to g.i thc <late to an
lor you. ln intcmatton.il low therc Jre u fow o.~ccpúons to tbll.. but in the
currcnt cmetgl!llcy tn Bosn111-I lcrzcgovuu •nd CroatlJ thcy •re oí no use.
Each >Wte linch iLJo re:t>on.> to Jo nothtnJl. which can be re.id as not w•nring
1<1 ''" • h1gher stanJ.,J oí accoun111btlit} for atroaties to women 1han the
one rhey are propared 10 be held to them<el\'es
R1pe, Genocidt. ••ó Women·~ Human R11hls • 191
Formally, wamme is an exceptson ro <he pan ot thts picrnre rhat exempt5
mo;t rape. bccause auociues by soldiers a~nrns1 ovrlians ntc always con-
sidtred sme Jcts. The tt0uble bos bceo that mcn do in war whur they do
lll peacc, ool~ more so, so when it comes to womon, tbe complactncy thut
Surt'Ounds pcaCt'lime exreod. 10 wartimt, no mancr \l'hJt thc bw >.1y>.
[,-ery country in this worlJ :trguably had u ¡us cogcns oblignttott "' pre\~nt
gcnocid" by stopping rhc Serbian ag¡¡ressors from doing whos thcy nrc:
doing, but until Bosnia·Hcrzcgovina went to rhe íntemnóonal Court of
Justice and sued Serbia for genoadt. induding rape. no one did a thio~."
ln so dorng, Bosnia-Herzegovina is standing up tor women m a way 1hat
no state e\'er has. The su.v1vors l work wnh also filed their own civil suu
tn New York agamst RadovJn Kar-.diié, le.1der of th" Bosnitl11 Serb Í•SOSts,
ior JJ• in¡unnion ngams1 genodde, rape, totturc, forct'<l pregnancy, forceJ
prosci1u1ion, .lnd othcr se" untl crhníc <liscriminntion and •trociues tbot
violate women·~ tntematíonal human ri¡lhf5."
A war crim.,; tribuntil ro enforce accounrabiliry for mass genocidal ro pe
ís being prepared by the Unitcd Nations-" There are precedems in r:he
Tokyo trials after World War 1I for command rcsponsibility for mass rape.
lle)-ood precedem, the voices of the victuns havc bem heard in the srruc·
tunng of tbe ne11.• tribunal. To my knowledge, no one aske<l jewish sur·
\'rvors ho"' thc mals a1 Nuremberg sbould be conduttcd, nor do 1 tbink
thc women raped itt Nanking wcre asked whut they ru:cdcd in ordcr ro be
•ble lo tcs1if)' about thcir rapes. The issue of 11Ccounmbiliry to victims hllll
beco rujsed hcre formally for thc firsr time: How can • wu crimes tribunal
be created rhat is nccessiblc to victims of mnss sexual acrocity? \'Char will
mal<e n possible for \1ictims of genocidal rape ro speak 11bout 1heir viola-
aons?'*
The 8''11ocidlll rapes oí r:hlS war presem tbt world ""h a historie op·
ponuru1y: That thls bccomes the time and pillee, anti these thc "'ornen,
whm tbc world recognizcs that violcncc .igainst wom.,, violateS human
rlghcs. TI1~t \\•hen a woman ís roped. the humnnity of • human being is
recognW.ed co be violared. Whc:n 1he world •ay> nevt>r aggin-nor in war
nor in peace-and rbis rime means it.

19
GcnJcr-Bascd Crimes
in llum,tnnarían Law
;\o inlcmation•I <1>n\\'llt1<10 a.prn.lv prnhihau ¡tm.kr·¡,,,sed crimcs ~o
roJaJic:J •nJ ralilk-J amcmauoo•I mmin.J In· mcluJ.-. "baSft! on ..,,; as
*" demem • Cnme• ·~illll'i humanuv, "·hach 1rad111onaUv C3J1 be ~r­
bbed.' ha\e not bc:-cn p•n OÍ lrcill\ law.' •.\lthou11h man\ mt~rnaaonal
ctllJk> =
blbdl ºº ''" ID 1..1. >UCh ... r•pc ID v.,,. anJ traitickmg ID
"omcn, aruem.iu<>nal ).,.• len.U 10 'ºPP"'" thcar gm<lcreJ d•mmL' In
thc tntl"ftlttlt~wl e.rime of ~"<nCJiLiJc:, du: 1ex tif>n.:tfi1.: J~tructtoJ1 of wc,mc:n
a. mcmbcf" ol 1hcir rd111.t<>u>, n•uonal, or c1hmc cummumuCJ is largeli
J~norcd 1'o im<-rnouon»l aime rcco¡¡n11es wh;11 ;\nJra Dv.wkin ealls
·~yn<><:idc-. t" wh.n DiAna Ru,...,U •n<l 01her- cull "lem1cide.,-rhe de-
s1rnct1on ol womcn .- ..·ornen, "' o ~mup or as members oi the 11roup.
'Jlic pattem is pre<1encc m rcahry ~nd a!><ence m law
!'hen: h.s bccn '><>rn• conceptual 1>rogrcs< in recognmon of romes
ag•m>1 wonwn in Lhc jumpruJcncc of 1memo1ional crunes, but Jdi\'ery
10 vkdms h.1s 1101 kc111 p.1cc. 'lnc prtt<tic•I <lcli•~ry ol 1hc luw ol thc crime
C't geuociJc, Ín1 c:x11n1p1c, trn1n 1hc pcr,pt."<:tivc ,-.f Ji, vicdmit 1n CroJLiii
onJ 81>u1i• 1lcrtc¡¡mana 111 purtirnl.or. (,.~ la~vcd ÍJt bch1nJ 1hc commi;
<ion oí lh<-se nimc• 1¡1111nsi 1hcn1 1n rt11lity h h.1' noi rnme unywh= ncor
dose A smular Ja.proportion Nn be nhservcd in responses to the
Rwundan ~en0<1de. Per~LrJION ol humanu.m•n \"10L.1ions are way ahe-ad
ot 1memauo1ul la..~cn. 111 ¡1ra>p1n~ 1he role of rape U.. ¡¡cnocíde.
Tht JcnaJI ol ¡tcnJcr anc..¡u•huc. an 1hc cnmo hum.oiun.rn law aJ-
Jr<>>c> h.as rc..ultc.I 1n • 11•p bct\\ttn cnmo th.t are ¡,:enJcr-based ID láct
mJ tht..., thJl •re gcn,lc1 ha•cJ an IJw, Tha. abs..~•c h.. • conunuml> >1ruc-
1urc fmm dnmouc throu¡th anttmauonal l.111> , ooc CXJ'O'cJ an hi¡;h rclid-in
1lltt ..U.,...,.,,..., an • i-1 _ , . . bt dw \.., ln•m.... n.. I~ J°'J J 1""7 t• ,...,
6nf ~ In ~'7 f:df dx;• J lMi' /tq;n 'Sfti' f..,,._ \nr AN/iatiolf.I 110-o-'Sl
<'&' P H..,. td 199>!
192
Cender·Bued Cuino In ~u1aan1tu1u L•w • 193
thc "''"' ol 1'aJ1c v Kllr.1.U1,, whi.h thc 111tcrn.1t 1onal IJw ni ~c1m1;adc
11 bclng ~IJJUJl~:atcd
in
111 ol IUlU.tlll'Oot r~Jle: In ~tHxJJc tn O J<\nlt.-""'Ü\'. U.~.
rourt. or 1hc m•ny h•rncrt 10 dte<ll\~ r«<'ltlllll•>n <>f ~enJ.,r.base<l crim..
m h11m;n1urwn L." , dmnn¡¡ on KJtl1< ' K.r.Jí1c, l "·11nt in con<ider thc
contnbuuon of >0vcttlll1lty ~· an clcmcnt <•f male idtol~· [mphCJdv c>r
explíodv, the notu>n ol "°'"'Clll" domaruon .irucrures le¡r;il recour>C m thc
lorm ol Joctnno ol ¡uri.Jkuon at C\<f)' l"'..:I ol pr0<:eJure. trom tbe de>-
mouc throo¡th thc IDtcmJU<>n.J. h lquu .u home,"• man\ •. C.btk" He
;. thé •Ule 10 tbc bum" ll1>ton.:.llv, '""'"'"ha>" hJJ to k••• home to gct
Jtl'U'-'e •·ithin n bttau~ it •.a" h1s .:JitlC' <ht't..,Mnlt'I~ a ~ystt."nuc rrluctan"-~
t<> mtcnmc m "hJl •tt oolkJ ,lomnm conllin, m thc pm-ate spherc th•t
connn""' to thi, ,Jn, "...mm ¡;nt local ~ubtkJtl• <tlte or provino..! law•
rccour<e ltoepan!l us .,. d~ 10 home ., possibk. >"t wnh a toehold m thc
public <phcrc H°"..:vcr, thc>< rt:m<.Jie. wcre hampcnd m 1hcir cltcruvc-
nes> tor thc ..une tta>On. '-""• apm't rape •nd dom.,,.11c •10lcn<t:. lor cx-
amplc. connnue 10 be mierprd<.J anJ 1J1tplc:mcn1cd throu¡?h a t.uruliMtcy
4'.xcmpuon. f!lC4Dltl!' thc do.t'f thc nun 11 10 thé ""'mJn, ""' more he can
10L11c h<'f AnJ l<-cal la"· mforn111en1 ttlficuls, \\h<> •re U•wll\ loe..! men,
are ltkdy to kno"' anJ t<k-nuty "1th thc pcrp<1rJ1<1r.
So womcn, '<<:cktnll a b1~g<r h»anmcr, h.ve hlld m nan~ funhcr and
fonhcr from home 10 ~et JUMl<C Í<>r ~roJer·ha<ed .e~ ThC\ ha'" "1{lnc lo
men who might be lt"S• rontrollcd by the1r perpe1111ror< so may be ac-
couni.blc 10 L.w, thus to v1ofa1cd women. Connnuin¡: Ü11s mouon outwJ.rd..
bccauS<'.' crurunal low of lo,.U111e• h,1J "º '}>lem.mcalh laaloJ womcn, U.!>.
womcn managed Lo ach1cvc ,, no11on.1I m·J lo" egum>t 11cnder-mot1\ Jtcd
crilncs ul •·iolcnc.o tht Vat11Cn•c A~•"''' \\ mncn /\u,• a IJw cons111uuon
all> 11u•ckc<l <>n 1ura.. lict1<tnul ~rounJ"
In l\o,/1c:, "".~,,1ncn ,urvi\'tH'I\ oí KuriadZié', J.tcnnch.lal ,urempt to de!i:trO)"
non·Scrb comtnuniuc• by. t1mon~ nther mean•, o;ys1cm;1ric rnpe <>f n<>n-
~rb women had Lo ¡¡o to 1hc Unn~ 'irntcs ro try 10 !!l'I ¡usucc •)!atnst
hlm \IDder intema1ional la" f.;aNJ;¡, m1~1cd 1ura-<l1ct1on. contcnduig that
he sbt•uld not be hdd •«<'unt;blc uncJcr in1cmauon.il l•w in otber men's
couns for hoo; he trc•h thasl wt>mcn ot home, an \\hdl he 1dLn¡tly land
falsdy) rdcrrcJ to .. • Jt•nle>ll< <1tnll1<t lm¡1lictt m h" .rgumcn1 """ •
thrt>JI lí )tlll e.o holJ me .1«nun1oblc ''' you lor h.- l trcJl my womcn
m my h<'mc, 01hc-r mm "''11 he ablc ttl holJ )º" ac.-cmnt•blc tn t!l<.'m for
how you tmll your womcn in your h.,mc, lt 1ou c.n Jo tlu< 10 me, 0<her
mm will be aMc m Jo thl$ 10 >"" Amu11111I• , he l<hl ,.
lmmuntta"' ~tl\cm and m.trk C\~n IC\·d o( th1> ,...,,cre,~m schemc. ~lar-
11..J lt11lltunm ha ~crnc:J tbc tamJv, mduJing • .,iJ...,prc-•J C-"cmpttoo
194 • Throu¡h tht Bosn11n Ltn$
¡,,, t•("- tn 1n.rn•11c
~al
l';mah•my 1m1nunaty •till de fuao 80'•= Lb<: uun-
l.1 .. ut Jc..¡11;11111•ncc or tnt1mJ1c rd•tionslup>. Ollietal 1mmumty pro-
tc~ts tit.&tc.~ ol\. tHf) WJ1h1n ~ftltC.:1" StW\."fC'Íjrn ~mmuni1y prOlc;C'b thcm in lht
low ni nuuont 11 Th" ,. r•m..chy .. ri1 larjte and small at once. On th1>
~...Jang, Lhc rcJson thc l11i~•IÍ00 •amnst Karodiié has been ablc ro procecd
1> 1hJ1 he dad not "in thc war "" never became SO\'Crertm. H"'1 be -.'On.
he mi¡:ht not h.-c hcen Jl>lc 10 be sued lor 1he 11enocide. In tbis ltf!ht. tbe
balance ol terror bet"ccn mcn throo¡:h -.iuch some men respen otber
mcn\ lt,cmc 10 •bu.e "<lll'l<n at home unJerbQ the noooo of "COJDll)·
an tb" uc.&, ~· ..di ... dfC<11vc c\cmpt1un• lrom antcmJoonal prolub1uon.
on masog)tll•llc rnhur.I pra<ll<d u Undcr US <lome<ti~ Lt"·· "fc:Jcnhsm:
formc1ly º•tJt<,; n¡:hi.," ""'"' an thc "'m" "'•Y·
Thc .ad h<ic lntcnution.J
Criminal Tnhunal for CnrnL" in the Formcr Yu~OllO\i:I in Thc H"JUC hu
no1 bem c•plicnlv fe11cred b) <O\'ClTlgnty comtramu lt has largcly mhcr-
ncd the ex"tan~ '1n1<1ure of humanuari2n crimes in iu foundin~ statut~
whích m1mm11c:> women 's m1uno ancJ has ya 10 recognize genckr-bast:J
en~ m "" m•n~ ,...,...i.. In thc su1u1e usdl, rape is rccognued as• cñm"
•1¡J•D•l hum•OllY hut nol .&> ~cnornk. 11 lb.: pracucc of tbc JCTY " ilio
!<Ub~..:I w thc •lcrcllnn uf ccn1unn ot dcna.J ni harm to "·ornen anJ lcg.ill)
111~1nu11<-.noh1etl "'CX 1ncqu.Jlit~ a,. \\('ll J!\ rcfl~Xl\C
1n1cm1tional msa1u
U<>n•I dcfcrcn<c to •t.11ci.. "'·h1ch m th" area •re two <idcs of 1he """e com;
r•Lhcr. the '<"COnd ho. bccomc a means of achicving the tirsi This may be
thc re•hOll uiat thc 1( TY hJs al \'Cl no1 adequately addressed sex-speci6c
injur1C1. 1n thc YuRosl.t\' rontlict, la1Jin¡¡ to name 1hem as what they are ond
lc,l\tn¡t many W<>mcn \\'ll hou1 dtecuvc recoursc lor atrociues committed
lfltlÍn>l lhL'tll.
\'\'lm 1nagh1 • ¡¡cndcr bo-cd cr1mc m 1ntcrnanon•l luw look like? Tnlong
~c110<id<' ~' 1hc mlldcl, 11 woukl prclcr~bly be expliculy rcality buscJ. •s
1hc Gcnoodc í.onwn1ion ,.,1s 1n1en<leJ to be when i1 was writtcn. h would
prohibn 1hc dr•in1rnon oí" ~roup cir a port oí n group as •uch h would
mdudc real lile concrete p.1rticubr< ol h<>w the crlllte was carried out.
mdudm11 1he JCts ni which thc dralters were aware. '1t could require pur-
Jl<l'><:. Prclcrwbly, il would not . Modeled on crames agaum humanuy, n
"·ouW pcrm.11 ankrmcc ol ¡¡roup ba>1> from paneros m the e-.'idcnce. dis-
«rrun11 thc gruund 111 thc J.,.lfU•ll<>n un 1he b:N> ot sex m \l1desprcad
pr""'º"ª
i)'"'ll"Oli&lll.
PNn1<t:1 11 "·oulJ c.,ri,unly 1nclu.k. in orJer "' they .msc an lifc. "'·oold
be ''"' •d«tÍ•~ •hc>mon" ltntale int.nu<u.k, •n<l Jepri\Orion of nu1ririon
on tbc rn. . ,. PÍ Sl'X-cultural praoa<t"> 1hJ1 ~uaramce that million< of ttirl>
l\C\..:r are C\'Cll bom or ~mw up to berome serond<lass citiz<:ns. becorrun11
 Ctndtr-Ba!ed C11mes In Hu11an1tu11n L1w • l9S
in Am'1rtya Sen'¡ 1enn "mis.in¡¡" womi.'JI, thc truly di;ap¡x'.1rt:d." lt woulcl
includc scxuul obuse in childhClOd rape, banering, dowl'y bumings,sunee.
beiog stooed 10 dcath for not wc:añnR proper opparel, "honor" killings.
and. depending on its central concepl. homophobic violence. lt would
tndude desrrucuve acts agiltnsl women "in part" on cthnic grounds com-
bincd with sex, such as forced s1erilíutioos and rape/<lcath camps m gen·
oci,fal wor. Rape 10 gcnocidc would be seenas genoci<le but also gynocide.
Pr(.1$d1u1ion os fcmalc sexual slavery, in pcace as wcll as wút, an<l p0rnug·
rJph1• as an orm of prootitution ond troflicking would 111so be recugnized
os p.1n of the imcn1ional des1ructio11 <>Í women as o g.roup.
These acrs, cokeo 1oge1her, would be rec<>¡¡nized os a complex of gender-
based acts. as nooe of thero hti yet been effectivcly addressed, in pan by
VJ.rtUe ol not havmg been recognized as interconnected in a Syst<manc way.
as united by being geoder-based. Rerogruuoo of sucb a criinc could rak<!
1hc fonn of • new convenuon or be emboilied in a new protocol 10 th<
Gcnocidc Convcmion. lis concept. in the meanüme, could be uScJ as a
benchm.uk ugain>t which cxisung law •nd practice could be me:isured for
shortfoll, developing customury intcrnat ional law 10 proh1bit gender·based
criminality.
20
War Crimes Remedies
at che Nacional Level
Thc m<><t pnrticular ron bc the ma<t universal. Tui~ condusion emerges
from 1he contrnst berv.-een brin~n¡¡ human rights claims in • national
forum and brmging the S'ame violations of the sume peoplc under the same
laws in an tnteroational forurn. The people are B~1an Muslan and Croat
womeo surv1vors of the genoa<le carrietl out by Serbs tn Bosnia·Hene·
govina and Croatia. The violations are sexual atroclues. The laws are in·
tcrnatiorutl proh1bu1ons against gcnoci<lt, wur crimes. anti crimes ogt.inSt
humJruty. The forums are che federal Southcm District of New York in
the United Smes. on the one hand, and che Tnternotiofütl Criminnl Tri-
bunal for Seriou< Crimes in the Fonner Yugoslavia (lCTYJ. on tbe 01her
\~hen • coalition of five groups of Bosnum and Cro0t survi110rs of Ser·
biao genOCJdal sexual •trooties approached me in 1992 to represent them
m seelong what they called "mtemanonaJ ¡usnce.• my fust questioo was.
"Wherd" ThCJr answer was, "That's your firs1 ¡ob": fiod or make a forwn.
Thcy wnntc<l 10 be hear<l by a war crimes tribunal like Nuremberg. so we
conccivc<l and pre»cd for ~he e•rnbhshmeni of what becnmc 1hc ICTY
But. con1r,1ry 10 what '"º .1sked for, thc ICTY wns not cksignecl 10 be
accounwble 10 Slll'\'ivors, bu1 10 iniemationnl bodics, which ha• meant
mainly nation-sta1es, nncl has remaincd mos1 sensirive 10 imernationnl poJ.
tries. This 1s a particular problero for women. who ""' lar¡¡dy excluded
from meanmgful vo1ce wnhm oflioal intemational arenas. Beca use the sur·
vivors wamed a process and Liwyers \Vho "·ould be accouncable to them,
we procecded 10 thc Southem Dis1rkt of New Yotk.
fa-en befare having a place ro l•kc thtse injui1cs. thc survivors nee.lt:d
Thb 11lk u.-,.~ t~ttJ ro tk Unr.·mity of \6chtt11n L11-. Sdiirx.4 Reunloo oí ln1ern1a111nn..I
Ah.unni. U-nh't"rtin C)f i\1iclutt:an l,..,u.· Sc:hot>J. on • pmd ~lb Prof<ssorJO!ié M.arei. Oaober 18.
1~7 lt •.lS t:1t1pJJ~ puhli$1~ tn 6 }uun~I ~ tlv J,,1p11"11"JUI lrntU'4tt 1 Cl'MI. Th1' ull1..
•·uh .u i•1r •Vtk fnr chi: ~n1Von ¡i¡ ~1hlc- "'11Vbrtw1C" o( tht '·uwn. 1~t and dc:tmtn·
n:aoon oi. A!í• AJ111.Md. md 1' -irn.lie NcníldK.
196
War C11mes R•m•41ei al the Nallonal leve! • 191
to be beliC\•e<l. Substantinlly 1hrough 1hc efforu of our d icnt•, the pr<s•
evenniaUy published (wh:u to rhe rest of 1he world WllS) ne\\'$ of the "muss
rapes' in Bosnin·Herze~ovina and Croa1fo. Press covera~e ~""" crrdibilit¡
10 thc foct of their rapes that women spealting abouc rhem did noi and
also brougbt mt<rnatiónal attcntion 10 the genocide as a whole. Human
riglus organizaúons tha1 up 10 that pomt had d"'1ied or minimiz.ed rhe
mpes tben decided 10 believe thm thc: rapes wcre rcal.1
Meanume. wi: cunvns.sed nvcnuc:s for legal rdlcf in light of the clie111>'
priorilies. Thcir firs1 priority was 10 stop the genoci<le. Thcy k;new chis was
nol • wnr with "cthnic deonsin¡( ns one port. !t was (is) • genocidc cu
phemi1.ecl os "ethnic cleansing" conducred in part through war. They
wamed it stopped. Second. the clients wanted ro hold those responsible
for 11, from the top to the bouom nf the híerarch~'. accountable to tbem
for wbat they bad done to them. lmcrnational bodies were nor ses up ro
achieve either of chcse goals. Tbe applicable international luw. as is not
unusuol, was strong in principie but wcak on dclivery. Domestic l:iw in
mnny coumrie:i h.1d the reverse problem' shon on principie by interna
tional stundards but long on tceth. We concludeJ diat if ¡·ou wantcd a
srntement of principie. ¡¡o 10 on imernational forum· if you wantcd ddivery,
go to a national courr. The cÜems were not attrncted 10 a con6denrial
invesrigation by an intemational inquiry le>1cling to a =ret repon in which
perpetrators migh1 be told tbey did somethiog bad. The genocide was
ongoing. The survivors had real an<l Sl-vere lliuniigcs. There was no regionol
human rights associatioo wub jurisdictioo uvcr 1he1r dnims to bridge thi.s
gap. as ¡., somc othcr places. Thc survivors necded the kind of follow
1hrough tho1 domcsuc couns best provide on the basis of principies 1hr11
are best articulated undcr intemntional law.
The cenual problcm m using in1ematiom1I law was that women are no1
srates. In an inrernational sysrem that remains cemrally a communitv of
nat ions, no state 1ook up these women·s intemanonal injuries. Nobody "·ho
could have stepped forward to carry Bosoian oc Croatian women 's injuries
10 the lnicrnauOnal Cour1 of J usuce (lCj). for cxample. did so. Bosnia·
Herzcgovintt itsdf did lntcr indudc sexual atrociut'S m its own claim for
genocide aguinst Serbio and Montenegro in 1hc ICJ.' repl'C$Cnting 1111 hs
violated people.
The legal abdicarion of victims at that rime went hand in hand with 1he
mUitary o ne. No o ne who rould haQe intervencd to srop 1he genocide on
the ground did thar eitber. They dtddled for years 1b c iaternanonal com·
murucy was largdy denying rhat d1e conflagffltioo was a genoc:i<lc at ..U.
Preferriog 10 thiok of 11 as a "civil war. • t:hey absol\'ed themselves o[ mluns
 lhroqah the Bosm•tt lens
198
s1des or stoppmg lL Pan of tb1s denial carne lrom bdtt"Ving Serbian prop-
ag.mda. Part ol 1t sicnuned from an 1magc of gcnoc1de that cequircd thc
Holoc:nu>t 10 be rephcntc<l, whcn the leg.J ckfinuion of g.:nocide is 001 so
limucd. M.Unly, a< "'C 5'1W it, 1hi< rcluctnncc wns dnven bv a de<1rc 10
;1void r1<lmitting th;ll this conílict wa> • gcnocide, sínce tha; would have
intensificd internotional pre<.sure 10 intel'Vene. Thc Serbilln agpession in
thc re¡iion wsj not bcing cnlled s ,genocide in bw or in fact not because
1t was 001 one. but rathor for the realpolnik ressons tbat ao rountl) found
11 conveniem to take oa 1ts army. a large and well-supplied one, 10 stop it.
Then. une><peaedly to us, Radovan Karadz1c, lcadcr af the Bosruan Scrbs
commming t.hc ~nocide rn rollabontti011 wlth tbc :\lilosevié regune in
Bclgrudc, slwwcd up in Ncw York City onc d•Y· We scrvcd hun w1th •
civil ac1ion undcr thc Aloen Tan Clnims Acr' and the Tonure Vicum Pro
t<'Ct:Íon Ae1' snd no"' had our own forum, a naúonal one, for our inter-
national daims.
The Aliro Ton Claims Act is Ullusual if n0< unique in the world. lt
provicles jurisdtcuon ID United States federal dmnct courts for non-U.S.
c1ti:tens to sue for 1orts commmed against tbem in v1olauon of tbe law o[
ruuions. l t is mterpreccd to gtve iurisdiction to " plamriff who has both
SCl'\'cd proccs. pdllonolly-thc dd'endru\t ha! to be petSOnolly handt:d the
wwsuit-ond esroblhh'.J fcdcr.tl subj~r-muttcrjurisdiciion.• Precedent has
esrnblished thJt suhtce1·m•tter jurísdicrion exíst~ when customary ínter·
ootíc>nal lnw 11r ínternational rreories ore violaced.'
The survivor$' case, Kadic '" KaradZít •11;-as fibl in early Miuch ¡ 993•
claiminll rape as ~enocide, rape as a war crim«, and rape as torture, os wdl
ns oiher injuries. mcluding murder of famtli members. resulwi11 from Kar-
ac!Zié's mtentitioal destruct.ioo of non-Scrbion commwuues and pcoples.
Th6 c..., brough1 civil cla1ms for these 1ntcrnational cnmes. seelung de-
duraiory rdicf larknowlc:dgmcnt t.hat whJt happentd 10 thcm violat.d th"~'
lawsl. an injunc1ion again.~1 1hc genocide trequiring Kurndiié ordcr it ro end
and not re.;ommencc:), and substamial dnma¡¡es for thc human urrocit.ies
Úlot were committed under color of bis policy c>Í ¡zen~dal aggression
KaradZíé contested most scronA)y our righr ro bnng the aise at ali. The
dismct court mit.ially disoussed it for legal lnsufficienC)" acceptrng Kar·
adiu:'s '1$St:ruons o( tmmunities of ali sons, knowa and some prcviousl}
Wlknown. Tb.t juJge also 10corr«tl1• hdd thru Kar:tdlié was 001 o olilte
auur, t.he,..,fure .,..., haJ no cose: under m1<mn1ion.J Liw l lc nl;o 1mplicd
ÚJ,11 the Í><ue~ "'ere Cor would •oon beromcl políncal 'lucsiian•, meaning
they hod consc:qucnccs for foreign affoirs nnd wcrc propedy mnners far
che executi,·c brunch. so we should not be pcrmitted to litigatc thern.• Wc
War C11mes Rtmed1u a1 the Ha1to~11 Le.el • 199
?00 fh1Vu1• tht Bosm1n Len5
•ppe-.tled 11nd won on .tU these ground..••Thc L.S. Supreme Coun dt-cided
be protccted "•it.hou1 finng back agamst a mtl1tary force intem on exter-
to ¡.,~ve th•t decision s11111drng by cleclin10.1t to uccept re'-íew 11 Then. lli1cr muucmg tbem. But cnlorcing a f.:clcr.U coun mjuattÍQn agamst one man
fightin~ hard for ovcr thrce yt:irs, Karadiié folded Ü\-er this Lime period.
"'bo b.is orJered thJs geoo.:ide, if uousu:tl, is not beyund t.hc p.Jc Jt ali.
our case rontributcd 10 delegi1imi2ing him and his campaign: he "'"s not
Th< ICTY is '""'>' ><:nsili\'C to avoídmg bcliavíor for whidt thc Nurem·
bcíng trca1cd as a dtplomat anymore, but as an intet'1lllcionally humed.
bcrg: Tnbun:il was cn1ici1.etl. r.1ihng 10 ÍJce thc ¡¡roup flollUl'C of thc Otroc
md1cted cOllllllal and refugee from justice. Once we u'On a discovery mo-
1tics doci; not «'<:m m be '1mong thcm. however Nun:mberg hos bcen
uon ordenog bim to appea.r for a deposiuon rn New York-our drents
críuci1ed for cvodin~ thc ontí-Semítísm oF the crímes 11 prosecuted, almost
h•d sorne quesúons thcy wnntcd him 10 answcr-hc wrucc thc rudge a
as if rhe Holocaust were an adjunct ro 1he war The ICTY is char¡nn¡t
leucr ..ying he would no longcr light our daims ot e.he tnal lcvcl He is
genodde, convenuonal law for ftfry ycars now. 11 can fi~ht thc last war
10 dcfault. We nre moving 1011;11rd o dcfauh judgmcnt (rnd on mqucs1 on
The qucsuon IS whetbcr it can light the oment one. As cthn1élty was
n:lícf." ev11Jed m Nuremberg, sex-m tlús case sex anJ .,tbnJoty combmcd-JS
\X'hat h115 been accomplishcd, and what did our choice of forum con·
béing systcmaucally ignore<.! by thc lCTY Rape is charged; gcnodJc i•
tribute? F'irsr. we got jurisdiction O\<er Kar.iclZié under rnrernacional law
churgN. But rJP" is not bcing ch.u-geJ us an act oí gcnocidc, f.dling fun.
The ICIY has }et to accomplisb tbis. Second. we esiablished the role of
dnmem•lly to narne che ottoellies for whnt they are: genocidal rape. 011r
t:1pe in genocide under mterontional law for t.he ñrn rime m 3 coun oí
case named and d01med them undcr ínternatíonal lnw, lt can be done.
law. Now wben rape is nn ac1 of genoc1Je m fact, 11 can be 1tco¡¡ruzcd us
A fon1m in whích survi\'Ors choose rheir ou-n lawyer. shape their own
an •CI of genocidc in lnw. The ICTY is crnwlíng-or we hope thcy ntt ut
dnims. and dírcct rheír own case leaves the process of juscice more in tbeir
lc,;s1 cntwling-in chis dircction." Finolly, our clients -.'UnteJ ro testify
own hands. The process. by design. is accoumable 10 tbem-nor to the
•hnut 1heir rap<:s in • roun qf lnw. The ICTY hns prcsented linle tn none
prcS>, noL to mrernational pohtics, not 10 t.hc bureaucrauc unperauves of
of this 1cstimony to date Do the formal featurcs of n domestic civil forum.
rntornauonfil organi%lltions, not to fundraising compc1111ons or turf buido
compared with tbose of an imemat.ional crirrunal one, e"plaín these díf-
or ompirc·huildíng >We<:pstakc. of humJn nght> organi1,0iions. ;nd no1 to
ferences? In pan they do-we represent our clieots, respond to t.heir
criminal pro.secutors cnhancing their coreen by dilirning to represen! thc
neecls. sbapc the dairn to what happened ro them, take their seruriry need>
law" nnd looking to move up or on. The TCTY is not accoun1J1blc to
seriously, select and work closdy w1th uu.nslarors they trust. lor exd.mple.
SUl'\1vors by desil!fl or in pracri~ Sun'ivars have no decisive \'01ce in i1.
Bu1 they do no< have 10. Nothing about what wc have Jone cxcept for
This could change with an amtude shift in its personnel. Hopefully it ,..¡JJ
seckin¡; dumúgcs n~'«is 10 be confincd m domestic forums orto civil courts.
Woman aftet- woman has been willing 10 ósk srnndiog up in publtc co
Onc way to C\'Uluate o pr<>CCss is agoinst itl goals. Sorne coMenrionol
iesufy abom her own rope in our cMl case. Thev have 10 date bcen un-
\'alues pursued in íntemarional criminal law enforcemenr ore punishment
deterrence. closure, reconciliacion. and spread of rhe n1le of luw. Our stir· "•illm¡¡ tO prcwide the samc tcsdmony m t.he lCIT. Why? lt IS rertautly
nut bot.1u.>e wc hnvc more rnoney 10 <'On<luc1 out ca>c thun 1he milho~
'"''Ots have a soroewh~t different lisr: (11sroppmg the vfolaríons: (2) callin~ thc ICTY hn$. or a bc11er •ys1c:m to ¡¡uarontcc thdr fl«urit)·, nlthough wc
Úlem what they are; U l secunng accountabJhy to the "olatcd lor wbat
do toke sect1ri1y more ;,eriously bccnuso wc rnkc 1hc.peoplo uwolvocl sen
was done to t.hem; and (41 changmg law, so thm what 1s done bcrc bas
ously. The reason is also not real!¡· bc<:ause we sn: more sensitivc to thcir
me:ining beyonJ the contcxt oí thcse proceeclings.
Aurmptmg to stop a genocidc may secm nmbiumu, bu1 wc sought nn personal oeeds or 10 the nature of their injuries, alrhou~h Úlcy say wt- are.
The reason is tbat thís case is their case. We are wock.in¡¡ for them; they
injunct1on to cnd trus one. Thc ICTY is not cven •et up to try nlthou¡;h
are not workmg for us. Maybe the lCTY will figure out bow to work for
n h.. at lcast as much power ar Íts disposal us we do. As nn analOll)'. civil
th.,,,, as wcll. \Xlhosc tnbunal IS it, if not thcit>?
rights mjunctions, such as the strucrural ones racially intejlraring <ehools,
/U 10 dosure: >urdy so long •s ~ genuddc is ougóJllg, it cutrno1 b.:
ha'oe bcen rourinely enforécd wit.hin U.S bordcrs.'' The United Smes al-
ready has a military force in llosnilt-Herzegovina catrying out peacekeepmg "do>cd • 0( cuurse, the survi>'OJ'> wanL rhcse c:vcrus bch1nd Úlcm, but 001
at 1hc «>M of forgcum¡¡ wh•L happcncd or havin¡¡ ít discardcd Not 111 thc
responstbil1ties-althougb 1t JS beyood comprehension how civilians will
cost of a proces• tlm \lolks ovcr thcm. colon12cs them, explnits, ignores.
 War Crome> Rtmed1es al lb• Nat<ooal l"•I • 201
•nJ m1srcp..,,..,nb them Not at 1he cost of shoving whut reolly bJp¡)<0cd
und<r the rug and dehumanizing funher those wh<lSe hum•n ri~ht> hove
already been \~olared Not for more account:tbility to an dice intcmatiooal
leg•I community than to thosc wh~ families were extetmin•red. Not to
assua~e the guilt of bysimdets. Wbat is this "closure" for> \Vilo wams ir?
lt is the only 1u:m on tbe convenuonal bst of \-alues that pucpon:s to be
spcciJically lor thc víctims. Our survi>-ors are crirical of ptelD.llture dosure.
Who wants this º'cr witb in coun, especially when 1hey are not yer wllhns
truly ro end u on 1hc ground? Who wnnts n "pur behinJ u<," 1n;1cacl of
sropped, namcd, rcmcdicd 10 the exrcnr possiblc, rcmembercd. anti uscd
to makc chun¡¡c?
The survive>rs want law 10 worlc for women for a change. This desire
undcclies the:ir goal of connnuny, the1r \'eTSion of the rule of law Sexual
atrociries, including se:xualized ethnic ooes, do nor happen only in war or
genocide. Our diencs wam 10 make .rape la1>· work m the daily 1>"11r against
wornen evet)"'·he:re. EstJ1bLshing mtemational accountnbiliry for their vi·
ol.mons througb clomesric civil litiS"tion has bccn onc way t0 pursue rh.n
go•I. lts rCS\lh1 ore inllucncing thc ICTY and othcr intemation.tl forums
as wcll
Si8J1:illy, this case ma<ks the finr time thar women as a subordinared
people we.re able to complain officially of sysremaác viQlatious of tbeir
human rights during a war while tbat war Wl!S going on. In purswng m·
rerruuional relief for such injuries. the legal system has a lot to leam from
suMvors' ch01ce of o process the}• sbape 1hemselves.
21
Collective Harms Uoder the
Alíen Tort Sta tute
A Cnutionary Note
oa Class Actions
CloS$ acrions are representati\'e ncrions; the one srnnds for thc mMy. Thc
<lowly unfoldin¡: .:orpornte caras11ophes, <uch as illnes<;e< from 11Sbes1cis
cxposure. for which they are often used IDvolve chscrete torts from a single
phvsical cause in varying eiiologjcal scenarios. The in1unes are nor group-
based in the more usual human righcs sen.se. That is, many people are
rnjured hecuuse of Vi·here tbey were or wlm tbey <lid but not because oí
'"ho they Jre. Human nghrs vioLuions likc gcnocidc nn<l crímcs against
humamty ~re nur m:iss nccidcnts ThC)' ID\'Ol\'e c11cry imaginable rori 10 •
humJn bcing •nd ure Jonc becmrtc of u·ho tht' victim< are: bJscd cm thetr
roce. cthnicity. rdi~inn. nationality. ami sex. Peoplc ore also politicalJ,
rortuté<l on tbe basis oí tbeir politi<S md ethnicity and "''" crimcs rtTc
1ocreasmgly concertd acts a11ams1 civüfans ddincd by ¡1roup membership.
\'{'hdl war b an in>rrument o[ genocidc. war cruucs. too. Clll becomc
group·basecl acts.
A sull small but mcr""'"1g numbcr of dass acL1ons for nus> human
rigbts v1olorions .u-e bemg brought under the Un1ted Statc.,, feJer:tl Alíen
Tun Swut<'.' posíns the 4ue<rion "'hether U S. duss llction insrrum<nro'
>re wdl nd.1p1ed 10 intern>nional humíln ri!\ht< vie>larinns th•t are not only
numemus bur tnke a collecrive form FC>CU~ing m p•niculnr c>n che Karadú<
cases, md to a lesser exrem on the /llarror coses and' rhe Holoamsr \'ictim
Arsets hti~•ltlon, my concem herc is \\~th 1he ht between domesuc cl11$S
acuoo tcchai4u.,,,. parucularly the "hmued-tu.nd cLss acaon devtc~.' and
IDtemauonal human righrs goah for group·ba...ed m¡uri~
Class acuoru ore l)p1cnlly brough1 fur in¡uries to brge groups <lÍ peopl~
Thll e.ti.. •11• ,d\'dl on thc P.md <.'lo lbe Aben l'mt Lt.ims An..lmcm•wnal L•• Soocty mccnnp..
~("\\ Y.,.\ ( .lt1o' S•\\•('mhtf 'J9'N h ·~IJ bn1 ruhl~.:J i.n 6 fJ.Jll Jour11.tl ,., lxltr•M·'"'".1 ""'
ch,.,,..f'lltllllr {.¡u,. 1lii 1"2Jn11
202
C.lleclt•e Harms Unoer the Allen lort Statvte • 203
when common 4ucs1iuns of foct ood law are rai.sed in si1umions whcre
cuhcr ú1e 1n¡11ry t\'.l _.,tr in<lividmJ is Je min1m1s but t•k"11 togcthcr Í>
>Ubstuntial. or wherc roo many pl•in11ffs or dcfendanrs makcs joinin¡¡ thcm
1mproctical Sorne of the dcvices are mnnd•tory; in thtsc, cveryone wbo
was bun is deemed included.• Sorne pennit people to opt out of the dass.
voluntarily exduding thcmsclves: sorne do not.'
To speak vcry generally, cL:iss acuons in the 1960s a.nd 1970s cotJd be
callood the datlings of tbe lefL They recognized and made tl possible to
rcdrcss coUcc:tive in¡u1jes, mcluding to groups, on • scalc rhat •pproxi·
n1Jtcd the scal~ on wbich they were inílícred. {l.tuny of thesc doss t•ction•
produted civil righi:s initiauvcs thar rcs11hed in social cha.nge through W\\·,
prominendy m edurution, emplt>ymcn1, housin¡:, ""d prisons. The civil
righ!S clnss action wns assurned to be in rhe interese of tbe dass it repre·
senred. Without ir. most of its members wotild have received norhing.
Dissenán¡? dass members were cast as greedy spotlers, selfuh ourLers, iu-
chvidualistic troublemakers. lodMduals who sought to opt out of tbesc
ocriolls. ac:tioos assumed to be ID the intcrest of every member of the group
as a group lnduJing thcm, were coosidcreJ sdf-scckmg conrrarians, Ít<'C·
rlJers wbo were denying thc:ir own Actual group mcmbership anJ ob·
srructing rhe ¡¡roup's wdfore. somcthin¡¡ likc scal>s in• union drive. They
were also a huge pain in tbe ncck for lirigators, who imagined themselvcs
pursuin¡¡ the ¡¡reatest ¡:ood for thc group. doing jusúce.
To 11gain draw a bit of a cancature. in rhe 1980s and 1990s. dass action
dev1ces becrune tbe darlmgs of the righr. Corporations. eveu wbole mdus-
tries. found that class actions \\Ieee made in beavert for concrolling rh.;ir
legal exposure to victims of the wíJesprcud harnu Lhey did. Class uction>
lx:CJIDlc 1:.ercavcd as uscful for limiung 1hc liability of mo>S tort·fcnsors.
$orne torporation>, lt W•S allc¡¡cd, and SOITIC industry ijí0Up$, Or SO pfain
tiffs asscncd, went so for os 10 ínitiace their own collusive class actions
a¡¡arnst themselves, brinj1in¡¡ ro¡ietber al1 che possible victims in one cose
that rhey conrrollé<l rn order to serde low and exdude some IDiured panies
from reLef aLogedter. With mandatory classes, the resulr was that e\'<:ry·
one's liability wos Lmired 10 wharever those who reprOS<:ntcd thc plilii·
uffs-who could be real plaintiffs or nor->ctded for. l11e <l•» repreren-
totivc; werc permi11cd to !ietrlc cveryone's dnim• in u wo) thar bouncl class
members whethcr they COMcnred 10 be bound or nor. then or lacer-with
res judicut• effec1. ln mnssive nnd unprediaable cases like the aslmtos
liti!llltion !in some ¡urisdicuons. nround a fifth of ali ci,.¡f cases wcre as·
bestos cases).• mandatory dass amons procecdcd witb cbe 11rardul acqw-
escence of couru ever ID pursuit of docket control.
 2U • lhr 1~ lht a.,.,.. lto
Thc 1en<1on hctwcen thc..., IWO ima~¡;., ol the class .1cuon- the c.irlier
prcsumpuon •h•t d.& plamuJt. haJ the interest ol rhe el.is> a1 hc•n lll\J
th< WLT •U>Pl•l<>ll ihat !Omcthmg cbc: ITU) be .afoot -come 10 a h.-JJ in
<•"'
thl' oí 01111 -. F1brdi.>.1rJ Corp H1c ll.S. Suprcmc Coun J"'"'""
in 1hJ1 cnsc l'C\'colccl rh" lc~11l cuhural ~h1h from assu1111nM tbJt it " b..-s1
10 ~<I '°mc1hm~ "' opposcJ 10 no1hm¡¡ for t'.''cry<>nc 10 que<1tomnj!
"h<tkr i1 is uliJ 10 brnJ •11 to a ¡¡roup rcsolunr>n "hc1hCT thcy "•med
n or nor The nlJcr ,;~- <llW on),· sorne rcbcl os oppo<cd ro non. lor a
sroup ot disenlranchrsed pcoplc whom no one would 01herwise reprcsem
º'
Thc ncwer view '""' an crl1 lus1y, prc;umpcuous evcn overreachmg.
po1rn11.Uy collu•nc whcihcr tn fact or ID iruéntl raoluaon ot '"ncJ
d.&1m• 1h.1 cur- ofl ti,., po»1btb1} of bcucr rdicí latcr m J lorm Sm<"J'Uble
10 u¡:cnJ,. f.ir removed from rd1cl or J"'llC< for tbc v1<11ms. Such n¡:cnJJs
C•n 1nd11Jc, 10 mcn1ion J few. polilics, medio a11cn110n 1md puhlic
,pc.1lm~ o¡>ponunnics. carC<-r .01d mrf bu1IJmg. <k-"Clnpmem of c•pl'rrue
or 11• appear:tntt credeocíalm, and rratnmR. fundrm<m, and •llnrnc:\'S
fe.:.. \X'hen the m1ercs1s of hun people are nor ennrdy dnvm11 1he li~a­
uon, class actions can becorne more in the in1eres1 o{ pcr¡xtrat<ll'> and
'chicles for othen: advanccrnmr than en¡:rn<$ of ,·mdruuon and rcpara-
uon~ fot ~utv1\0B
Thc dJ» actmn cbarndeon o( ¡.urt1cul~r cnnccm m Orm v.:as thc •tun
ncd fund clu»." Thc dusskal lnnucd fuml d,1>s nct1on u1 1S<!s, for in.1.mcc,
"'hcn ~n insur«f •hip sink< Thc fund for l'\Crvone-. recovery of injuries
1< hmntd becau...- t1K' ship " in<Uttd for only so rnuch A fixed number
(>! rcurle ""'"' a stake in 1hc <rup, and 1he policy 111111¡• iocal recm"Cry.
rroduong a urn->um si1ua11on, so the thou11ln IS r.bat ali cl(!J11}s should be
liu¡¡a1L-d tO¡!cthl'r Sucb das.;:, are rnandatory in r.be !lt"llSC tru.1 no opung-
001 ,. pcruuucJ cxcq>t \cry rllrdy b) 1ucbcW Ji.crd100. No nnim: 1~
r"'lwrcJ to limncJ fuoJ cla<\C> Affcxtc:J J>L-ople c~n w1nJ up bounJ b\
the aJ¡udtcwon "'thout e\cr ha110g hcarJ 1ha1 it happcnL-J. Thc rt>ult~
brnd ull cl11SS mcmhers whrthcr "' not 1hc\ took p•ct in 1he li1tRn1ton or
<'\Cn kn<"W abo.u 11
n... Í..<>un in Ortr "'iiich eoncunrd a «ttlcmmt da" ID asbe<t,,. hti-
¡i•non, held 1h.11 remfication of • mandarory senlcmcm class reqmrc.J 1
showrn~ 1h.it 1he lund 1s hmncd tndcpcndcm of thc 11¡tre.:men1 ol the
páruc>. In osncr \\OrJ.. ihc U\l'\CI'> lor thc <U» C1Ull\OI $1mply gec l~cthcr
\11th 1hc la\1)-n> for ihc: comp""1<>. ugrec 10 >UpuL11e that •t1us b llll 1hcrc
lS.. anJ cb\1.k llp tbc pie Tha. lfl\ llo •hosc, .uch il\ C><hlln~IR¡t lhc
llH\IUolllCC OÍ bJnkruplq fnr lho cOmp.tOlC~ for ln r@c lllornt\S• Íct.'l to 1hc
da" l""'Yº"· So, rhe í..0011 hdJ 1hc fund h,1d 10 be ~hown 10 be limned
man c.ionul w.1y. 1nterdas. contl1<1• had 10 J., oJJrcs;cJ, llllU el~ mc111 ·
bct:> haJ 10 be "'!llllJhlv tl'C•tcJ
Unv. •lo thc... "<ll<'rt» •nJ wfewarJ, m•p onto human ngh1.> ton
ttm•? r r....... '" r.1n1culir. Jo 1h,-y <quarc wllh large Vl<llm anJ sun.1vor
da••e1 who bJve m1unes that are rolJccri\'C in nature, •llth a• 1ho<I.' in
c:tta>inglv occumn~ on rbe imemational stJ~e' Given 1 •recofic pla1n11tt
d.tsi act1on. ho..• dn you lcnO'll- ,.·hrther n 1< benefic1al anJ pfO!o!resmc. oo
the onc h..od. or compharous anJ explo1tl\c, on the otber•
Mo>I Ahco Tun CJSC> have nm bccn dass "~'" Ib ey hJ\c bc:en brought
on bchall <>Í ha.rmcJ lnJi,·1dual$ who.c humJn righ1& werc violatcd, M>me
umcs on or 1111pl1catm~ group ~munc.b. <om<1unc,¡ 001 In 1he sprilljl o(
IWJ, """ "'l"ll'•lc • t\11 actioos '"""' b~ht a¡:ainu R.d.wan KoraJ;"
ihc lca.lcr of a ¡trour ol Bosnian Serb ÍtiCJ>I~ who carned out a genocide
1b rou¡th war ro ex1ermrna1e and elimona1e non-Serl's m Bmnia-
Henei:o•ina. 1be n.·o Ko,.,,Jtit cao;es \l"Cte brought under the Alíen Ton
Si:aru1e and thc Tonurc \"ICDDl Procecoon Act for 8'COOC1de, tonurc. Jod
war cnmc. m tbc Sou1hem 01>tn<1 of Ncu \ ork by Bosni.m Muslim anJ
Croo1 fün,h•ors, sc.:kmg rchef fo1 tons ol rthmc dcansm~ comm111c:J
again>i 1hc:m One c•sc:. Kadic v. Karudii<; emph.isiud claum for ro)'<' .,
gmoodc, upe as tonurc, anJ Uf>C' u a "·ar cm~ We «lUl!hl rdie{ 'I"
cilicalh for injuries nf ~da) <cwal utro..1ues pcrpctra1ed .. a rcsulr
of Karadilé's p<!liC')· nf ethnic de•nsiog in collaboruiion "·nh Slobo.lan
\ lilosC\ifs admmisrrauon in BelRrade. Serbia Damages "·ere <ou11h1 for
the namd indj,;duals and grouJ>', ,.,tb an rn1unroon th.t1 l\al'2diié order
Úlc ¡tcnc.>0Je to SIOp. 'Jlus V.-U J rcp~tall\ e •roon U1 the IC!l>C tha1 1hc
m1uru:> h•J • ¡¡roup haS1s a.nd 1hc m¡unetl\•c rchef would havc a group
1mpac1 lf you swp u ~cnociJ.,, )<>u itop 11 for L'\'Cl')'Ont. bu1 1he rno\'lng
pamco dounc:J <o f"J'r"''"" onl)' 1h~ "·ho brou~h1 tlK' ca'e Thc pla1n11ÍI>
'll-ert ont r•thCT lar¡:c '"";,..,r ~roup. 1 <m.ifl,·r ¡¡roup. ond the n•mN
mclividuru• The Sttnnd case Doc: v Kamd;1c secking d.1ma¡:es. wa.
brou~ht by rhe Ccni~r for Con~nt\1t1onal Ri~ht• on behuft of two unnamed
VOUfljl j\irJ. WÍmm~ 10 represem a cl.iss of ·aU peop)c "TIO <uffereJ lRJUr\
...,. a roult ot rape, ,cnoculc, summ.uy cxccuuon . .arlntnr) J.:tcnaon. Ji.
appc.uantt. tonurc or otl>c:r cruel. inhuman .ir dégudm~ trcltmcnt m
tlictcd by Bosruo11\·S.:rh forc.-. un<.lcr thc comm1rn<.I and comrol ot doten
J •n1 bcmcen April 1992 and 1hc prcsctu .• ,.
By cnun rracuc.: 1hc-sc rwo t'•>O pro<'C<'.IN in t<1ndem ,mJcr a ""Wc
CllplÍM l11n<dict1on .... estabh<ht.J .,....,.. l\uadi1é h)· beauni immumh
daims; a ovil cLúm was held permmed un<ler the Afien fon Statu1e for
rape as an ª" ol ¡?enod<le.11 Thcn the o~ lawyers moved 10 cernfv 1hc
2C6 • Jiu •&"' tll• 8os1111" Ltits
cLm." wh1ch "'oulr.l ha\-e subsumed the KaJJr plainufh' ca"' Aftcr <orne
month,, il1I> m<>lk'n wu a~ndcJ 10 sed<, rn tlK' alternJuvt lumtol funJ
et.,,, •cntbc.mon. bc<-•u.e KarJJzt< • ».et> "en: cLunc:J to be lunnc:J.
!h" ''°
d.um was ba...,J a le1ter K•radii< hJJ >mt 10 thc 1udgc contmding,
1n1cr ilh•. 1hu1 ht J1J "1101 h.l\c 1hc: finnncial rc:source. 1n bnng wttn<...c•
for my Jcfcnsc 10 thc Unutd \1J1"' for e11ha dcflO<mon• <•r 1rial • ' Thc
K.zJN pbonuff• ...,,~h1 to op1 0111 ci tlK' da<• ~ judg..-, ¡,.,,.'C\•..,. et·nilic<I
1hc cb oo tb.: !.mued funJ 1hc<>rv and dm1ed rbe K4k monon ro op1
our" O\'cr no1 only 1he suppon <!1 the das< but oeer lack of opp<Ktuon
from thc dcfendan1 1> "-el.l. Thc l\Jdtc phunufü thm moved to dcccruf\
tl>c: cl.i$> The =uc• undec domc,uc 1aw •'CJ'c to be re.oJ,c:J ., proccJur.Í
mJ Juc proce» mJncn undtr Oruz and pnor prcccJcms.
T"·o other reccn1 <a.>es h8\c ra1sed >1m1IJr iuueli, or pu1cn11ally '°
Mam11 "'"' n hmncJ.fund c•~ for 1onurc 1h•1 rcc:eivcd " verdic1 of $2
bill1on 11 t..W u Thc //olocaurt \'1<1tm llm·t1 C#<cs "'"~ hruu¡¡h1 be¡:inn1ng
in 1m lor cla1111> under thc """" Ton <;IJIUIC for hum1n n¡:lm •ioLa1ton<
u wdl as vtolanons of ron1rnct, ro"'"""º"· brcach oí liduoary duty, :md
other ro¡¡h" One ca;,e daímed e dass of ali 1h0!.C pen.ecuted and tarjleted
lor J'.lC"«unon !>) thc Na= on iluc-t subc:Lisscs: thOSc depaved oí thC1t
JlS>CU h• hmks. tho..: sub¡cctd to sla•c labor. ..od tho:.c: torced 10 bcuxnc
rcluFCC> 1 The >cttlcmcnt prop.1S.J woulJ pcrrnt1 opung ou1, <'\c:n 1hou¡¡h
• hxcd •moun1 of ttllJf rccovery 1> agrecJ 10 bc1ween conain Swi<i h•nk
dcfmJ•nh and 1h,· rL11n1iffs ''
n .. >mall du>tcr of crucial c~'" ~ "''º rcla1ed i "'"' for clau ac
oon• •Jequa~ ol rcbef and adcquacv oi f"J're<encaaon The Í'5Ue ot ad
equacy of reliei is 1llustraied Ul both me Marcos and Mr.1.Íil( cases. To 1he
Kadi. rlamnffs. lun1t10g tbe relief o! all the sunivors ol 1he Bosnian ¡¡cnn.
ode bccau.e Mradiic said he coulJ 001 afiord 10 come 10 Ncw York and
S<'Od \1111\..SCS sc.:mcd botb "roog and ...,all-and cUnf!CCOUS. In the
Marwi e.ase. • Ph1hppane coun J1>approvc:J • propc>M:d ><:1tfemen1 1h.11
u-oultJ h•vc rcJun•J thc $2 hill1011 vcrdict 10 $1.5. milhon bmJ on a
\!.m'I\ '>u-L" b1mk arrount noun~ 1ha1 1 quaner of U,¡, .moun1 ,..._, sla1c:J
10 I!' IO I~ "'""''"' That coon abo J"'lntc:Jh no1eJ th•I 11 \1-.S pnnco
palh in thc 1n1eres1 nt the Mareo> ota~. no1 ihe vict:tm<, 10 reduce 1he
vcry l,1r¡¡c amoun1 thcv had won 10 the much snialler omounr ol the S('r-
tkmcm proposal. "con.equcnco> wlucb an: e>.tremely benehoal io thc
,\l.ucooo .nd ol muwn..I bcncn1> for tbe hum.o ngb1.> u1ums
Thc pl.unufh •muid h•ve rncl\cJ somechm~ rithcr üwn nQthm~. but
1h.11 m,1) be rt.ll 1hcy rnulJ l'\cr gcr for the ollr<><111CS of 1hr M.ircos rog1mc,
1ccorJrn¡¡ to tht• coun in • <Ull •¡roin•I on1"nc ~ Ph1hppuie couri
 Collecl1Ve Haims Under the Ahen Tort Stalule • 207
noun11, chat Phwppme procedural J.w
citing U.S. auchoriucs on clnss suus, took the
tshcavtly based on U.S. law aod
,.¡.,_.. chat di., scttlcmcn1 it
disappmvcJ wou!J lakdv prcduJc ÍUlllre ,,J<lwonul rdicl: ··wtiotl>cr [tht
pl•m11ff•l 11•ill in11ia1c a ncw ú<tÍ<>n •8••ins1 ne"· defonJants ovcr 1hc ...me
cau•c i• open m quesrion Whcrhcr 1hcy cm º'"º legally do so ai 1his time
is srecoloúve. \\"hether humnn ñghts "ictims f9r 1he perioJ 1972 to
1986 can still miúate separate suit agaimt anym1e else anytrbert! clre is ..
doubtful.""' The court also noced that ibe Hawai'iaa dedsmn m .'viarcos
wos 'bmdm¡? under ces ¡udicata principies upon ali members ot thc dass,
wheihe.r or not 1hc¡ \\'ere beiore the coun. "·" The res ¡udicata dfca of
Ji~crinum1úo11 cbss 1ct101u h•$ oho procludcd cLw mcmbt:rs from >wng
subord1natc tort ·ÍC<1«>r• for 1he discrimin•I i<'ln " \X'hilc such a rauJ1 should
~ resisied, it thre,uened 10 pre.elude future relid. fnr exumple, for ind1·
viduals who run imo cheir individuo! rapi•ts on the srrec:ts af rbe Umted
Stares in che furure. becuuse Karadfü:'s liability to the class in Doe was
pred1cated on aU the acrs oí aU me people wbo carried ouc bis orders and
poLc1cs. The complamt annbu1ed aU of it to lum; thct class defimtion seelcs
rdief for n1I of it from him. lf rdiet lrom lum is tht'll lurutcd by thc linuted
f1tnd, bu1 his «•ponsibihty for the geoocide IS tornl. a vast 01mount of in¡ury
"~ 1u>1 l'<!<iucc<l. on thc dcfond,1nt's <:iy-.o, 10 less tlliui the pncc of a fo"·
uckets 10 New Yo1·k. AnJ ;cckin11 futurc rdid for the su1vivnrs' injuries,
in 1his nr any 01her proccedinp, is thu._ if not und1>ne, rendered <peculn1ivc
ro nil. 2 '
lnadequacy of represemation IS also a re,J dao~cr. A dass could be
assened in human righcs li0gauon when che mcmbers ha,·e. and can have.
no real contan ",rh tho.r purported reptesentauves. The sun-!vors are far
•way and spCJk .mother h1ngua¡;e; tbey may nu01ber m thc rhouswu.ls or.
1l> in the .Bosaian >ÍtU~lÍQO, in me hundrc:ds e>f thouSJnUS. Jn OOgotng poltcy
Jevelopmoru, 1>ne dtlm• to repr=nt hu11e numbcrs of peoplc wuh whom
<'lne h"' nn cootaCI, spell.kin)l for thcm in public or pal1cy ~tt ings. takin11
positions on im1es rha1 deeply and dire<:tly affcct 1hcír lives, on whích they
havc diversc aod nuanced opiruons. The structurc of che lim11ed fund dass
claims m parocular seems acrually to d1scoura¡\e comact., even to dis-
couroge celling m<mbers of the cliss that one is represcnting them. Th<!tr
involvcment wou!J m,ak., thmg~ combersome ;ioJ complcx. cn:atc cross-
Lurrcnrs, bcl·on1c ú1ue-consummg.. ra.¡uirc res.ourccs. t\ctu.dl)· rt_ptoenting
badly hun peoplc tukes ,, lot of work. A, somo of thc .1ffi•nt> In thc K.itlrc
motion surponin~ thc decertificatmn morion noted, the Doe cl.m 11$urps
m:mv of che functions of dccied represematives, which is undemocrutic,2'
h could en:n be termed colomzin¡¡,
208 • Throush the Bo1n11n Leos
Unsou¡;h1 and unwanted represemarion m • class aho rruses the possi-
btlirr thar sorne of the 1n1an¡tible aod expn:ssive gains from human rights
litíga1ion, <:spct"1ally for group-based m¡unes like rape m.genocide: may be
undernuned. Human rights Uti11auon offers people thru humanui· back.
\\:'lut [$ stolen (roro 1hcm whcn thcy are v1olated can !><! ¡:mually or po·
centiall) retumed to them through a process chat <loe• not reduce chcm 10
the ophei1 oí group membc:rship that their perpcrmmn; did. 1t rreacs them
as more ehan che sum of che injuñes done 10 them. ft ¡:ív0$ them back •
voicc io thei r fo te aad the digni1y of a place se rhe u ble. For rhis to work,
the process muse be accoumable. personal, and respons1ve. Being for®ly
lomped mto a group-based class. especialli• if depñved ihereby ot direct
or actual represcntation. bcing represemed in nam~ (or no name) only.
surv1vors of J:roup-based atrocities can expenence che prO<.'CSs as funbenng
me cfcprÍWllOD nf the vcry humanity thJL hum•a rights law promises tO
rcsLore.
On Mnrch 27. 2000. the K11tf1c plaintiifs won their morion ro decertify
the DOI' dass uoder Orth Jud¡¡e Petcr K. Leisure cited, nmon11 othcr
¡:rounds. the Kadic plaintiffs' insistence thac those who spoke for the D(Je
plrunciffs "ha'-e been unresponsive to their anempts to secore adequare
represenranon • and • perhaps rhttr most serious accusation ... the Doc
plainúffs' 11i.1.lmgness 10 acapt dtfendant's 'profession of poveny' in onler
to obtam mand111ory dass rrcatn1cn1. ".n On August JO, 2000, • NL•w York
¡ury uw.mlcd the Kad1~ plaintiffs • total of $7~' mWion m compcns•tory
and punlll\'C Jnma¡:;es and • permnnen1 injunnion ."
22
Genocíde's Sexuality
(NJor do tbosc who <'<•mmit gem10Jo ÍO'l"' th"' 10 deft roy • pe<>ple. ooe
mu~ de$troy lhe \\-orneo.
-Andrea Dwe>d:in1
1 ,lo no< (.,., 111< •h<IJ, ""ª
bon1b• 1ha1 rn•y f•ll '"' my hou;. Thcy Ju
nc11 "'~k for m)' n;ime I fear rhe foot wldicrs \1rho COOl(' into my hnusc
and kill aod "'0t1nd i11 a vcry pcrson~J wa\ und comnuc smocities in tron1
of my duldreo.
-B0tn!~n ~tusli:m wonun'
To demoy a people, mnss slau¡¡hrer should be cnoo11h. Actual ¡¡c:nocides
cesrify ro the conrfllry Extermin:1tion desrto}'li peoplcs. but peoples are
also destroyed by cenam acrs short of killing. Sexual atrocities in partirular
lirst became h1ghJy visible as ¡?Cnocidal m Croatia and Ilo•mia-Herzegovina
from 1991 to 199-l. Th~re. along with mass slaugbter, Serbs ainung to e¡ect
ani.I <l"'1troy non-Scrbs as peoples Sé><ually artacked \\'Ornen and sorne meo
on a mass scalc. Lookíng back from this pivornl Bosnioo momcnt to 1hc
Holoaust oí World War 1T and then forwnrd 10 Rwand•, whcrc 1lutu
commitred mass <exual ntrocitill5 ;tgninst TuL<i in thc 1 99~ 11enocid~. ío-
cuses the question: Whnr 1s rhe scx dum~ in thc gcnocide? Sexualicy in
"arious fomls can express. mobilizc, and deploy desttuctive groop animus
w•
Thil et:t:l't oriittinallr Jdi\'tted on April l I. 2002. "1 e.he 2002 Ono ,\l.tiiut:r Ltnun: 11 Ne.
\'mk Un~·etJtt)'. h wn pohlJ..htd in Po/zJ.uJ.I Eu/141(}1' "ªd Dol't:111.11101t )U L\!dW:a ~- W'illiaon
1nd S1-..-phcn l\l11ec:®. ed~. ~l. ni.e M(ncl'O'A apc:.lOt(lt; oí tht- Ouv ~taJru;cr Ltto1rc. V."("~
mtnWJJ-.bt~ RJt)Jds o[ •uppol"I rc'P(ln.e. ).1A'C:'°'811ál&. Mll 'nmuUriM 11lit hrl11fui commcnc$ al
l:erw fúm:¡ McL,,,. \'(l,Jh,un¡, l.J.• C.1J,,,, l>•uud Ro<l=ber~. J°"' A!v-Jrcz. Ryao Goodowi.
,.nd JCJ»Cia Nc;u'A'inb and rhc r~.atdJ 11nd rct--Mit.1l ltWJi~t:' (1( Not1 lcvy, 1tillat)' Ciutvr..ln
UN C11nivn. L.ot. ~1.i.~wn. John CihÑ1tnOO~. an.J l~ l'n1,t:rsiT" oí \hchis;an l.ra.· Llbrary an:
aratl'fu~ a~iedgeJ . TrM'l2uc1eJs .1te rntne
209

210 • r~, 111 lh• ª'""ª' lru
wnh p.rnrol~r potency ohservauon ol ns role m these truee ¡¡enoci<lal
<llU•tion~ 'lt¡¡¡¡csci. But wrun make• ..exual forms of abuse ava1fable lor
>"jldllll•ll\ ¡;enooJ.al cnJ., \'Char gcnuoJ.al functtotU <loes 11 5el'cf ln
ochn ,..,.;.i., ,. h) un M:xuolny lxc.wnc •n 1n,trumC'f\talrt) of gcnc.x:kk,
m<l ho-. .¡.,,,. u ''""" to J.,,,uoy a pcorlc .. • ~'Of'I<
h ,. •••umcJ hcre 1h•1 when an •t1a<k " sexual, 1ha1 foct ¡, rd<'unt
intomw1on (>11 the v1t>\\ •h•l socral hchJvior IS n"t rundom and 1h111 ns
rq¡ul.mue< are e-,denet By illusrr.ruon. '"ben banertr< nipc riuher than
bea1 a <¡'«die 1001 of dommauon is .dected. a dr<imCU\'e mo•a¡tc and
meamn~ con\'eyed, a parurular social J"lttem remlorced. a spc:ofi, form
ol row~-r Jrawn upon, • d1suncuve group dynam1c expressed and cnacud.
\X'hcn mcn rape and do not kili, or rope thcn kill. t.>r lulJ men r•pc, the
•.une " 1rue in l'""octtk. Presum•bl) .. ,..¿¡, tool• of domm.1uon that
iml""'< «><i.al hicnirdnc. are sd«tcd in ran for 1hcir efñcacy- IÍ thc} did
001 ,.·ork l'r wcre not 1hou~ht to work. 1hey 10-ould nm be uscd UnJer
precer" of diagnosnc ~conomy. the opec1fic wcapon ~lectd may evcn do
somethmg thar cannot lx done in any othcr way.
To lx genocidal unde< law, spccilicd actS must be unckruken wtth in·
lelU to destro\ a nao.al. rthruc, rebg100.. or oauonal ¡¡roup ":IS such "• for
~ ot ~ iJ!.al)>i>. b®i'.\ct. mJ1ndual pcrpcwto" dovm thc
ch.un ul comm11nd nc<:J not nec<!1>unly know why sexual m...ru of <le·
stn.1ctk•n are deployc,I anJ are clcsin.1cuvc (althou~h 0(1.,n they d<>I in
or.lcr for t!K,m to 1nllJC1 <uch anodi.• and for the anad<S 10 prom«11c sen
oocl.al end> The purpo<e of thi• "'"") i5 not 10 e-ubbsh <i1uaunn• ill
¡:cnoc1dal 1hr<>ugh <hc>wm~ dm certa1n am for spec16c motivn took place
lt does nlll suggest 1ha1 sorne sexual assaults are rnC>re senous or worse
than othtl'$ h invcsugn1c5 aod an.1ly2es sexual rnociues that havc been
largdy i¡morcd wllhrn kno"'n ¡¡enoc1J.al settlll!!S On thcsc assumpuons and
obsc:n&11un-. ami tor thi> ¡>UrpoK thc tteurrent uoc OÍ spea.licall) 11C:xu3!
01roc11t<'> to desuvy pc<>ples ha> $<>Ur«•, meanm¡¡>. •nJ 1mpbca1K>n• 11m
"''"' look• at 1hrm 1hrou11h the Bosn1M1 lons.
Sexual atrocmes C'J<plodcd 111 the Bo<niao geooo<l« ccrtaUl!y awarenes. ol
ihcm JiJ. In the spnng ol 1992. ~rbi.1n meo wbo had ~.ed oc.i door 10
Muslun women for )<M• put on 0.lk Jt1Cke1s aod rapc<l theír neighbors lll
thc nJrnc ol Grcatcr Scrb1.1. tbc nro c:.¡u1>.ilcnt of l.../.<n;rJUM \\'hcn Ser
bun rmlitat} forco, rqiuLir anJ irrcgul.u, m»...,.J .mJ 1ook O\cr '""n llÍtcr
10-.n. MuJun and Í.11••1 ••mmm .,..,,. first n1pcd and 1hen slau11h1crcJ thc
Gtoeciot s St.-;011ty • 211
"l\ amm..J, ~re •l•u~h1crcJ. tht1r rhm.110 -111 \\1m lumc•. ''" hilb1da. 111
yard>. m thcir own fidJ, Adol..ccnt ~irl• ttlrn from 1hcir l.1m1~n. Y"ung
.\fo•lim ,. ""' obducl\-d ... uh thcir chilJr<11 "ere lc><:kcJ 1n10 formcr c•lo
or roa<lside hotds or sb•clt• for •mmal• th•• 11o-cre re<·.,1 .. brothd •rd
,,oLued ocnall\' by sold1en le>r month• unnl ~· cscarcd or clied "' non
'>crb1an prople< were murdered or 1mpounded or c¡ecied, noo-~CTb1.m
women wcrc rounded up bv Serbum torces and m1emed tn houscs or
lormer pubhc bwldrng~ i.i be callc<l out. n1ght alter n1¡:ht, and rapcd.
Violmd) .mu !\luslun anJ anti C1th<>lic ep1thcn. dun, ¡nJ insuJ15 rou
unel) •<CT'ftlP•mM th<k "J'C'S
Sorne 1>omen were held capiiv~ an<l rt"¡>C.ucdl¡ UM:d fur \ex in ct>n\m
tratíon camr• thot werc m~inlr for m•n. whcre the \lo'Ornen .ilso rook4:tl
ond d<'!lncd up after thc torture of malc capti=. Sorne "·ere imprq¡ruited .
held lor SC\·cral months, refused aboruonc. 111d rcka>eJ in prisooer n·
chao~ ahcr abomon "'~ un<:rlc. In >orne of die n1pc dcath camps. mm
were also .c'iall)• tonurcJ m l)nclun1tl1kc •trooaes, tnduding throu!lh
publk utrncks on thc1t gcn11•b. Serbum forces rapeJ ethn1c ~lushm '"'''
Croot womcn. thc\ rnJ, to crc•re wh•t thc:) 1nugmcd wuuld be S.:rbun
b.b1es '"' "11 su ;..proJucm..:i\ on an c1hnk bw• "·uh thc .wn of pm
ducin, a <lomuunt c<hnicm In1°'ral 10 1hc Scrbian poliC) e>Í "c<hnrc
cJ~SIOjt (lhc:se f'l''l'tlrllOr.' cuphemism for mis jtellOcideJ' thCk <O
ordinated sexual 3$Slluhs ""'re mounted for the purpo•e ol destro¡in¡¡ pco-
ples ot non·~rbian cthruocy m order 10 crc:i1e an emmcall1 hom01ZeMOUS
SetbWI sute HundreJ. ol thousand• of people wcre lullcd. and tero ot
thou...nd. ol "'Olnen .md ,:irb """' l"ApcJ
R.ipe anJ 01hcr íornu <•I """tal .lS>Juli "e"' al'° employcJ .. g<mxrJ;tl
•pcctacle in thc B°""'"" ronflagmuon Public rape scr.ed ,. nru.J dc~r•
Jatton of ~1u.,lim women Scrbian ~11.rd> forccJ mcn 10 kxu3lh Huult
fomih mcmben and forc«I <><her famih mcrnbcn 10 "at<h for es.un ple'
Seros~ noo·Serbian "'Olllen bemi raped b\ S<rbWl soldiers. thesc
0
trlms are out there. somewhere.• Scxuahrv was al.so enhm~d 10 ser\'e a mure
convendonal propaganda luncuon. Bcfore che oucbrcuk ol v1olent hoouli·
lÍC$, porno~niphy scxllillucJ abuse of nt>n·S.:rb.. crottcmn¡i. ethrucn' to
Jcrugnt< 1he targu.. Jncn>111Llllg u.e" to "º"""'" "1'"""1 them. pruru~
1hc pcrpnmor ~p ...,xuafü foc th<! cna.immt o( <c).u.il '1<>kncc
In an unrm:cdcntcd dt'\dormcn1. ""mcn "''wlh viula1cd on 1hc «•m
bined <ex un<l erhnic/rclip1nus/na11on1l hasis spoke 0111 in pubhc ah<>u1
what w:u bem~ done 10 \\Ornen wlulc thc ~enoade wa• •nll l'Qin~ e>n In
Bosrua, "'"ual 111roc1Ue> "'ere exposeJ •ftcr a butonc•I pcriod m ,.iuch
rape ba.J bccn publicly rdromed ~ a pohucal outra¡:c to woincn, •ur·
ponm~ d,.dosure. One coulJ .ay that ihe world carne 10 comprehcnd 1hJ1
thc ~rb1.in camp.ugo ..,., 11enoddal ras opposed ro a e MI w~rl throu¡th
undcf'>tm<lin¡¡ 1ha1 thc "'JlC' 1n u wcrc real .nd \\'Cfl: bc1ng W\lCTn•Uaally
JircctcJ ·~,.'"" non·Serb1.an .. omcn ,\1001 d1>11ne11\ch 1n 1hc &.nian
i>ml.ru¡:hr, ..nuillll\« mdud1ng forced ~ anJ forced pt<"l!n•nC). ¡,..,c•mc
cC'n<cio\l>, M¡tani1ed weapons of a ~cnocid.11 policyu Or 11 lea<1, ob<.c-l'cl'!>
d1St111cm eh beco me aware 1ha1 il was sel'mp this purpose, and thus col
leci:cd and connectd thc <"1dcnce.
Unhke in thc Bosnian scmng, sexual atroones ha•e no1 been promt
nentlv mrblc m me Holocaus1, the paradigmanc geno..uk. ~ thc
Gcn~idc Con\cnuon, wrlncn soon alter. h.ted as pan <>Í the defu1111on
ol genod<lc wh,11 1hc Nui~ •pecilicnlly d1J 10 try 10 desm1y 1hc Jcu'S •~ •
l"'°rlc. "''""' •trociucs \\·ere oot e.xplimly 1..1al. Th1> ....u nnt he>weo.tr
ba:a..sc no <nual atroc111"' h•d ocrurred. •nd 11 "u no1 becau.c 1hc
Hnlocaus1 haJ no salicn1 ~al dimen.ion< ' !Uther, '""h sunwon ttt•
cent and thc ~t of the "'orld comen1 to he relatí•·ely obhvious and com·
placent, sexual :macks could be m1mmiled borh in numbcr; and s1grufi·
canee. ihc integral fuocuon ol sexual vwlauon in ¡:enood..! descru~U<>n
O\edooked Lookmg back al the Hok><:•U>I aft"r 801111.t can recooli¡;urc
aspeas of 11> h1>tOl')I tha1 h.d pfe\10\l>ly formcJ no clcar p•ucm. .
As Oagm•r l lcr.totl n<>u.-.. "The Nam u<d sexu,1l11y ro con..,lidare
1hcir appc•I "" l !oo;tillty tn ¡....,..,. "'"s <cxunliied in NaLi h.tte propag•nda ,
a record 1h¡¡ suMvcs in 1h,· mJtcrial it•df Julius S1rc:ichcr's wdl knl'IW1l
proro¡¡anda en1unc, Ver St~rrrer prc>enlS croti~ p1cturcs aod "''Ordl
ol mten<oe hn<uhtv t®·ard Jcw< 1be sexuahzed drav.'111~< and text com'C),
among othc:r thm¡!S, that thc Jc111s sbould be desrroyed beca use Jewish roen
takc over .. Aryao • women when th<\ havc sex ""ih 1hern. Dcscnbcd ai
•often lcwJ anJ dugusun¡: · by me Nurcmberg coun,' o., Stu1"'1r• il
barch scxu.all\ cxplia1 by tO<l4> ·s clc.enw1ttd st.uid.lrda, 1> nrulcnil> anu
Sc:m~1c h• sc~uahzo:I dcn1,rauon of 1u lew1.!i 'tcm>l'l'C hamc:s.cd ...:xu•I
c.cuemcnl in 1hc scrvkc of genocídal animu• • Ye\ 1h~ Thírd Rcich 1•
,.;Jdy ponrn~ed as antt•cx GcorJ!c M1><<c ~oio~ so for •• 10 assert 1ha1
l\azi<m is homle to -ali pM1ed material 1hat • could produce 1111 erouc
eltea. Hudlv. Preosd) that was Jcplo,cd by the N.ws lor gcnodJal
purposo.
Thc N11.a> uso<l law m control seJtual acU\ity. both wanted and un
l>Jntc<l. ol W(...1C11 JJIJ mcn, along the unto of thctr ~cn<•dde. Undcr thc
ThirJ Rc1eh. hetcr05Cxual m1ercoww bo:1,.-,,cn 1hc gmop thc ¡rmoe1dc
pnnop.JI~ >t>ughl 10 dcstro~, In.,., •nJ thos< Íl ,."'llh• to ~ubh.Ji ••
racially ~uprem<. <0·callcd Ar.ms. wu pmh1bued by the L•" lor thc Pro
 Genoc1des ~iuahly • 213
tecuon of Gcm1an Blootl Jnd Honor, eontted tn 193,," lt> crinlc uf so
callcd Rtw,·11uhar1Jr," or mciJI Jeftlearn:nt, litcrnlly r.1cc~1hamans or r.ice·
ra¡ie, wa~ dirtttcd primorily •!'•in<r wanted inrcrgroup <cxu.tl íntercour>C
on an Jnnmíscc¡¡én~tion nnfonalc. Jusi as Jntimisc~enation U\\'> in the
United States were wnm:n 10 procect oaily so-called white people from
marrying people of African descem. d0tng oothing for Black women who
were raped by -.•hite meo \whicb was routine and rouunely perminedl.
Rosu1rsch.i11Je \\'<IS not mtlde" cnmc to pro1ectJewish -.·ornen from being
rnped by Gennan men. A bugc bonncr at • N•r.i mass rally, "\\•omen nnd
girls! ThcjC\l'S ""' )'Qur setlui:crs! "'" putcntly refcrrcJ w Gcrmnn • Al)lln •
women and girls. lu point wus 10 kc:cp German "Aryan" women for
Gt'l'Olan •Aryan • mcn, ttl creatc a pretext for prosccuting ]C\l~sb men. and
10 srigmaáze the sexualicy• of Jewisb women and men to funher dehu-
manize die group. The blood-Mid-honor law was variously enlorced and
¡goored. malon~ Jewts.b people vulnerable 10 capncious denuociauons
whtlc successtully sogmarizmg Jewisb women md me.o sexually."
Ensuring 1he triumpb oí thc master roce cnlled not only for preventing
•bJood" ·mixing wí1h "undcsir:iblcs" bur for $Upportlng 1he prop11garion of
rnciall)' dcsirablc chiltlre11 Scxu•lity was U.u> impm:«..J inro uffirn1ative
reproducávc sen.ice undcr 1he Third Reich. Thc aim of Himmlcr's U-
bensbom project was for German • At}'ao• men ro reproduce \\ith W()Olen
of • Aryan • racial stock.U Abour 20,000 children were esámated 10 ba"e
beeo boro in Lebembom homes tn Germany and Nazi-occupied Norway;
mere were more tn France, Belg¡um. and Luxembourg.'' Wbe1her the Le-
bt'11sbom progriun inidaled pregoanoes or oruy welcomed olrcady pregnJnt
womcn is dispmed. lndc:ed, whcthcr womcn v<>lum11rily h,1d sex wirb N•Zl>
•nd wcrc U.en w•mtly reccived or lucked onm or werc draAooneJ in10 the
l.eb,,t11bom ma1crnity homes itftcr illcgiclmotc conception; whctlicr thc
womcn wcre imprei;tnated consensullllv or forcibly, abducred or romanced;
the de¡m:e ro which e\'e'O physically unforced p¡¡rndpanon linduding thar
of Germnn • Aryao • women) was manipulated or pressured undcr che of-
6caal program; and whether rbe resulong cluldrcn were stolen or aban-
doncd or extorminateJ by the Germons-all thas remoins íaarly murky.
Sorne cvidencc cxists for <'llch dcscription!' Lehembom clcnrly inu:n<l.J
to srimulate an<l suppon prop•gation of u master racc th!'Ough rcproduc-
uve rncnns Whether or not ahc progmm en~'Omp•sscd sexu•I imercou rse
per se, that lmd 10 happen for ir 10 pmceed. Bue neither the ~urernbe'll
prosecutoa:s, who in\'estigatcd the projecr qune extensivelv. nor comcm-
porary histonaos. coocerocd to avoid tht. titillating,"' havc invcStigated the
sexual condiuons of tbe imp~nations mvolved.
214 • Throu¡h the Bosnlan Lens
Lebcmbom bab)'-C'Jtcbing ceruunly coove1·ged with l:irge-scule unprcg-
nnuon of non·Gcnnan women by German soldters. Thousando of Freoch
wvmcn cc111cc1veJ "11h Gernun nülunry occupiers. Qltl'llcung rhe rad1u
scruti1w nf thc Nnú>, who 1m1>0tinded thc womcn and the children if
deemcd dtslroblc or extcrminated them if nm.,. Yct whcther any .,f thcse
women were raped <eems 001 to ha•e bcen asked then or sincc. Nordic
womeo who roncei\'ed with German soldiers \l'ere olteo brutally stij\01•·
tized as aaitors tn their Oll'D rommunines, tbe rc:.ulung duldren spinted
•way to foster parents tn Germnny or extenninated-agáin dep;:nding un
Nazi ¡udgrnems of thelr racial value. Alt.hougb it 1> waddy conceded thut
thc German occupauon oí Nordic roumrics rdicJ on terror anti violen!
reprcssaon of rhc popula1ion, and sorne clatms .irc being broughr nt long
IJSI Ol'I bchalf of thc Í01'1nken u·btwsborn chaldren.'' no •ctual informatlon
has yct cmcrgei! on whcthcr rhc sexual relnrions the Nordk and other
womt:n had with Gcrmnn soldiers lendinjl 10 rhese births were forced or
free. Most sources royly assumc thc lartcr."
The Nurernbeig prosecutors' accounJS of Naza cugemc practices that
aroounted ro forced aboruons oí aon-Gcrman womca who workcd as
sla,-es, by cont~JSt, are factually detailed straighúorworcl, and conccpwnlly
fairl) subue on the 'ªrn• que.rions:
Tbe Nazis paid lip servio: to thc Jdca tbat alJ •bornons wcre \'Oluntary
but this wa> obvlously nor thc t<lst. Thtsc unfonunate womcn working
;b ,1.,..,. undc:r rcrnbk con<lnions in ,, hosulo counuy found thcmsdvo
subjcctcJ 10 all m.mner of pressure, both direct anti mdlr<ct. Thcy Uvcd
ancl lub<>red undcr condiñons which would not ¡>crmu 1hem to 1ake carc
of tbeir children. Moreo•'l:r, cvery pregnnncy huJ to be r<portcd ro 1he
dreaded Gesi:apo. The SUAAestlons of an abonion by 1ha1 organiution
did aot invne ar¡¡umenr from Polhh and Russ1on \\ºOrnen . . (Abortioo]
was aothmg more chao an1;nher rechnique in funherancc e>f the ba.~ic
aune of ~c:noode and Gcrnumzation."'
Women under occupation also livcd under condi;ions C1f """ere con-
maim- condnions under which they are widdy supposed to have been
ha\'IJlll a llmg.
To thJS day, thc absence of uuerest tn the sexual condiuoJls under which
wornen conceavcd wirb German soldiers Jurmg miliwy occupauon "'
m.11chcJ by a lack oí inquiry into how 1hc cnsfn,etl women who h•<l the
forccd •honion• be-come prt.'&Jl<Lnl. T1 is no1 known whether they "'º"'
pre¡tnant only with mcn oí thcir own notionali1ie• " ' wherher the liCX pre
cedin¡¡ the unwanced rregnnncy was wnnted. Onc recent srudy bascd on
GentKadn Sexuallty 21S
coaucmpornneous documcnts und intcf\'ÍC"'> "uh w1m<Me!I onJ •urvivo1~
~ub.11111tio1es thc foct of for.:cd abortions und kallings oí newhon1s oí Polish
forccd laborcrs in Germuny, but as 10 1hc scx thru produceJ thc pregnun·
cies, this is ali tn«I is sald: "Many of U.e children had been fothered by
l()Cal mcn who took se1mal ad\'antage of these young foreign ~iris who had
ne.1ther ri¡thts nor advocates. "'' When n comes co havlng sex, though. rhe
"terrible rondtcioos tn a bosdle councry" under which rbc easlaved women
were ·sub1caed 10 ali mnnner oí pressure. both dircxt and in<lirecr." are
oot C\'Cf> mcnuon<:d. Jf womon L'Ou lJ no1 care Cor any childrcn they mrglu
'º
concei,·c •nd hacl r~n thcir prt.<gnoncies to the <lrc.Wcd Gestapo. con
thc meaningíulnes:¡ oí thcir initiorive or control t)vcr 1he scxuJ.l 1nceractiom
in which they bccame pregnanr. even with men of their own group. be
presumed? \Vbot CIÍ those pregnnncies caused by German men? Tf abortion
under these clrcumstances was Germanization. and "nothm~ more than
aoother reclmique m furrherance of the basic cmne of gmoc1dc:. • what
was thc scx that preceded it?
Moreover, LO assumc tbat thero was nu forced S<>x bctwc:en Jcwish
women und Gc:rman mcn bc<"nuS<: ull sex bctwcén thern wus illegal, a pro-
hib1tion duubt.ICS! 11 cletcrrcnt in some ins1.u1ccs, is 001 only to n1isunder·
stand the primary poim of rhe Rtissenschn11Jr low. which was t0 prc>hih11
murually desired sexual conract between Jewish people and • Ary.m•. • lt
1s also co conflate wanted and w.t\vanted sex. ro n11nimize rhe extenc to
which sexualiry was harnessed for 11enocide by U.e Thard Reach, and to
substlmre presumpllon for cvidcnce. Repons of J~-wish women bcing r:1peJ
by Gennan men <luring th" HolocausLare seant; analysts who >tress tht'.IC
cxccpuonality ure plcnúful. Por Jcws who survived and for thcir succcssor
communuies, ldcnulication of focrs o/ ,,.xual ossauh-e>e11 if thcir shiunc
righdy belongs to the perpetrotors-seerns 10 enr~il identificat-it>n ,,.;i¡,
1hose focts, making d1eir relative obscurit}' unsurprising. Underrcportin¡¡
of sexual assault even under bener circurnsrances. to¡lelher wirh tbc uttcr
absencc of responsive auchonucs ro whom ro report, combined w1di over-
whelmmg starvauon and rnass murder <lemanding prioriry, suggesrs that
such evi<lenc< as <loes exist and could be found may be die up o( an
ace~rg.
Sexual cont••~ across the group linrs 1ha1 morked 1hc Sho•h was a crime
whcn wamed but .1ppears likely to hnvc bttn e>flicially iw1ored whcn forccd
by members of 1he dominating ¡¡roup, particul.rly by ir~ military meo, on
members of the subordioa1ed one. ActuaOy, repons of forccd sex during
che Holocausi seem more prommem in accounrs at die ame 1han smce.
Onc book published m 1943, with suppomn¡? firsr-person aifida\'ltS from
216 • lhrou1h lhe 8osn11n ltns
\\ ª"'"'"' m l ~O. ,L•tcd s1D1pl'~ "The racm pnne1pla 1>1 the l'uremberit
UI>'> nr< nuc .,¡,. "" mtcdy •pplied b) tlx- (icrmJnt 10 the Jl'W> oí Po-
LinJ ·n,,, "·" ctl"'cuUy true oí thc pnmat) ra<hl t<rict ,.h1<h lorbrJ. thc
m•lll'IM ••Í .\t)•ll .. uh _1.,..,,h blooJ :-:.u.u lon,.J thcu "'ªY in10 J""'l>h
h.•uscs •nJ upcJ Jn·1,h ,...,._,_ anJ '""" '""'"' 111rls. Tht"lr hru1al11y in
•u<h ,__, n-achrd ntreme prnp<>rtir"" -,, 'an11l<" ~rrl• and )'OUng womcn
w<re rqx>ncd rared pnor to beinir murclcml an l:m<•t~rurre" aCT1ons "
A ...1J.J1,n1mcn1ed early repon recount> that a War<a11: ¡,¡hcuo Juderrrat
"J> orJcrcJ by the Nw health deparuncnt to \el up • bmthel oí 6fn
Jcwi-h womcn lor the u:.e oí Gennm solwen. "Don't lc1 the race-laws
hothcr you," J N•" offícial ~ponctlly ••id. "Wur ls wor, anJ 111 •Uch •
~lltlJtion ull 1hconc> die out."" In 1942, thc Nr·tt• }'or.1- T111m prinrcd
••t r~<t' 111 u trJn•líllcd lener Ímm • Jewi<h ><:hoolgarl Ín•m 1'raków Je-
"'ríhon.11 1h, imendcd suicide by p<>i<on oí her<elf 11n1l nanety·two of her
léUo.. •tucknt• nnher thnn subnut to the pr<>stitutiM 1mnuncnth 10 be
lorcal UJ"'I' 1hem bv German soldaers. ~ Raul Halbe~ notes an arcluval
documcnt ot 194} rqiomng rha1 "German pnvate •rm> managers kept
jNah ..-omcn as -cxual slavcs' rn thc Gahcw1 arca o( l'oland." \\'uhoUt
bcmg ablc to ltnow for ccn-un ID hmJ"Jlhl rf thc JCh ".,,re fttel) ,.-ilJed
or h>rl~. Bir~u 8eclt mtcrprou •un1111t Jo.:um"1lt> to e-tunaac th.at be-
1'H"t'O ~o 1nJ l!O pc:rccm oí the SS anti rolrct• forct·• •t•l1<>nnl an E..01cm
[umpt fcll ofoul of the 1tand.,J.• of thc racial L"' thn•u~h •Ch in ..·hich
coerced interrour<e rla~'Cd a role •• Somc Jewuh Wt>mC1l <aad thcy ....,,re
raped hv Gcnnles "iicn in hidm~." but "thc Anne 1rnnh who survivcd
1
rdpe don 1 \\'tne their sloties... ,,.
Conccn1ra11on C11mp serúngs provide lw·ther accounts. One surv1vor rc-
portcd her uncir su id he \\fü1essed mass rapmg of J owi>h grrl• who we1·e
thcn buric-d alrvc 1n mu» gro\'eS thcy had b.:cn ÍOr<e<I 10 dag. •• Onc sur-
""" ".u t<•IJ h) u mothcr that, an 1 forccd lob<>r c11mp "ohc wus forccd
to un,lr"" her Jau~htn •nd to loe>k "º ,.·hile thc ~irl ,. "' vi<>l.uc:J hv Jogs
"hom thc N•m had <pecially trmncd for tht> <ron" @nd th•t "[1Jha1 h•p·
J'<"nN to othcr jllrl< •• One sur.n·or, alter d..cnh1nR fN,.h inris taken
out ol her blodc to he raped, said ·R.~ of !Nish R'"' u-.- all.,....,J That
""' no R.IHmsc&nJe "•• And !he duect. • ¡ "'as upcd m Au.""1-.,tz. • ..,
Onc rnn><.'\jU<-nCc ol these acuon.s' being le~-a!J, forb1JJcn Jppd.l'S to lm,,
b.:cn tlut thc ""mc-n ucn: lrequtnd) killcJ ahcl'\luJ" \mee><> l?Wl) of
th<-.c "-omen "ere k11lcd Jn)'\Uy, thcar >e:xual tnJunet \\ere •ubmcr¡;cd m
thc udc nf murJcr
H"lllllUn< .. ho pronouncc rape ...,. unJcr thc Thml Reirh rlumly ...
not 1hankin~ of 1he bromds in these tcrm~." Vndcr lht• Nnm after 1939,
G1noc1d1' Suuallty • 217
P""lllUlk'n ,....., l1:1iJI, mstuuiwnaltzeJ. anJ <>lhu.111. l'\ln thrnu¡:h.)UI the
Rcidi " Jltc Nw, """" 10 b.-c thought th.tt ll>ln~ ""'nen JC.-=illy >d\ cJ
to mom 11c mcn '" fi¡tht mJ work h.udcr • Swc anJ poi.« l'\ln bro1hcb
wctc orjl;lnlttd m u>mmumtro for O\Wn" nuht.11') IHothd. •ere >et up
for the \l'rhmt4t/>t ÍOr••l!fl ..-pmen wcre llllpres...J mto hmthds for thc
foret¡,'Tl ,¡.,. l•hnrm. and Jl'™""'rs were u<ocd an bmthel' 1n thc concen
trall"n onJ c-icrmmaoon camps by thc capun.... and 'talf ol thoS<" CArnJ"
These bmchc1' "·en: o~amle'd alon¡t ~'Cfloc1dal hnc> on rn-n ""Y' Prople
a1 the bouom ot the Nau social lucrarchy...-ho could only u'e nnd be
useJ by thear own ¡¡roup m the hrotheb. llcrc •cxually con>tnuncJ by thc
ruca.al '·'"" TI1c SS date 1gnored tbosc laws las JJJ thc \\ '~hr111•<ht gen
c!'lllly. ,11 lc11\t un11l l'J.12 )," makin¡¡ 1hc b1<>1hds ju•t <•ne more w.1; that
Jcwish womcn rnul.1 he Jcstroyed.
At fl immlrr'1 dl"tcnnined mMJ¡tatlon, there wcrc .u lea,¡ nanc brothel•
m thc ronccntmion camp systcm by thc end of thc wor. C:hri<rn P•ul
esum1t~ " 1\1.mv \11-omcn 1mpnsoned m Ravcn<bnack were lorced or re-
CnJJl«l 1n10 them. :15 •-ell as mto the arm' and the '>S brotheb .. Belore
the 1'az1) cmbra.:eJ prosuruuon.. tens o( tholl>.lnJs ol pro-111u1cd w<>men
h~J becn acnt to .-oncentraU<lO c-.unp• .i.s • J>OCW., >Orne oí th<m. aloni<
..-uh "'''m-n •llll"lunJcJ for R.irse1UC"411J~. """"' thcn turreJ 10 1rnrlt ID
thc bm1hc:!.. •nually nploucd ''"¡°' l'\cr'° Womcn "h" ·,~~11n1<..,.rcJ"
wcrc l<>IJ th~y Wt><ald ¡,., feJ . ..-ould not havc 10 v.wk, 11nd \l.-011ltl be
relea<«l ahcr ,¡, months of "«:nice to rlacnt• ., "S" mt1l v.·cre lcno""' to
OC'<'8510nally 'try out a volunteer before rcndcnn~ a dro•ion on her qual-
1fications " Soane ol che brothel women were Gcrman, Polish, Chechcn,
Rus.tan, and l lunj\arian; women in the brothds lor lort1gn workers werc
of tht ••rne n.uionaln ie> as tbe slave Jaborers. Howevtr, Lcn w<.,ncn rccrult>
orrivin11 •t l1o>M:nbur11 for the brothd wcre JcsrnbcJ b1 une >Ul'\wing
pri><lncr •• • lmo.i ull }""• ond Gypoae> •• In thc •l.1v< lub.ir <dmp>.
where lm•thd vuh• .. ere n:warJs for cxccrtmn~I Jlf<>d11<111·11y •t work,
n:rord, '"""' kcpt of \ÍSits. and p.,._,,, was mJ<k 1hmu~h l.1hor rou
poo' .. For food to <ta\' aln-.:. ro keep bttter i<>h• •n<l lor pn>iectton trom
othcr -<xU21 "llJ!íC«ton_ man.- )'000~ men an the roncentrauon camp< ¡,,,_
cam~ "Jolly OO-> ol Nlros mtl other pm-Jeiied anrn•lo, v.ho u..cd thcrn
scxually ru~hdy " Thc men u·ho uscd thc c.mr brothd "-ornen v.""' nwnh
JNl>h." but bl<><.k 14;nron. JoJ K.rpo> •far lcv.Tr In numhcr •nJ oltcn noc
¡,.,.,,h) u...J 1hcrn ,.. v.·cll
fC\mh w1>mcn ll<'C 1mpmoneJ m spect.1! bmthd• in ,..,me pi•<<.. for
use b1 thc duc ~S R1md< One repon from ,, woan.m •urvavN llho "'"'
\J!\ed tn 1hls \\'íl\ rtt-ount!; that anr;ac1n·e womt"n 111 th~ (11"'\I .election at
711 • lhro11h tht e...,.. ltol
,\11sch\\11~ we~ "orde~ CMll ol the lme" an..l suhsequemlv "uscd for the
m<l't hcentlOU' puf'Jl'O'C> kcpt .~ "'ldy 10 '<JU,,tv the base msnnrn ot
sa cr.tl uJJ>Uc anJ bou.J :\JZb.•,. A tlocumcnt at thc umc confinns that
1he "''llldl loe thc broche!. "woulJ be klc.:tcd by thc doctor anJ the
rommanJ<-r ( ..e), '"'''" on thc tr.U'"f'°rt the bo1 for thc '\S ind nfticcn
1he ,.,,...., quabl) for thc pr1""Dt-n ... On.- '""""' rt<:all•. "Oc.pite ihe
1\"' tl..:orie< on raci•I p<>ll1111on, wc hc•rJ 1bat a numbcr l'Í atiracr1vc
1ntcrnees ".,,"' drafted for the<e f.rothrli . ,,. Christa Paul rondudes. "'lo
douht remains thar. de<¡llle 1he prohrf.11100 on m1crcoorse .,,th }C\11'5.
.ftwi,h llomen were taken •way 10 m1l11ary brothels. . • The women had
10 >txu~ll¡• serve the sold1ers unJer thrc.i ul <lea1h .•"1 L"hus did the Nazrs
uumuuvnalm' thc "ol•non ol thcar own >cxu•I r:idal laws. The women
1n thc ,;mp und Jrm) bmthcl• wcrc forccJ LO c•chan~e scx for >Ul'\1v:tl
unJ tr...-Jom;• ,. oftcn hirpc"' an prn•lltuuon thc c'<h~ngc: Llrgely fa1lcd
1hcm M'"'' ll·crc c•tcrmina1cJ Tu,. J1J noc JHCV<nt thc l.ttcr jn,jn11411on
th•t •l'I) woman <>mi,-or haJ whorcd •• \hhou11h thc re.Ji1ic. vari.:d by
tr"11c •nd place, iMsc bmchds. -.·hcre sena! r.pc.· "'"' orgmizcd in the form
el prosmuoon. funcuooed IOtt'l!rally to thc ~Je
!> il'\'J\'Or chrorucles ol !he pcriod P"" 1dc a ....&:r rontcxt m wbich
e cnd•' lite lor die women ol thc ~c:noc1Jally tar~rtcd ~roup boch ID and
out'!Jc camp> cont.uns fearuro ol pn1011ruuon l1te <•treme ,ulncrahdit)
uf J,.,. J undcr gcoociJal conwuotu, •t•" m- anJ J,.,.pcutc. láetng Jcoth
at C\T'} mm, mcant that ""' rou!J be, anJ 1hncforc .,ftcn w~ euctcJ
to m•kc lifc P"'"'blc. 'iunÍ\-or occo11nt• 1>t 1he t1me 1n and oursidc Clmps.
rnl\,de "indows mio lh-e~ hvcd "" promnmon ·, term<: rape for survw.rl
"Womcn wcre prepared to wll 1hear hod1cs lor food .•., With s1ar.'Uuon,
"loc..J was the com that prud lor sexual J'IWtle¡¡es. '" Perhaps bettcr: -ex
""' thc com iliJ1 paid for the pravdei:c ni 'IJvan~ all\'e. Onc \lo'Qman rutSed
onhoJox m Chdm ddcnbál bcin¡t token ,tbJck whcn her mother told her
1() •Jo •nythm~ mybody .15)u >•'U to t.lo, ¡u.,l ><l you ,.,.., ~our W'c." Month.
l•1cr 'he rcmembcrcJ th" •hcn >he W•• • faceJ \\tth.a >rtWtton m which
1 h•J tn m.ike a <nop J<ri""" .hout bc$1o"'mK • ~xu.il Í•wr 1n exch~e
for a tctnpourv rt!SCU<! fmm 1he Gcrm.tn au1hontie1"*In1udi a <inution
intim.nc .1cce5' bccome< at once a curren<) oí cxch..,~e and a rool lor
dchumanmmon An; ¡tlunmer ol humanar. uwoked looms larttr m ncnoo
than m l'l'COrded lusnmcal realitv, prcsunubly, "hc:rc hunwmy.....,. found.
'""" .1 t.l1J oot comc at a >cxu.J pncc In thc l lolocaU>t. a corrup1cd
11<:\u.J cconorny ol force tar¡;cll.'d Jcll .,¡, •HlfllCll for prosutuuon m ..U 11.>
l"rms, mlC~rnlly 10 thc gcml<.1..W J..'>tnl<111•n ul abe: Jcwash pcuplc.
Sc:xl1i1I a~rl.'~ion 1n th<> conc:tn1t1.llu'n e 1rnp 1C'l 11n,.r 1ha1 l<lOk oJ\'.tnta~e
 Genoc1de's Setuahty • 219
of genoc11.Lil vulncrabilities uncl funheml gcmicidal Gll!IS was h~rdly hm·
ited m heter0>exuul mtercoor:sc. On Jdmb...on to thc c•mp>. womcn '"ere
mnclc 10 >trlp nnJ Mand ¡¡cnitalli cxpo:sc<I on two JtOOil whc1·c thcy were
internally searchecl and 11cnitally o.!m"cd while being sexunlly rid1culed To
one occounr. womcn wcre reponed forced to líe on thcir sides nJ.ked while
being poked in their private pans 115 SS of6cers ~·u-ked nnd ¡eered" A
member of rhc Sondetkommando reponed that ooe SS otlicer "had the
cuStom of standing at t.he doorway ... and feelmg the pnvste parts of the
young womí:D entering the gas bunker. There wcre ulso instan<:<:s of SS
meo of ..U ranks pU5hin¡; i.bcir 6ngcr> tnto t.hc >exu.11 or¡;ans of prell) yt>UDg
women."' Afttr J•wish WotnCJ1 w.-re s••'1>Cd, they "'Cte thcn "nlso """rchcd
10 Se<!! 1f they hnd not hiddcn jcwdry in the iminune parts of their bcxlies ""
As M)ma G<'ldcnbecg obsef\'ed. "fNlot only were they viola red m life
bui rhey ""re violated m death as we!J.»•
Jews wae livc pomograph)' for Nazis wben the SS leader ar Auschwin:
-bad bo!.s dolled in che broi.bel rooms for bimself and hís SS undcclrngs.
so that they would get a good look at i.he 'lovc bfe' of tbcir prisoncrs,"
und when Jewish men ncarly Jead tn the frcczing expcrimcllts werc; pul
11110 bed ,.;th oak.cd wonicn to i.cc ¡f "onim,11 heat" would reviw them:'
The •ex ual u•C of J<:Wish \\'Omcn tn cnmps w:1s org1mi1.ed os pub Lle •exu•l
spcctlldc whcn thc) wcrc made lo excrcise nnked so German gunrd.; could
wutch. or. just befare bein¡¡ killed in ¡¡ns chambers. 10 run naked to be
filmcd by guarcls The films remain." How they were ui:ed at rhe rime is
001 yct puhlicly known. The dehumani.zadoo and humiliarion of these
je\\isb women was clearly se.xual, itS link with their murders ~t once en-
hancing i.be ..:.xual potency of thc films .uid underlirung 1hor place in thc
genocide. rirull)-. i.be mos1 explicit in>Uncc; of ~xual sudism wcrc not
Rouemth.md~; the torture rh•• \\'38 •lso scx wu• allnwed nnd sexual pre·
ciscly bccause it wus inílietcd by Germ•ns as supposed superiors Qn Jews
as supposcd ínfcriors.
lf a panem of the use of sex to demo)' a people can be discemed in
hind.;i¡rln under the Third Reieh, u 1akes no recoosrrucrion to see n in thc
RwMdan geoocide ot April 10Jul)• 1994:• There. mrq¡ral ro thc ocganized
slaughter of hall u miU1on to a mllhon people in les> th.m four months,
llu1u ropcd ond 01her,..¡se sexuully viu!.ted Tursi wnmen en rruasse os pan
of the nttcmpr<:d tlesin1et1on of dm cthnic group ns •uch.~ ln somc.-
ca!l<'S. the leµders. wch JS Laurem Sernam.11. ordercd rhesc k1llings A crcd
1ble witne<S daim• chm Semanzn •aid 1he followin¡r: "Are you sure yoo're
no1 killing Tursi \\'Qmen and ~iris befure sleepm¡¡ \\Oth tbem. . . You
should do chat and cvcn it the¡• ha>-e sorne illness, you should do it wii.h
220 Throu¡tJ lhr 80-¡n1an Leas
sucks,.. later-.ihamwc meo W<'tll throu¡ili T utSJ womcn like scyi.hes
t.hroogb wbcat belcb. Sorne obscrvers ""Y i.hat not a sill!?lc T uts1 woman
or girl who rem•ins a.hve from che conO•granon "'JS not sexually JS·
.-ultcd ·1RJ•pc "as the rule 1tnd 1i. ab>ence thc c.•ccpuon ·-. Vic1ow.
..,,u.11í,,11ion .01tl dcnigrarínA ~cxuul Stereotypin¡; of Tut>i womcn w•s •
srnplc C'n 1hc rudio and m newspapét"J rrecetlin¡¡ ond rhrnughllut rhe otroc·
oríes.··• Mnny ""xual anacks as public specracle were alsa reponed .., Anri·
Tu™ slogans made their genocicW ammus and objecnve vivid: Rape and
od1cr sexual violente werc ohen accompamed by -bumd1armg ut<erances,
wh1ch dcarl) inchcated rhai the wtenaon underlymg t:ach specilic act was
10 dcstroy the tutsl group as a wbole, .. (for .:xnmplc;,] 'Thc pride of the
Tut'1S wiU c::nJ toddy.' .,, Eách genodtlc ~ unique, but pc:rlups Bosnia
prcwidc:..I or exposctl • new modd of the mass inurumcntahzauon of <ex
ualiry for genocid11l purposes. It certaínly acl\'Un<:ed awnreness of sCl!ual
•rrocities in genocides by outsiders.
JI
\'Vruu accow11s Cor ihe presence oi sexual arrooties in geoocide? The ublg-
UIC)' of rape and olhcr sexual abuse tn social lúe does not fully explain ii.
panieulor escalntion und chos<:n dcploymcnt for spccifically genocidal
r:nck Nor docs the \•iolence nf gi.-nocidcs or ''iolenC<? in g""er.I full¡ ex·
plain thc spccilic...U¡ sexual forms that \'Íólcn<:e tukes, whcn it does. Givcn
the ubiqutty of m•le dominante and thc place of rnpe in it, n9 doubt mcn
rape in pan because nnd when thcy can, so that anyrhmg that incn!aSCS
opporrurury, ac=s. and impuntty incrcases sexual assaults. But ncnher
chaos hypoth.:ses nor opporrunism compleicly accounts for thc dccision
and policy un<l planncd C'amprugn of sexual foans of ab=-induiling
r.ipc: both cxecutcd undcr ordc,.. nnd ¡>Cf\'a>l\'dy pc:rmtttcd, Lvc sexual
•pcc¡:oclcs. and pomogr:ophy-for Lhc purposc of des1roying groups on •
rncial, crhnic. nuiionnl, or religious basu that is m c-idenC'e in genoodal
scttm¡rs. Pcrhaps the reasons sexual abuse is funcrional are specific to cach
¡icnocide, Bur the mcreasingly prominem. perhaps mcreastn¡z, role of mnss
sexual atrocines 1n the ¡¡enocides thar mnrked the late rwentieth C'enru"'
lrnmes thc more general quesuon. How and why do sexual anscks destroy
a people?
\'{'hile thc ¡¡cnoci.W utilit.y of ruj)C' Sttllb obviou> to thO!ic who tlo it,
11.> gcnocí<l•l role ha• b'"'" lqng dcniecl or clufoJ, ctlnunuing to elude $0mc
ohM:n'\:rs who cnter nfter the foct.'' As legal mterpretarion (appmoched
hcrc us statutory constructionl. thc conceprunl fü of sexu~l assault in ¡:eno·
Gtooc1de's Se1ual1ty 2Zl
cidc IS "°' dtlhcuh. how<-.éí- Undcr thé Gcnocidc Convemion n 94';1),
genocick occuro when Jny uf ,1 lis1 of acts is •ce>mm1ttc:..I with mtcm to
dcmtiy, in whole ar in p.in, a nalionul, <thnical, r•cial or rd1g1ou~ group,
as such ... The ctwercd ac1> incluclc killing ¡rroup mcmbcrs. cnu•in¡c them
serious bodilv or mema! harm, ddibcratdy inilícrin¡¡ on them condinons
ot bfe calcula1ed to pbysically desrroy the ¡¡roup. and imposm¡r mensures
miended 10 pn:vent binhs \\1tlun the group. As a rnJtLer of usage. t.he term
genocidc 1s no< considcred leg31ly üpplicable unless lacge numbcrs uf
peoplc are so trea1cd, snd many •re lcilleJ on pwpose.
In this fr•mcwork. once onicnt und group ground .irc estüblishcJ, ob-
""""> msny üCt> shon <•Í c><icrmination contnbutc 10 the dcstruetion o!
peQples o.s such, hence are ¡re1\ociJal" Althou¡¡h it hns alwal" been a leg•I
(.1s well •s real) foet 1ha1 not onl¡• killinR is ¡¡cnocidal. the rccognítion of
this has ¡rrown in parr because of the visibility of rape ín ticnocid<s stnC'e
!he Bosnian ene ... Se"1al arrocmes reaclily br mto the de6mtíon's subca-
regoncs. Sorne vicrims are mped to death or othen\ise kthally áSSaulted
sexu.tlly (such üS by bcing -.ginally peoetrateJ wttli machc:tcil anti ot.hcr
ob1cctSI. !Upe llOC\$>urily inOim serious boc.ltly aod mcnt.al b"rm., Systcrn·
.atic mpc o-~r time, imposl'<I u> 11 condidon CtÍ lifo. " pbysically dcstrutuvo.
Perhnps rhe lens1 numericnlly sí¡.'1lificint of •exu~líty s mies in genocide
scem• most e:JSily grasped by many: every \\'Om•n pre¡inanr \\ith thc child
of an anadcing 11roup is prevented &om conceiving a child of other b10·
log1cal hentu~c. Each acr of sexual abuse commmoo ""th intent ro dl-s1<0y
the tusuaUyl women of a group defioed by irs nanoMlity, ethrucicy, reLl-
gion. andlor mee is therefore legally an acc of genocide. R.ipes undennkcn
as p.trt of • gc.nocí& in Í•ct ue 1hu. ~nocidal in law, "" i.bc Rwanda
Tribun.tl o-eco¡¡nlz.cd ín Ak")·•w ..
On mony lewls, rape is rape. Yct J(t!nocid.,I rupc <'•n be Ji>rmguí.hed.
for ""umpJe, from rape in wnr m a oumber CtÍ r«Sprtts. fa-en tht>ugh n1nny
civilians ore often killed in wars because of who the) are, and l!cnocidcs
can be camed our in part thcoogh war, war is not al\\il)'S Aenocidal. Rape
IS pel'\'llSÍve in wars and often has nn ethnic component. as in the "Rape
oi Naalting" durtng wluch Japanesc milit.ary forces mass-rspe<l Cbinese
"'·ornen,"' or the rope of Germ.m womcn by the mvoding, Ru.sian forces at
thc end of World \\~ar n. In nehhcr siiuu11on were rhe rupes gcnocid.11
bec•usc nt:ithcr $ttu.iion was a genocide: 1herc: w~ no intcnt tn destrtl)
1he peoples as such on the pr0>críbed gr<>unds. Simifarly, n1pc on un eihnit
'" nocional basis Clln be officially or¡:anized in "'•r, as \\1th the ~coúled
comfon womeo-the ,Japanese govemmenú or¡ianized use of women ol
varlous t:thnioties (prominemly Koreanl as sexual slaves ta scnice lapa-

2Z2 • lhreu&b the 811nlu l••s
oese m1l11ary men durin~ World Wilf ll Thi< torccJ P""'ututmn was of·
6clally <>r¡t11nizcd cthtHc r.1pe, buL ti 11 l;eked WlCJll l<> tbtroy Lhdr cthmc
~rou¡» ., -uch. 11 "~ no1 ¡1Cn0<1d.J A• • ··e.pon or 1001 ol wu, r•I"' tn
,.., •mu 10 lurthcr thc ""' dfon, 1'h<thcr 1h.a1 ,. ulung o.cr lind, g<l\·
cmm""'· or pcoplc '" pJcifying .ind murnatin, •olJi<,.. As• b, proouet
of "·''· rup<' in w•r olw merg"' "·11h male \ioknc. an '"llr Jnd Ntncr•lly.
Rape: in "'ª' is o wnr cnme. lt ;, 001 ~enocidal until 11 i< pan oían .1im 10
~mw • people as such oo one of thc h<ted ground~ The rapes l'I Jewísh
.. ornen dunng \\"orlJ \\'ar n are rommonly llll>lntcrpre1cd ... <rdc: cltea
ol ibc "ar, alth~b thc~ wcre ,.. ¡:cnoc1dal as 1hc lto!ocau!>I to "h1ch
1he\ wcrc tntegral.
Gcmi<iJc is a """ u11-1ir1>1 pcoplc:> whith l1:¡1ully •pe•kinJ! " nhl • war
ot •ll" Thc linc bc1wc•n ~CO<Xl<lc •nJ war 1• nol "'"•Y" •
finc no.- in
practÍC1', as ronfüct, l1kc 1ha1 tn Guatemala, .. uh 11> rombin<J l"'l11ical
....,., and ¡mioodal •llaclc< on M1van p<:ASants tha1 anduded «oual a1roc-
mc... 11lustra1c. &1 1ht linc is thcre. Armed conlhct by deliruuon takes
place bc1wccn combJtan1s, whether rcjlulars or irregulars, usually for ter-
nli>l) <>r '1Jtc rule. Thc lilfJ!et o! ¡u:miaJes is groop> in et,,¡ soo~~. the
goal ., 1hcir do.truwon .,, suc:IL 001 wmpl} ihor rule Genoado Me alteo
urncd uu1 \mh onl) onc ,¡Je armcJ, "" undcr thc Tlurd Rcsch onJ 111
Bc.1'J\1u l lcllego\'111u wuh ,·ict111u ho'1ng 1io arm\ ol thru own \X\u has
rom11'11Jllt> cm n1 lc••I 1wo sidos: rnpc in ""' il •ho typic.Uy hilo1erol in
being 1nílicted oo ""men l'n bo1h <idcs oí 1hc rontl1c1 Genncidc: 11 re·
lendc:'sly one-s1ded <;o is rape m ll"'l<>Ode. e>·cn uilen the gennrnk IS
carne<! out in pan 1hmu~h war. and «>me war-relarcd nipe occu"' on both
s1dcs. .,, u usuallv <loes 1and d1d m (1ermany and m Bosma-Her1.ei:o,m9'.
U tl1c 1.1r¡1ets of ~ gcnoc1Je evcmu•ll1 m•nage 10 fi~h1 bnck, ¡,_ \'itlun> do
not .,mpl) becomc 1hc Cl\iltan <••uJlll<> o( w.r. m.kmg thc quo1icm of
lhc rd1c tll rape .an ,(nt.-.:1Jc onc ..~™"'n ot il~ rtlk '" \\.tr. ~ \'h,:t1ni> ot
1'<\mt' " " ' raro J<> nt>t C>'c:fl .."""" .. h1ch sold1c" or ,,Je rapcJ •hcm.,
Gen<K1.l.1l rapcs J11 no1 happen 1h1• w•y. ln iten<>qJcs. che pcq>ctramrs
and rhc v1ctims kno" who 1hey are m 1enns ol 11mup ideotifica1ion. None
ol the parucipanl' ore unckr any tllu>ioos: meir «>e1al proup rnembe,..h1p
is v. h1· 1he rape is happcrune
!Je><npmdy, 'ª!"' 1n "ª' <me rok ol uillch 1> Jlso doubilc» mcom
ple1dy undemooJ 1 •11m 10 1crror11c ~nJ dcgr•dt hcncc Jcmor.hzc, thc
\'Jnq111,hcd. 10 o¡mholicully ~nJ '<!xuJll\· rt'WarJ JílLI '<""cn¡:c thc """'"·
.anJ ur to lOtcrrupt r~pu)Jucti\'C' 1.ununwt~ '' lt h.a; bc:en ~J o&i. .a ntua1
of Jc¡:uJ.iion <>I 1hr m~r .,Je. • "•1 of m>1Jl11" 1crror, ~ 1.o<uc of
deioor•luJ11100, a rlun<krin~ of OO<>iy. und a h11m1li1noo rirr for 1h.. mcn
t'n thc och1.·r i..1JC' who l.1100"-•l (1n n1a.luhnny\, tcnn protei..1 .. thc.·u·
womcn 7'.ian) oí thcsc J<·t1 m~kc \\'Pmcn'5- boJies tntu M 1nC'd1um t'f mcn·,
cxpre5'1l'n. thr mean> 1hr<>u~h which on< ¡;roup of mrn ••y! wh3t i1 "ª"''
to <'4) m .n<>thrr Apan trom 1liirmm~ m•nhood. whKh rape alway-< docs,
upo.- in""' th"" .eno a> 'pccah.: p·m:hc>ki@1cal wsrtart' and • medw•J o(
communt<•Uon. prO\iJin~ >)mbobc as "cll a; actual rcuarJ Jnd symb<>h<
ª' we.ll a• Jcl1hll revcnge. h 111e1ru suprern•<-y: we ar• bcucr than you .\11J
p()S....._....,¡un \\e own you. R.ljX"'!o in gcnt)(_i(.IC' oh~n ha\c lhr '.amr or '1m1lar
..Cfccts •nJ 111tcn u<>rk m 1h, •UO< or ''malar "ªl> liu1 <>ni! v.hcn th.
purpo<r 1hr '1<1M)' 1• 1h• Jc.,uuct10n ol tht peoplcs o( wl11ch 11'- ropcJ
are memhr-" only whcn 1h<· rncS5a¡le •• wcll g, the me•n• i< the desm•<'"'n
ot people< a< •uch. is 1hc n•rc ~en0C1dal for 1ha1, 11 nced not cake plu1·r
tn a '"ªr
\TIJ.u l"rt~r maru cap..- in war. "hacb ¡:cncraU) h•pperi> throucli caJre
•nm•mc... 1u mosU) 001 ol-conuol q....t.il\ h b wh.a1 armcJ mcn Jo '"
#l'OUP> whcn 1hcrc b nothang LO .iop thc:m R.lpc ut gt"l><•<i•lc b an}1h1n1
but r111>c ou1 <lÍ conrw1 lt 1i. rape unJcr control ~tL·n Jo it in >tlOlll"'
usuilll\: bc,:1.111,c thcy Utl.' ,,,J,I tlr mcour•RCJ or s~~rc111.a11c.,lly pcnn1tH..°"I ur
ordettd 10, kno"in, thc1 ne doing ll "' mt"mbers ol 1hdr racc. cthn1Lll\,
reh~on l'r n•nonah11· h hJppem on p<•~, not JUSI wuh die tunmM
of bannm~ ¡icople, or ot havm11 .e..x. or <11 plantan¡¡ a ll•g, but to des1IO\
people¡ ns such oo the Jo:>1¡¡natcd group ba,Cl> Thc desll!Jcuon o( pe<>¡>l<">
cm ibe group b>ISÍS is 001 • b) -produtt of 1h" tJf"'. h 1> ns pom1.
Gc0<>c1J.: ¡;<>o be)-<>nd "'"' h can. .nJ Jocs. Llkc pl.1ec m m-.1 '<><•et,
•nJ Jnton• 0<>11tnmb~1.tn1 . 001.Wc any •rmcd conlh.i pr<>pcr h> >rc<il•<
purpOk 10 rnJ 1hc cXl•IL"'"' oí a pcoplt m;1rlc$ the sc,11.J atr<><:lllc• 1h11
rnke pbce 111 u. GenociJ<•" octu•lly more conrinuou' \11th Jiscrim1no11on
than ""lth war: n is 1 \1ol<nl practi<1' .,¡ di<criminJuon Ir is extreme in
eqwl1t\". etfcctuated chroutlh sy<tm1.111c \10lence-v1ol...,ce th:u 1> •orne·
umcs 'pc:arhc.ided throu~h • swe anJ ..omcnmes more IO<><dv dq>IO\ c:J
throu¡!h tJdrc. or unolhca•I milll.•t) Jorcc-.. h<n af i.nu.J •rroone> do m
g~nocu.Jcs 'orne lhtng) th.u 1hcy Jo in \\'Jrs, anc.J L"\·c.n 1f gcnoaJo .11-c
cJrricJ out in part thn•u¡¡h "•rs, gcno.1do. anti thc scnuciJal work pcr
formcJ m 1hcm by ..:w•l ..,,..u11, rcmo1n J1,.anc1 phcnnmcna
ª'
Genoade, both an reahlV and bv ronvenuonal delmmon. L< JehneJ b\· 1hc
tntcn1 10 Jc>trO} ·group• .is •uch." 11 ali membef's ol • ~rnup are klllcd
1bc group Is pn:>wnabl~ Jntro}.d .u •uch. Sut gcno<.-Wc IS Jclincd b) llm,
224 • ll•HI• lb• Bos11u L•os
uut SUl\.'C.:\~ 01nJ a(,.t~ ih.u ílJOl At Jestru)Ulf.1: • J?roup U\ :o.,u"h tn pan" trc:
.1,., g~n•K1J.1l l),.,.1ruumn. 111 01ltcr \lm.I•," more tb•n kilhng l11c rnrc
of \l.·hat n1dko 11t:r,. gcn4ll.hl.ll 1s che n1c.•1111n~ of ...... - 1n rcl.auon to ·he
group> whooc ¡:n>Unds are rmh1hitcd ., • b..,. for dc>!l'U<."1100 IX'hat Jocs
11 l11dD 10 b.· lülled or raJ'<'<i ., a rncmhcr <>Í one'$ ~r.,.1p--ü a ,ICW"h
""'man or ª' • Tuts1 v.·omun--and how '' that combmcd J!mup dtmcn•10n
10 be kno\111, cvidenceJ. 1den11fied? Ihc 'Jmc quesuon ~rise. 10 d.tscnm ·
u ..moo la" -l"r cxamplc. tn º'king whcthcr • "'xu.illy h•rJ'>ed ""'man is
ru.r..sed be.:•"-"' >he " a .. om.in. ibJt u., whcthcr bc:r =ual abux. i>
•bJ.SeJ on IC'X • (lf t!lo h11ro1"'"'°J •bbc....J t.ln ra"c anJ ~-
In 1hc lu~ 1•Í ~cn<>c1dc. 1hc tcrm ·~rtlu¡i •• •uch." .1hh<>u~h key 10 J"
tmizuishin¡¡ 11cnoci<le> frum mher mn'>-< JJrocJLics, h.1~ I<' dote been ¡;i'·~n
lude clc ir mt••nin¡¡ on ÍI• ""n Most crimc< includinr i111ema1ional o~.
alT uaJ111on.1llv conce1\eJ as acts o! mJi,iduals "J!"'"'I mdmdual< Thas
,,.,..,,,ms to rnakc che collcc1"e quaht\ ol -.omc cnme.-1h<>o;c not mcrcl\
rnass in numbcrs but anhcrcnth group-ba.~cd m narurc-J1lhcult for t..w
m grusp JnJ art1mLue. Au1horn1es accorJ1n¡Uy tcnd LO uillup~ iho ~roup
a~ such t'klnl."ñl 1nto thc "''·ns r~J ot ·v.·illJul JQ.t-ru\.U<\n"' C.lr to trea1 u
ª' on •ppco"l.1¡1" 10 ibc numéncJI cakuh" of · ·n "'hvlc '" Ul p;an " In
r ;"""'ª~~. lh< h'rTn " •• p.1n of 1hc <cale.- or "'cr..chmi:n<""• of 1hc cnme-
1hc 0 11 cmbrncm¡z tot.11 form which 1h" rnmc is liobk 10 ••ke •.,. Clari
~in¡z lon¡zuJ¡¡c often 1cnds m resrate wh.11 " 10 be dara~e<l, eveo "'hen i1
i< nor wmn,. " ,.·hen th<' Ad Hoc Lomm111ce on G.,m><1Je U948> <ALd
1ha1 ·a., •.xh 11l"'111< qu• iroup.°' or ••hcn ihe lnt<tnJl!Ollal Criminal
T nbwul lor 1hc Formcr Yugoslma 1ICTYI >.Ud ibat "1hc >lgllÜlcaD<c lll
thc phr&>c •• ••i<h'" " 1hoi 1l1c cvadcncc mus1 esubh.h tli.r "tht gn•up
h•J bcon 1•r¡.:c1<J, •nJ nm mcrdy six..:1h< indiv1Juals within 1h.11 M"'"I' ""
Althou¡th ;r~IJ.lbl) cruuJI m J1>ungmshan¡i gcnoc1J<' fmm othcr .rim<'
1~ • .1.• •"<h • dcmcrn h... olten funcnoncd " • mak<1>·c1¡1h1, addin11 hule
or nothin¡1 uni.¡ue Bu1 11 " more 1han • hi~hlo:lner or b11ck<mp for Nh~r
1crms.
Corum¡¡ d<'"' to me hcan ot 1he mnucr. the lmcm111111n.U L..1w Corn·
rrussion esp!Jtnc:J thJt umkr the <..cn<'<1Jc C<>m·ffim>n "me 1111eimon
mu.1 be tu Ú<..tf<ry ibc ltf<lup ., sud>,. m""um¡t .I> J ocp•wc JDJ .it>h•KI
cnm' anJ noc mctdv """c 1nJl\1Ju.als be<11usc ol thctr mcmbenhíp 111 •
partt~~Llr ¡:n,up.· 1it,mtna10 more pll.."Cl!\cl~·. the CU1nm1~?t11on oí [x~·Mti
un "·.-.r c.:dn1c~ in 1hc fomu:r ' 'uJ:toslU\'hl t..·x1'IJinecl tha1 ''n\ such .. 1ndu:~uct.!
1h.11 "thc crÍn'I<' againsi J number oí mJ1viJuals musi be darected t¡t.,n,t
1hcm in 1h.-ar eollt-cnvm or ar 1bem m 1httr colkct1vc ch•r•ctcr or ca
pacttv """ Thc R......nda Trtburul m '" Al:Jrt•u opm1C>n aJv""""'1 lunks1
 Gtnoctde s Suoa1t1r • 22S
"T?c VÍ<Úm of che acr os thcrcforc n mcmber uf á group. chos"'1 .. such
wh1<h, hencc. mean; thAt thé vicúm of thc crimt oí ¡¡eno.:uJc .. rbc group
n.~elf anti not only the 10d1vidu•l .,.. As this insighL wns l.ntr formulared
in R11111ga,,d11, "as such• means "1he vícrim of the crime of genocick is rhe
11•oup nself and not the individu:J alone." 102 To anemp1 10 destroy a group
"as such" IS chus •o artack, throu¡?h auncking group members because thcv
are ¡rroup members, rhat asp<'Cl: of thc group wholc tbat is more tlmn th~
sum of its md1V1duál pans. tbat qualtty of collecuvil)· and 1dcnti6c•cions
that malee up the subsiancc and gluc of commuruty th:u hves 011 wbCll
inJ1,itlu;1J mcmbc~ die. In sorne rectl scnse. 10 dcstrov • group, espcciJJly
ro end n forever, 1s l<> desrroy rhu idea •nd m<'Jnmg of n. wnhín •nd
bel\\-een those who.., relar:ion•hiP' t:ompóse ir
Now notke that what is done in gcnocídes to destroy women of r.tciall).
erhn1<..-ally. nationaUy, or rdiwously desi~ated groups is rourmely done to
women everywhere every <lay on the basi> oí their sex. Ali the sexual
Jtroducs char berome genocid.J ID genoddes are 1011ic1ed on women e"ety
dJy undcr conJJ11ons of sex mequalil)·. Atgu•bly, they are infucted on thcm
as w~mcn.•:• !Wpc, prosritution, forced pregn•ney. forcc:J •nd prc:clu,led
•~ort1on, \'tOlaung i.exuul Sp<."Ctoclcs, pornogniphy-•11 of thcsc are in·
íl1cred on women not only \vithin w11rs and ¡;cnocidcs but Oll15ide thcm
beca~~ they are womcn, often bccnw;c they are worocn of a specific race,
erhni~1ty, rehgoon. nationahty. ln tbis bght, exammauon oI geooádal sexual
atrocru~, as one potcnt form of group des1rueuon shon ol physical ex·
te~auon, may illuromate the crucial bm sbado"'Y Je¡is] elemem o[ de-
suuc~on •<IS such." "" Wb)· se,uality can be nude ro work gcnocidJI de·
Mrucuon lllld wha1 the tcrm "as such" mt:nns mny thU! hJvc •imultant<>U>
'º'"'º"' dosc 0 1 hnnd.
Consider 1h.11 5<:xuJI •tro~i1ies, oct• in wbich mcn Jominace •vomen on
the basis of scx, dcstroy women os such, both as incfüiduals ond as a
group.,., Sexual atrocities 011 this analysis are joherendy collective crimes.
dtrcc1ed agat11st the group througb violaung its members. meaningless
wirbou1 the social roearung of bemg a woman that they desrr-0y lancl. m
dcstroymg. to pan creare). Tbis ,...11 travcled road then becomes <me av·
enue to dcs1n1c1ion uf groups on thc basi> oí ethni<ity, mee. rcligwn, aoJ
nu11011J.luy, whcn the women of thosc group> are Jesrroyed in rh•t samc
wity Evcry d.ly, the cxisrence of tbe group-women-is no1 soughr "'he
ended in rhe precisely genocidal sense of e>nermin•tion. bo1 11 i~ prc:cluded
llS humnn Many women nre killed for miso~TI1stic rcasons~tue- sexual o.t.roC'·
mes mJght be snid lO seek the destruction ot the gcoup woroen as such in
the sense o( debaslng thdr human status or creating thero in che ltllage of
226 Th1oueb the l!osnian leos
' >O<:ially Jestroy.,J ""1L Ju>l JS an cthn1c group can be Jc>1rO\'cJ withoul
lullmg al! lis mcmb<Ccs, rcrh.¡p> thé group worncn Ull,btral<> how • group
c.m be d0>troycd whilc le•v111g 1Ls mernbe" ..Uve and seemingly i11wc1,
•uho~,lma1cd ns !..,.er humnns, wilh sexual atrocillt'S distinctively pcr·
fo1mmp this function. H thís is righ1. repe in i;cncxide-pender combined
with etbnidty, narionalny, or reli¡¡íon in ¡¡enocidal rape-does ro women
and men on a combined sex and racial, ethmc, nanonal, and relq¡.íous ha.sís
whsr rape does to women oursidc genoddes on a scx and gender basis
C\'Cry .;lay,
Suppose funhcr that rht> sume beftavior of sexual suborJmauon, outside
wur ~nd A"nociJc, J.lso contribu1es t0 cre.1ung women as a suborJinJted
~roup _un~c.' condiuons of se• inequality by dclining them llS a woup,
hcncc mdi'1dually, on the bo<k< of their sociru a•'lil3bility for scxuru use
and .<huse 107 Perhnps women are desrro)"ed as a pcoplc a• such by this-so
dcstroycd us such as never to have been thought of as a "people" ar aJl
\Xlomcn ª"'
thus crcJted as a desLrOyed group in pan through se.xual abuse
1n th'.•Ught. st.xual ussaulr desLrOys woroeo as woroeo, mcludlng thek
cap•Cll} to c;oherc as such, ¡ust as gcnoci<lal rape desuoys or scek.s LO
destroy Muslims anJ Croats anJ Tutsis and J.::..·s, ddinlng, and ID so doing
m parl co"'ututing, the groups .s oubordinatod peopk... P1oneered and
pracuc~ _on wom:n á~ such v.rith stunnmg effectiveness on n cl11ily bnsis.
':'l"e can 1us1 as ctfecm'Cly des1roy peoples as such on racial, erhnic. na·
aonal, and rdigíous grouods. Tbus men do 10 women (and sorne menl
throu!lh sexual abuse outsicle of geoocides whac some meo do in geoocides
wheo they sexually abuse women (and sorne meo. especiallv sexually de-
6ned groups of meo sucb as gay roeol on tbe basis of theu ethrucny
relig1on. nationaluy, or roce.
Mueb sexual arruck outside geoocides is ethn!cally and racinlly ínllccc~d
and grounJcd much of the time, of course, ""en as mu<h romt violente
is sexual ' This coníluence pornl$ up thc continu1ty beiwecn rape in •nd
0111 of genocidé wirhont mnkin¡t eoch instana: of ethni<- rape gcnocidal,
the relation ber\\.""lJl discrimination :md gmoáde bcing one of degrcc. '"'
Ensl.,·ed women of Afucan descenr m the United Stat<'S, for example. wcre
raped as chaucl for both sexual anti rcproductivc purposes. including ro
lnC"'3S<: the sl•ve labor force. Sincc slavcry, A&ican Amcncan \\'oroen have
beco rap.,J b) "·hite men to subordmatc thcm bJscJ on thett cthrucity
ancl su combincJ, fu1ing ri1cr,m with <exísm This process, needless to
"'>'• has b«n <-xiremely desrn1Cli-.: of Afric.m peaples in Amenc11 even in
the •bsence <>Í un imem to literaUy desrroy them as such fn rhe sen.., of
che kgal defimtion oí gmocide. 110 In• reali1'' lMl hi¡¡hlighrs thc artrliciality
Genoc•de s Suv•lllr • 227
of thc mlent rcqufremcnt 1n thc genociJe Jclinltion. 1hese rarcs in partic·
ular, howevcr destrucuve thcy wcre 10 1hc \\'Ornen and thc communitics
wcrc at!lUabl)· no1 for the purpose oi destro)'ing a people bur for enslavin~
a people, and to use. denigrare, and subordirtate Afncan American women
as womeo.
But wh.r does $exual JS~ult destroy groups? In genocidal rape, ethmc or
racrnl or rdigiow idcnúty, comb1neJ ""'b ;ex, is rhe basis for mumnte n
Q)olion. Soci~lly. $exuctl1iy me.in• 1nrímacy; forc.,J scx violaits a pcrson in "
way.th•t, as 1ntimo1e, i•seen and e.'J:>erienceJ osespeciallyviola1mg. Becnusc
~ex is ~el~uon:tl, sexutJ nrrodues destrO)' relaáonships. Perhnps in part be-
couse 11 IS seen and felt to desrroy one's bumaniry and relut:íonnl place in
commuoiry indelibl•• aod iueparably. in a way me victim never li.-es wíchom,
rape is sometimes 1ermed "worse rhon death. "111 A Rwsndan wimess tesa-
6ed Llm a womsn "who was lcft for dettd by rhose who rapéd her. bad Ín·
decJ been kJleJ in a way."1" P<.'Oplc 1cl.entify closdy w1th thcir sexual !>dvcs·
scxualtty is >0eittl.ly ccnmtl 10 gender 1dcnliry, botb 10 ou.,.e!f ond to oth=:
\Xlhcn .'har is seen as having been viobted, one' s self is oftcn expcrience<l
ns spoiled, S1olen, ruined Scxualiry socially meaos possession: forced sex
means char 1he raped belongs ro che rapisr. instead of ro herself or ro rhe
~ple with wbom sbe idetltilies bers\ill' ond ro "-boro she gives herself in·
nmarely. Ir is rhe 1deority and idennficarion that are desrroyed when rhos
pankular form cha1 hwnanity takes when cmbodied in g.roup idcnrity is,;.
olai.ed, Jestr'Oyed, This may go sume way to cxplrun why rape JestrO)'S
womcn :IS such. 1L ••iolares che fcmnle-idenrilie<l pJrt of a woman, ; decply
and closdy held aspea oí self-conception th:11 intriruically mvolves idenri·
fication""'h. and ideminc•tion by others with,"' one's group li IS sn in·
herencly relarional snd collective elemenr of social. hence personal. idenriry.
'
When '~ornen ª"'. raped because rhey are Muslim women or Jewish women
or Tuis1 women, ir works on rhe combined grounds m the same way.
Genocidal rapt: parallels rape oulSÍck genocidal contcxis in its combi-
nation of systémallrity and randomncss. Women evéry duy are rap<:cl, S)'S·
tema11cully, ru. woroen, anti :irc randomly selcctcd as indivicluills wilhin that
group, someumcs systcmatlcally on .m cthníc or other group bas1s. Tbc
'."'"Y_ ~cnocidc works Is similor: people are selected s)·stemntically for dom
mauon as peoples by r•ndonJ~. wnhm the group. picking out een,.jn oncs
for certain atrocitics, S<lmetimcs systematícalh· on me basis of scx or 01her
group grouncl. Tbe :urocities againsr e.icb indi-.'idu:tl function ro destroV
rhe solidaricy• of-ierrorize ond conrrol and subjecr, that is, work rbe d~­
srru~tion of-the group. Genocidal rape is thus doubly effecrivc. .Being
rdatl\'l!ly rnn<lom "11lun thc group whde >ystcmaiie "' 1he group ;s sudi,
 "'8 • Tllranr111 lhf Btsn 1n lfns
r•P" in m.Jlc Jorrunanl'C genenlh "'ork> the ume "'ª' rhJI ¡;enoc1Jal r•P"
""ºrks m ~c,,.u,.::uJc: n trc:.lto domm.w.cc ot thc: men cM ont' group n\c1 thc
mc:n anJ '"'"''"" ol Jn<>1her b) Jntro\Ul!l 1l1c tJtttct 11ruup's dc:hn1t1<><1 .u
nn~ of tla~nll\. M?Curlt}'. ltnd klÍ Jc1crm1n.111on nnd rc1ll.tltng u \\'1rh ícar,
.elf '""'''"'11, and 1 dc•r.Jed 1dcn11ty
Function.111., wh.11 ' "111 ..,ault d~ ,.,., the b..si, , ( racc. cthmatv,
rd1J(lrn, ""'' n.monalrn 1< wh•t n ''""' on thc basis ol \C'' creiire a cowcd.
,uhmissivc, c<>ntrol!Jbl.,, terrom.ed, dissoc1Jted group C)I Jll."Ople who know
thi; could he done 10 1hcm atan' umc. .,.,ho fcd .bamc •t bcing v.ho tb.,.
.lle, wbo ~ Jnr to Jea, e 1he plac:c ~ hcrc u b•ppcocJ mJ D<'\Cr cumc b.d,
who JOJ)' hJ1c tbem>ehc, and de.pi><: othcl'! "hu un: 1J1·1111ticd "11h thcm
hy thcir mrnmon ah1lil\ w be •ubj<-..1cJ 10 1lm form ol •l11t'IC 111 ~ny lime,
"ho are ohcn "1CÍ.llh rqiar.kd a. a lo\\"1' íonn of life bccau0t this is
\Ome1hin~ that can bt- and hu bccn dooe to thcm, ,.-hn mll\ idennh ,.;th
.md <:'\-en td<'llL~e theír \'Íolatol5 C\Cn os and ohcn bccausc:, they fear them.
Prople who are seen ª'· and see themselve. "'· staínt<l aml stigmautcd by
h"'Ul8 becn US<-d anJ being usahle 'ICrualh "'lll do • l0t to a\"Oid b.1011 3
pc:rson who 1> treorc<l this way. lf and whcn thc:.c: dlc..b Jo not hJppco.
11 •s bec:uusc rcstStancc hus SU<C"'-'J<-..L 801 111.r bc-cau'c 1hc l lolol•U•t J1J
not suc<..'«J Jn de"'1ro,,u1g thc f('\\' ""' ~u~h Joes not me.tn ü >J.·11i l'lOl
·<:00C1d•I
:\ttcmrrm, to •vn1•I mpe. mc-Jnin11 unJer rh~ cirrum•t•n=.
.1vl'idin¡¡ lx·rn¡1 much of who onc Í<. ro <1nesell and others. can be 11 lorm
ol resi5faDCe but can aJ'iO CTCllC J capáve. romplianr l"'f>U)anon Wlth ID
u~t des1rc to pleasc: tt' caprors and to dt.plJ\" u:s complunce. for Ltck
ol .t becrer Jescnpuvc vocubulary, ali the M¡1ns ol m... posMraumJlk
>tress. mcludm¡¡ deni•I. lcar. J1srdentifica11u11. and somcumc:s i<lc11116CJ1·
1100 "1th ti.e ·~=«><, • cbar .><ten.te: br¡:e numbers of women ThC\
•l<o descnhc mcmbc" of d.b<ie1all) drsl""onw:J tuf\tH>r gr<'l•P> <ub
l<'.ted 10 Mertnc1d:il Jt10<k., 11 lcJ>1 for J ume. Literal Jr<o>sociotion mav
•'i'<:t:11e <'n 4n inrerpet0t1nnl and <Ocia! leve! •• powerfully •• it doco on an
tndl\1dual l'''chol<l1l1ail one. Perhal"' tbe publ1c diSpla'"' ol seinul atroc·
me- 1112ke 'º""m¡: \H>men ~ to the a¡:¡¡rt'>ol5, the ,,ru, ones who can
protect them from 11, IOr perha¡h the perpetrators thrnk tlus,) Rap" tS
thu.> an eucUem mean> ol soda! wmrol anJ domi.tuuon, ., thc cvrdcoce
ol thc g1ou¡> women- man} of "hom h"' e hecn r•pal •• lca.t once bv
WIW<'llUon.11 ddin11111n ' man} ol whom havc b«n ..:xu.Jh ,,.Jultcd
m~ny um<» uvcr-clo411cnrly tesulics. lt should I><: no •urprise th•t ~••u.d
ti""º work, rn cnntr<>liin~ and domiruninii, •'thnically raci•llv. 1nd rcli·
l!l<>U'" -ddiO<J ropulallOIU 11$ "·di
Cnoc:1d• 1 S••ua ty • 229
In n1hcr wnnl•. tf "h.11 cftccuvelv J<'strO}'• w<>mcn •• mth (wuh or
•·11hvu1 tntcol 10 tlo i.,ol is Jone- toan t"thn1c gn.,ur a1 p•n uf 11 jtcnoaJ~
not onl) ,..¡Jf thc 1'omcn ni 1lu1 group be Jes1rm,,J on tht h.. i• of 1h.·1r
<ex '°
•nd .rhnicit) combmed. the act< 1n doini1 "·111 work in desrm) rhc
ethnte ~roup as <uch Women are • rnhordinared 11ro11p thrnu¡¡hom th~
worlJ. 'ICxualuy " used b.>th 1n c""'te tbe sex "'Ornen as sucb md '"
des1tO\ them .., •uch. sexual a.:.ault both •ul>on.ltnato. tbcm ., women une
•• u urne uncJ kcrpo tbtm • •ulJordumcd ¡¡roup. \X'hat cre;11c:. .nd <lcimc•
"'Ull1Cn •S a subordin.ueJ ¡:roup-vulncrJbrluy 10 an<l sub¡crnon to sexu.d
>."1ul1-eng...Jcn dis1<lcnulic1tion ~th "~ _.. 1 peopk. di:str°' tnf
"ornen os a ¡>e('f!lc fdm111ic1tron "uh the idmmy '!Oughr rn be appro
priatcd 1md delileJ Cllfl recl~un und '"''°"'pan of what rne rape di:siro\"C<i
the pa111culanry nf nne'i humanuy and thc pamcular meanini ni collernvc
idcntm Th1s panh explam, •-hy un<lcr<t.mcling that onc w.u raped .. •
woman. not B> 1n mdmdu.J!-1dmuhcauon wuh women in 1ha1 ~se­
can be cxpencnc~.J •• nfl1rming and hc.rlmg. h c1111 go somc di!ltanet! 1o
,..,n;1 m1onn11 thc •pcalic f'llrl of onú hwn•nnv that >exu.d \'IOhuon
toolt ...., . rhc meanm~ ol thc poup 1Jeruny thrOtJ!!h malun¡¡ 1t an obJCct ot v1ol.ition.
S.-xu.J atrDCIUCS thus gi\~ a d1<1inctivc conrent to the tcrm "as such • rn
Bt"nc>ticle's deliniuon Justas women vcf\ often want to len\c where 1hc1·
""e~ raped ond nC'\-er ~rum making rape a u<dul weopnn lor forcinj,
deponat1on, seicual atrociues can mison•bly produce mialsioo 10 thc 1dcn
nty that markc<l the pern>n lor tite rnumate ,,olam>n, mnkmR the rapcJ
1.-am to •bandon who tbey are forevcr. \\'ben tite 'hJn-d 1dentn) for wlu<h
one b uped lS rwncJ. sluucreJ m onacll md rdauon.JI, ~ tttl onoc!J
and other. the ~Nup qu.tlny of thc gmup"" dcfincJ,. dc,tr.,1rJ. In tht
resrcct. us in othc."rs. rape functions, much as orhtr torture con \\·hen in
llicred "" • 11rour basis \X'hcn )Cl>i<h "'Ornen were 5exualh· used in
bm<hd, in concentrarioo camps dunn11 the Holocaust. tht:'\ wrrc used "
JCWbh v.-omen "as such. • no maner whn dse wn• u<ed wrrh rh= •..
Sexual atrocitoe; shaner communuy. the ability to relme ancl cohere
throu¡¡h • common 1dentdicJUon. 10 1denufy 1ntlt one anotlter As m lile
ouwde gcnooJc. tlus resul1 con lit aggrovatcd or m1ugatrt.l J.:pcn<ltng on
whcthtr the rnen •nd women ul tbe tar~ctcd communrtÍ<'S rc1«1 or suppon
tito.e u·hu ore •cxually ,fobrcd lt Í• common for VJttUm tn hr rc¡ectcd
.-\$ onc •uf\Ímr of ~J>I "'""in Rwllltda pu1 u "fAlftcr rape, inu
dotl 1 h.ve •..!uc •n thc rommunnr • \\"h•te.-er thc. respnn.-..; rhc. dcstruc
uve power ol sexuP.1 assault-robust across cultures, U with v1natio0>-
seems to ue in what rape meaos: the lusua!M womcn ha'-e bcen rntDDateh
nol.ue.J, •ub¡u~•tcd. dwneJ 1.,, tbe othc.r. useJ, Jctüc.J. rwn<,J, lowercJ
llO • l~ro11b !he BH••U l•••
hN "" womcn olten Jo not \\'llllt t<> 1Jenuh "1th one ono1hcr, mcmben
u1 rouimunme> sub¡c,~ed 10 ¡?c110C1J.d ~ttac:k throu,.h <exual •tro.:.uo
<>'t<'ll JW..knt1h ., .. dl R..P" t> hum.m cuJc lor dom11~1t1nn, tor bcing
JnJUc lbs. t(lf sub¡u¡t.111on per se:, 11 n1c.u1' v1ol¡Hton 11~1r, 1nferiur11y ns
<u<h E.en 1f m<-mbc" are lef1 all\•c their t·oh<'SlOn thcir 1Jent1liC*11on
uh <>ne ano1h<-r the 1d. nulie>non nf othc.-r< "11h them. c.m lit Je.rro..cd
In 1hL• Ljlht. •·hai rape Joes m f"OOC1dr ""hJt u Jnc. the resr ol 1he
umc. ruin, 1dcnmy, mru-ks who you are as les•. as damaReJ. henet! Jev.
a.tato romrnwtit). the ¡?lue of ¡¡roop. lt dotro\> the "1ll11111oos 101Jtnt1f)
,.,th thc group JCS1¡?D;Atk"1 oo thc b.l... ol "h1ch tbc rap<" took place hrncc
\\<>rk.s to Jc•IN) the gmup JS su<h. \\"ho \lo.tnl> to be ont· ui thcm,,
The term "•)mbohc" ,. "'medmc• us«l 10 c.lc-cnbe th,. fun<imn l lt1w-
ncr tnUnllJhl1 thc con"<quenccs ore bighh ma1cnal 11 " "'hat makc-. a
~nup lit 1 ~n>up that ., dcstro)cJ n·en •• n• mcmbe" remain alnc To
d.-;rroy u 11roup "as such • ts 10 .u rack the ¡¡roupn'-'$ of the group 1ts
me•nin11 ro ns mcmbcrs and othe~. 'iexual atroc111CS Je<po~ anJ ro¡,ture
ulun1.1tcly '" b thc c...., tur wocnenl through m.alung tbc ¡iroup rumie mean
'101.uon u>clf To bc sexually aU•<keJ on tite bas"' o! bclng ft womt1n ur
•Muslim uom¡¡_n or • Tu1s1 "'Om•n. m be r•1""1 b) men who "ask for m1
""">< • 1hc.r.:.tf1cr mJd1bly "ª'"" 1/ic, 11roup "•me a. 11 brromes pan cJ
Jdirung "h.u bcmg a mcmbcr uf rhat ¡tmup mcJn<
\Vomen n<'t hem~ con~iclcrcd • ¡>copie, there Í< as yct no mtemammal
Lw "J?aJOst dC»tfO)inp the ,..-our wumen as <uch. "Sex" is not on thc ust
o1 ~al grounJ, on the ba>tS ot wlucli desiro,"tloo ot peopl<:> as ,uch ,.
proh1bned f"or women J> such, thc:re rs oo le~..J equl\alc:m 10 gmoc1Jc:-
thc desr.rucrion oí "'ornen .is such that Andreu Dworlun propOS<!J cllllmg
~11<x1dc prl'SUm•bl, bttaU>c 11 1> cnmmnnpla.,.,, bu1lt 1n10 thc rcl•U\'c
•t.uus OÍ thr • '"' tn l."\'ciy..Uy lrk Tb.u thc dcstruw"n .,( 1hc 11ro11p
t1omcn may t>Ílen not be 1nrcntion.1I m 1hc w11) thc: conventional clefioru<>n
of g1·nocide rr<¡uires ~ef\•c, I<> untlcr<tnre thc foct that nn law has l>ern
'hapcd to the reabties ol thc. destructinn of the ~roup "-ornen, as ir ha. for
'"me ckstruction of sorne 1tfOUPS dehncd on S001e other grounds. 8e..'llU>C
much sexual lurce 1s bu1h meo'"""'°¡; sooal >l.tndards ror hou· scxuain}
1> supposed '" work. tht JotrucU\C lunctions ol ;c,xw.I atrt><:llll!S •re more
\'b1ble whcn JirrcteJ ·~auut groul" oo che bJ,,, ol ethn&ut}. r.<c, na
Utlfl411t~, nr rcla~1on •i 'A-cll i&s !oc.""X ah..n ~hcn thcv are dsrntc:J 011 thc h.1s1s
uf 10 alonc AnJrea Dworkio o!,.cl'\cd. "lt h.1~ bcen e•"""r m sec r.ii>e
a1 h11,ulr: anJ h11un~ vo~11 the rap<" '' naticmJ.Ja,tic or raet'I C1r colonial •u•
 Genot1de s Sexuahly
On the snme group grounJ~. 11 ha.< be"" eas1cr to set: rope as Jestructlvc
to groups .u such
Onc íudicial opinion idcnufied s~cilic cvidcnce goin¡t to •group .a
<uch • th~1 could also d"'cñbe tite role of sexual atrociri"' in ¡¡enocid"' l n
M#tt. a prosecution for the mass murders of Bosnian Muslims at Sre
brenica, tbe JCTY said: • [T)be...., is a strong md1canon of tbe intent to
desuoy me group as sucb tn tbe concealmeot of the bodJ.,. 10 mass gra,'CS.
wluch were lotee dug up. me bodtes muulated and rebuneJ m 01her m:iss
grn•~s locatcd in even more ....,mote •teas, therebi prcventing '11lY decem
burial m accord wim rdigioU5 and cthnic cus1oms md cau>ln¡¡ 1ernblc
cl.imcss 10 thc mourning survivors, many of whom hnvc bccn ""3blc 10
come ro a closutt un1il the d"3th of their men is fimdly veñlied .•.,, Dc-
lilemenr, dese<:ration, distress ar indignity of \iolation ¡ti\•e concret~
meaning ro tbe intent ro destroy a groop ·ns such. • Ií digging up and
moving dead bodtes does so does rape, not 10 menaon rape o! dl'l!d bodtes.
wh1ch produces sunilar dfects on membcrs of groups who sbare ,.,th the
\1ohted the idcnnfication on wbich thc ntrodues wcrc h3Sed. Such SUC\~­
\'Orl :are "unable to come ro n closutt'" beca.use an i.1. sensé tl1e injury nc:ver
cnds. Whm chilJrcn urc conceivecl in such r.1peo., this bccome$ c:von mo....,
rrue. Dcsrroying a pcoplc in these Wll}'S shon uf killing thcm all gi\'CS ncw
dimension 10 the old vicw that rape is a fate worse than death
Public sexual specracles are partirularly eff..:nve for purp<>5CS of de-
Struction. In the Rwandan genocide, a Tuisi woman was va¡¡:mally pene-
tmed with a sbarp poínted suck <1Í1cr she W1lS dead, her corpse left u1th
the stick protruding by a publ.ic road for threé days.'" In Gu¡arat. mucb
as in the Holoet1U>t, ·groups of [Mwlunl women u·l!re strippcd nnkcu and
then made 10 run for mil.,., befare being gllng ropcJ nnd burnt ahve In
"'me cases rcli~ious symbols wcre carved omo their bodics. •m Scxualli
destroying the women of mese¡¡roups in rhese ways d..troys me group.
When the women are murdered in ~uch insnmres, 1he genocidal poim lies
lcss m what such acrs do ro the ,•ioláted wom<;n who are sacriliced co make
JI and more in what the arrocines say and Jo to tbe survmng group mem-
bers. In such spectades, sexual abuse performs, and in so domg enuns,
thc Jemuccion of thc targct pcoples. lt performs gcnoci<lc.
Bosnían Muslim and Croot w1lmcn subjectal to S<Xual uuocitÍá ofton
said thot in 1hat genociJe, Bosnia-Hctle80llÍn• w•S being femini,..,d Tn
light OÍ the amJysis propoSed he....,, mis W•S 001 rnetaphor The destn<ctlQn
of "-'Ornen through sexual assault. common ouiside genocidal settinl(S, wu<
mliSted tbere against botb womeo and meo by the Serbtan fascists on rui
231 Gtnoc1de • Se.tuallly 233
232 Throu¡h lhe Bosnian LtR¡
"1he "ªYS rhu1 5"X mnbles pl'()p]e 10 commtt ~""''dde."'" For those u ho
ethmc, rd1~ious, and national basis. Meti dommated men and women ol cumc after. 1his h.1s been o mí;sing piece of thc 11enocid.d pa01diMm. Sexual
non-Serbian ethmc gruups the wav mt'll donunate wnmt'.ll under male dom
abuse, m reality, is a pcrfoct ¡¡enocidal tool. Tt does 10 cthmc, racllll. reli-
1n.mtc. l\'t ruc dommancc was thus m<tdc Lo serve gé'nornlal cnds. Genoodal gious, and nauon:d ¡¡roups a.\ sucb whar has bttn done to \\'Ornen as ~ch
r•pc J1J Lo roce, cthnici1y, rclig1on 1mJ nJÚonal1Ly wbut r•pc outsidc gen
from ttme unmemorial m une of me most effecuve S)>$1t:ms of dommauon·
,,.,¡¡J.,, doc:. 1n >e<. \"qhcn an<l 10 tbc tlegl'C<' 1ha1 1t works, "'PI' d.,.1ro~ to-desrruaion in history. The perperrators have not lailetl to noÚ<"é.
u.ikmol 1111J ethnic groups in genociJes •S it destroys women as • gr<>up
l.lllder sex inequalny
In aciualizmg and expressing dommion. sexual obuse does in gcnoode
whill 11 does in mimgyny; indeed, n deplo)'S m1sogyny agmnsl ethmc
groups. Wha1ever grnup 11 1s levded u¡za111s1. the foct that this particular
acr meaos v1olJtion anti sub¡ugation constltutCs llS Jisuncr.ivc injury to the
grcuJp. ¡-\s c.'t.prcssive ..11.:t.ion. \\'hat 1L tlO!.$ and what 1t iJ~ are! im.cp.trJble.
Th~I nicn occupy thc ~tun1s ovcr wum"n of bemg the pco¡1le whu eun Jn
1his .;nJ are 1hereforc sn<:iully suprem" is widely tnken for grameJ. making
rape on the basis of sex both common llJld widely regnrded ns in~table.
\'\'ben an ethnic, mdal. rclij!ious, or ootional grour-a !)roup thot mcludes
men-loses lfS soverei¡~my 1his way, the group and gro1md may moke the
atrocities noticed. Tbat sexual atrocities would firsc be seeo as desrruct:Í\-el)
group-based in iocemational law in sicuations to whicb 1hey are used for
rad.tl, <thruc, ur rcligious J1>1runauon is thus far [rom coinciJtncc. '"
In Lhc Holoc.111>1, 10 paniculur, thc gcnocid•I role of scxunl mroou"s
ru,, hccn largdy dcmcd, the womcn .. •uch bcing "' rclnuvdy invisible !IS
1hcir sexual ohusc h"s bccn. Holocuust survivon; u11dcrs1andubly do º'"
,.,,"' 10 be pomography. Althuu~h it is no1 sunple. sexual atroci1ie~ can
be CXpo!'cd and unaly.icd without fuelln¡¡ mcm. Certainly, che fact thot
atroories are sexual doos 001 mean mev shoultl not be tn\'esrigated Mid
studted. SuppresStrtg Sexual ábuse fuds 1c more than critici2mg le o¡>enly
tlot-... Arguabl), covering up tb< reahties of sexual abuse m genociJe ha>
enhar1t"'1 iis croucizouon, panly by suppor1mg me illusioo th.11 Holocau>t
pornugr•phy 15 fanra.<y, 001 fnscism. Plaus1bly, public cxposurc ol scxu~l
abuse a~ integr.al to mass cxrenninnrion coold go sorne disrunc<" lO\\·oird
rountcnn¡¡ ns preseot m•ss exploitation in rorno11rapby aod allurc in 01her
liciion.
Once the sexual abuse in gcnoadc 1s brou¡:h1 more fully mro tht> ºP"º·
11s ftmt-uon fact'd, the legal dcfinitlon of genodde-mcludtng irs group
grounds (should !iCx be .dJed?J, its •ubparts (shouJJ sexual atroories be
madc ex pre»?), tt~ mtcnt elcmcnt cillouJJ 11 be thcrc JI all? should ll
...,fk-ct how m1sogyny l\ctually workst)-as wdl 0> the Jthis.,1bil11y t>f a
&epar.1tc Rynoc1de protocol or convention CGn be rt.'Visite<l in u more ~Jl
istic fociu•I nnd theoretical con1ex1 EliiJbcth Hetnem•n ur¡¡es nn.Jyuo¡¡
 part tour
-----
on the cutting edge

23
Defining Ripe Intemarionally
A Commeot on Akayesu
Euch ame o l'llp<: law " crcuted or 1pplicd, or o '"i'<' case is 1rieJ, com
munMes rc1hrnk wha1 mrc is. Buncd conteictual and expericnnal pre-
sumpaons about the form' and pre> alcoce of force ID sexual 1meractions,
anJ tbc peruncnce anJ modo ol c'prcss>on of Jc:sire. shape Jerermma·
Uon> of liw anJ faa anJ public c~uousne... Thc Jcgree 10 which 1hc
nctuuhuc• ol mp1ng anti bcmg rapeJ .11 e cmbodocJ in luw iílt tll>C uf proof
to onc <tdo nr thc othcr anJ contnbutc 10 dctcm1i111n¡¡ outetwn"" u·hich
111 lum affct1 1hc landsc•rc nf c\pt:ct•l1<in'. c:motinm . and ntUAls m <e<u.J
relauons, bo1h l:\·cryda¡ •nJ in siruation• of rtt<>tmized group conílin.
niego! rape 1s commonly ddined tn revolve am11nd force nnd un11.-am-
edncss in sexual in1ercourse. 1 M.ny jurisdictions-by siaru1e, 1merpreuo-
1100, or m apphcauon-1coJ to emph1>12e e.ither compulsion or ladt ol
.grttmen1 ~ uetgh1 onc 10 thc reull\-e exclU>1on of di.! ochcr, $0tne
pcrmll one or the orhcr ultcm>tdy or ••multMeoU>ly Man¡ req1111c proof
ní both. • In l1fc. tbc rC11h11cs of compul<ic•n ami lnlk <>Í accor.I in scxu.J
1n1craC11on• ""crl•p and ronvcr¡:e. Fnrrc Jbro¡:a1n Jutnnomi· ju>t., dcn1al
o( 0élf.cfc1<nn1nJ11on is «>crct\'c. AJ1hou11h th., dd.,rm1nants nf dnon: and
l<'Chniquá 111 c.-•mpulsinn 'Md tbe mutual iruer11,11ons of the rwol •tt far
from simple, an)·one who hns sex u·irhout wanun~ 10 was compdled by
<Ometbin¡!. iu•t as someonc "·bo bad ~~ they wan1cJ was noc forced m
thc coovcn1100al sense. Ye1 cooccpru.al.11 s~. empha>1> on noncoo·
$Cnt as ddinn1vc oí ra~ 11ee> tbe cnmc fundamcn1.alJy as , Jepm .1t10D ol
ni~ raniuU in tJ1dr un,iMI lclf111 ·~lt JdtK'rN 111 • wocbhc·p .. thr lnttmlllJ!lh.d ( Ntrural
TnbunJ ñ• h.....i. A....n. T - . . . , "Oomili.• "· .1001 1......, 1'......,.,h. ludp io;,....,
- Jlllln ¡;. . """"'· s...., '><halbalu........... Sdubos .,,¡ - -~ - .,...¡
1pca¡J dunL Jur thar •-or.k. .nJ th.rU :tupport, 11.. ª"' Mkhdc- lhlnn..:a .ad thc UnM-nuy ol
\.lid11pn J,ftfl/ 1,a.,,11,,. (m 1hcir (''ll(tllmt rnc:iif\:h .-1nan\C' Tiwn .1neiy•i."ª, ruhltaht'd tn +'
C.'tl/J,;"fiv J""'m4' t1f Trt1nJ'l.J/1t1111tl Llw (2005)
237
231 • O. lh C•tl••I Edr
~xual lreeJom, a d<.,,••l o[ individual selt-acrinA.' Empba~i• on cotrcion
,, ddimm e, on tb., 01hcr banJ. """" rape! lund.uncntalh .. a crimc <ll
inc:qiuh1, , "hctbcr al pb)>K.Ü or .,,t-.c,, !orce, >UIU>. or rdJuon
\\"hcre t:ocr'-100 dc:hn1t1on~ ot '"I'• &c..--c p<)\lcr - Jom1n..iuon t1.nJ '"·'
lcnte-noo-.:on!.cnt dcf1n1UC'Ob C0\"1sit1n lovc or flll"\IOn gone wrong f__.(ln
\;•ni Jdin111on!> dcrorJincl~- tum pmof ot rarc on \ lctlm and rcrrnraror
""'nial "'ll- 11-ho ,...,,,cJ "'·ha1. u·ho ~n.,..· 11h.i ,..¡,.,,, Tu,. cnmc: ho<iafü
occurs on tnd1'1du.1l P•'<htc spae< Cocrcioo dchnooon•. lw di:.unct10n ,
tum on proof of physocru acts, surmundmg roniext, or explouauon ol
rclaa•e po.iu<>n: who d1J "bat 10 u·hom and, oftcn. m -sorne ll<'!lse. u·hy
Th1s cnmc b.wailly uka pi.ice on 1hc ma1cnal planc AccorJaj) , ,.hile
c<>rtll<'lll Jchnouon> 1roJ lú trame thc '"""' ovc1m lb mJMJu.al. cnga¡;cd
1n aromJ!ltlt: unc·.at·a ·time anterJet1on~. coercitln Jcfinuion~ art thC" more
<"'Pn:>sly •nd•I. con1ex1ual. ond cnll..-uve tn 1ho ,en.., of heong group·
h.a"Cd.
The <t•1111"' °' 1he •d hoc enmona! tri¡,. n•ls for Yu11oolm• and
Rwanda. c-nn1l1cts in the l990s 1>·hcre sc:xual arroories were <leploycd for
cth1lic des111Jcuon: wen: esiablished 1ci adjudk•te mternarional violauon~
of tbe In·• ol war and hwnamunan Liw Rape undtr tbese SIJtutes IS thu•
not a free •JO.lmli cnmc hui m~• be chacgcd a. m ""'o(''*' ~c:nooJc,
or cnt'Oé ·~·"""' hum.tnot) Expra,ly <kfuung rape undct 1ntcrn2uon.J
Liw for thc lil'llt ume ;n 1998, <he 1lkJycu1 decmnn of T rill Ch•mber 1 of
thc ln1crn11100.J Cnmin•I Triburutl fnr R..-.nd• <!(TRI hdtl 1h11 rape,
1~ dur~<"d >< a t'nm<" •Wn'I humanny i< •a phv<iaJ om ,,¡on oí a
xual nature c-nmmuted nn a per<on under orcum•UOCCS -..·hoch are co-
ercove." A> Mlb 1orrure." to which IL was analo¡tued, rapes purpose ro
the perpctrm•rs" in cnntext. 1ogethtr ,.,.h i~ spcciJic naturc JS sexual.
Jdincd n. Ak..iuw ddinc:J rape "' m act of coaooo not rc:Juoblt to
n.rm... bodil) dc:scnpuoo. "Tbe Ch.unbcr con•i.lcn tb.tt rape •• • lorm ol
•1¡gl'l!S>1<>n •nJ th•t 1hc cc:ntrtl elemcntl oí rupc c-.1nno1 be rnpmred 1n a
m<chJnoc.U •k'lcr1puon of nhjccts anJ hc'<ly pa"'.' ' Cruciulh·, •: cloercivo
c1rrum<t•n<es need 001 he .,;dc1><cJ ¡,, a <hou of ph\'<ical ir>rcc • hui
' un be inhcm11 m <tr< 1m una:< lile armed conll•a or miln.in· r=n
ni threarenm, l<'rces on on ctbnic bas1s •
1merpre1cJ m li~h1 ol 1hc dmmcrion berwttn force·rentercd ckfiruaons.
<•n the onc hmd. antl conseru-ccntcrcJ dcfuuuon,, on thc <>lher 10 be
JC.:\LU.U} tn\:dda.I unJ.:r c;oe:ta\ e c1rcwn--.1.ancn. u ,,lkafciM 1cn:m u.. 1.1
clcJrly 10 he •ubtttti:J 10 1111 un"dwmt Jet bu1 th•t dod no1 mJlc n<>n
mn..,nt 1 muncr of prool for 1hc pro>ccution Undcr thc conJmon• of
mcou•helmmg (.,rce pr( ·111 in a ' wod<''prCll<l or '"' ematic •lla<k a¡t&in~t
Oetuuai R1pe fnltrnat10e•Hy • 23'
1n¡ ,J,,lion popul.uoon on natlmwl, ¡>1il1ucal, <:1hnk, racial cir rdogoou.
·rt"u1di, '" th<i11 t:on't!.Jtut~ .11 cc.>nte"' uf c.:1uno ag.111ul hum.Mutv, u1 ;.tc.:·u.
1
fou1 J pJn ,,f thu c.amp:11, ;·14wry uuo 1nJ1\1<luaJ t'1nq:-ot" ·, .>I ...-cn
,..nrth Ji<cus"on Mr .\k.i~u ,..., fou J 1ndMJ11.11l, rnmonally te'lpon ·
<1hk lor cnmc.-- aOJ1ns1 hum.muy for ordcrin~. onsu~alln)I. "idmp 111><1 abet-
un~ thc sexual v1olcnc" unJcr hl' ut¡¡i• 1h11 1ook place as part oí mch •
,..¡Je.pn:ad and ""tc:mauc •ttKk on CI\ ÜJ.tn, • AnJ ar¡tUablv lor the first
umc, r;apc ,..., JdíncJ m l•w ., 1L·ha1 u 1> tn. ltJ.e. ·
111 tlÁ>aJcJ11. nc1> ol rape •nJ other >é•thÚ vtolcnce wcre .Jsn ch~rgcJ ª'
¡:cn<>c.:idc for "cuW<ing i.erious boJtly or m~nutl harn1• whcn com1111t1t'<l ••
Pin of an utll·oounn.il camrai~n 10 dc...1roy a peoplc uch on •• .:1hnic
~1'-1.. · Bec-..au"(" ÍJcts oí x·-.u.al \"tolcnce •·cr~ i-nd1t""tt"J \l tdtt ch s e iti-.ttng
lc¡¡ol Jdimunn <>Í ~=oadc rJpc w"' nr1t ddinc:d m 1h1• ronn<cU"D. 1h"
kintl of sexoo•I vinlencc 1h.11 co1t<titut(.,. MC110cide is ddioecl hv whu1cver
cau¡,es .erío°' boJtl, or m<'t1tal haim. A' "'ª' fu:s1 jud1c1allv found on Kadic
' luradhé· add=¡! thc Bo.oun conJl1ct ID rhc lJnuc:J States. the IO'll
UlJ] dwnbt-r >lroseJ thdl ••pe:.
under 1hc: Ak.ry<'>u IJ<tu.i.l orrn111>1ances
wcr-c UClS of gi:-1\tl(icJeH• .. in thc samt way U$ un~· othcr ttc.:t. a:. Long J~ they
wcre comnuuctl w11h tho •t'ICtilic intcno tu Jcstroy in wholc or in part, 1
part1<:ul.r ¡;mup. 1.iri:eicJ "•uch." ~Ir Ak.--esu ,..,. found inJ1, 1Jlúlh
rnm1nally ttspon•ihk for gt'DOClde for ohcttmg th< mtlocuon oí enc>us
hn<hlr a~d men1•I h.1rm on Tu1<1 \\.-Ornen for tho rurpn'lc of dcmo)-in¡¡
tht 1um group •s such."' A~a.ín. rap<' wa< reco¡¡nizcJ on Jaw as wha1 i1
•"lll> tn life: an an rhat m1ltc1ed sert0u> harm u·uh mtcot co el,.,.,'°' an
cthr1< lll'OUp "" •uch. ·
In tb.: hne of c.1ses 1ho1 loUo... eJ, 1h. lmcmauon.il Cnmm.J Tribunal
foo 1hc Fornwr Yuposlaviu 11( T\'l lc<I in dppm¡: the c.ldin111on oí ,.1ie íor
bnth tnbunal• uw•¡ from 1hr JJ.JJ''"'" brc>k1hrou~h ,,....,fuunn .1tkl, •ICp
by otcr back in 1hc dttt<-ucm nf ooncon'><'.nt AJ1lw..1¡th thc ICTI' 1rial
rhamber's D,J,,¡,, Jecision inmally embraced Ak.rv1·111\ Jdiniunn .'' 111 a
rever.non lirs1 publidy vis1hle'· late in 1'198, the !CT\''~ Frmmdzua:" irial
deci\ion. acknou ledgin~ 1ha1 rape was a lorcible •<1, · meouonal the
Ak.ryesM defiruuon only 10 1i:nore u In no1h111g othcr th.1n the •1io<h p.1rrs •
Jchnnk•n A.bi1e 11 h.aJ c:•prc.,fy <tJCCtcd u mechJ01<ai .mJ m1>,1n¡: the
"'""'~ po1m thrcc monrh< l'Jrlocr,'' 1hc l 11rw1Ju¡<1 tribun•I n:quoo cJ a
"1ow1n~ of va~on•I "' an11l 11cnc1r.uion hy • pcnis or oh1cct, or ar•l ¡>en.,.
trat1nrt hv a l'<nl' ' •[W]nhout thc C<>nklll OÍ rhe Vlctlm"r CfCPI h'<i:. in
" thc hllll<" 11rnc Bv &.·e year< larer, thlf re¡ues<im n1lmina1ed m the
IC.'TR\ Se111mr:it" Md Kme/r¡e/i"' mal dcci>ions tumm¡¡ rnre on noncon·
sen1.

140 • On 1he Cuthn¡ Edc•
The FrmmJv¡o mal cbumber prediam:d tbese devclopmenlli on •
len1<1hy ccatal of ouuonal h1ws, the purpos~ for whicb was a d:umed need
for specilimy" llJld "occura[cyJ" In ddiniuon.•• This auion.úe was sup-
portcJ by tbe imphcauon hn lalln ) tbat wuboUL sucb •pecificuoon, tbe
defondam•-gu.ords of concemrnaon camps chargcd with ~xual L<>S•uh
on prisoncN in thtir custody-migh1 not have known wi1h wffitient pre
cision thnt what they were acrused of doing WJS a trime." Althou¡¡h th.e
1rib11nnl purportc'<l 10 avoid mechaniC11lly dmwin~ on "comm<>n ~~m•·
nators"'' :unong narional rape laws in writing tlS internaáonal defuunon.
it fatlcd to note tbe tundamental tacit presumption tbey shared: that co-
erced sex was oot a routíne phenomenon instrumenrnhzed as a rool of
group coerooo in rbeir 1ur1Sd1ctioru;.
E•cn bcl'orc l'rmmJzt¡J, the ICTY's rape prosecutions were murkcd by
misstcps un<l misscd opponumties. ln th~ fir.a case 10 be r_csot,:d at ufal.
TJJt,. bcought o¡¡ainst u ¡¡uord "' the Omarslrn cnmp notonous lor system·
atic rnpe oi a ¡¡roup of womcn captives," the eme count for rnpe of a
IA'Oman vicrim had to be withdrawn, lea\'Íng n sexual attatk on a man the
onh• seX1,1al assault adjudicated in the case.'' Parrícularly, womtn survivors
of ~pavity lo Omal'$ka found this to be ~n insultiag, cvea tra~aric mis-
represcntauon, a public mockery of their expem:.nccs. Malcing mauers
worsc the ICTY's Rule 96. wbicb h,1d origmally pr<,.ided th:u "consent
sholl ~ot bé ollowcd .15 a dcfon!C'"' to churges of rape u11der thc tribunal';
juri..Jicti<)n, giving thc tribunul consldcr.ihle crcdibiliiy wilh '"'""º"• ~
cbonged by che trlbun•I so thar it no longer ruled our con'Cnt en11r~y.
That the tribunal could imagine t:luit rapes 1hut were part ofwar. llenoadc,
or 11 campaign of cñmes against bumaoiry could be consensual outr•g"?
many womeo sUJVivors of that conilict and badly damaged the tnbuoal s
credib1hcy with that community."
A funber und connectcd problem bns beco the long«erm celucumcc o(
the ICTY ro chargo rol"' llS an act of genoddc. Many perpc:trators h.ive
been ind1c1cd for rnpc: onJ othcr sexu.1! violcncc undcr oihor rubrici;, and
othcrs for ~cnocidc for other acts," but despitc Afutyt·m •ho..•ing the way.
only 1.en TCTY cases have indicted mpe as ~<:nocide. pro~inenrly culmi
narm11 m the MiloSevié indicrmem in 200J ,. compan::d wtth almost four
nmes as maoy by the lCTR."' Since survivors of rape ro the Serb-led geno·
ode agams1 Bosma-Her:ze~ovina and Croacia typ1cally uodern.ood that .they
bnd beco raped pcécisd) to destroy theic etbnk and rchgious communwes,
m nct.' of ;.cxu"I , iolcr1ct ag.iinst womcn becnusc they werc not Serbian,'
thc ICTY's <ecmmg reluct.ancc 10 gusp thc cntlrt ¡x>tm of thdr \~cumi
ution mlll.lc <uí\1vors unwilling to put thcm.elvcs in it$ hands. damnging
Dehn1Ag Rape lnternahooally 241
On tne Cut1m1 Edr•
rrusi •nd opponunitits for coe>peration. Thc limtt<!<l actC>S to whncssc<
aplc oí p"11alJSm~ vtolauons of sexual ati/QntJmv."" This was obsenoed to
rhat cnsued no tlouht hod • drcular cffcct on chorgin¡; prnctlcel!, !up ¡,., parucularl¡• the Clise m common-law systerus. Rathcr than nonconscnt
ponin¡t thc 5tubbom mi•¡>crceptinn tha1 "cthnic clc.1n~ing" in the "former
bcmg a prcsumcd curo!lary of 1hc presencc of force, "'·idtn~ of force
Yugoslavia"" \\'"5 somedung other thun a cuphcmism for l(enocldc. How
bccrune reduccJ to "'·1dencc oí nooronscnt "
mass rapes could fail to be gcnocidal \\•hen they were commiued as pan
Casting a criticnl eye on 1hi$ dccision. 1h,, lCTY appcll"1e decision in
of the sorne campaign. by and agalnst the same peoples. attendam to and
Ktl"orac noted thar 1he trial chamher "appcared to depan from the Tri-
slmulwnrous w1th, mdeed someames as acts of. che same mass mur<lCI'$
hunal's pnor definitions of rope" in "focus(in¡¡) on thc absence of consenr
that are rccogruzcJ a~ gcnociúrJ, remains a m)Stcry.
"' the condtáon sme qua non of rape "" The Appeals Cbrunbcr leaned ro
The soí1-~daling of thc genocidtJ conditions Í•ccd by non-Serbian "the nct<I ro preswnc non-consent hcre, .,. gtv"11 rbat the defcndants "'"re
women in thc region, n:nlttíes to which the nitx,. wcrc intcgrnl, bec.1me
co11vtctd oi raping womea in de fuao custody whcre they "werc consid-
judicial minímization of the orga11ízed collectivc reuliiics of cocrdon, • en:d thc l<gittniatc sexual prey of tbcir Cdptors.•,, lt concludcd that
vacuum filled in rape cases by inquit·y ioto the comparutivcly individual
'il(s]uch tletCJu.ions umount to cirrumst.anc~ that wtt(! so coerriv~ 0$. to
foao(S of body p•ns and consenr. A perfect vebíde for th.is process. rhe
negatc an¡ possibtÜty of conscnt •n No1c the use of 1he Aka)'eSu 1enns:
Funmázy., case lirs1 reRected <md then exacerbared ir. TbatMr. Furundzija '"circumstnnces thar were. . coerclve_" Consent u•as heJd • unpossible"'"
is Croatian" placed hu case for from the Serbillll genocidal core of the
on such fam. ThJS holding, while strongly miliuiting against a nooconsem
conllict; thm he was oot mdicttd for his own sex sets but for those be
definition of rape and consácutin¡¡ a precedem for similar Clises, did oor
wunessed being perfom1ed by his subordmatos distonced him somewhat
}'Ct squarel" hold agams• the nooconsent definition per se. Ins1ead, ir foond
from thc acrs themsclves; and that thé sexual nggr<:1.,i<>n in qL1cs1ion prom
that the cocrove circumstances in tbe Foea captJvnies "' fact p¡ecluded
ínentlv indudcd forced fellatio"' seemed ro sorne (those wh<J continuc to
see rape as confined to a penis penerraring a vngina) to call for legal ex-
the legal possibility of proof oí noncon.scnt. By ruling thus on tbe facts,
thc Kun.Jrac ap¡>ella1c drnmbcr, ...-t.Jlc siding wuh a cocrcion-bascd dcfi-
ertions to render ir recognizably rape. ln contrast. 1he Rwanda Tribunal's
nition. stopped shon of finding conRnl legalli irrcl~·v~nt on principie in
general datity tbat ir was focmg a genocide" to \\'hicb rape aod oiber
sexual atrodties were integral components encouraged a conceplioo of rhe
case< where thc rapes have • nexus 10 wor crinies a.11ainst humnniiy, or
actS íocuscd not on the absencc o( individual consem but on the presence
gcnocidc.
Back at the fCTR. wluch endorscd che Akayesu definition in Musema"
of group force.••· Wbere cxtrcmist l lutu ext<0rmina1ed anú mpcd and 01h·
aod \/mtegeka.'' one erial chamber; followíng thc lead of the IC1Y, re-
crwise sexually violuted Tmsi by the hundreds of thousanJs, ns in Rwanda.
verted to tbe cooscm-based rape definiúon that Akayesu had already su-
the dcc<Jntcimmlized intcraction of discrete body parts and one-•t·a·timc
perseded. Tbe Semanw ruling in 2003, rermed the Akayew definitíoo
mental states was sirnply irrclevnnt , otherworldly Simply put. thc TCTR
"bfO;IJ•; thc ICTY's ddirution-"the non-consensual ~ettaooo.
grasped tbar inqulrin~ into individual consent to sex in a dear contein of
mass sexual coerdon made no sensc ar all. however slight, of thc vagina or .mus of tbe '"ctim by the penis of thc
pcrpctmtor or by any other object used by thc perpetrator, orof the mourh
In ns fusr maior successful prosccuuon of rape, the JCTY's 200! erial
of the victim by thc pcms of the perpetrator"-was t.ermed •narrowcr .. ,.
chami,.,r dCC'Jsion in NJ114'ac found the rapes of • group of '"ornen m "
brothel-likc setung 1n Foea to be a form of ensláv<:mellL lf no1 genocick 1t is undear whnt th= twO terms mean cxcep1 1har thcy imply that sorne
actS mduded in the rlkave.ru dcfinition are no1 acrually rapes. ln any case,
at least enslavcment ""'s a coUectlvc concept w1th Jn cthnic rcso1111J1ce,
ah hough linle wa~ moue (lf cthnicity in tha cao;e. Reviewing rhc dcfinition•I many capes cleacl¡ eocompassed by tbc Akovesu dclinition becotne diffirult
issuc a¡¡ain, the Krmara( trial chamlxr tonk the ,.;.,,,. that "rhe bask un· or impossible ro prove undcr thc Semu111.d delinition, "hicb makcs the
forest intlbcemible for the treL'S. Ceoténng us defioluoo of rape: on non-
derlying principie common to rbe legal systems survcycd m Furund;í1a"
r:onscm, tbe Sema111;11 trisl chamber lu:ld thnt "thc n1<'1ltal demcnt for rape
was rba1 "sexual penerrarion 'll-ill ronstit:ute ro.pe if it is.not truly voluntar}
or consensual oa the pan oí the vinim • and that "the true common de- as o crimc •gain>t humumty is the intenuon ro effect tht proh1bited <exual
aomim.tor whicb urulics the vanous .sys1ems may be a wtder or basic prin· penetrauon Wllh the knowled¡:e thut 11 <X'CIJI'$ witbou1 thc conscn1 o~ thc
victim "" Ac least C"onscnt u-ns to be "'assesscd ,,..¡thin the contex:1 ol the
surrounding circumstances.•,.
 Def1nlng Rap• lnlernal1ooafly • 243
Nothing in tbe Smtan't,4 rt•t-ord c11llcd for thc cnnfücung rcvcrsiun to tbc
consent·based rape Jcfü1iuon Thore w.is no 1mplicntion that thc womcn
who were wxually violotcd bcfore they wcre mllrdercd mijlht hove con
semed. Tescimony showed tlm Scmllllza said 10 1hose undcr his command,
"Are )'QU su"' you're nor killiog Tutsi women and girls beforc slee¡nng
\Vith them . You sbouJd do tbar, and even it rhey ha-<e sorne illoess. you
should do it wilh sticks... ,, ~"hy such íacts callcd for regressioo 10 a con-
senr sl.illldard is unclear. As rape undcr faw cffectivcly weru (rom being J
physic.il act mllmed oo thc body oí " vicwn to • psychic '1Cl commmcd
in the- mind of u perpctrator, thc circumstanco oí \\11r, crimctt .1g...ain).L
hun1:1n11y. 'uid genocidc in which 1he rapes legully and ma1tru11lv panici
purcd rcccded inco the backi;rouncl. Indeed, Semonia was nor chargecl with
genocidc for these sexual atrocioes.
lnstcad of foregroun<ling che lsr~er (and statmoryl comext of reality m
wbich tbe aas took plsce, proof was "º"' ro focus on mechan.ical tnter-
actions o( speciJied booy pans of individuals ond whac in.dh~dual pcrpc·
tratul'> wcre thinking about what their ,·1cums were think.ing-a.lmost •S if
the lnterahamwc Dllgl11 h•ve becn going on a dote with the Tut., women
thcy hunted clown and slaugluered with machetes. In defimng ropc exclu·
sivcly by nonconscnt. Semam:11 complered che full rurn backword 10 the
En¡¡lish common la\\'. No ocher crime llj!ainsr humaniry bus ever. once tbe
other standards are met. beeo required ro be provc:n aonconsensual. With
sex, it seems. womeo can coosenr to whar wotÚd othen,ise be a crime
against cheir humanny, making ir not one.
Con.tinuiog the &111a1w tnÍ<'Ctory, thc fCTR tria! chrunber Jecision m
K4¡tll}tlr tn la1c 2003'" furthcr combincJ body pntt intcroctions (callcJ
"more dcrnilcd"\"1 with nonconsent, incorrectly ciring the Kimarac oppcl
late dccis1on 11s authoñty ... Again, noihing in rhe focts or i"'uos of the case
conduced to such a delinition. J(pj~lijeli was nor abour whcther women
were raped or whetber tbe defeodanr raped rhem but about whether .Mr.
Kajelijeli, tbe rapists' rupenor, could be held rcsponsible for the rapes chal
had in fact beeo pcrpetrated by his subordinates.•• ln che relaavely r2ré
ncqwnal, 1.he erial chambcr majority found ML Kajclljcli !nn0ttm of Npes
proven ro have becn commiue<l by fom. . under hi> command, both rJf)CS
he al.lcge<lly ordero<l and thosc he ullegcdly knc•w or should hJvc known
about."' Nor Wll$ Mr. K:11elijeli mdicted for geoocidc for these rapes.
lr 1s hard to believe rhot the individuo! dc'Conrcxtualiied focus on che
one·•t·a-nme image oí rape had nothing 10 do u>itb the cnbunal's unwiU-
ín¡tness ro hold thc superior responsible Cor chesc rapes. The lcss rapes are
framed as mass atrociúes, and che more they a.re framed as poicntially
wanted md1•idual sexual inrcractions, thc lcss courLS may ~ williog LO
214 On lhe Cut11ne Eda•
hold oc~ responsible for thcm. Thc assenion tluit the majoricy decisioo
in Kavltjelt '"as based on mronsístmcies and madequacies in che rcsu-
mont.U ~ul<:nce was challcngeJ (arguably demoluhedJ by thc powedtÚ
d1ssm1 ol Judge Arlette Ramar~n. who in t:ffcct cxpo>CJ the mil¡ority's
double fütndard for evaluuún¡; foct6 gomg to superior nccoun1abil11y for
killinAs on the one h.md and rape> on 1he other.•' Whilc not cxprc>sSly
said, Lhc point that superiors are more readilv found rcspon•1blc for mur-
ders than for rapes. acts said by rhe <ame witne~ses to have hL-en commined
at vinuully tbe srune time. emerges sunldy.
Charting che beginning of ns rccovery from thc Sémanz,1 detour, the
M11h1mana erial decision in 2005 markcd thc lCfR's rctum to che colll'Sc
1\ka,.esu began. In ao t1ccura11< synthQiS oí prior rulings wiLh thc facts of
the cases boLh tribu1uls confron1 , M11h1111ar1a applicd Akoyem toward re·
solving thc ddin11ionnl debJte. h held 1ha1 "coercion is an elemmt that
may obvinLc the rclcva.ncc oí conscm as an evidenúa"· factor in rhc crime
of rape-.. and thar mosL incemational crimes -...,;u be almost universally
cocrcive. tbus viriating true consent."•1 h poimed ou1 chai Akaycsu and
J\unarac are neuher "incompatible [n]or subscantiaUy different in their ap·
plicauon.""' Judicially t~cúul aod substanúally valid, this lauer pomt
evl!ded che foct chm Akayesu, ba,wg sausfied the mens rea for gcnocdc
and •rimes agauist humaoity of which thc rapes wcre shown to b<! ' pari,
ttquired no oddinonal mcns rea for rapc-thc funcuon oí nunconscn1 thut
FunmdVia .md Se1J1a11za rho\lghr was needcd, nnd thnt Kunaroc on oppcal
Íncompletelv rejected •• a matter of law. To rhc <Ícl(tee dayligh1 was dis·
cernible beiween i\k.ryeru and Kmwrac in this respect, however, Muhimana
tended to side with Akavesu.
Extending the present de6rutional analy$ of rape ro legal and fucrual
semngs beyond tho:;e of tbc ad hoc tribunal> reqwre. begin.ning "~th thc
true comext of rape, coercivc inequufüy of the sexcs: • and tbc true
comn10n dcnominator of l"Jpe lil\115: they do not wotk. MosL rapes
~nrcporic<l becnusc most u.'Omen know they will not ¡¡ei jusucc; stuLc rape
is • more appropñatc dcscñp1ion of Lheir experiences. with rape$ inc:ffc:c·
ru.illy addressed ro a discrimina1ory degree..,. l n mosr legal S<.-Uings outside
recognized zooes of conflict. a woman char¡¡ing rape is srill effcctively pre-
S\lllled lo have wamed the act. an assumpoo11 for wluch consent is a prox)',
no morrcr bow much force was involved. rurrung tbe aas back into scx
based on spec:tlic body patt 1n1eract1ons, prcsumpuve conscot ch3L she
mus• rcbut. often with liitle more th.tn her word. AkJyew in clfoct reversed
rhis prcsumpuon for r11pes provm inílicted 11s p!lrt of wor, RCllOcidc. or
cri111C11 ~g11in~1 humanity. defining rape in renns oí its function in collecth•e
Defin1og Rape lnternaho•allJ
crln1cs Appropruuc lo such contcxts, 1lS Jdiniuon shtltcd the focU> of
proof from in<lhidual mterucuoru to cc>llcctive rc.Jiucs, from proof pf Jc-
fcnd.mr subjccti•·c psychologirnl sture 10 proof of obicctive focts mílicted
on the C(lmplainant wích Clthers sm1ilarly le>cntcd. No lol1$er burdencd lw
presumpllvc c:onscnt, Akayem buih into its rape dcfinition the context ~f
violenL tnequalicy common ro thc crimes the ad hoc 1ribunals are ,;rarutonly
auchorued to prosecuce, Once a roote.n of coercion was showo, from "
crune norodously srncked agamst \•ictims, rape became an at'l pro,•ablo: bv
prosecutors wnh tcl.uivc <'<ISC by usual le.gal mt'am. Thc questioo hccomd,
wh21 Jbungimhcs othcr scttings m which rape occu"li'
To_mnkc íl trnnsition to >ctungs whcrc no collccuve conllicr is recognizcd
10 cxist, for cxamplc, to j¡lobal scx inequaliry wtth its anendant violencc
~R"iost womC11," requires bringing into focas Lhc 01<tmr of force tbat exists
as a background condiúon tor speciJic rapes in these othcr scttings. Thc
Akoyer11 approacb and the pauem oí ourcomes in cases since suppon che
suggescion that rape laws fail because ch<!} do ~ot rccogniu thc conroxL
of inequéliry to which thcy opcraLe, focusing as thcy >O oftt:n do 011 isolattd
prooí of noncon>ent H!!"inst • false background prcsU!OpLion o{ con>ent ln
~n ""re"I contex1 of cquuluy of powcr. Conscnt oftc:n opcra1<'5 as a ílag of
trecdom ílQwn undcr thc illusion tha1, if ir is ins1ituted as a leg11l stand11rd,
whaiever scx womcn .,.1101 will be ollowed and whatO\-Cr ttx women do
DOL wanc will be cruniool. Legal conscnt standards do noL conform to 1his
fanrasy anywhere, wholly apart from the complexiúes that inequali!J! intro-
duces .to whac members of powerless groups can want or rejecL Bue an
unnouc:d slippage to che discussion pf che term bttw~"<'n sociul myths o[
;nd dcs1res for freedom, on the oM hand, and legal dísclhsioru of actual
rules 1hn1 iuc11Jy rcilcct and imposc incquílliLies. on th< othcr, givcs thc
term nn apptnl i1 does noL cam.
. Pu~ ono1her ....11y, body pntts ond conscnt lit ro¡¡cther in rape dcfinitions
ª'"" tn being uccerly deconrextunlized. If rape is fundJmcn1'1lly on imcraction
of ~dy parrs, it is essentially sex unless sometlúng else is wrong wítb iL,
wh1ch is where nonconseot is supposed to come in. Eveo if social cusLoms
decply <ldine conseot, conceptuall)• 11 .is inhercntly 10dividu..L 1t1 che sense
of takmg place within •n mdividual'• p>yche. By com:rost, ahbough over-
whclmmg force is a phys1cal renlity. cocrcion is largdy .octo.l in 1hc sen"'
thot the hierarchics und rressurcs it deplo)'S are inhcremly contextual. ln
the conrext of inrernnrional humani1arian law. to look ro cocrcion 10 define
rupc is Lo look to the surrounding collective realities of group membership
aod politicttl forces. alignments, and clashes. If sex 11•as betn~ engaged in
s1mply for seXllal grati6cation, for msumce. 1r would prechct11bly noc be
2•6 • On the Cult•na Eda•
one·s1Je<lly 1mposed on one ethnit 11roup by another, as 11 was when m· 24
O.ctcJ on Muillm anJ C.roa1 "'ornen m Bosnia llcrzego\'llla and C.roatiu
unJ 011 Tut>i womcn m Rwan<L. Such cullccti\·e rcálitie< of group·balcd
Pomography as Trafficking
J._.., rucuon e>< pose thc 1nstrumcntn!Jz.1tion for ncts that ore pm 0 f it
throu~h which victim conJ;enl is r.:ndered proctically, hence properly le·
gaUy. 1rrelevanr
The Aknvesu delinirioo is clearly well $Uiled to addressing rapes that are
pan ot mass ~oup-based auoc1ties lrs foeus on real world externa! 111cher
than sub¡ecuve r~i1ies also makes it more suscepnble to standard forms
of legal proof. For thc sume =sons. it is adaptable to siruations o( m·
equnlity 11utsidé convcnllonaUy· féCOllJlizeJ conílict>. Ak.iyeiu has legs.
In material realiry, poroography is one woy women and chíldreo are craf-
h•ving •lre~dy bcen 111eorporated imo leg~•lauon ln '"'O >tille> in 1hc
ficked for sex. To make visual pomogr~phy, che bulk of the indusav's
United Srnrtll." Since Npc can be a crimc nwiinit hunwnity undcr 1hco
product.s,1 real women and children. and sorne men, are rented out for ~se
lmemotionlll Criminal Court's CfCC) Rome Srn1u1e." 1arge1ed on thc b'"i'
in commeroal sex acts. In che resulting mnterials, these people are then
of se.<, mip;h1 the bighest rape rote in 1he wodd, 1ha1 Ui South Africo."
ronvcyed and sold foro buyer's sexual use. Obscenity laws, thc r.radmonal
qualify? Thar nipe becomes banal does not disqualify 11 as a criJne agamst
legal approacb to the problcm, do not cnre nbou1 chcse realiti"5 01 oll Thc
bumaruiy- 10 the concrary. In light of the realimi and adnunisuabilit1• oí
mor!uity of whar is soid ond •hown rem"ins their focus and cona:m Thc
~e Aka\elu definition, i1 is regret1ahle that me ICC codiJied rape fo~ us
injuries inAicted on real pcople 10 mnke the materiols. or becouse thcy are
lDt.:mauonal putpo5es in tbe chronological t111<ldle of me tnbunals' process
used.' are irrdevant 10 whar is illegal about obsceniry.' Accordingly. che
dcscnbed hcre, taking one page from Akayew's invasion of a sexual naturc
traf6clcing ronstítt1ted by tbe exbibnion. distribution, sale. and purcbase
~der coercive arcumswnces and one from Funmdvp's body pans
of matenals cha1 do these harms is ígnored. Laws agamst sex lttlÍl:icking,
\\1thou1 c<,>nsent," str.1ddling the delinitional difference rocher 1han re·
in1cmational and domestic, criminal and human rights laws- &pecifical.ly
solvio~ it Alt hou¡¡h rhe TCC's elements lean toward forceand coorcion in
thdr concept ol rommercial se.•ual exploilatton, around wrucb micro•·
dclimn¡¡ sexual assault crimes, rhe door thar Aknrem shu1 so deci<ivelv and
tional consensus ís growing'-rccognizc the reiilities o{ the global scx 1n-
ap~ropriat;Jy "''~S left once more ajar by its .;,dennary ende,"' through
Justry incrcasingly wdl. These provisions ore more promising for ad·
which rap1s1s m1¡tht walk away follo""ing rapes in imernational conllicts
dressing pornography 1han ha• been reco¡¡nized.
that show no sign of stoppmg.'
Realit.ies and Concepts
Pimps are rypically paid for the sexual use of thc real people who are
boug)>t and sold to cngage tn the se.• ac1s for money chat are whu1 mo.1
pornograph~ is moJe of. The pornographers t.hen are paid 10 rep1mp rhese
pcoplc in thc pornogmphy itsclf, productng sexual plC'•Sure for thc con·
Thn 1alk ,,.., fCJ\'t"ll at I~ ('OflfC"r(fltf' .. Pornor;r11phy; Ori\1"1 che IA_'1Tl.,J tn lnu:rn..uoo..1.I Stx
T,.¡fidun¡¡. • ""l'<'""'n:d b¡· Capm"' DaU11hun and tbc lnt<nMDM.J Hum..n 'Rttrhts Law !mu·
une of Ocp¡ul Unl\ic.Mty. Clu<ago. l.llmou, ón ~1.a:c.h 1-t . .?00}_h •'lis 0t~in.illy publbbtd a1 ,:e,
Mtr:/.1i11• }<lflrtf41 of l111m1..1KmM (,&• ~) 1200'1 V.tell< l lklko ÍAYll1\ti <"hal'I(, •nd Ama
Baldwm provídui w~rb ftW"Jtcb llm!ltance wbcn 11 was oc:cdc<l tnC'>!il 'Thn Wl'Wk 1S dcdict.ttd
wttb lll'W'r 10 tbc: memo,,. o( Andtto Dwurk.1.n
247
Z4& • On t~e Cutltna Edge
sumcrs and unmenst: profü, for the pornographers, wb1cb both Sttk to
rq>car. From the uandpoint of che person used 10 muke che ma1eriols t.be
image of 1he persoo is sull 1ha1 pelllOn. And [he sexual use of the pé~n
in the mJt...rial• by 1he ron>umor " u real. actual, ..,xual act for the wcr.
\Thcn l.mda Borcman ..id, """"'} time <omeone wa1ches 1hat film. rhey
tm' watchin¡r mr bcin¡r raped. "' she did not uy tbcy are watchin¡r thc rape
of "an ima¡¡<: Qf me" or "a represenrntion of me· bc:mg roped. [f thesc
\licrc anythmg but se.-. pktures, the rights oí the people in them OYcc the
matcriab madc by tbctt use would be legally recogniLed.• Dd'amatory !Jes
ohou1 them in pornogniphy, for example, dcnroytng their reputations.
would ¡,., acuonable.' Knowing me pornogrophy of you is alw~ys out thcre
is a párucular kind o{ tr~uma.•
i\l1hough legitimare rorporarions increusinglv ¡r;¡ffic the materials, the
pomographv indusuy, like other meaos of human rrafficking, remaios at
base an organized crime indusrry buih on force, sorne physical, sorne not •
As wit~ all prostimtion, the women and childrcn m pomography are, m
the mam, not there by choice bm lx-cause of a lack of cboices. ·rhey usually
"ronsent" to the octS only m the degraded and demcnred scnse o{ che
word kommon also to the law of rnpel in which u pel'$0n who dL-sp.Urs al
sroppmg whdl 1' h.1ppen1ng. !lee$ no Clltape. hat no re1I ahcrnative, """'
often •eicuaUy abuscd before a• a child. may be addicted 10 drug•, is home·
less, hopeless, is often tryÍnR 10 •void bein11 bea1en or killed, and is almos1
always erooo~cally d~peure, acquiesces in being sexuallyabused for pay-
mem wen if m most mstonces 11 IS paymem 10 someooe else. Many are
duJdren: m~t enier '.11e industry as cbildren.1 Most pomograpby 1s, m
pure Jobn Millerese, made by slaves: 11
Necd u be s111d lrr scW st.'Cllls 10), che individwtls so used s•J they usu..Uy
fcel norhrn¡t •cxually." Mosr oí 1he time, 1hc sex 1hey are •hown hn,in¡¡ is
""h sc1mconc thc) hove nu sexual intcrest in, doing 1hin¡;< th•t do nothinA
for them <c:<ually Thc plcasurc is routlncly faked Thcy ccrrninly nO\-er
meantDj!fully consen1 10 be intimatdy ae«ssible. to tbe thousands or mil-
lions of roen e.bey are then sold to, for money co otbers, over years and
miles. as and Cor sex. Consem 10 sex is intimate, 001 uansiti\-e. Yet every
step ID the malung and use of chese materials is wha1 1s defended as sexual
frccdom. refcrnng 10 tbc pcople in iL \'<'omen muse be tbc only group,
nnJ "'x the only means, in whicb a forn1 oí op¡ucssion is opooly defended
not 10 menúon st>ld a ploasure and cvcn acccpted by sorne of 1hc op:
pres«<!. us J mc1m< CIÍ their liberation
The force it 1oo'k 10 make 1he pomography is shown or not, depending
on rhe tQSte c>f che ronsumer. Deep Tbrodt and Pfa¡·/,qy'' do not show ii,

Extr';"'" Produnion• <loe~." Whc'thcr Lhe material iuclf shows les:. .1g-
gress1on or more, from thc vulncrability ol so;u;l bot!) puru m 1he glossy
1nc:n's entcrt.ainm<.!llt mug.u..ines rhrougl1 thc M:xual ~cn·1c1nj.l in che •fuck
and suck" ¡¡mre to the torture of sadomusoch1sm ond 1hc murdcr of muff.
jusr ilS r~rowin¡t money 01 victims oi sexual abuse docs not make it a job,
tsl.-m11 p1ctures oí tt does not make it freely chosen or demed." li makes
iL pictures of paid rape-rape in thc real, if regrennbly scldom m the legal.
sense. 1•
No amoum of fancy foorwork buil1 inro onc phonv J1sttncuon aí1er
1mothcr in the luw 11nt! publ1c Jiscoursc on thi> •ubj~ct cun ul1cr those
realirirs of 1hc pomo¡trtlphy 111dusiry. Bu1 1he~c dminctions ,10 secm to
confusc muny pcople who din¡¡ tQ bri¡tln-line binnñes thn1 l.1ck correlmes
in life To disunguish pomographv from prostiiurion. for example. Cali-
fornia COurrs OOt\\~thsrandiog, 17 is 10 den\' me Ob\iOUS; \Vhen j'OU roaJ<e
pornography of a woman, you make a ¡uosnrure out of J1er. lo rhe 1mmonal
words o{ one rrick, "Yes, the woroan m pornography is a prosatute.
Thcy're prosuiuring right befon: che cameras. They're gctung moncy &om
• filrn comp•ny rntber thon indivit.luuls .• ,. lt is .Jso to denv thc plain ínct
thnt porti.OgraphCtS ore plUli)S. thtrcl pntt)' li<:X p1·ofiteers, bu~in¡; oind seiling
human bcin¡¡s 10 john<, who are consuming thcm as ,md for sex Tn some
insrnnces. women are directed to perform sex '1ctS by a john from u com·
purer terminal in real time." So wbar is it, prosritution or porno¡¡raphv?
Thar rbe sexually used are transponed on paper or celluloid or dij!ltally
may make me transactÍOn seem mote distanced, bUL it ÍS no (ess rcaJ a
commercial act of >e>. in wluch st• frum onc pcrson is cxchangL.J for
money from .1nothei· far an~ oí thc peoplc m\•olvct!. t\s • 1tpott oí thc
~N ~crctary·Ccn~tl on \.·icums of crln1c, d~c:ussing cxploitruion oí pros~
rnuuon and ir•fficking m women, pm 11 in 1985, "11 is hard ro mnke
disrinaions Hf any shot~d be madel between prostirution and 01her se;tul
services, indudin¡¡ 1hose of rhe porno¡¡ruphk medio.""' Sex fmm onc
1'erse>n is exchan¡:¡ed for money livm another. 1he media bein~ rhc ¡tO·
bctween. tbe cramcker
Although thc dcgrer oí force appücJ \'aries from one sítuation 10 the
nexL, thc Jistlnctlon bet\&·ccn forct.J prostiLulioo .nd ·volunw( prostl·
uiuon" has similar dimcnsions of unre..U11 The poim <>f tbc disuncuon is
to hi\·c off 11 norrow denn11ion t>Í force In ord..-r w define ª" '"lunrnry 1hc
~nditions ?f scx incquality, abuse. and destitution tha1 pul mos1 women
m the sex industry nnd kcep 1hcm thcre. By rhe same token. to anah'>!e
so-called volumat\' prostiruáon as ·work" and craitickinglforced prosu-
curion as "cnme"" is, amoog otber things, to decide thar rhere is a dass
2)0 • O• th• Cutuna Edge
oí women LO whom human ~hts lawS'Against sexual hilnlSilllent al work-
unJ other J,,\IS incoosisléllt wlth thc reahcies o{ force lnherent LD being
prusutmnl''-"'·ill not apply U tl:u. is work, whAt can 1t mton to prohibit
scxu.U rurn.,,mcnl ,11 work when Lb< :.CJ<ual hata>>mcnt is the workf Tht$
~ .1 form oí $C'XA1olencc dtStincuon, two thmgs that 1mluwy of sexwl
V1ol.n1(ln makes into one thlnR}'-..
To disw1~ui•b bel\>'<en d1ildrm Jnd •dults-on thc assumptlcm or ,.,1;h
the ettecr oí su¡:¡¡..dn~ rhat child porno¡miphy is a serious problcni while
pomography ol ndult women is not or is less so-lácks foundation m thc
real worlJ as "'cU. Thc majori~· o{ adulu entcr the mdustry as cbildren
anJ are exploltccl m w•y• that do noL disappéat wben they rcach the agc
of n1a¡on1y, uiduiling through maten.U• in wbich chilt!ren •n: u:.ccl "'
wumen ami women inforuilized •• children. To purport to add=• chdd
sexu.J explott.u1ion while do1ng nothmg effecti\'e for ndul1 "'ornen is to
suppose char •n age lioe is l'OÍorceable on. or respeaed by, Jn indus1ry
that is orgruuzed m explofr me powerless. and ro accept 1he fol'IC nonon
that women become equal ar a¡te eigh1een. For esample. a law that invems
sciemer requirements" to regula te an mdustry ÜU!t traffics fake 1Os .Jong
w1th lts cbiltlren blinkers the fac1 rh,;i in th1s world, children und \\'Ornen
ore no1 two disunct groups of p~-ople. Th~¡ nn: the same prople 01 tw<)
increasingly incl1>unguishnhle po1111s in ume. Rcquinng thot a john k11ow
th•t 1hc pcr>on _he ust11 i> 11 chilcl in order 10 be c(lnvicred olso offoc1t\'d)
dmps thc n¡tc ot ronS<.'Tlt for use in pnmo¡iraphy 10 pubenv. Childrcn "ill
ncv~r be proicctcd until •dult women have ñghrs that are respecrcd
Fmall¡, buildmit on these distinaions, to distingu.ish uaffi.cking from
prosucuuon. ~s if 1raf6cking by de6nidoo is forced and prosum1ion by
ddimtion is free. is to obscure that both use money to compel sexual use.
!lut the \\·bole p0101 of >ex crafficking ;. to Jehvet women md cluldren
lnto pro>tJlution, ant! tba1 not cros.i11g 11 ¡uri>diction•l lme <loes not makc
the uncqual equol or thc forced free. Jurisdic11011al lino are t!ru"''" •e·
cord~ng to mcn\ polirics wi1h orher men lkong token, for •w•y can makc
exit trom "condition of pro.iitution mon: diflicul1, but bem¡:¡ used for sex
is being used for <ex, T raffid<ed or local. thc buycrs of prostituted women
do nc>t much carc, making this disnnaion irn:IC\-ant frl'lll a demand stand-
pomt cxccpt for the t•otics markct. lt is al:;o irrtkvant from the supply
sLant!pomt. Womcn c-an be cnslavcd withou1 c:vcr lcJvmg home.
Thus thc pomograp~y mdusuy, m productton. creates demand for pro>-
ututlon, hentc for tr:úlídmg, bec;use 1t IS 1udf a form o( pros1ituLion and
traffickin~. As a form of ¡>roSlttution ¡'lOmography crcatcs Jon11nd for
wom..-n wd t:hildren to be supplied for J<?xual use 10 muke it. m~ny of
Por•ograpby •• Trarnc~1nt 2Sl
wbom ª"' traffü:kal to 60 !lut Jcmand. The pomograpbcrs, thc:n trafiic
th""e somc penplc, tn turn in v•ríous mcdu1ed fonm
Pomo¡trnphy 1hcn furthcr crc:itC> dcrmmd for prosutuuon. hcncc for
trnfnck.in¡:, 1hr<>u¡¡h i1s consumption Consumin~ pornogropby is nn ex·
pencnce of oou¡tht sex. of se.'<uall\• using. woro:tn ora l'irl or. boyas an
ob¡ecr '<>Jho has been putchnsed. As such, 1t sumulares demand for buvjng
"'ornen and g1rls aod boys as sexual obtect:S rn the llesh m the same wav
rt stimulat~ the \'tCWer Lo oci 001 on othet Live \l'Omeo and grrls and bo~
thc .sp<.'Ctlíc •c1s c~at •re •exuuhzcd "ºd co1mLmct! in the pomogr~phy.
Socrnl sc1cncc CV1clci1cc, cOn\'etl!ing with tcotirnon1,J cV1dentc of real
peoplc, ILls long sho\\'TI 1he lancr.-' As ol»c1"cd by T. S. in thc hc•rrn¡n
on 1he anupomoRraphy civil nghrs ordinance that Andrea Dworkin ond 1
or!!a.nized for the Minneapolis City Council ar their request: "Meo wirness
the abuse of women in pomography conscantly, t10d if thev auú engal'e
IJ1 mar bch8'10r with theu- \\~ves, girlfriends, or cbildren. they force 8
who~e to Jo ÍI .•,, On 1he basas oí the especicnces of a 3roup of women
surv1vo<11 o( pl'O>i.itution ant.l pomo_grapby. she rold how pornograplw W'1>
useJ 10 Lr.tin 11nd >ea~n young ¡tirl> in pro>lituuon .md how mcn ,;..,uld
bñng phorograph• of u'tlrnon in pon1o¡trophy bem¡: •hU!<~'<l. say, in offcc1.
·r wam rou ro do 1his." and demtJnd 1ho1 rhc acts bcin¡: inílicted on 1hc
women in tbe roarerials be speci6cally durJicared." Research by Mimi Sil-
b1m and Ayala Pines on prosnnued women in San Francisco also reported
thar the woroen spontaneously memionl'd being rnped by johns u-bo srud,
essennally. • J [haveJ seen u in aU tbe mo,ies ... You know you Jo,·e i1,"
n:fcrrmg to a speci6c pomograpby "0.ck."" ~lelissa Farley and her col·
leagu~ (ound 1lu1 47 pcr<ent ,,f prcl>Litu1c:d wo111cn m ninc countncs wcrc
upset by someont 1Skmg thcni to perform • >ex "'" that hocl bccn "°"º
in
pomogrophy '° Fony·nme pen:em reportet! 1hat porno¡¡raphy wos motle oí
1hem m prosti1urion." Mary Sullivnn's research in Viaoria, Auscrali3,
whe~ prosmunon has beco legalized lor a decade. repons women de·
scnbmt1 p<>mography videos runoiog constantly in brothels- to set the
tone and moocl. apparcnth--makm~ saie sex more difficult." Pomogrnpby
as docun1en1eJ to ""'ª"' demand Cor specific octs, mcludtng daogerous and
Jemeaning '""". mJl!c~ecl on prO'lituted peoplc, tlS w.oU as lor bought 'º'
in gcncr1J II thJS IS 11ght-:tnd MeltSSa Farley'> p<diin1nary rcsul111 .hou·
1ha1 ir is-rhe more meo U'IC pomography, the more 1hey use rrosmutes. •
~lo.1 dem•ls oí rhe role of pomc>graphy in 1hese dynamics come ºº"'"
to sorne vc:mon of a mind-body disonction-as chou~h people. ""PeciaJJy
people wbo c-an get ;l\\'lly with 1t, don 't do whar they w'i!nt ro do. and os
tbough sexuali1y is neu.her boJy nor mind whcn it 1s both. Tbis den.tal

252 - On lhe CVll••e Edt•
runs under the rubric of "fanrasy..., h play$ out m distíncuons cspeciaU)
uhi4wtous in r.he UnueJ St•tcs bet,.·een p1ctun:s "ºd words, thoughts.
atmuJo, and •pccch. on the tine banJ, .mJ ucu, pN<.tict-:i, pohcics, .,,J
cnrncs, on thc or.hcr N1>ne oí ufou 1 h•1'C Jc:.crilx.J he,.., is lun11cd 111 thc
n11nd of thc consumer. h iakes •ru tn make the p1crures .>nJ '4'Qrd•; the
so-c.alleJ thou-1its in pc>mo¡¡raphy are prcdica1ed on prncdces Jlnd repro-
duce those pracrices throul!h its consumers: the amtudes the pom()jlraphr
generares are lived out on "'omen. induding b'· being instirurionalized in
laws and po\Jcies; anJ the so-called speech. the materials themselves, is
actually J product of crimes ugainst 1>vmen and chilJ.ren, produces crimes
ag.unst womco anJ children, and 1> tn 1uelf one "'"l that ..,x-b;~ Jís
cnrmnation 1> wc...!ly pracuced.
One disunmon m thcsc dyn•miCli do.,. makc sorne scru.c. Pomo~niphy,
1 think. 1s •upply-dri•-en Mcn do n0t ""'"t it un1il 1hey sce it. The more
rhey use it, the more ther wanl to usen. The de.ensitízation and addktion
so wdl documcntcd m ns users" puts their •exuality under the control of
p1mps. IOmt waits for tbcm to resent tbis. lt severdy limiis their.tuLooomy
O\'Cn.Ú it builds thdr power.l Using pomograph} is líke Jnnlcing sah waler.
lt looks like thc n:Jl thing but isn t; the mon: >Ou Jnnk, Lile tbttsuer you
becomc Pomography crcatcs JcmaoJ Cor 11sdf anJ for prosutuuon (oí
whkh it is onc form l. In a real scnsc. men don ·t use u hecame they want
it. they "-ant i1 bccnusc they º"" it, the more 1t 1s 1here. tbe more oí it they
get, tbe more of it they want, This mokes pomognpher. pu<hers.
Prostmmon, on the orher hand T think is meanin¡.¡fully demand.<Jri•'Cn.
Women are ín prosuruaon because me:n wam 10 use them that way; pure,
in dus pan of the sexual economy in which women and men are aheady
orherwise socially Ot8"nized. lf men wam pomography bccause 11 ;. thcre.
prosmuoon 1s there because men want ll. Pomogrophy hdps cre:ue r.hat
destre. So the rcwtion bctwccn the l\l'O is ulum•tdy circufor: pomogroph)
supplics tht' obícctificJ ~cxuality oí mole dt>1run~n<-e. both crca1 ing anti
6llinF thc Jcmmd for thc traílicking that is pro.tituri90, providin~ J pica
sure motive for johns and a profit motive for pimps for paid rope.
Pomography Undcr Criminal AnritTnf6cking Laws
l.Inder exisung l1w, chC>e relllitie. are bener reJlecteJ tn anmraltidung
l1111s, und an some hum.tn rights laws, than clse"·here. Thc 1949 Convcnuon
lwh1ch che UnitcJ Swcs has oor notificJ1,1<· bands st:1tes parues to pun1sh
·an1 pcrson "'ho, tn ~ratlfy the pJ<•ioru. C1Í anothcr . (2 t•ploits the
Poroo¡raphy as Tratfic~ing 2~1
prosdtutioo o( another persoo. cven "'lth conscnt ol thal persoll.• ' ro
mnke and sell pornogrophy i; v1nually .ilw•ys to expJoit rhe prost11uuon
of another person. Pomogmphcrs ""' almost •ll third pany sellers oí the
pr<>'titu1ioo oí othcr J>e(>plc; few sell ¡>0mography C1Í thcmsclvcs Undcr
che 1949 law, "ronsem," usunlly being paíd "' someonc elsc bcing paid
Jquery again if either is "·hnr consem to <ex meaos in real human lan·
guage),'• apressly does n0t mean th•l the person is oot being exploited
The l9q9 Conventíon W3$ mtencled to covcr the gap in eidsnng lnu• oo
"the traffic in women of full age, • us remarks by thc Secrecary·General pu1
u at thc umc. "wir.h thdr conseor, evcn if the vicum.s were oot token
.abro.id .,.. No nl}'Stificntion about age. ron>ent, or junsdictionru lines hcre
Thi> t remy carne imo force beforc pomography w.s os m·erwhelinin¡¡ly thc
traffic in persons thar Í1 is today, with the asccndnncy of visual 1cchnolo
gies. r<'quiriog new women and children daíly, dominating cognitively and
culrurally as well as sexually and economi.cally. Yet even then UNESCO
glimpsed pomograpby's role m traffickmg in ptrsoos. Tbe lfávau.~ pré·
paratotreS show UNESCO's regret al pomography's omissioo from the
Coovention. Using the languugc of the umc, UNESCO proposed re·
su·icting, fo1 purposes of prc,..,ntion "1h~ circulauon oí oh.cene publíc•
tÍoM or thc public diRpl.1y oí obscene works through the mcdium, more
panicular\y, of lhe cinema. Lile rndio or television. ""' In thc C(mtcxt of
ptc\'Cntion. UNESCO ¡¡rasped che porno11rapher's role in creating demand
for prosrimtioo; "Suppress the cleroand, ond you soppress thc supply and
the pan played tn thar supply by the mrermcdinry, who is. a corrupced
co.rrupter..... 1
The abolluon1st rather thnn proh1biuoniu framcwork of the 1949 Con-
vcntion providcs a h11Jhly congcnial approach ro thc elirnin11uon of pomo11
n1phy undcmood as a form of sexunl cxploiwuon. Prohibition crímínalizcs
~vcryonc involved. Abolitionists saw 1ha1 this could he cuuntcrproducti\>é
~s well ns un¡ust, C\'Cfl discriminatory a¡:ainst rhe \icritm '' The travau.~ oí
the l 949 Act clisclose a relliog decades·long dispute over whether the tenn
•for gain • should be induded in the deJinuion of traf6ckmg. Those opposed
co mcludm¡.i chis term opposcd prO!;cmtlng r.he victiuls, the prostituted
pc'Ople, and sought mstcad to re:ich thc entire raoge of thetr exploiters."
Wlr.h "for goin" not bcmg induded. n spate for criminruizmg demant!-
both 1hi1t of pomography plmps, who Jemantl women ancl childrcn from
lesser pimps•.md the ulti1'1,..e demand by thc johns who Ct\DSume womcn
.md chíldren in pomo¡¡rophy, providing. thc pro6t motive íor the'ir sexual
exploitation-was opened under ínternational law.
AdvnncC> in tbe rmernauonal laws agat0st cratJickiog hive bu~1 on this
ll>unJ.uon." Most 1mportant i> 1hc Paleono Protorol's 2000 dcfinmon of
traf6dcJng in p.:™>n•
·rnofñclung. 1n pecsons" shall mean the recru11men1:, trunsponauon.
ttanster. harbounng or recapt of persons, b~ nu:am ol che threat or U.>C
of force or or.her fom» of coewon, oí ubJuctlon, of fraud, of Jeccpuon
al 1hc .ibu..e oí powcr or oí , 1 po>1uon ol vulnerobiluy or of the givmg t>r
rctrivsng oí polyml':ots or hcncfit~ to 11chiC\·e 1he (O~nt of 11 pcnon
hu•1ng control over 1noihcr pcn;on, fnr the purpose of exploirncion Ex·
ploitation shall mdude . the expk,itation uf the prostitudC1n of Othcn>
or other forms ot sexual eiq>loimuon . "
Pornogrophy " dc:1rlr covcrcJ ns sex 1rofficking undcr this delinttíon. For
pomography, wt>mc:n and children are recruired, rronspon eJ, provided
and obrained ior sex octs on accoum of which, typicall)'. mone)' is gi,'Co
to pomo11raphy plnlpS and received by lesser punps. Then. eacb rime the
pomography is commerdally exchanged. thc trafficking coorinues as the
..·ornen anJ chtldren m 11 are transponed and pr¡ivided for sex. sold and
bouglu again. Oo1ng Jll chese dun~ for the purpo<e of tll<ploiting the
prosutuuon of othcn-wh1ch pomogruphy intrínsic.Uy does-m•ke. it
tr.iflicking m pcr.ons
Along simiJJr ~nes, thc U.S. Pro1cc1 .Act 2000 ddine< sex rr•ffickin¡¡
simply as "che recruitment, h•rborin11. mmsponadon. pro,ision or ob·
taining of a rcrsC1n for thc purpose of a commercial sex act .... Pomo¡t·
raphers panicipa1e in rhe commercial Oow of these acis ro make pomog·
raphy. Often r.hey do thCD1 c:lirectl) themseJ,-es, then again when t.bcy seU
the protlu"'>. A •commcrcuu Se.X ac1• is dclinc<l s1mpl)' os "any Se.X au,
on account of "·h1ch 11J1ythmg oí value is givt!n to or rcc.:iveJ by any
person."' n Thur is, it i!> prosdtution, throu~h which ~'Ommercial pornog
raphy is cu.rom:irily mude. When • ¡ohn bu>.. pomo~raphy, 11 is for ses
Thc U.S. Oepanment of State's modcl law include~ • delinition of u:uÍ·
ficking for purposes oí ei-i>loitation that defines aploit;1tion to 1ncludc
"commercial explottanon, includiag but not lirruted to pimpín¡¡, p:mdenng,
procuring, prolitlng from prosuLUtiOO. maimauún¡¡ a brothel. [and) chUJ
poroography. "" lt does not expl:un why only cbiltl pornography, but u is
"°
only a.n "in<ludmg," uJult parnography ¡, 001 prc!cluJcd. lt JO<."S includé
thc Palermo ProiocoJ'5 tlefimtion oí se.x trnfticking cncompassing not ooly
force, coeracin, ub<luct ion, froud, .mJ deceptíon, bur "abuse of power (>r
oí n PQ'irion llÍ vulnerobility, or by the ¡tivin¡¡ and recei•ing of p•)ments
or bendirs 10 achieve the consc:nt of a person havin~ control o\>ér nnotber
 Por•o¡r1ph¡ u Tr111itk1n¡ • 2>S
pcNon."• The l.mer " nor limited 10 chilJrcn, nor ·~ porno¡¡rnphy m.1Jc:
by rhesc meons limitcd ro children. Thi> law squareh· descnbe< hnw mo'r
pom~t•ph,- is made, Jclin!llA pomo¡¡raphy os a fonn of sex 1raflick111~
The U.S. Prestdcntial Direcn.-e on the subíect mennons pomoJ!raphy ex-
phcnly. s3}•0J! that ·rlllffickloglo persoos refors 10 acttons. often mcludmg
use ol Íorc~. fnmd or coemoti, to compcl sornconc into u s11uarloo in
wluc.:b he or .lle will be explo11ed for oexual purposcs, whích coulJ mcludc
prostitulioo or pomogr;1phy.•• 1
P<>mogr.iphy 15 mn;;1 cxpl'C"sly recogni~d os • form of sexual explo1
rnnon in rhe rrallidúns oonteic1 by the Eurorean Union. Pursu:mt to thc
Polenno Pro1ocol and other de,-elopments. the European Couocil Fr:une-
work Decisron of Jul) 2002 on combating mtliiclan~ m human beinits
enacted a defuurion covering recru11ment. rranspon. rraosíer. lutboring,
mcludrng exchonge or transfcr of control ovcr 1he person w-bere coercion,
forre, thre.11, Jecei1, or fraud 1> uscd, or auLhority or posuuin of vuloer.
blh1y 1> •bu.cd ";uch thJt thc person h11> no renl ruid acccpt.1blc alter
notive bue to submit to thc abu.'c mvolved."" The Fr•mework Dcci~ion
olso rovcrs paymcnts m11dc to one person 10 get consenr by nnothcr "for
the purposc of thc exploiraáon of the prosutunon oi othcrs or othcr forms
of sexual exploitation mcfudmg m pomJJgr¡¡phy••.,, Laws of membcrs oí t:be
EL' are co confonn to this decisioo
Pomograpby Under Hnman Rights Laws Against Trafficking
The UN't R«ommendcd Principie> ond Guldclincs on Human Rights ond
Hum•n Tmfficking 120021 direci rh>L "stratewes oimcd .11 pre\-.:ntin¡¡ tnaÍ·
6ckin¡t shnll address demand us a root cause of rraffickínR."" Síncc por-
nography boih crea1es JOJ 6Us demand for rrafficked penmns, Jt should be
a patt of chese demaod-tocused strate¡¡íes. The llow of sex for mon~· (supply
side) and mon~ for sex (deouind side) 15 a mass markct m human llesb, one
tecbnologicul leve! of mcduiion removed from slun-on-sklo or, w11h the ln-
1emc1. t1>·0. liu1 tt" u fonn of sexcl>ll tntflieking in bwnan bdogs noncthc-
lcs.- Thc UN High C.:.mmission for Hcunan Ri¡¡ht• Sub·Commi<sion on
Human Ri¡¡hL' RC$Clu11on 200215 l effeciively reroRm>ed thfa whcn it
"fu] r¡¡efdl Governmems 10 tJke appropriote meas ures 10 •ddress the roor
facton; • rhar enroura~e rroffickin¡t in womcn and chilJren. in pamcular
gids, for prostirution and orher forms of commcrcfafued sex.""
In its mrerprttauoo md 11ppLcat10n of ihe Convenrioo on the Ehnuna·
tioo of All Forms of Díscrimíoauoo Agaiost \\7omen, the CEDA W Com·
rntll~ Í• 1ncrea.1ngly mo,ing ul thc J1rectt<ln oí 1hi> rccogniuc;m U$ wdJ,
256 • On lht Cull••R Ed¡t P•rnograoby ª' Trall1ck1ng 251
as are >()lllc counmes that repon 10 iL Articl< 6 of CEDA \V/ Jirectl~ pro· p.mus to "1.ikc dJccuvc k¡¡alauve anJ admmistrJti\·e mcasutc> to P"'"cnt
h1b11s ",.JJ lorms oí tr.1íb< m womcn and c•plouutit!n of the prosmuuon t.hc cxploitatíon unJ obu>e oí womcn 1n •dvcni•ing .md pomo&raphy."
Long before. the &ijing Plntfonn far Action ( 1995). :;etung <tílndards
of othcD" a~ d lom1 of Jiscriminauon ug.ain~t ''vmcn. v;hich :-1.atc...--s mu:u
th•t counrnes agrccd to ochieve, rcco~izcd thot "thc use of w"men •nd
"!óke ull •ppropnotc mc..ures. includin11 lc¡¡1sl.n1on. 10 suppre<.~."" E.•-
grrls as scx obiects, includtn~ pomogmphy, "•• is a "factor(l contributing
ploiwion ,,f prnsutution, of coursc. is n0< "prostitution." But thc d1Srinc·
ro the contlllued prevalence oí violence • agaiost women."' Tbe Beijing
tion is thc 1:11nc as tbat becween prohihnion and aboliúon in the 1949
plarform directs goverrunents m ··cake appropriate mea.sures ro address t:be
Úln\"cnnon· thc explorted, che prosututed womeo, are '~ctims of come
and sex discrurunaúon, oor cruninJls or $"-< iliscnmioators. Who is ~­ rooc factors ... rbar encourage rrafficltiog in women and glrls for prosti·
rurioo and othtr íorms of commcrciahzed scx" and to protect their rigbts
ploiung ihc povdt)' aod discrinunauon and ;cxual abuse Jo childhood that
through both crirninlll und civil mensures." A s1rntc!)1c obj~"Ctlvc on vio-
put womcn w prosútution if no1 che buycrs wh" use: them. whose Jcmand
lencc •S•!n~t wtlmcn find• pomograph) "incomputiblc wi1h thc dignity and
Í()r th~ir U>C Í> thc fOJSOll thc tndustty cxlstsi' Wbat gn-•ter 1nJuccn1cnt
worth ol thc human pcrson" along with racism, xcoophobia, cthnic
nr mcirtment to pro;ntution rs thert th"n bemg pmd for sex when no onc
deansíng, and rerrorism ... At Beijin¡¡. smes commined themsclves to "take
\\'ill p;1y you for llnythin~ clsc? In othcr words, crimmalizing thc buyCt$ of
efieCTNe mensures tncluding appropóate Jegislauon agamsr pornographv"
pn»litutes promotes ..cx equality: eoila, rhe '>wedhh modcl. SwL-<lcn's Law
and ro • escabhsh. consísrenr with freedom of expression. professionlll
mminalizing buying pcople in prosriruáon has, in faet, been reponed by
gw.delmes and codes of conduet thnt address '~olent. dcgrading or por-
S\\•eden <0 CEDA\VI as evidc.oc.: of its col)lpLiance with ns arúcle 6 obli-
n~raphic materirus cooccrrung women in 1bc media.·· · Like most cvery-
gations. The CEDA \VI Comnúnee itsell has re:td anide 6 consisrc.ot \mh
1hin11 di.e 10 wh1ch govemmeim commi11.cJ 1hemsel'"es tn thc Bcijlng Plat
this interprewtion frum the bcgUlOJDg, asloog quesuon aftcr qu6uon J.bout
íorm for Ac-iíon, rhís ha• yct m be done.•
~clit:nls: .. cu~"tomers." "sc...'IC tourists,'" and '°mcn"' (now thíu \\'<::: say '"de·
Onc of 1hc most insigbtíul devclopmcnts in thc intcm:11ion•l ,¡yi;1ern on
m.md," wc do no• ne<?<! to say "men"l, and many ubout "cr•d1cating"
the subject of porn~raph) can be found in the Human Rights Com-
prosiltluinn pcr ser Thc CEDAW Comnuttcc has i.1kcn thc ,.¡ew 1hat 1he
dem11nd for ('l'O$Ulution is covered by thc Convcntion a¡¡ainst discrimína- rntnee's General Comment 28 on Equabty of Rigbts Between Men and
tion 2A1.1in~r \\,•ornen. Women under the lmematiooal Covenaot on Civil aod Pohtic-.il Rigbts
Thc dcmmd for pornographv, as • forro of ihe exploitarion of prosti- ('1"bich the Unued States has raa.fiedl." Arride 19 guarruuees freedom of
exprcssion; thc lfoman Riglus Commirtee 1ook the view that ..U srn1es
rutlon. is encompassed under the same pnncipl~. Pomography is occa-
should inform it of laws or nthcr foctors th~r 1mpcdc womei1 in cxcn:ising
s1onally menuoned m CEDA W repornng under mude 6 · aod someumes
thcse ri11ht•. .. As. thc publicati(>n •nd di.,,,.,rnin•uon of abscenc Jnd por
undcr arudc 5. wbere i1 JS refcrrcd to us a 'hrunúul reUc and cus1om oí
no¡craphic mJterial which portna)'S womcn nnd girls as objcc1s oi violcnce
thc lonc \\'Í>h1:>) pJSL Neitber pr0\lt1tu1ion nor pumogruphy is trC•ted us
or degradiog or inhuman rreaunem is likeh 10 prornore tbese kinds of
un im1ítution of r.ex cqu.ility just wniting to be legalued for Íl• <liscrimi
treaanem of \\'Omen and girls, States Panies should pro\'Íde ínformatic>n
n•tory h•nn to wnmcn ta he climina1cd CEDA\Vs General Rcrommcn-
abou1 le¡zsl measures to resrrkt the publicalioo or dissemmatioo of sucb
wtion 19, recoynizin~ \~e>lencc •gams1 women as aviolation of CEDAWs
111J1tenal."•• Dissenunarion. pceosely rrafticlung. 1s recogruzed here to Sl-
prohíbiuon on discrimination agaiost women. expres;lv sees pomograph)
lence women's spcech! The United States dtd 001 reserve 10 anide 19,
as a product ol scx inequaluy. It also obsen<cs that gendcr-based violence
only 10 article 20, whích proviJes th:11 aclvoc•cy of nouoruil, r.1cül, or
is produced by porno~raphy, Jo pan because 11 prometes subordm~te roles
rcligious haireJ that ~on<titutes incitement 10 u1>crimlnution ,hull be pro
11nd constricccJ options for womeo, \\ luch in tum "contributé to the prop
hibited " Thot rescrvotíon seeks ro reduce rhc ICCPR'• oblig•rions 10 1he
ogauon oí pomography J.OJ thc dc:pictk>n and other commercial exploi
sízc of cxisting U.S Pin;1 Amcndment low 1f onicle 20 does not men1ion
tJll"'1 of womcn as ""'u"I nbjcct~ rothcr Lh.tn ... tn<ll\'IJwils . ,. Tht cir·
rular 011.1.•aliry of real11y n:gistcr$ here Whcn it un<lenook to .u:Lapt the &C-~-bast'tl or sexual harted that coosrirures indrernenr ro sex discrimina·
commonds of CTDAW ílnd ather world standatds for me
trcarment of úoo, as pomograpby ar¡¡uably docs. neirher does the U.S. reservation on
t.he poim. Somelimes im-isibility works ro your •dvuntagc. The pomt is.
W<Jmen. 1he Afri01n Umon's prorocol on women's riphrs rec¡aired states
258 • On t~e Cuth•i Edce
cherc is no "speech" barrler in int:ernauon:l! law of human righcs 10 pro-
ettdm¡¡ Jgaum poroograpby. On the contrary, thcrc is more likc an invi-
t•tion to acldrcs. n. bo.wcl on thc rc-.clitation that pomography ¡Jenccs
sp<'tth
ª'
The onc legal pr0\·isi1>n 1ha1 squarely recogniies pomosr•phy trof
lickin11 i< the truflickin¡¡ provi•ion of the ch-il rights anupomo~rophy or-
dlnonces conceived and drafred by Andrea Oworkin and me. Trafficking
is defined rherc os the production, sale, exlubiuon. or distribution of por-
nography, which is defined in cum as gráphic scxually explicit subordi-
nation of women tbtougb piccures and worcls that al5o iodude a lis1
of specilic prcsentuttons."' 1\mericun Boo!w:llcrs Associ•Lioo v. Hudnut
found tli1s orclmantc unconstitu1ionul by holJing thru while pomography
;, se< cliscnrninution. its cffccnvcncss in cloing 1he harm i1 does makes it
constitutionnlly prorccrable." This holding "'"S summarily offirmed by thc
U.S. Supreme Courr." Althou¡¡h thc Commiuee's imerpretation is p<:rmis-
S:ive, the United States is clcarly out of step wnb its undersrandmg of the
meaning of the lCCPR's guarantee of freedam o{ speecli. Accessioa 10 thc
!CCPR could becomc one of scver-al intervenli1g developmcms m tlie rcas-
sessmem of the constitutionality oí thc anlipomography ordmancc in thc
United Strues Passage of tbc orclinance, fe<ler•lly ou1horizcd uncler thc
commerce power-porno¡\niphy being nothing if n0t commcrce, its traf-
6d<lng tuking pl~ce in nnt ional os well as ¡tlobal markcrs-would put the
Unitcd StntC1> b:ick in conformity with 1he direction of imemational law.
The Unitcd States could also ratif}• the 1949 Convention, although ir has
no obligatory cause of acrion. Bmh rhe 1949 Com-enrioo and the Swedisb
model, for aU tbeir crucial advances against demand, lca\'c out the people
in thc materials: tbe uaflicked. These approachcs gct the criminal lau off
tlielr bncks but give them no positi"" rights against their abusets or thc
material• produced through thdr abuse. Em1>0wering thc mdustry's 6rst
vicum~ is 1hc most Jircct and cffcc:ljvc routc ro its nbolition; 11 cannot
survive pnyinp. the cost of opcmtion if it has co pav Í!• vicrims for what it
doe< 10 chem This thc •ntipom~raph) civil rights ordinancc would do,
simultaneously addressin¡¡ p0mogr-•phy's contribuoon 10 demand for pros-
munon and ns role in and as tro.fficking, upon un awarencss of which
uuemnaonal law 1s mcreas1ngly cooverging.
25
Women's September llth
Rethink.íng the IntemationaJ
Law of Conflicc
The c;onng11rn1ion of ac1s and actors of September l 1, 2001 ts oot one that
internacional law, ccntered on srates, bas been pnmarily strucmred to ad-
drcss. Ne1tlier was most of ml!n's violen ce a¡¡ainst women in view wben
thc laws of w.tr, tntematiooal humanil3rian law.' and internJtional huma.n
righlj gwrnntc<S were foun.,J.' The formal ancl •ub;.ranLÍ\'C parallcl> be·
cwecn che rwo-prominemly their horiwntal legal •rchitcetun:, lur¡¡c
victim numbers. ond masculioe icleology'-make both panems of violcnce
resemble disperse<! ormed conflict. bue the world's response co them has
bccn lflCOOSIStent.
Sioce ~ptrnilier 11th, the mtemational order has been newl~ willing to
Th'* 1hóu¡h111 hcnd'hcd jr...-..d)• íton\ c•t."h.nga tutrow:idmg lhciJ ddlw:cy in pnor íoonl--<ll tht
Sunhv."C11cm llnM:n1f)' Liw Schaol fApnl 17. 2002) 1 thc l.n• and Terrorism Qin(crm~. Hof·
Rr• Lll•- Sdiool. Nict, ._-tall<'e (July 17, 10021; thc Barbara Aroasran Bbdt Lecru.rc, Cotumbu
U n - Law Schoot !Sq.tcmoo t 7, 20020. tloC.1n u"' Scboul 1D=mbcr5, 1002); lh< ~tcU..
!.«<ur.. U"""""'Y of PirubuiRh i..... Sd!ool !/\rril 14, 200l•· rtw R.lph S¡1itlnwl l«t.,.,
Sutkndl Ull<'-IY tScp«ml><r lS, 200JJ; Kahunnoo ('.oll<g• tOcwbtt 4. 2004); m• Oe•-r
l.«iure:. Unn"'™'Y uf tluc:-itg0 Lli• Schoc'1 IOaobct ~. Ml l. Uni\lenuy OI Denver ~twm CoUc:cr
óf Uw fMimh 10, 2005J· Srnnírird Law &.+ic~ (Arril 14. 2'l"Mt 1he UnM:"it~ ni P11ris X N.n
«=I (Galdm Gaoc L...- Sd>ool• l)unc l'J. 200''- ibc N.... Scholmhlp in lntWl""°".I
Wur~. llar.:ard L1tw ~l 1úaubét f:ii, .n111 tbc Uru\·C:tt.¡ty ol $.a." J-"r.mcuc.o lNt.ncmb.rt
l. ?OOS• 11oJ mrmo~hl). Hrbn."W \J~\.'C1'141Y tJiu1u.ry 11, .?0061 I ih4nk iaU thnr 11ud.iroca i"'"
thcu """·"'"""'- Somc pans ·~ in "St0t• of Em"l!-.: Who \X'íll O..:lan: \\u oo
Tcnurisni -a~.lln&t WcxnctV" t<t/6 Wr11W11·1 Rntl'fL' c{&o.b 741 l10021,J0é Alvtlf<"I. T.i.I ~k.c-r
Tcim BmJn. K•run• l'kmllunt, Ou1llU'I~ Chtnkln. l';eot¡ilC' A~cr lioJ;a G¡,u:dnc-r. Jiiek Cnld
mwh. Rvat> Goodnun, }..;lc-0-be<J, Kent fün<). L•""' lkth Nid.=. jcmco N.......ttb.
~lldi,d Rmman. OiJnc Rmmldd, "'"" s.t...r. E"' S1an. .,,J M••v El1<11 O'CooacU g."""".I)
rontmrkd •ilh .nd n1.S.: •u~,¡~" (11: mor dt.fu. C"ommt"nl> fl'(lftt 1brft ancm)mau> ~
.¡.,...,.."""'atoo rut«J1noc1111J; UICful 1'h< Uru>"<<Sh)' ol Mi<hiµn Law Loh..,,.. Md•nk Mar-
km.w, and ~pttiall~ Ron ~ pro,•;ded rutMc.h .i3~!1111&ll« lauo• C1k'U~ and Ano. U.akhi-.n
<fm1nbu1f\l nJJ't-tb 1n."*hnklll hclp 1 am dccply gri11cful tot it.U of tbr:1r Ml(1(Wlrt Thc Cc:ruc1 tl'lf Ad
vanc:r:d Srud,in me ~·K\~ Scieoi;tS 1CAsm1 PfO\'lllikd. suppomvc Kltlrll tor h¡ 6ml ~,4
.tlon. 1,1,hf, Wi&! brst publb.hN In .C7 t-LnJ.nl .lwro.AI oi lttrM11taon.J l.11111 1forthCOJu~. 20061
260 On lht Cutt1n1 Edte
trea.tnonst•te •<.'tOt'S like •mes os u source ot \IOlcnre involung thc law of
JrtncJ con.Hict. llluth of Lhe internauonal tommuntt} has mobilizeJ force.·
fulh ogJinst terrori•m. This >Jmc ÍJltl!rnJuonal eonunu1uty that tumeJ on
a dime :1f1cr C\cptember 11 th h,1s, Jc,spitc unp<>rt•nl imtiotiv..,• )'CI r:vcn
1<1 unclen ake • romprehensive m<iew of intern•tÍQnal ln"''S and msrituuom
townrd an effective stracegic rc..ponse ro violcnce aguinst women' wirh ali
levels o( response on the cable. even as the "respons1b1licy to protect" from
gross and syscemanc v1oleru:e rs increasingly emer!!IJlp mtemationuUy as an
aífinnath'e dury. Ibe post-September 11 ih pnmcligm sht.ft, pt:rmitung po-
tent response to m'1SSl\.C. nonstale \'iolencc a.gairut civil1Jns in sotnc in
smnc... cxcmplinco if not J moJd for cmul•tion, • >upple ~J•pt•tion ro•
p:iullel challcn¡¡c. lt shows whnt thcy c.tn do wht!n thc:y w~nt to. Ti, in
tens1<>n ""h 1hc cxmin~ framcwork, thc Qnt: problern can be confronted
mtemationa)ly, why not thc otber>
r
ViewL-d rhrough • gcnckro;d lcns, St:ptember 11 th was markeJly sex-neut:tal
on the vic:ums' 01t.!c. \Xlome1'1, along with mcn-t!, ooe 1uppo>es becuu>e
oí scx di;crimin.tJon in employment, not cqu.tl numbers of th•m-wett
JX-'Oplc that day At lhC \Vorlcl Trocle Cenier, women and mcn together
rushcd up .1nd up to help, crawled down and do11.-n bemg belpcd, 1umpcd
unbcnnibly. ran covered with fear and ash. became ash. Then, clay after
day. month aher month, there they ali were, one ar a cime on the special
memorial pages of the New York Times.•• often smiling, before. [n remem-
brancc, they were inclividw.ls. diJ everyt.l:ung. had every prospect. Then
on onc crw.hing da)·, thc)' were \·Jpori:te<l without 1-q¡arJ 10 >CX.
On the pcrpeuators' sick, tbc atroatic. wcre har<lly scx or gender-
neutral. Animatcd by • m.ilc·dominum ethos, th .. <>ne 1n thc guise oi re·
u"' lígion-a panicular funcl•menrnlísr extrem1sm that has silenccd womcn,
subordino1ed them in privare, and exdudcd them from public life-chese
mcn bound for glory ond pleasure. sorne for vil'j!in< i~ a manyr's pi!rodise,' 1
extermmared people br the rhousands 10 makr a poinL Thc rest of the
"'orld IS stiU trym¡t to figure out exactly wh~t that pouu was. llw chis
:iggres•ion, these atrocit1C$, thís pmpag:mJa by dL-cJ, made St:pcember
IJ 1b an excmphry day o! malc \1olcncc. Evc¡y otber day, as wdl a> too
onc, incn .Ls well 11.s ~-ornen Jrc victlmized by men ·s violen ce But 1t n
nriking that thc number oí proplr who died at tbcsc ""''"' hunds on
Sep1ember 11 ch. from 2800 to ~000. i• almosr idemirnl co rhe numbcr of
"'"''"'" who die at the hands of men every yesr m just onc couotry. the
259
 Women'• Sepiember lltil 261
same (>Oc io which Scptcmber 11 th h..prcn<.J. "' Women murdcrcd hy maJc
intunote> afone coulcl have íillcd onc wbolo World Tradc Towcr of Sep·
temb.-r l l 's deacl." This pan of a war on women m only one countrv,
variously waged in alJ counrnes,'' is far Erom sex-equal oo eimer side
To call voolence agamSl women •a war: espeoalk in a legal conrext, is
usually Jisnussal as mcrnphorical. byperbolit. and/or rhetorical. ~mee the
UN Chuncr, when war ccuseJ bcmg the Jefin1tivc J"l!,J tcrm, mt.:mouonal
I'"" .speaks OÍ "arined conllo<'t" or ·armcd u1wck." Tiiis bo<ly of l~w pri·
manly reguLne~ the use of force between or "ithm ~tates or for control ,,f
~tates " lf one sidc is anned and rhc other side 1s not. or if smes ore not
1he units or focus of me ligluin~. the conflicr may n0< qualify. \'Uberher
1he fi~nng has reached me point where peacenme law and insrirurions
have broken clown 1s " prime critenon. Violence againsr wome.n has aor
lookcd like a war in this sysicm in pan because srates are no1 seen to "'ª!!C
u., nor <llld 11 p""""'1 •rmies contending 1mhm or ncross or ag•inst or for
control or tor <ldimtion of >t.ncs 11 is not nbout sune powcr m the usu•I
w•y. Nor do 1he sexcs look likc ~-ombaum Jlroups nre 1hougho to look.
Neithcr scx IS considered 10 be in uniform The regu)nñties of thcir soCÍlll
beh'"~º' are noc seen as or¡¡anized. so their conflict looks more chaotic
than ordered. IX'omen are usually unarmed, many weapons used against
"'.ornen are no1 regarded as arms, and v.•omen do nor typicall~ light back.
E\'Cn artack.~ on women by men iha1 employ com·enuonal weapoos are nor
consid<!l'cd "11rmecl am1cks" or • "use or 1hrear of force" m ihe inu:.rna-
tional leg.U scnse." The bJttlc of the !>CXCS simply cloes not look che w•y
n wur 1s suppo~<l 10 look.
So. no Genev• Conven11011S "'" limits. There are no rules of en¡¡a¡:emem,
no rules of comba1. unless domesric criminal lnws coun1-lows so under·
enforred ir can almOSt seem as if they are not there. ,- Women get no
quarttr. surrender means more force. Because so much ,;oJence againsi
woméll talcos place m what IS called peaceume, 1rs atrocities do oor count
ns war comes unl& u wnr among mcn IS gomg on ar 1hesamc ume. lnscead
?[ b~g ''.'ll"'dc<l as war cnmcs-us beyond die palc, if 10 wme <leg1'Ct'
tnev1LlhJc 1n cxccpuorutl rontex1s-acr.s of vio1cnc\! agam$t \\'Ornen are re..
g.uded nc¡t as exceptionnl but inevuublc, cven b•nw, in un uncxcepu<>nw
contcxt, bcnce beyond no pale. ln ibis "wor: no one is u nonc<1mbJ111nt
with P~.•~cted ávilian status. These • combuiants" canno< be d.istinguished
from ovilians wbo are off.línms 10 snack, either by their lock of command
srrucrure or by ihetr clotlung; no dr.ss code bcre, jusi socmlJv prescribcd
amre t.l1a1 1argers women by screaming "ft:male• and makcs it barJ to
run. Ntir Joes U[l.gression 11g,tinst women couru .. crlmes •gamst thc
Women' 1 Sepiember 111~ • 263
262 • On the Cutttn¡ Ed¡•
~ice., as '!lgtes.1on 11g;i1nst \WLtS ~ calleJ, womcn not bctng J >wt..-. dear languJgc (lf Commfln Arride ~ of the Gene·•• Convcniion.•. hs pro
All dus mllkes "All's f;ur in lave anJ war" only half true; m war, ali is not tections for ci'ilioms during conflicu tho1 are not among naüons are
thout1ht 10 be 1he leas1 1hat mus1 be a\·tÜlnble for acrs wtth a nexus to
foor.
A,·u oí violcnce oga1nsL women :ire legally cons1dcred to be "'·ernfo•· rumed con.6.ic1.. lt prohlbirs Vlolence IO life aod the persoo. espedally
crimes, nf cou">e. left 10 narional and 01her loClll sys1ems For this rea."<On. murder, mutilanon, crud rrea1ment. and 1orrure. and outra¡ies on personal
and bccause the acrors under 1he UN Chaner ore st:ues, noi prople." dl{UlllY, especially humiliaúng aml degrading rreacment. lmagme women's
rcsponsive force b) people. includin¡¡ women. has not been considered evcrydJy livcs wuhout ..U thar. Ctimmon t\rude !U t\'CD guarnntces 1ha1
autbonzcd under tbe Chaner as self-<iefcnse.1• Womcn's coun1ermcasurc. people nor uking p•n 1n hosúlíties •re 10 be tre1ucd w1tbout <fucrimin•tion
are 001 uswll~ found justl6ed as self.Jefense undcr mos1 n•tional an<l state on 1he b•s¡s of sex. The ubsence, for women arounJ the world ou1siJe
whai are 1ermed zones of conílicr, of such gunranteet for noncombatanrs
sySt"1lS <"ttbcr:'" Parallel norms of 1mmed1acy nncl propomon.illt) .'' crbltcJ
wuh conJ11cts berwccn mcn in mind;" are enforccd ag,1in>1 v.·omcn <lcfm- in w.ar .puts "'.ornen in the pmcticol position of bein~ combatants in doily
tf.ont~ clJimtng sdf defonse 111 mo.i suues 1n ihe Uni1od S1utcs, as if women
hosrilines. wbile at me same rime genernUy being unarmed and coosideted
hnve the po,t·er thJt <hiles hove.'' SeJf.Jcfonsc smndards ore seldom effec· c~inals if 1hey 6gln back. ~ed in whar IS called peacetime, Common
tively cnforced on norions: 1heir sovereigmy is defended by force with
Arride 3 would rran!;Íorm tbe h'·es of women eveeywhere. But you need •
war for it LO upply.
relative legal impunity throu¡;h aets tha1 are somerirnes proportioru11e aod
somerimes not, and linlc to oothing is done." Bur women wbo defend
themselves from malc VlOlence woth lcthal force are. likely to wind up con- a
voctcd of murder and on d"'1th row." 1n no case-excep1. for example. de
The mresbold legal barñer ro address.ing male violence agains1 \\'ornen
fac10 through jury nullificauon or, at a str.:tcb, wben par<loned-are 1bq
imernarion111ly has been dm both the perpeuarors and the victims are
trea1ed .inyrhing like pro1ecred comb!lrnnts ·
This IS no1 10 sugges1 tha1 men 's cap1urin8 and killing of womcn should
pnvate persons. tenned nonstate aaors. But Osama bin Laden and bis Al
Qaeda nc1work-assuming 1hey are behind 1hc 9/11 anacks"-are also
be legal, as it would be if 1he '""' on women were legally consiclercd a
pnvate c1tizcns. Allegations have been made of vury¡n.g IC\'Cls of stai:e m-
war. Y~ even if it was, rape would still be a war crime. Howe\i:t ignored
volvemcnt, lmkage, und h•ckup tO mcir plot, but, $0 fur ~ is loio"'"'· Al
in praetice. rape has long been considered unfoir in men 's wars" and is
Q•cda .~ll.$ not working for ªºl' •tare. lf anything. Osuma bin Ladcn may
being adjudicated interoaoonally undeJ· increasmgly serious rules that rcc·
have h11ackcd Af¡¡hanistan, its illegitimutc regime potcncinlly working for
ognue a comex1 o( force" thiit no domesuc ropc law ye1 dO<S. lt IS to
him rathcr man the ocher Wl\)' around. A:n Al Qaeda connection wiih
observe thar whdc druly life goes on almost as tf violence "&•'""' woméll
Saddam Ht1SSein°s reióme has been offiáally Boated in tbe United Stares
is l~aL <laily lifc lllcks tbc legal bcncfüs to noncombat~nts chll • recog·
and is wtdely believed, but no direct evidence for ir bos yet surfaced"
nizc.-<l stat< ot w.ar confcrs. ff \\'Ornen m cveryday lifc '"" not fomully
Under the laws of war. conduct oí prfrnte persons or encities has required
con~1tlered combarnnts, with c:omh.nanl"' rijthts. neitbcr Jo thcy cffcc1h·elv
sorne dtgrée of state control Or a<lopt10n 10 be orraburablc to s1.a1cs. ·• As
rece.ve the benelits the law of war confeis on civilians during combar
Even :IS thc all~d September 11th perpe1rators tañd mese lumped 10-
to Stptcmbcr l luJ, swcc acuon has nm ot\ly no1 bctn proven; 11 hus $0 for
barcl) bccn credibly atlegcd
~ether w1th chcm) are mcoasistendy coosiclered soldiers and cru:runals
Ón tbc victim s1de, the Pen1ag1>n would hnvc been • military 1orge1 m
undcr U.S. law, v.·hile consistent.I) recehing the benefü.s of neither ihe war
o wor (nlthough ir cannor legally be hit with ci,;lion a1rcraftl. but the World
model nor the ccime model,- OlO>t meo wbo commi1 violencc agamst
Trade_ 1ow~. wruch Mr. bm Loden apparently regarded as sorne sort
women Jre leg..Uy cons1dcre<l neuher soldtci$ nor cnmmals. yc1 oftcn re-
oí oflicial tar~ei, were private bwldings full of mostly pri•11tc citizens
cd\'c 1.he cffecrivc lmpunlty 1h.11 IS tbc p~.1ctical bendit <>Í both
workmg for priva1e corporations. The !\\in towers cerrninly wcre "' tbe
lf violence agwnst Wl'men ">ere consideted l war in<iJc one COUOll)". an Uru1cd Stmes, symbolized 1he nadon to some, nnd \\·ere a culrural icon of
•rmeJ conAict "not of an iniemationJl chamctcr," much of wlta1 happens sorts, bu1 for lcg¡J purposc>. 1hcy werc no1 thc Unued Swos. Thcy were
10 women every day ali over 1he world would be crisply prohibi1ed by the

264 On lhe Cut11n1 Ed&•
001 • rniliury ••rge1, Cor which, in a war, a military n:sporu.c U. legal. In •
""''• tbey woulJ be • civihan ur¡tet, • w•r crimc w attuck, w ~ p~r.ucd
1udicfolly. t\nd before. on, •nd >incc Septcmbcr l llh. AJ Qaedu s v1cUm>
hu,·c 1ranscendcd nation,11 bounJ.1rics, us do 1he victims of the war on
\\'UDlCO
$o. on 'ieptember llth. nonsiate actots commincd violence ªl'."inst
mostly nonstilte (nongovernmental and civilian) actors 1<has bcen basicaUy
mconcdvable w1thin tbe Westphalian system that such an fl.ct could be so
damagmg or provkk Lhe predicate for the lC\-el of response it ha. occa·
sionc<l." Yet from that momem fonh, m a usage that shdes between 1.he
legal un<l t.he ordmary, thc concrete un<l thc rhetorical, thc Unitccl Sutc:s
has tolcl the worlcl, ·we are at 1wr."" With no stu1c yet in view behind
the og¡tr..sion, U.N. Security Council n:solutions concernin¡\ September
11 th implied that the en'"ts of rhat drcadful day were an ·anned auack.""
NATO invoked cullectiYe defen,¡¡, for tht first time in irs history." So tbis
becomes a war-complete with war crimcs, miliury tribunals, potentially
¡usufied acts of self-Oefensc, and prisoncrs of war.'" The fact tha1 t.he ex-
1stin¡¡ scrucmre of lmemanonal law do"" oot havc a ronlllct like rhis po-
manly 111 1run<l has not stoppcd the "'"rume scale response, complete with
milirnrv mobili,ation, finsncc, ordnnnce, rhc1oric. and allionccs. Fcw huvc
otllcd ;he tímc sincc Sep1en1bcr 111h pcucetime.
This in1erna1ional cffort, 1he "war oo terrorism." c.111'\ the acrs of Sep-
tembcr 11 th •terror,' a term that has a far less setded incemational defi.
nition rhan armed conllict has:'" Yet UN Security Cotmcil resolutions have
uscd it rcpcatedly in re:ference to the evems of September U t.h without
defuuuon." ovcr liulc protesL Clearly, the acts of tha1 day fall wuhm a
widdy undcrstood meaniug of the term. Common elcments induJe pre·
n1cd11ation Mhcr th•n •pontanc1ty, i<lcological and pofüical r~ther thM
cri1ninal 1notivc, ch•1lian tn.rgeD (somctimcs tenncd "inn(l.Ccnts'"I, ancJ stJb
nu11onal woup ageots." Whot •bo11t violence against wt>mcn fails ta
qualify' Much of it is plnnned. induding mony gang .rapes and serial mur-
ders. much sralking and sexual nara<SmCJ\t, a lot of pornography produc-
ooo, and most sex craf6ckmg. Are women somehow nor "innocent," qua
women existencially at fault? lf the lan¡t0a¡ie of war reveals women as de
facto conscriptS, nJw:iys non·civilians )'et never comootants, the l:mguagc
of terrori>m shows thot women 01e sddom innocem cnough. An<l just "•hat
abou1 wo1ncn\ >1•tus rcfauvc w mcn is n(>I "poJitical"? [f scx lll one way
po1>1:r 1• SO(;i•lly or¡;.1ni2cd, íormmg • sc~u•I poluits. sexual viol<ncc is ~
practice <>f th•e polines. misc;ojlV11\ i1s idcology."
Sorne definitions of tetrorism also requíre d13l 1he \'iolence tor¡iet • third
Wom•n's S•oltmbe1 llth 265
266 On the CutUnc Edge
purty (soy, Ó\ili•m) in order 10 COCTCe a rrincipal IBfg<:l ffor c:xample, • tn li¡th1 ol t.his .maly>J.S, u Is 1hc "1>·ar on terror" thJt b 1bc me1aphor-
go\'cmment or an mtematkmal intergovemmental orgonizationl ~ Despile
lcgally ,, mixeJ one 111 thnt-•ltbough ns pursui1 h11> b<:c11 .m~~hmg bue_
scaru proo( of what the United Statcs was supposed 10 be coerced into
dolllg by tbe anacks of Sep1ember 11 t.h" (apan from ¡¡tving up its way of
and vinlence .1g•mst womcn thíll qu•lific& "" a °'"" bdli •nd J form ot
'º
lifel, tbe Libe! "terrorism" has not been srud 11()/ apply to those unacks
°'
•errorism everv bit as much thc ovcnt.S of Sepwmber 11 th do.
lor tblS reason. Tbis def:in1dooal element sel'\'eS to further underlme that,
:is with \\•ho1 mokl:S o wor. officilo.l cnutics tend 10 be what count \'<lhcn m
this elemcn1 is adnp1cd, nttacks on pC<Jplc mottcr only when they are .i
Tbose who comend that mcn's daily violente against women ougbt to be
means of roercing SIBIC!I, somcthin¡; 1hae doe6 maner. And violcnce og.ún~t
J r<-cognizcJ •ioLuion of mtcmauonal t.w-llli sorne of us who work on
women. excep< in wars. is usuaUy 001 engaged in for me purpo•e of to·
these issue> h11\'e bet:n orgllll\g unJcr v•nous 1'Ubria. for )Car.1•-hAvc long
ercing stues.
been tolcl, in cssence, t.hot we do no1 know what wc are tulkmg about.
Although in soroe respecls Vlolence against women is much likc ter-
lmcrnation~l law. including human nghts l•w. ir is suid, is designed mainly
rorism. ihe acts of wluch can also be act.S o[ armed conllict. " is not as
10 control official acis: hence. it appl1es pnmarily ro official cntitíes. ei1hcr
such regarded os an aet. of war lll the ¡11s 11d b~llum sense nor necessarily
sta-ce·to-sme or indjvidual-10-rune. Exceprions are mamlv for 11cnocide and
" wur crimc.• Bu1 t.he lllernpt to conerol 1crrorism, d"5pitc not }'<'t bcing
crimes against huma!lity, which are widely thoogbt to have 10 ocrur on a
<le6ncd by the Rornc Srneu1e'' of 1he lntcmntional Crimuiol Coun (ICCl,
scale tbat usuaUy requires sorne official backing or at least official coodo-
has produced dccodes of inccrnationol dcb.1te and seores of intemnrional
nation. The internacional law of war ma) .1ddrcss mtcrnal armed confliru-
convemions." With respect to mnle violcnce againsi women, by comrnst,
that is, conllías interna! to mies. as in civil wars, comcst by guor:rillit forces
1here have not been any special ad hoc tribunals or umh :ind reconciliacion
of st.nc po\ver, or w.ars of no..t1011a.l liberat.ion-but not \\(hat nre rout1nc)y
commissions even proposed, much less cre-Jted, to get out 1he truth. heal
1enncd individual acts of \'iolcnce by sorne pcople in cil'il socicty •gamst
this social divis1on, and resrore ¡usuce-places whcre meo would come
orher people, JctS scc:n to be sporaclíc and isofo•ed. callee! "prívate.· E~en
and c:onfcss ~verything rhey b~d ever done 10 a woman, wherc t.bose
whcn violcncc o¡¡ainst woonen takes place in armed confiicts of men agamst
womcn, should there be rooms big eoough to hold thcm, cou!J decide
other meo such that the laws of war apply. ir has taken years of work 10
whcther to givc t.hcir obusers amnc•ry.•"
begin 10 get a serious legal response. Althougb rape in war has long be':"
The oct.S of Scptembtr 11 th surcly are crimes ngainst humaniry under
illc¡_¡ul, séXual attocities we.rc ignored at Nuremberg, were r.nsed only m
intemarional humnnitarian la11·, ns is mucb ,-iolence a¡zninst women, making
pan In thc Tokyu Tnals," art beginrung to be addressed by the Yugoslav
both intemationally illegal anytime, at leai;t m thcory, noi only in "'"' fond
Tnbwul;· are bem¡¡ addresse<l by thc Rwanda Tribuno!,'" •nd hove hécn
001 as sucb m act of w11r)."' Ye1 crimes against hum!JJlily have becn 1V1dely
l~gally urumplememed. Tbe lCC. 1>•bicb was not in force on Sepiember
codi6eJ in war by t.he siatutc oi' the lCC."'
11, 2001, 1mgh1 become o pince to seek 1ustice tor füeaven forbid) any 1\u1 cven with this progress, intcrnation.11 '""' still foils LO grasp thc
sucb futurc a1rocitics, cvcn po1emially for oon-ratifyiog srn1es lhke thc realiry 1hat members of one half of socicty are dominating members of t.he
Uruwd Sutes)." For violcnce 113ains1 womcn, not <!\len thc lCC, 11n un- orher half in often violent ways ali of thc time. in a const:mt ovil war
provcment in so many ways," fuUy solvcs thc problem. t\pon from crimes within each civil sociccy on a ¡¡]obal scal~a real world war going oo for
against humaniry, the octs of Septembtr J 1th mose dosely fir • legal cm millenn1a. lt hule imagines a wru:, or crinK">- o[ war, or crimes ag81Jlst thc
e¡¡ory that is imeresringly almost nerer invoked for thcm: 11enocide, "the pcace takmg place m wh1cb >tates as such are nt'llber the sourre nor thc
intencional kilüng of membets of a national group ... in pan, with intent ruimc of 1bc power bt:n1g violcntly c:.x<!'rciscJ, not the obiect .ought, nor
10 descroy the groap as such. '" One evocntke defioitloo of terrorism is t.he v1olmcJ pnrty. 11 does not cnv1sion conllices in wh1ch le is no1 thc
• bn by bit genocide. "" lf women werc seen to be J group. <'Opable of bountfarics of nation• 01 the soverc1gn1y C>f •tates thnc are a1tocked or
dcst.ruction as such. the term genocide woulJ be op1 for violcncc ng:ains1 defended, bu1 the boundorie< of the person •• a mcmber of o group that
womcn as 11-ell.1• But thot JS a b1g if. are transgressed. and me soverei¡¡nty of mcmbcrs of a ¡¡roup of people to
live lifc every sin¡¡le dáy th.t is infrín¡¡ed-all the while being regarded as
 Wo•en·s Sepltmbu lllh • 261
ltfc ., norm•l r-;.,rhmg 1m•t!Ín<> • conil.agr•noo wuh """' ,1.IL· •ttn<J •nJ
lr•mc.J, IM Olhl"f •1Je l•u~hr 10 lac J.)W'll anJ cnto) 11, cry, JnJ not "1dJ
k11chc.,, knl\-n \\1') m1trna1ional 1.... can"°' •JJrcs, gcnJcr conlli<1 os nuc
<p«ilicJ. h 1• ,.,,J thJI 11 cannot for histoñcal rc-.L<0n•-mcanÍ!ljl ll cannoc
b«ausc 11 h" noc.
\\~omm ha'c no <me, are no sute. sed< DO sure-rh" ~ION 1h<" \'i~nia
Wooll-mecu-~rttnbcr 11 th momem m dus discuss100 ' '"º"'' th1s h"-
tor) n""er ""'"" tu ¡:et illOund tu mcludmg us, and ¡:cnornlc doe> not
rover womcn "" 1hc ba>ii of ;ex, - onJ cnmo "!!'-""' huin•n11y "ere
1mplcmentcd nowhcrc unul 1he ICC (ll•hich •ull priorhuc• .i ore en force
mene), who1 are women violo1eJ by men 10 do? ln1crn•1mn11ll), who1 we
hd1·e done i• lul)()r 10 ~el scates on the hook by m..,tin¡¡, expnndi11~. or
weakenin¡¡ che le~al requiremems for of6cial aCÚQn, es<enu•ll~ 1he <ame
move under mccmauonol low as stare action requ1remen1> under l. 'i, con-
s1icurional law.•• Thc efton 1s ro criangula1e ihe conncct100 bcrween che
~cJ 1ndmdual m.ui. the woman. and thc statc m urJcr 10 sccuce 'late
J<«.>un1~b1loty lor .. h.11 he Joco 10 her.
Bu1 ''•les th.i do "ha1 cx•etly? Wlut prec>cl)' Jo they do '" m•kc
mcn·, 1mrun11y íur vi(\kn"--c ag:titL~l u·omcn to t~ to lt>tJ..I~ Sometun~
state aC1on rommu tht- cnmcs in ther official car•atoea, somctimn the.
affinnativdv cO\'tt 1hmi up. Bu1 this is a drop m 1he ocan quanumneJ,
How 10 addrcs• <0 many lrws seemÍIJ8lY usdess b'· des1gn. full ol rntps for
die viola1ed called "doanne,• encrenched before women were evm al
lo"·ed 10 "º'"· now en•hnned as precedent? l low to mJke ~t kmJ of
conncct1t•n 1nto thc 11fhrmadve. hopefully consc1ous .nJ 1111e:nuonJI, prcf
crahly fo<1JI ""º" con>piru1<11·1al lmk that thc law (\\hiLh w<1mcn obo did
nor wmcl w<tnlS 10 we befare <tn¡1hing cnn be don< (Jnd onc i. 1d<0 eallcJ
porano1d for do1mingl? How to ge1 at che enJle« doin¡¡ ol norhm1t tlm
cn•blea somcthcn¡¡ o ponern we are frequenrly 1old ¡, anamon, nor ne
non? Lemn¡¡ die con be lullrn,11. bystandc1> ro rntemauonal orroc1nes hall
• world aW3\ are ;a1d 10 be comphcit. but l<tt1~ mcn abu:.e women al
home 1> !iddom acknll" bl1tcJ as abusll\g women. anti \Uh.:hrn~ thém do
11. as m pomu;traphi. 1> J con>lltutJooal nght m somc cUW\tnn And •unpJ,
all011>cJ in mo.1 M l lov. 10 caprurc thc lacs<'r re•llly ol mm g<ttong •""ª)
.,;th \'lolcncc •¡;;>'"" womm and lrnowmg th") <11n-• for<t! 1lu1 <'P<-r.rn
bctwccn thc ....,,. h\e 11r1v11y' How 10 indudc thc re""•"'" surron for
men lxtn• mm 'irrown up boys bcing bo)'Sl in countlcss puse. 1ha1 ""
are endl..-lv rold 1< !K'C1al onJ cultural not poliucal much Je., mmmal
hence a fonn of frertlom lmen's). not coercion ("·omen'sl~ Whtn menare
\·1ul•tal, pan1eularl1 cenarn men. a-cmually et will be'""" 10 form u poi·
168 • On lh C•ll••I Ed&t
nu;" on 1hc "ay 10 havíng bunun nght' \\'ben ., ornen are \lol.ued. n 1>
,tiJI <allcJ c-uhun:, tbc larest <0\-Cr lor •t.mJ.mg b~
rhen. larcon ~rc:mber l ltb. out ol iM mouth ol l'rc:siJen1 l!u>h carne
"" lllU""Ct ol >0r1• "\\'e ,.;n nukc no .futm<'"Uon bctv.Cdl 1hc 1c-mm>1s
..-ti.. commmeJ rhoc ....-... anJ 1h°"' "ho h.arhor thon • The ,,.,., Jw-.
bors th<m 11Us nouon of harbomll! h.u no1 ha,J quite thi• pronunencc
unul n,,.,.. en rlus arca oí Lm· alihOU¡!h human nthl• C"'1\t!l'lllOO< olten b1·
rh<-ir renn• hC'ld <urcs 11ecountable for \1ol•ll<>n$ on rhor rerruocy that
1h<-\· do nm <rop,• ami regional 1urudict1ons ha,o lxcn expand~ the net
ol olhc1al roponMbiliry for human rljlht> v1olauun• in tlus du·ecrion for
"''"'" umc. ~mee Scptember 11rh, rhou¡;h. thc 1n1crn•11onal mouon tn
ch" Jire<ti<>n en thc stturir~ •rcna ha, l>een prcdpnnu~ On 1he le>el oí
ln,111111i1>nal pucnce. the UN Sccurll) C:nunul nl'h«l lo ombruce tbc for-
mtrh raJi<"lll nouons tha1 non<111t< ""'' ...n l'I<' annhureJ 10 ""'es th•r
huhor rorrori<r•. and 1hat sdf..J.!fen<c anJ • 1hre.11 to 1he peocc under the
UN Charter can be tn~cred b) bacbonnM and C\t!l'I by the mere connn-
um¡¡ thn:-.i ol terrori<t aas ... The Secunl) Cound! m 2004 u.M 11> Oupter
\ '11 I"'""'" to reqWre ~utcs 10 •OOpt .anJ entor<c cltecnve 1.i...,, ag;amsr
"11111 n011>we actor• prohlcraung ll.OJ dcfü-.,nntt nuclear, dtcmlal. and
b1C>lo¡:rcid '"""!'<'"• •m p:lrllcuJ.c lor 1crronst pul'p(»CS ... Th~ thcy c'aD
m>n,.;c On ch<- b·d of swe pra.;ucc, lwd 1hc Tal1hJn llOI cxl>1ed, thc
L'nuc.l \1;1e. ,..,uJd Jlmost ha"c h•d 10 tn\t!nl Al~hini<un\ relotion to
Al Q.>N• m ordcr to ha'" a"ª'" 10 bomb .1nd rm·•Jc, 10 cum ,..Ji.i·tmuld
Cllhl'rwi"' l><' cnmes againSI humanin· mpondm¡r to crimes •8acn<t hu·
m~nny, ''ª"' tcrronsm cetalfanng for nnMtJte terrorum, male 11olenee
o~.tinsr malc 11olence.. imo tbís thmg callcd war 1l.i\'an¡: demol1Shal one
>1arc S•UlCIUJf) (anJ pans ol already..J•ma¡:cd A!~hani<r.m with irl, thc
Unncd Stuics M. mol'ed to pursuc Al QacJo wurld..·idc, a n= ork of
'º
rl01cnual h.rbormg !O (ar u1d cxrcnd lO up 10 ""' counlri<> '"
1ñc lact 1h.u Al Q•ed.t is n<'< nrgan1ZcJ meo J n.11100 wuh ormlé> anJ
rcrmor. ,hd nOl <tnp 1hi. in1cmouon.J re<J>OCIK- bel<'[" u ~uncd No one
argucd 1h.n 1h<- ht¡:¡:cr Al Qacda is, iM kss on be Jooc abour u \'er the
la<1 1ha1 nulc Jomuuocc is noc Of'!l.lfllled na mee, bu1 likc :\) Qaeda 1s
lucrall) iran<n•nonal omd pervades the ...·orld I> u....J 10 kecp mak 1iolcnce
:i¡::amst ,. umen lar>(dv uno~ en 1hc 111fcmau.,nal >\>lcm. That men
ar~ not "sute ne'.\er ound th11 ~ run 11lCbl C'\cn sr.ncl <'.'\c."1\ secm.. to
flct thcm 1n:-a1cJ •• if thcy h~vc no p.,...,,
mcr 'O<lmcn •t .U. \\'hethct an)
&S n central to AJ Q.ac....J.i \ tl•rr,,rL\t cu:1u nrk ¡¡e;. lt t!t to ¡t1\.·1ng a
'1Jtc C'nbl\'
tUR<I the. ),~,).; .mJ fcd •nd rhu< potcnnal l""'h•'alÍ<>11 ol • war rcmains
Womeo 1 Seplembtr 1m • 269
10 be <CCO 1\nJ whctbcr >ioleot meo "bc...c w~ct> are "·omen. ,. bo op-
cu.rc wuh csscnti.tl tmpunuy ,..orlJ.,.;.Jc, -.ill be Ken as "horlxircJ• b• !he
sutes th•t clk<11\d,- pcrm11, henc'C c'OflJon..- •nJ ""PI'<'" rh<-ir 1cu, or
,.-hcthc1 m•k Vl<'lm<e •g:un>1 "'"""'n "1U r\Cr he r<'J.rJ..-J u ur¡;cn1
m<M1¡;h 10 1gnol'<'-Or rn:fcrably re>1rue111rc-m1mu11nn•I J..,. 10 aJJn:s.•
n, t'C'ln.uns to hf' ~ ~ "..¿J
Compare 1he re<poose ro Seprembcr 11 th "uh cxcu<es for dorng
norhm~ ah.)ul v1olence a¡!arnst '111001en. As che roo" ol '>eprember l lth are
w1rovcrtd dttp m social and eronormc hle •rounJ che world, tn bdic:f
.md 1dcnury. us 3Cts as exprtssive as they olrC nu>culinc, ll·tll the wsr on
rcmir ~rind "' 11 hnh? WiJI i1 be s.1ic.l tho1 M•1n..- 111J1vid11Jls •re 1us1 violen1,
so no1hin~ ~•n he <lone? Will tcrruri&m be 'C<n 111 cul111tJI, hencc pro·
te<lcdl \X'1ll th< Unncd Srarn rhrow up ih h.inJ• uhen Íl lt•rr1> th•t Al
Q•c.la likc \óme pomogc:iphers and 01hcr >o-rroffickers l~ex tht-ir reli-
¡rion "'-.di ru; theu business• is or~anaed m lwhJI for men arel uncon-
venuon•I ""ª'"' \'1olence a~amsr "''Omen 1s tm•¡¡m.:d '" be nonsure. cul-
turalh <pcc1Ji.:, c.•p=-e acrs ol baJ appk mJmJu•h .JI Ol'er rhe U'Odd
th•t b '° hJcd '" stop. Tcrrorism, wludi .. au oi th<:>c. IS ...J 10 be so
ocnous 1lu1 1htre i> DO choice but to •top 11, "'hile '>Crl<>u•Ji .aJJresotng
thr~.a11 l<.l ~·,lfncn ·' tceurÍI\ i.:. .app.al'U'ldy noth1n1i1 bu1 a ch<lKt', lln« u hu
hJrdi hq¡un
Hcre 1' che q~1ion \\ñat will i1 1nkc for 11nlenu' •~1111>1 "ornen. this
dailv uar. th1~ terrorism a¡:ainst •'Omen as women 1ha1 ~ on ewry day
world\\1dc. chis everyday, grou~. s\'Slemauc threar to and mme
•i:aiMr che J1Cace, to rereive a response in the <1rucrurc and pr:icúce of
interiwlonul law any1hmg approximJte to che leed ol locus ond deternu-
nJ11011 mspiml by 1hc S<:p1embcr 11th auacksl Aa:iumin¡\ 1hJt womcn are
• gmup, • collc.:fü1ty though no• u •l•lc 10 lllk rhi; •~ not sim¡>ly to
conren•I th.11 bc.:ousc violence o¡¡;in.i wom<•n Is 'Y>1e1111< JnJ 'l"cnutic
lulthnU+ih 11 111, 1t should be addr"6ed at 1h11 le-d ,,r urjlency A lm of
><'>Cl.iJI, built-tn de.arh and marbem os l<ralh· 1¡:norcJ This parallel es doser
than, tor e~amplc, lhat ,.;di the S\'Stttnrc death ol thc 1heoosandsof children
who die trom prc>-mrabk deseases J..il,." AnJ the pl'tnl " nm • moral
onc that th1> 1> b.J and should be stoppcJ. h 1> lqzal boch ~tembcr
l lth 111J mClOl 1iolencc ~ uomcn ue ••t> b, locmalh no11>tdtc act0rs
•~&1m1 nomrJtc 1argc1> lt h. aoalyucal b<>lh are gc"flo.kr-b•..cJ '10lcnce.
.~nJ u " <-mrmcal ch<- '-1} rount ,. romp•rohlc m JUSI me counuy m
JU~t nnc 'º'r J
Tim 1< ROi tO or~uc that thc ooJy dfecU\'C rc•J><>n•C 10 a war !> • war
210 - On tne Cutlln¡ Cd¡t
h is to osk whct1 will the incerrumonal order s1op regarding this Yery
rondnion as peace and move ali at once, witb will, ro do wha1ever is
necessary 10 stop u, shapmg 1he imperam-es of the response 10 ihe 1mper-
auve. ol the problem? lt is to ask why one matters, the othcr no1. \l:'hy
does tbé intl'tn.ttional orJer mobdize uno a <'Onccncd force to foeé down
th• one, while to addr<~• thc 0ther 'quurdy anti urgcnLI~ ~ccm• un1hink-
•hle? ThJI 1he configuration of paniC> on $cp1cmbcr 11 ih failed 10 lit thc
¡mor mucrure und •.,,'Umptions of the in1cma1ion.il leµI order did not
deter che response onc whiL Thát aclions like those taken since September
1ltb produce tbe srrucrure and assumpcions that b«ome uuemac1onal
law-customarv mlémalional 1.,., in !he makmg',- 1s, for bcner and
w·o~. doser to tb.é trutb. At this pomt. il is hard to avo1d noncing iluit
LOrrorism tbrcatens lhc powcr of sta1es, whilc male violence agalnst women
dot:$ not. si.lle power rrught be siud to be onc organl7.cd fonn of it
Asked anochcr way: \Vhy did the cond1tíon of Afghan wom.,,, 1mprl~­
oned in their clotbes nnd homes for >"~rs. whipped íf on unk.le emer¡:cd.
prohíbited educatíon or emplo}ment or polítkal of6ce or medica! carc on
the basis of sex:• and sobjected to -who yet knows ...-hac other malc vio·
lence, not rank with 1errorism or rise on the intemanonal agenda co thc
IC\'Cl of a ihreatening c.onllict? \Thy were thosc ".¡,º soundcd rn• •larm
abou1 cheir ueaanem ígnored? Why, ...;¡], ali thc violanons of Ínll'fnational
law and repcated Secumy Council resolutions. Wlb thcir trentm<'Jlt alone
no1 an att t>f w;1r or " reason 10 imervl'!le (including. )·es, miliwrily) on
any doy up co Scptcmbcr 10. 200P To 1hc suggcsuon thn1 Afghan womcn
"'1ould instead complnin through iniernarional mccbanisms imagine ihc
rcacnon to thc sug¡tcscion that rhe Unitcd Smes. insread of respondmg
with force to the acts of S.:ptemher 1 lth. should remove its reservarion to
Article 41 of tht lntcrruuional Covenant on Civil and Política! Righcs
(ICCPRl and ent<'f a declaracion againsl Afghanisw.n."
Exccpt 10 pac1fa1s, sorne thmgs juslify armod Jlltc:rv<!Dtinn. How gov-
crnmciu. Ucat tbw own pcoplc, 1ncludmg wotnm, h•• tNditionally not
bcen onc of ihem. In the approach t.ikt'tl tbroughout Lhc 19}0., for ex
ample, so Ion¡: as Hitler conlincd hls excerminatíon of Jews to Cermany.
cmly Germany was ¡¡enerallv rCl!arded as properly concemed lt was after
other coumrier we-re anacked thai rhe rest of the world ~carne im-oh-ed.
Is the approach to u-ornen ·s treatment sall srudc hade tbcn, so thar meo
insidc cach cOUntty are allowed to do to women what men cannot do 10
womcn of other countries? Thc rccorJ supports sometlung <lose 10 tbat
J5 dn opc:.ratlvc rule.
\X'omcn are mcmem1ed m dowry lufüngs m lndm or Ji,-ing in fear tbot
Wo111en's Seplem ber l llh 271
212 • On the Cumna Edae
they could be any day." They are sconed LO dea1h for sex outside marrillge
in some pans of South Asía and Africa They are dead ofbotched •bonioos org110iuJ conffu:t? Do thc.c "'º'"'"'' not cou111 •s cuouolue. in .ame w1ir?
\'Cill the Munnc• nevcr land for thern? A kind of w11r is bein¡i fougbt
in sorne pans of Lalm Amenca :md of gdlilal mutd2tlons in many p~n.­
unreco~mízcd in • conílict tha1 one suspcc1s would be seen as such if men
of thc worltl. Girls lulled at btrth or •tatvL"<l at an early a¡;e, or Jboned as
wcre not the ag¡u-essors and women the vicrims."' Wby does oo mtema-
fotuses becnuse lhe> 1u·c fcmalr, ore do.-umented 10 number 1n 1he millitms
uonal mo<ld-not u•ar. 1101 crínunal law, not yet C\'en human nghl>'-
ocros• Asi•." lf fordgn rnen did all this insidc onc coun1rv. would that
lntcrvene effec1h·ely JI! tbis anywbere? \l:lby does tindmg effecuvc modes
creare a stace of wur? (Come ro think oí ic, wbat docs thac make sex 1ourism
of íntcrvenúon raise oo imema1ional sense of urgcncy? In i:he American
in Thailand?F• The nationality of rhc perpetratots has linle 10 do váth rhe
wor ag.unSt 1hc TalibJn, for • bríef momén1 womcn had u forcign policy,
injury ro thc women. \X'hile sorne of ihis is 6nally beginmog to be seen as
or bridly became part of o pn::tcXL for one." Bu1 whcn mcn subordín.11c
a violatíoo of human rights, ac least in theory,'• 001;1e of i1 is thought to
women withín onc counrry (and when:: do thcy noc?). 1ha1 •PJ>:Jrendy
cons1i1u1e a use of force ln dle l~ sense. Oo íts own. 11 hns yet 10 creatc
mukes ít non·imemotional, n0 Qne else's business, more off-limits to imer-
wbnt 1s perce1ved ns a bumunuanan emcrgcncy or to ¡uStífy miluary intcr
nnrionnl ín1crven1ion than even civil wars have been, including in pfaces
\'enuon. Pt'llcctime laws nnd insmu1ion!, for thcir part, far from breaking
"·herc women have DO effecti.-e recourse at home (and where do they?l.
down and foiling 10 operase frorn time 10 ame in 1hi! ron1ex1 ns thc law
lf nmh1n¡; clse. Septeniber lltb showed tbat me boundcd v1ew of sover-
of armed con8íct envisions, •ímply never h•vc worked for women on •
<1gn1y IS an illusio11 that fatled to protecc people across nacional Unes. lt
larll" scale anywhere. Bu1 insce11d of these unredressed a1rocities being
Jo..-s not protccl women wirhin mem either
recop;nized as nrmed conilict for this reason. beca.use che evencs happen
Thc war in Iraq has wkcn meo.e quescions ro a whol~ new leve! Apnrt
wii.b rdative unpumcy ali the rime .ins1ead of jusi somet:imes, or pemaps
frorn enforcement of UN Securiry CoLmcil resolutíon1,18 thc prímary U.S.
beca.use tbey do not happen in from of television cameras aU oo onc da\'
tbey nuse linle íoternauonal concem. ·' rntionole for invnsion was preemptíve self-defcns<:, meaning because we ore
scared of you, we can kili >"u. Apart from nos bcin¡¡ 6rmly established as
What docs bemg done by domcsuc meo insidc "'1th counuy make th<'S<!
ncts in intcrnntionol ccnns? Whot clo '"e c-ull 1hc conscrvativdy coumed a legal g¡-ound of self.defensé... and foctually yct 10 be supported m this
instance, imagine whac the principie of foar justifying aggression m advance
one in four womon raped, onc in 1hree SC::•'U ally abused in childhood, one
in four b:mcred in tbeir homes linduding bein¡¡ cnrshed and burned), che would pennít women 10 do 10 men, wilh cemuries of facts behind iL
M<>reo•·er, i:he Unhcd States did not Invade Iraq ro slop wb:u Sadtiim
uocounrt'<I p1ostiru1ed women. systemacicaU)' raped and thrown swuy,
women of color and indigenous women the mosr victimized and the leaSt Hus,sein's reg1mc did 10 the Kurds in 198$, or tD thc Sbütes .tfter 1991, or
to ihe Marsh Arnbs ihroughou1-.U genocidal atrocitics nnnl>-tÍC11Uy•imilnr
responded to: me record of women living in noJ:>-me<aphorical terror in
the United Scates \\'ho ha'-e no effcaive rel1ef nt home!"' Althougb u has 10 lhe domestic irearmcn1 of women worldwide, and also not recognized
as juscífying reson 10 force under 1he UN Cbnner absent Securiiy Council
becn documcnied ~nd anulyzed by survívors 11nd soc1d! sc1cntis1s smce
1970," chro111ded by intemúiionul observers in the Unired Stotes nnd elsc· aumor.izacion. The United States and Brítain díd ínscitme no-ily zoncs in
pan on such a t-aríonale, and tbe Secumv Council let ic happen ... a leve!
where.12 wom<'Jl 's perv:isívc fe.ir oí violcnce has no1 cven l:>een noriced in
1he literarure oo retrorism,"' far less produced an organi1.ed uprísing by and tntensicy of response never made for women &nl"'-,¡,'"º· As th« invasion
of lrn.q progr<SSed, and weapons of muss dcstruet1on w!!re not fountl, and
the inrerruuional communicy or <purred re1hinkin¡¡ of the structure. con·
tem, and priorines of intemarional organizations brought 10 a crossroods, ihe U.S. governmen1 made more of Saddorn Hussru>'s a1rociciéS to b~
own peoplc (if litdt: of their lcgnl description), sclf·defcnse wns tmmpeted
as September 11ch hns_.' Cornprehensive ímemauonal sttaLOgics for world
~nd t\11sted lcss. ihe liberauon of thc lraqi people (who cerrninly needcd
pcacc and sccurity have never wcludcd =13Jlli:d lnqwry wto vlolcnce 1tself
os -a gcndtrcd phenon1cnon.~ it) more." This sbift occurred a¡rainsr tbe backdrop of 1he UN Chancr.
wbich on convenriorutl rea~ allowi; use o( force only in self-defemc in
1\cts oí violence aga.1nst womeo utt mess ::uroaties,
lnJSS humttn nghts
violntions. w1Jesprcad and sysi~motic anucks on che basis of ¡ex, cñmes response co armed anack,"' ahhough "perfect charity• has been a poten-
tial ¡usnfication for war at least sínce Gronus., and, under thc cubric of
against humanicy pcrvaslvdy unaddresscd. But are mcv not ftlso violer11.
humunun.rÍ•n mtcrvenuon's defensc oí othcrs, has bttn growing as a ra-
 Women's Septemlltr lllh • 273
uonale for forcehol response ro mass auacks." But never ve1 for women as
sucb.
Thc potnt herc is thll rhe invaJion of Iraq wits no1 sought to be lcgally
1u.ulied by PJ>I and continumg •et> of gcnocide unJ crim~ •gainst hu
moniry. no Joubt in l'Ort bcctmse those violdtions havc not, abscnt Sccurity
Council au1horiutiQn. )'el made armed intervenrion legal "' Should 1he UN
Char1er be revised so char what hoYC been humonirarion cnmes of ir1r m
bello or human rights \"Íoi.idons can olso be ¡uJ ad be/111111 tri¡;gers? lf rb1s
question is bem¡t uicreasmgly asked. tt is so far nC\•er SUfolllested t:ha1 brutal
systcmatíc violencc against women, ev~ \\'Íth official impunity or parUci-
pauon, could lcgally justify reson to force unless it Otturs as pan oí a
conOugratioll in wh1ch men are abo att.atktng otbcr meo
Th~ lnrg_er connect.ioa bct:\\recn mcn's treaunenL of woJnen and men's
11ea1mcn1 of 01her men is lost on the international sysrem. When the pho-
togrophs of American soldíers sexunlly humiliating Trnqi detolnees ar Abu
Ghraib prison surfaced,,. the fact rhar i.denr.ical •clS are rounnely com·
mitted agamst women land sorne men) m pornograpbv was cyp1cally men·
uoned, if at all, to excuse the cnmes, not to indict the pornography." The
conn=ion \\':IS not lost on one lrac¡i ma.n wbo was abused by Amcrocan•
in prison. "The)· wan1c<l us w f~ •s thougb we were womcn," he s;itl,
"the Wl\y women fttl, and thu is the worst insult, to focl Llkc a woman. ••
The photos, mild by pornogniphy's srnndards. were routinely reíerred to
os picturcs of torture,.. yet callin¡¡ porno¡;raphy pictures of torture is usu
aUy derided as an extrcmism rompar•blc to callin¡¡ violence a¡:ainst women
a war. E.en wheo an Amencan aewspaper was duped into publíshinl(
pomography as wartlme acrodoes.'"' the public penny díd not drop.
People were upsct by what they Sllw--concemed about the woman slwwn
bcing raped in the pictUie-u1111/ thcy found out that it W11S pomog.mpby.
Then thc hood1>inked newspaper apologized for poor journalism in 001
invcsoi¡¡Jtin¡¡ how thc pictures wcrc madc.••• A• thc worltl rccoiled Jnd
realigned in response 10 1he photographs of Arob meo scxuaUy abused by
Americans, •s beads roU and ccials proliferare, porno¡trapbers concinue ro
ccaffic 1>•omen bem¡l sexually \'iolaced. mrrured. and humilia1ed world11o-íde
in plrun stgltt. lnqwry imo che makiag of that pomograpby IS on oo pub!tc
agmda-joumol.iscic or legislaúve, domestic or internacional.'"'
IV
Ali this makes one want to look a¡¡ain at 1he smilm1t foces oí the women
on the special pa1t"" of the New York Ttmef after September 1lth and
Women's Septembe1 l lth 215
214 • On the Cullln¡¡ Edce
dt!Dcy-\lJS ut •takc. lt was not ttdl to the same P''Ople JUst" teu motufu
w1111dcr \X'h11 hurt her befo,..,? lí she hnd died from mnle violence on
cnrllcr \Vhc.:n womcn's, cqual ..tccess to 1uslice Cor mcn 's \'lO)ence: against
sorne othcr day, at tbe hands of men dose to her at home, would the T/111es
rhom wu> 111 mue. Just as intemaüonal legal barriers 10 oct.ion suddenly
bavc nouce<l? Would her dyin¡! bave had tbe digníty of pohtics? Would
dissol,.,,J on Septembcr 1 lth, thc federaliwo (i.e., swtes' ñ¡:¡ht•) thot WllS
ber nnuon ha"e respondedt Or was sbe more equal on tbe basls of sex on
found to prcclude womcn's access to equu.I pro1ec1ion oí starc criminnl
tbat da} tban on any day in her life? If sbe had tivc<:I, would sbc hO\'C becn
lows agrunst rape and batterin¡¡-fuund in Umied States t• Morriso" ro
115 full a tLU2<.-n of thc United Stntcs •~ <he has been dc3d? lnd,'ál, '"th
require the invalidation oí the civil sex equaliry remedy in tbe federal Vi-
her dcath bendi¡,, romputc:<l on malc incclmc rnblt•. "' i• shc mon:: c.:o
olence Against Women Acr'"'-simply dissolvcd when sorne men's access
nomically ~u•I dead thnn she ..,.,,, would havc bccn olive? Givcn the
10 cqual prot~ruoo of state d=ioo laws was at ~takt:. and th• U.S. Sti-
record oí law mfor,cm~ni on violencc •Rainst women in the United States.
premc Coun's dccision in BuJb" Gore put PrC>1dent Bush into office. 1
what would have been her tribunal?
By the s~me token, poltdng the world, mulúla1eralism, rc¡¡ime chllnge,
Particularly hard to take is the systematic slaughter built meo everrday
nuuon-b1tildin~. ncw íedernl dep•nmenrs. federaliution of formerly pn
lúe m quiet, Íl1J'lOred crises of normaluy th111 are effecch'ei)' permjrced by
vate labor forces, and swccpin1t executive outhorirv-all formerlv op1>0<ed,
most authoriües, nauonal and transnatio1rnl, wbile cr~ from 11ormalil)·-
ridiculed. bv tbeir current American proponeni.-became no problem,
tbc excepooruil rountcr-bicrarchicnl acts llkc Scptember l lcb-mobilizc
necessary, u~genc, even legal, after Scptember 1 l th. On that day. for some,
muth oí the world witb outrage and dcterminution to walk straight through
"C\·el)'thing change4," eveanuting so far ín an im11sion and occupation of
legal waUs, fn this. the >1tuation of wnmcn i• far From alonc.'°' As Woltcr
lraq that legaUy is at worsc ag¡¡ressíon. at best preempm·e self-defense
Ben1amin once put it, "The trndition of the oppressed tcaches us that thc
combmed wnh unnutbociud enforccmcrit of Sccuruy Counctl rcsoluuons
'state of emergency' m whkh we live is not the exeéptíon but the rule"'°'
under unpreccdcnrcd orcums1onccs. "" On die domos1ic sitie, \.i.S. law en-
In chis víew. neither September llth nor violencc ai:ainst \\'Ornen are
forcc1ncn1 in narionul securicy• nreas now Cocases oo prcvc:nuon ..tn •IP
"tragcd1es," like dying from an erupring volcano or a ~¡\htmng srnke, nor
prooch to domesüc sccurity that American women have becn ur¡¡in¡¡ far
blank SUJ><!fllalural •cvil," thc term favortd by thosc more comfortablé
chirty \'ears. During dtu time, countless women hove in<tead r=ived end-
rondcmning """'us ilun explllining thcm. Botb phenomCllil ore mo,.., sochU
less varianons of what Linda "Lovdace" was rold by police "-ben she
1111 u pohticnl in origui, mure undcr human rontrol, more contingent-
phoned tbem from JI bocel room after e.sea pin~ her violent pimp: •you sai•
hencr th•ngeable-rhan cither tenn evokes. The ronnection becween the
he's comtog alter you with an AK-17? Lady, call us back \\'ben he"s in the
rreacment of women by men nnd the events oí September 1lrh is not room .• ,., This is not co arguc tbat tht war on terror is the nght mO<l.cl for
ultimarely the mocalistic one: the '"ªY womeo are rreated tells tJS how
opposmg violcnce agai.nst women. lt is rather to •xpose, agmnst che cem-
civilized we ali are. Nor is tt quite the oppommistic, if also accurate, one: pla1e of onc rculity of what meo getting ...-rious loolrs hke, thc com1non
ignoring bow rbese roen rreated women endangered everyone. lr is this:
•lities becween the proolems thcy oddress and those 1hcy ignore as well
what these meo do 10 '>'Ornen every day is whar they did ro borh women
-'S wh3t unires the solurions 1hcy implemcnr and the problems they con-
and men on thac dsy. Men's behavior in lhcir roles and sta11,1s .i.~ mm is tinue ro fail ro solve.
1hc real comc.'<I of ~ptembcr l lth. Metaphysically put, whQ they ure to
For whom díd eveJ')·tlung change on Scp.tembcr llth 2001 ?"" Once
1>'0men is who 1hey are. h is hilrd 10 ovt>id the lmpreMion th•t what is rt1cn man\• of them wbue middle-d.ss oationals of the United States. in
colled wn r Is what men m•ke o~ainst each orher, and whai they do ro tbe ~dst 'oí their daily Uves, becillllc vietlms along w1tb women and men
1>·omen 1s called everyday life. So wars are fmricidolly fou¡¡h1, and then of ..U colors and nanons and classes, on • respt'Cted wget grouud, che foct
are &..1eroally over, while everyday life never ends th"r the vrolence. \\las norut.1le-tht .sorne 1ssuc: unde.r jntcmauonaJ low as
Tha1 day. being a man W-dS no proteccion, hence the \vorld's response. U.S. constitudon:tl equ.Úit\' law-was not <ecn to reduce Scptembcr 1l th
The losses of September 1lth u•ere real 10 power in a way worrwn's losses to mass murder. merel)· a local crime. Nor dld it produce an intemauonal
n~ver havc been. Pla)'ing our 1he same dynamic on the domesuc lcvd in
police act1on le.din~ to criminal rriJ1ls of forei11n men undcr ruttional aus-
the Un1tcd S1•tt.'$, 1.-qunl pro1cc1ion of the luws suddc11lr b«amc real to pices, like tbe Eicbmann erial, or m a tbtrd COUOCC)'. as the Lockerhie
powcr whm >0me men's •coos lo someLhing real to thcm-the presi-
216 Oo tht Cuthn¡ Ed¡e
bombings ~id " The U.S. govemmem did not ms<rue< citizens m wan to
call bw entorcernem lrom our ceU phones when we saw a 1errori~1 on an
rurplane and to coUeci darn ID 1he meancime. In che rush and deicmunation
to re.spond os quad<l)' and cffecuvely as concc1vable. th< unoffioal status
ol thc f'J.rues was b11tcly noliced. Whot chruiged was 1his: the dtnger w.s
re.il bccJuS< ccrc•in mcn wcrc nfroid. Thcy knew rhey ""'re 1arge1cd be-
"'""" CJÍ who 1hey ore. A$ furthcr evidence of i1s n:alness, no one has ver
'."ªde Sepicmhcr 11th inco scx No one speaks of ics victims and injurles
m scare qumes. (Where bave chose poscmodemisis 11one?l There is no talk
yer of dosure. Wbere people coun1, any meai;is chough1 necessary are en·
cr¡¡eucaUy pursued.. oo maner IÍ against ooost:ue aetors anaclung unofficial
1¡ugets, ururupedc<l by law and mstirunooal consrnunis.'" Thc srructure of
intcmauonal lOSlJlulions is reshaped 10 cre.11c an opproach 1hnt fits the
>hope ami scuk of thc problem.'º The legal fromcwork i!o ur¡¡cntly intcr-
rogu1eJ in ligh1 of the reality, 001 the Clthcr way oround.
By converging civil human rights luw with criminal humanirnrian luw
cons1deration af the trearment and scatus of women could be injeeted im¿
aU levels of discussion of humanitarian intervenúon, including UN Chaner
rev1smn. A new humannarian protocol to the Geneva Convenúons co ad-
dress e.he gaps on violence a¡µiinst women could be purposed. defuuog
sorne widcsp..,..d und gra\'c forms of it as \'ioleni conflici under the fa"
of wnr. Di>cussíoo of e.he subjcct of gcndcr bMed violcncc coulJ bccome
P""' oí dcbn1e1 nnd Jiplom.1cy on ddimtions of tcrrorism The S.,curity
Councd could consider l'esolutions und<r Chopter VTT ag>inst vialcnce
•11•ins1 women with impuniry by the weorst slate offenders •& thr<'llts to
inremanonal peace and security, perbaps beginning \vith siruatíons that are
imemanonal in the more convencional sense. An imerna11onal restruetunng
effon migb1 move towud an intemauonal convenrion on violence aglllllst
\\'Orneo tha1 recognizes its uansnalional exis1enc~ co01ple1e wuh imple-
meo1~uo11 anJ an affirmauve Jucy ro prol<'<'I fron1 sexual violcnre \\'ltb
clcar ~1J1nd•rd;, which, whcn br<'l1d1ed, could ulumaldy 1rillller correctivc
intervcntion by tronsna1ional forces. 11 • Once rhe issue is refmmed, othrr
dceper rcstructuring po.sibili1ics will doubtlcss emerge.
in tbe process. real difficulries wiU have to be faced. That prosatucion
and sex traflickin~ increase with imemaoonal polion¡t and nufüary involve-
meru, while bemg commoo in domestic policing and m1li1.ary fooccs. re>-eal
the po\Jce and the mUuary 10 be a site of this problom ""well as a potencial
p:trl of lis >oluc ion. Mnybe ¡JJ Lhe blue hclmcl• on sucb mcssíons should
be womcn Po>H:t>nlhct mitro polidng ~nd low cnforcemcnc •gaans1
Women • Seplemb<1 1lth 277 278 • On t~e Cuttong fdge
tlomcstic violcnoe are avoaded Cor sorne ot e.he same reasons: tbe d;ngcrs e:usung sys1ems for responJing to theni, corulnuti. to be 1gnored. Among
oJ house·io-house eogagemenc occompanied b> a sense oi íuuluy. Bu11hc e.he bes1 of exJ.S1mg responses, ihe so-called posr-tonllict p<.'aCe·bwldtn¡¡
foct 1hJ1 an)'one with u choice prcfors pitchcJ :ltmc<l comba1 on un offirnil smucg1cs'" p1""um" .m opero1tiw mcJdcl of P<l•<c that is ilte othcr 51Je <JÍ
honleficld 10 in<erwning 1n the placei wherc \\'Omcn •nd children lh·c 001 rhc 111•.,.cuhnc coin oí urmcd conílic1. 1f confiíct is m cpisodic erupuon of
their days hardly rccomml11ds lhc s1au1> quo. Stoppin¡¡ 1hou,,.mds r>Í 11 ctors men lightm11 oihcr men. somcthing that he¡ñns and ends. 1hen pe•ce be·
es concededly more complex Uian brm¡iio~ down a bi¡¡ leader ora l<\mbolic ~orne. pcriC)<).s in which this is not h.1ppening. Mole violence ogaimt women
ennty. but so is counrerinsur¡:eocy. Maybe, on sorne level, meo have or- IS tolerared in hoih, pcrbaps more in the lattcr 1han m e.he former How
11anized their conflictS e.he wuy they bave in order 10 keep rhem simple and "1.11 male \'lolence C\•er end when 1he \1'T}' idea of peare presumes ~nd
to confine the conienders to chooe who already wield tbeir comfonabJe !""'°"rs u? Opp~g violente agamst womt:n léaches that pe'•cc·buddtng
fonns nf power. Pcrhllj)s Septembcr 11 th is emblemaric of oiher mcn IS ao arove soctal process, 001 a mere lack o[ ovt:n 6ghcing, far less a
hu,ing broken ihat codo and thJt agrcemcnt. 1n nny c.ise, tbe Lic1 1ha1 Joc':"'1en1-sig11U1g ritual. of rontract oran :um-1wisw1g cxcrmc 10 get che
mak \'iulencc ogai11st women mnkts convcncionul wnr look s~fo •nd simple p•rue.. m beJ 1ogciJ1rr an 1hc sJcncc oí powcr ha,ing prcvailcJ
and easy and doable b¡ comparison <kic:• not ~upport nbJnd()nin¡: w<>men Rc.ort lt> urm$ mflicls Jisproporuonate cilSu~llies un women ami chil
to 1hcir auackers. drcn,'" bur so cl0t.,; che presem peu1,"C. \'<'ho is counting itS risks? Aíicr o
Those who oppose imemational policial' in this contex1 might be asked ccntury of mcreasin¡¡ convergence in srarus and numbers berwecn e.he ci·
whel~er they also oppose domestic policiog. Those who quesrion, apan vi1ian casualtics oi war.; and rhe ooncomba1ant casualáes of peace.'" it is
from meffccrual domcsnc mechanisms, \\'hy violeoce agamst womeo should ame to ask: whar will be done for che women ali O\'er tbe wodd wbose
be addresscd ímernationally mcght ask "·hy the e\'eOtS oí Scprember llth 0'-'1l Septcmbcr 11th can come an~ day?
·~ bcing add!cs•cd i~rernn1 ionully. Thc ouockcrs were forcigo, but rh<:)·
d1d nol cross m1crna11onnl boundorics 10 do thc tk..:d ilw Juy, .ind i1 w11s
noc seen as an artack by Saudí Arabia, 1he councry oí which mos1 of 1hc
anackers wen: narionals Boch forms oí violence transa:nd na1ionol bor-
ders: stare boundaries are irrelevam co borh, if differentl)• so.w And ¡f
statcs' hegemony is th reareoed by 1erroristS, bm male staies ha\<e ao in-
vesimcnt m male dominance, the argumenr for indepeodem infemauooal
IOH!rvenuon may be strongcr for violence agalnst womeo than 11 1s for
terrorasm, even as domestk police forces need to be involved ruid trans·
f?nncd to •tddress ci1her offectivcly. P...,.umohly, once chey knc-w in1crvcn
uon \l'llS • real possibility, sta1e1 would toke s1cps 10 nvoitl ic by movin11
to corre<:a th• prohlem. 'Prorectionism. well understoc>d by women uroond
the world, would have to be confmnred m keep imerveo1ion from be-
co0110g yet anothcr way the violared are violared more. The poinr is 10
stop the abuse in a way that cmpowers 1he unequal rather rhan adds to
e.he power of the already powcrful.
In 1he abscnr't' of such iniúauvd, as tbe unfolding aftermath of Scp-
1ember 11 th Acxíbly reconfigures in1ernation.1.I rules, norms, anti siructures
for n:spon"<? m force. includin¡¡ wich force, womcn r~1fü1in unrc.11 Jnd ex·
pendable lo the S)'Slcms Wé lh1' under. And 1he 111.1le deomin•nce romm<>n
'º borh problems. ~nd 10 the nonos !llld instiiutional s1ructures of the
Notes

lndex Notes

lnLroduction: \Xfomen's Scotu~. Men 's Srates

l. TI1<1r dc<in: for jusncc led 10 our fo.l=I l.w.w1 m ll>ew York unJcr tbe Ah<n
Ton 0>1ms Act, 28 U.S.C. S tno. lt.lilic '· K.rud!k, 70 FJd 212 f2J úr 19'»1,
t<b'g Jo1inl, 74 r Jd 377 12d Cir 1996). errt J,.,,,.J, 518 U S 1005 1996). by no1ncd
individuals anJ 8rotlP' ª~" 1be leod"1" oí the Bosnun Seros. Radcwan KamUit, íor
atro<;ine$ unc.k.r his GlmJllJnd and ronrrol in Sosnia-Hericgovin;a 11t1d so~ pans of
Croaua..
2. Pan IU of thh •olume "'Occts my d<vdo~mg though,.01..r llkH'e thúll a .Jec.t<k
oí reprneorin1 thC$C \l'(.'ll'O<'n
3. This rhc.'Sllc rs ~ntSSC!'d in ·0n Torture, .. bclow ~t No 1• .and most cxt-:n~ivcly
tn "Women's Sep1ember 1lth: Reminlun~ che lnmnarional Law o{ Conflkt, • below .u
No. 25
4. Fo.. boe[, luc:td d11<Uu1on ol ha" • thubiille"ll• of human nghts 1sinex1nc-.tbly
bous1d up \l ii.h d'IC hJttory oí 1h(' nwdcm s;ta1t-." Stt. Oubtia.n TornuKh.u, llunt11,1
0

l!.1gb1I lkh•'<"" lrk•lif'l1 ••d I!.eslmlf 7, ó-2} (200}1.

5. Seo "Cnmes ol W•r. Cnmcs <>f Pesco.. bclow •• No. 14: "Womeo's Sepicmhcr
1lth: Rdunlang the Jncemaaonal Llw ot Coollia. • below at No. 25.
6. "Cenood.-. Scxualuy, below" No. 2l. and "Odimng R.1pc lmem•uonallyc A
CornmcJ\t.ary on Jlk..rrt'Ju,'" bd9v.1 iat Ng, 23, ÜJ.~C\J$~ thet;C lhen1".$.
7. S.e. e.~ ·ne Pr(lml•e oí CP.D,\ w·, OptKln.I Pm1oo>I." bcfow " r\o. 6
8. Of cour><:. U.is idea is not emittly new Civil remedies how bttn Uldudtd, for
extmple, In die nonbutdmg ruli np of 1hc Umtcd Nailon.s lluman Rlghts Commíu<e
•íncc it bq¡¡n lmduig tho1 st•tn "'"'"' th.u •iohue che lmenutJooal Cn..en.uu an Cl\ ~
oll'ld Politlc.I Ri¡;h1> (ICCPRJ, m U.N.T S Jil, h•vc •n oblag411on to ' "'""' 111J e<>m·
pauau: 1hc Vlt"Um f~1r dttrrutltC' UN ~lum. Ru;. Comm. \!lcwJ oo Un1..,"Un)' C~1mmu
nico1ioo r\o. 8/1977. rubm11ttJ In• Beauiz Wei$rn.in et al., CCPR/C'.19/D/1' l'r7
ladopu:d on Apr. }, 19801, nprinuJ"' Selt<trrl Oecioo111 UwJ.r tbe OptronJ PmtDCOI.
UN, Doc. CCP&UOPil 01 45 49, 1 17 1198') They un al;o bo lóund m tb<
E.uropt:.tn Ú>R\'Cfttl.On fQr thc PtUlC4.'tic>n ot 1turnan Rlt1'.hb ¡lfh.l f.'und.m1ctnial r n~,loms
an 41. Nov 4, 1950, 2B UN T.S 222 fheronaft<r Europcan lon\'<llllDll] t")U5!
c;nrisf.action"); Ame:rican Con\~tion on Hum¡n lUghtJ itrt. f\3 :1dioptc:J Nov 22, 1~'.l<J,
281

287 Notes to Pa¡u 2 6
() A.S T S No l~. 1144 ll.N T.S. 12; 1h<>eman ... Amencan Coovenuonl !"fa" com·
peosmon ·1; and tht- C,,nv•nuon As•ms¡ Tonurc •nd Oth~r Fonns of Crod. ínbu!1>ifl
o.nd Oq¡r.dmg T..,•tment or Puru..Jiruem an. 141 tJ, Dec.. 10, 1~84 141>' U-N.T.S.
U1c:tCJn.tht"T ·rurrur~ Coo\cri00t1J 1·bt lntcrn.uoo.11 Crurunal Tnbun.11 lor lhc 1amxr
I!'
Yu~,11).aviit ( 1n l"1 f\-..ft"rt vicum• U> n~tttin~ coun• lor rh1' purpOie, 1rn~ R11/(',f o/
PrrKXd:.re .1nJ E1..Jttna 106. U.N Dor: IT 1 l2 Cl994), rq>nuteá ,,, 3} l11t(rr1ill10,,.1/
/~g,/ .\lalm.1/s 4&.I; tbe Reme Smut• oí lhe Intemaoonal Criminal C<iun ans. n an<l
79. July J?, 1"9&. U ~'l. Doc. AICONF.l&l/9, 17 ln1.,..,,1Jv11•I L<gal ,\¡..,,,,,,¡, 999
lhert'1n.ihcr R.ornc S1<Atu1e) ptrmlb a Vicum Trtu.L
'l. f,,, ilfl IO!opsrcd trK1ng or rh!J 1n1cn\1lion41J lt¡.1,.11 f)l'O«lit !ttt ANonnc.i fn11ttt,
"8«f'lmÍ1\f: ffum11n The Ori~in• 1.1nd De\.·cJ~mern CIÍ Women'• Hu.mMI Risilus." 21
HM'11aw Rl(bts Q114rf{'l'fr 8Sl ll9'l'll.
10. !'he ways on whith wom<n have beén faucd by 101..nauonal buman di¡hb. in
boch Odl$C> Is lhc topK of •Ate Womon 1lumanf· bdow Jt No. 4
11 111~ ..,,,., fin11 1rgUl!d '" (~th.1r1nc: A. M.teKutnon, 1(i1,t11trtÍ .a fr1+11nn1 Thróry
of tht St,11 Cl9891. 1U1d fur1hcr tlnbc,r111ed re.!t•rding 1~ Unitcd Statet throu¡;:hout
C:tthítrint: ;\ ,_l11cl<innon. Wornr11'.s Ui•t·r. Mt'n'r LIU.'f (200)t
12 A¡r.uo, M:li'.Kmnoo, Toward a Fe"1tnW T/.ror¡· of lhe St11te. inlkes tlúsar¡1umenr
atkngth.
l} 11l»t, 100, t!I .1rgu~ in 1\1xKlnnon. TouJarJ 11 Fe1111nu1 11Jt•ory o/ tht' S1i11t•.
ll IJ
15 Sl"t'. C'·Jl"·· "On Torture," hclow a1 No l.
16 Tu. foondaciooal dísntssion ot thtS theme ,. Hllary Cborl<SWOrth, Cbrist10C
Ctunlun. ~d ShdJey Writr:ht. • ~cmin1st Appronches to lntt:rnahonal Law," 85 A1nt'r·
}m;rn.Ú o/ lntmta//OnJ/ J....u• 61J. 62'-QJO (1991J.
rt,¡•
17 Set' 1hr ,1bo1 uon dtscusiron tn 1-tacK.tnslf.ln, Tou'Urá" Ft'r1111utt ThrrJf')! o/ thc•
Stdle, abO\o-c 0('1(~ 11, •t I~
18 Tbis poinr os disClJssed moro ful)y in •Womcn'• Scpicmb<:r l llh: R<:thinlun~
the Jntem1uunal La,v ol Co:níb.Ct.." l>tlo"• at No. l.5
19 LJ.
20 Katd V.i<olt, •A lO· Y~.or Stn'1!81t." UNESCO (:.,,,,,.,, 29 (Nov 19nJ, •PI"''
u~ thl:I tcrn1 SC!1: Hillry Charlc:,.....Tlrth 11J1.J Chrisfinc Clunkln, Thr &11,,J
<'n,ly fir!ll
11nri t>f fn1rr1,<1JtQrial IAtf A Fc·,,,uust A'f<1ly1ir 20}-207 (2000~ lbetcin;Úttt Chiarles.
Vi'onh aod Cbinkin, BounJar;esJ, toe funber disruss100 in feminÍsc rmni-
2l Sce Kclx:= J. Cook. "Rcscrvauons to thc \,;onvauion on thc Eluntnaoon
of AJJ Forms of Ot~cnmuul100 Agaltht \X1omert• 30 \-'1fg1nu Journ<1/ ti lnl,r11J1101t<1I
l.111 f'4l 11990); C.h.arlnwt,nh 11nd Chankln. Br>u11J1tn•·t, .i~-c nc.'ltc 20. 11t 102-
1 ll Stt ,er1CToallv H"'"'"" R11.btr. 4{ G<""~,J /\101111'f nnJ fl ~Jatt'r R1¡1'1 to Ort Out
Rt11'nvtu>nr ,,,,,¿ Ob,tctton\ f(i Ht1"1nff Righn Conrtnt10nr (j. P Gttrdner, ~
1'197J.
12. Scc C.,.,I<., • l~r»uons. "bovc note 21. •I 71), Reb.:<:u J C1>c>I<, •Statc lk
$J'K'flilb1l11, '"' Viól;uwn• uf l-lum.1n Rsatb1.11, • 7 l l11rr.:.urJ ll""'"" P.J¡hls }<"'""'' 12',
172-171 onJ 171 n 257 419'J.ll; l;>ut< llcnkon, "ll S R.a111k11111>n <>Í flu'""n Riflh"
Notes to Paies ó-7 • Z8l
Coo\'C:QOOAs The GhoM of Serutor 811.Lkcr... b., Amtnuin /aurrt.a! of }#lt'rlfJIH»tal Lui.
1.11 34~ om1
2) Tc:ururc Convcnuoo an Zl fCCPR an . .11, l.n1.em.1nooal Coovrnr1Ctn 0111hc.
Elimmatl<>n of .~11 Fonns oi Racial Discrimtn•n<>n an 11 J•• 4 1%9, 660 UN T S
195 lbetti!Wter l.ERD); lntematiooal Convennon on tbe Protemon of thc Rtghts ot
Ali .1.Ugrnnt \Xl.,,kcn .mJ Mcmhct> ol Thctr 1mube> •n. 76, Oc<. U!, 1990, 30 ht<"·
11i.1tuu11d Le1-.1l AlJtm.1/J llt7 ~ctuctctl lt'ILO fortt .ful)• l, 2tld}1
.?4. The- liaw "'' thc Un11cd S:uud lllus.u.un 1h~ b.uie concc('lh :o thn c'lftrn l'Xi"1
on nationoJ law in Ar~cnti"" Republic v. Asncrad• Hes.• Sbi1>rmi Corp , 488 U.S ~25
119$'!): Pdocz I' Federal Republic of Gcnrumv, 26 F.3d 1166 ID.C Or )9'1~1 · Fm:i¡m
So1""""1 Jmmw1111os Act oí 1976 S 1604. 90 Sta. 2891 fcoddi..J a> runend.d . i 28
U$C. S UlO, lb(J2-ltll 1 120001 t"u forctgn "'" <h.all 1x immunc from tbc 1u11>J1<
uon• oí U.S. coum cxe<pt u• pm-.Jed tn SS 16°'· 160711
2~ This an.a.l)·sis i1 di.srussed furcher tn 1)j(puttn~ ~tk So..-rtti~nlY, .. ifl ~lac­
Klonon. Women'1 ~- 1\ftJ:t't Lau:1, abo\>e oote ll, at 206.
16. Rome Seitrurt-11rts. 11 and I}.
2.7. The u,rrnmgs .And speccbcs. t.n Pan m bdo\\ diseuss thJJ case. Kiadic Y. Ktradl11.'.'.
70 r }d 212 <2J ür 1•rm
is Seo ·on T<>rttm:." helow at No 1 "N11ionbuílcliD11 '" C.mdlt." bel.,,.." No.
10, md ·Equalny Remado: V1olencc A~ain>I \1tlomen." L-.:1""'· at Nn 11 1'hc 1>outb
Afnc•n Consttrunoo butlt oo Canad1an d...,[opmems. See. e.¡¡.. S. v. Balofo, 2000 (21
SA 4V 1CCl par._ 11 \S AJr.) t6ndttlg that t.hc Pm-cnuoo of hauly \'1olmcc Acr. had
to be: ooastrucd wuh tbe Gonsuruuon .llld ,¡,.,. ·undcntood .. ob~g.ng 1hc S1ute U.
re.a.ly 1<> protm 1he rip.h1 o( C'\ICl')"(linc to ht: Írt."t' fro1n prl'\·.i1c- or domrsuc \iolC!tl~t"l,
C... miichclc ''· Mmisicr of s.icty •od S..uncy. 2001 (41 SA 9}8 (CC) para 44 tS. Afr 1
ldectdlng that l•w cnlorcement oflicials .,,.-.,d a "'º""" who h•d been niped a legal
duty to pr0<ect ha unokt the <ttrummnc.. and that d1e¡ bad nq¡llgcn~y ond unla1>·
íull\· Lulcd t(I do ~o. $Udl th.at thc:}' \\."Cf'"C lqnll) hllhlc to bc:r. smtt "'[1]0 somc.d.rruJn
"""~cci tht-rt' would """® ht' a J».!'ith(I cxcnponent wh1ch ahbgcs th~ S1.1tc t:tKI 1t1 C\flíllU
'º pf'QVlde 1ppmrn..ue rro1cc:rit1n ta C\."('r)'Cln(' throuf'h lA"-"5 and structUrcs dm~Jlcd to
,fford suth prO<CCUOn ·1. Cirmr<hd• at pana. 4~ douni;uW.ed us vi...- that U.. Soulh
Alocan Coru.tiruuon rtquJres r:hc $tate to proU:ct indiv.Ou:ds trom thce ~ev... of che samc.
quauon t"S.:co by tbe U.S SuptCJnt toun. lha1 J.t bJ.S nu web ro.poiwbilit)'• .1$ '1t.1lcd
on OcSh.cn"' v W1nnelug0Coun1y Dqw1mcnt <1ÍS..a•l Scrvtcc•. 4R9 U.S 189 (1989•
For b.1tk~round • ..., i1<"<rallv Mork <¡ Kcndc, •s1~,,.. in South Aír1<•n •nd
Am<rican Coomruuon.d L.w Ach1c\"Ulfl" Gcndcr Equallry and Transf<>nn•ri<>n. · 10
SouJÍ1"11 C.alt{<mrra Renf'W o/ uu •niÍ w.,.,.,.., Stuáies } {20001 {•~ tbot Souih
.-\fncao rormitunorullsm 1-dlett> <he anudom1f1'1ne< gcndcr ¡,quohiy modd •tdoi>ted m
C.i11..J11i. FL'r dJKU>.,.ion oí th~ tqu.illl')· <1pproach t.1kcn u\ ünll.d.t, ..ce \ 1itku¡g Sc.x
E41u.alif}· Rt:.al.~ bc:low •r Na 7, ªN11tM"nbuildin~ 1n Canad.i.: bdo""· :u ~l'I lP lnd
•Ec¡u.iluy Rem.de; Violcncc Aµinn Womcn," bd..w at No 11.
.!9. C.ih>nnc A. M>cKmnoo, S•x &¡,,.¡,,, !Zóoll. eununc< lhi.< d1<0n<:tlón ln de-
wl cooc.pruall¡ oJld conipu•u.d¡
284 Notes ID P11es 7-8
10. Sce ·Scx llquahty Un.kr thc C.>mmuuon oí tndu; l'tobkms. l'msptt... .md
Vc:rsonal L.a"·j. ' llclou• 11t Nt>. l 3
31. "e:~ On Sn 11nJ \'1olcn1.:t' lntroduc1n.,, iht> Aru1pomop..1ph" Ordi.n1lntt in
Swcdc:n: bc!.1w •1 No. 9.
}l. Thos "".i'~" "dcvdop<J m MocKínnon, "Toward • t'\tw Thcocy of Cqu.lnv •
w WQt"<n 't l..Ji.:ts. Aten'1 Lau..·s. abo-.-e note 11. út ..i.:t. as>d e:xplored throughout
M•cKmnon, Se< i,;;¡r.ulHy, obo1" note ?'l.
,)J ~e U.N l lu1n. Rt.. Wnm., Ge11~,.i1 °'"''ltt'l.t lH .\'a11-J1scru11u11llt1Jn,, 7,
Hth s.... l19R9> L N Dnc: llRl1GEN/I R"' 1 •t 26 41'1'1-ll, r<rnnt.J m Ll.N. lh¡¡h
lAmm'r Íor Hum. Ru;.. Cr,,,,p1'411<m o{ Gt:tter#Í 0;.,,,,,,.,,,"111.nJ G.-ncml Rt',YJmr11enJ11~
Mor tl"4pted br f'I•""" IVKht< 1-wtr Bodtes. at 147. U.N Doc. HRl/GEN l/Re\•.7
1100H.
14 S.Cc Con\.t:OtJon on thc 1!.Umln.ulon ot .1\U lotm>. (>Í DU;(rliniL)4l!Un A~21ru.t
W1"11<:n D«. IR, 1979, 12~Y U ~.T.S. 13 {en1<r<d mto lor«: Stpt l, 19811 [hCJC1n.tttr
CEOA\\"l
J5. CEDA\\- ,;11tcs that ··d!M;nminationapinst v.·orncn· shall mcang_nvdJSDncrion.
cxdusioo ar resuiroon made on tbe b.tsjs oí sex \\'hkb ha$ the dfc.a or pucposc ot
unpaning or nullafymg tl:u: r«0gn1uon, cnjoy1.ncn1 or cx.crOl'iie b) 'WOmd"l . oo a hall$
of et{Ullht)' (1( mcn ~nd womcn .. OÍ ht1m1H rtghb ianJ ÍUllÚ.untnuJ Ítt'C\IOOHI,• nut
¡u~\ liuc:h di1:tinct1t'n'I n1.tdt by st;Ut' :t(1lll'fi Cf.OAW 1n, 1 ft[)AW ttOCf M ca ron
demn SCll; dif.C.rimjn11ion "'a.n ull iu tnqns" uid to call Ítlr l~tnslation trtalinM "'qnctjons
11·herc appropriatt... presumabl\"'" agamst pnvace actors Y•ho discri.nuo.are a~:unst women.
IJ. ..,.. U .mJ Utb1. Cnico.Ily, CUH\\:' C11phmly calh on statos pamcs 'ltJo tah all
ap¡>ropnatc mcburo 10 dimirua.1.c Jis1.:rutttn.ilJ011 *f!..tiMl •-ornen by imy pc:Dl.ln, e>rg•
n11.au~n ''' d"lld'f)r11e." Id ~n.. Oftl 11 .al$0 .1dtfn·..'<!a 1ht: n«d •[tJo modii)• the MK;.1al
111d G1hural punern.s CIÍ conduce o( rnen md V.'('Unt:n, • 11rc:as c:leady invcJvi~ pnv111c
~ 211d custom<. Id. "" V(a! Bv coodcmnmg "•11 forms ol tnflic in women aod
e.xpJoita.uou of pmsuwlJOn by wmen, • CEDAW obv1oqsl)· rdcrs '" th~ ,nuinly 1>nv:uc
cu11101c:rci...J ><:X; u.-dc. lJ. an. \'l. LE.DA\\" rcqultts the prótccuoa ot \\'t'lmen't aghb
1tnor1g the ub\">oor;h, 1:n1v1,1tc "'nt.'ln g:O\.'C'rnmcru11J orgAn.b•..110111 imJ ~1.iuons • Id
arr \'Tltc). fin.Jly. rhc vpriou. pmvisions dealinJ: wit.h "-"OOlrn '¡ rifl,hrs prorecLion in
eduCAuon. cmptoym("Jlt. healrh c1~. rural ar~. m.lrri.;,¡ze. :iJnd fa.mil>· rclati(m.J ncccs·
sa.nJy rnich the so-callee! private" sector. ias far as srares pirtits are mvol\.-ed 10 ~
are~. \\·lu~ 1.1\VQÍvcment t.ericb to ~ $Ubswnuil. Id. aru. X-XVl
}h, Cl!.DA \t Cvmm1111C'C, Gt·1ttra/ R~'fJtrJ111~11d11tmfl ll/o l 'J'. \'111kt1tr Ag,¿1n11
W~'"'" 1111h $c<s. l'>'lll, U.N O,,. A/~7!;8 at 1 1199})
)7 Thc U.S Cool<"'"' aclueved dus rteoitniuon 1n J>assm¡t lho \'iolencc Al!"'nst
Women Aa. but .... u.~. S;opn:mc Coun m l:nited Smcs V Morrisoo. )29 u.s. 598
120001. Lnet strucl< do"'tl thtS provmon as oxceedtog the leder.tl legi.!ad"" power. For
•.n11l\·,1Ji, •« \l.i.t..Knl.f1c.m, "Ot-.puUJlJ ~1.t!r. ~vcrt'Jgnty, 10 \t'(Jlfl'''" '1 J..rvt•s, \Jen r Ltu·r
aho'""C' nocc 11 • .at 20b.
l~. ~. t..(I , rhc CTDA \X' Cnmmi1ta:'5 find1ns chat ·u1 ()\'t:fC(')(llC.- centuria ('IÍ malt'
dommaoon of 1hc pubbc sphen:, ""men requíre the en00<1~meo1 i111d support

H IH 10 ,,,., 8-9 • zas
.,¡ alJ t«ton ol llOCl<ty • U :-.. ü.cm oa ihc IJ...Unaóon al ~ Apuui
ll°<.,,..11 <lJ)¡\1\7 C.omm1attl e;,.,.,¡ illm>rt"'NliÚUO# 1'o 1J Pr,/,tu./ •"' l'ro'1h
Wr, U 1 lkh ~. !W.l, U.N o., \ 5! l8 'Rn 1 Pan ll &1 61 (l'l'm ~n r.FP\\\
.n 71, ttt .al.w ( U>A\\ t ...~mm, (,,,. ;¡¡/ R.rmm,,,~n.Wt11J11 \o ~ 1 ~wltll '"' ~'"'
"'N< ••J ,..,¡,
¡ R<J.uk,•u 1 12 llloh SOL 19~!1, ll N Ooc A 49 J8 •• 1 11..14
t•lwn •he-re Jt jure o.¡u..&Lt} cll.l'i. ..U~ MIJCT1 Jdtt"m'U rain.. whu:b ~rr rr-
~I u tnknor, ro •~n1m • \"t:i~~ lW'thcr Clt\ düs ••.arai<"U" thc- 2001 l'C"pOn
on 1<1 inqouy "'"' ihc .bductlM '"I" •nd munln ol hun.ltt.k al - m C.iuJ.od
hura. Mcnro wuli llllpUllll>. in which lho CED\ll" (AllMllTl« de<cribcd d>< un
plltM'l\.C '"" .a tUB • KahulJ.l-.i , , w (")>tCIU ot me problan. f t • rht:ftomenon tlt.tt ~'CI
~,,..,J oobicd e.bel m • >1N<lu"'lh \loknl "'°"''•e rI>A\\ Comm, ~·..,
.\fr'\1<fJ rr1..lutnl bt tlN (ÁllltMl/I ( '"' ,¡.,. Eft,.,·u/¡1/101 uf !>H<TIHrlffll/llUt l,c11111/
\f'o''fC'tlt 'nJrr Ar11tk .~ ()f tht Optrq1111l PrntW tt11lu· f'oftt'{'"-lron 1utJ Rcpl,, l""" t)v
c;,,,.,,,..,.,,,,,f\f•xuo, l4 U~. Doc t:EOA\\ v:ZOO~ OPA \IEXJCO f•n 27
'.!l•O'l l'b< Ll:J).\\\ u11ru11111« '""'"rol foaJ> on ·,...•l\1t1~ iho dOdttlnn¡t ""'''" ul
...,,.¡ probkm. ..\loniJ ""h romb.i1U1¡1 cnmc. -.l•-.u¡¡ ihc in.lniJ....J CldO o1 munlm
..,,J diuppftr.ancn, tíod&n~ and p-hin¡; m.... "'ho""' pi¡hy ...J pro.>Jinr IUJ'POn
co dw \1(1Ht11° fanalir:s, tbe mol a•in Ji• •JN i 1 • nrr '" "$ m. ur11! ¿ · 'Off •114
nr 11!/ "' /r.,,,,{-\\iaet:hn ~tic anJ 1nrra.am:td\ ,.i.,knc.~ nr ~xual \'X')rocC' .1n~I
.buac. mur..kri.. k.idn.ipplnp. llnd Ja.s.appcaraoces mu~I b~ rombi1red. ~peo.he- pt.,.Lctcs
CMl ¡;mder c.·qu.llnv 'l'hioptcJ .u1J • gcuJct pcnpa;:t1\ ~ 1111.qu .111cJ uuo ull pu)>lk pol.11.:Jn. •
IJ lrmphJ~s lldJ..l•
\'} f\.hh. D..'C'QJtN:nlt Pcrt.auun1 lv Humom Raght 1n die ln1cr Amcn ..'iln 't-ntrm
101. f)r¡:&n.cutJCn o( Ñntth..-.n ''•m. lnn:r Amcrx.1n CommlllaW\ on Hi.mun
Ri¡¡ht<, lnctt-Amman Lomt d H""'"" Ri¡!u>, lni.n\-nan U.,.,...oon oo che
Pttwrluan PurtlJuncm and l:i.J1<>D<111 01 \"iol<nct A4toin>1 1t<>11><t1 Con\«lllOll OÍ
lklan Jo l'.r•, OEA "'dJ\ 14 "" H 12 \1•¡ 1001, JJ l•I"""'_.¡ Lq.J/ 11•
/ 1 ru/i I,\~ 1C'ntC'R'd anta fl•ft~ ~\.u ' tlf"JI'} Ihctt111al1t'f (.nnvmuon ttl lkl<"m ~i.,
Parál
40 Pro10.:ol ro !he Afn<Jn Chanrr on Human 1111J l'C<'plrs' R.~h1< on 1he Ri,ihn
o1 \\ omm m AJ.na. Of'<'ld Í"' ,,,.,.,.,, Jul, 11. :?l)(ll <> \U l>oc. CARILlG 6t> b
l lffll, _,LJ,/r . i http ,,,..,.. ... t.pr <"ll [b<ttmallcr Alri<an '"°"'"''11·
• I 1 • ....,.._,., ol BdEm J.• Pw.
42ld•~<l}I·
-'*' on. 1
41 fJ • ., h an 8
o4-4 ,.\rnctn Ptotocol ¡¡n_ 17 J l l"~omm: stWI ha''" thc nJu 10 hve !lD a pouU\C'
L-ul1ur\ll curucxt .md P•lfUl'.ip.uc :.u a1J Ji..,;ds 1n thc J~IC'roun.iuon of culturu.1 p._lli
lO
~K'l:t 1J •n IOl I J 111 \\'ocuco h11~ thc- nght to .-i pc•chll c:11.11tence .u\<l the r1~h1 "'
p.1rtk1¡1•tc: m thr pi111noci(lCI 11nJ nwrnttnJn« 11f ('IC'1h..c • 1•1 .are 19 j•\\''"""" lfli*U
h.~ ch< .,.bt ro full,. ~ thar nght to _,...,.ble dnd<'Pfl'J<l>t '>
4l Far funbaJi,..........,, 1tt ~LK~ ·T..,...,J • :-..cwTh«vv ol Equ.h:y"
m ll"omn 1 Uws, .1.1.-•J LA<""°'"""'" 11," "'!, ~ ~ t:ndcJ doe Con
mtuta.:te1 ot lnJ1~ Pr.: hlnu1. l'C0111a.i1., and "-"'noftai
1 u.,:· belN .at !'o 1), •(h
Notu 10 Pa¡n 9 1O • 217
285 • H11u 1• P•Cts 9-10
W - G ' Rn 4"- In! •t zr¡ 11 ~ GAi >R upp ~<> ;q, l 1' Ooc \ 4& ·~
~ • ....i \u*""' low-Juallg tbc An111••mogr>pby Ordwooc< ., ~ e<lcn." bdoii- "' l t~>•: DrdJir.rJOft •"" eht f:~l..,,,DIDOQ <-' DLMntM'UIDNl ~Sl \\·omm •n l G A
'.'\o 9. •1\'.,U10t1hu:1ldin¡ m {..ianaJ.I: brlaw al ~.1 IO lb. 22ol XXJJI. U r.; Doc. ..V6b81l Ntw 7 1%71
.¡6 Atntan 1~,t0tl1J 11,n ltrJ ,9. Stt t.,.
l N Lh•nct .an 1, p.1ra J Un1\·cn.J.I llccl..r11unn ,,¡ f lu1u.in Righ1s
47 Id •11 ~(111•'· m 2. G.A llr 217A. "' 71, U.N GAOK. hl ~"'" 1" pltn mlg., 71, UN f'loc /\J
4!1 lJ ;!ti 1 41 ~10 ID« 10, 1'1.1~1 JC\PR ar<> ; •nd Zl1 ltnmtd m io forc• M.1t Zl, tq7bl, lnm
~9 l.! naooiul c.....,.,...,""
Ectw01Cnic. SocW anJ <:ulrunl R.~hh, m. l.1,/V'lnl ¡,,, npa,...
SO. ,\ r.&nJ(' ol vtr;..... on ~ ~bp1 C".ll\ be: tound m Ldhi.U (..ooflU!.tnrt.uny, •'To Occ lb, 1966. !l'll U:'\ T ~- l •cnrcn:d 11110 lar<:< Jon ), l~bl, Amcr1<...n l.<>n-.-
BcU- 1i1c • <,,. T""'"' Etlmi,,.., .,.1 rhe' o..o,,.,.,.. ol Rlch11." on /1 .,..,. TVrf11 "" 1>0J17 lcrucr.J ''"" '"'"' jul' 18, N78, Lumpcm c;on,..,.uon"" 14 lt:mcred
o{ \l"o..,.,. \,,1-./ ..J f~/ P~rf l9 R<b«<a 1 \.oolc .J. l'l'lol~ uuo tcwce 'icrl l l'"ll. Alfk:ao· <S.011111 C11•rtcr '"' Jlumao •o•l Pt"1 1ph' RighD
Abdullahl A An ~.. t.m .. ~tatt Re-orni1~1htl1tv l!nder lntnnatl<M'll thll"'a:n ~t" rr?"-Mllhk. •n• 2 'ld lR, •Jopt1>J Junr Z: t·nu 2l lnlr'f1111l1r~,,.:l l t,.1.1 Af.,!1·n4/s c,;i¡
L.aw 10 tliAnttt Rchpou) md <...us1nm.ln l-a~~. u'I Hu•an R.tg#}l1 I U. um~n. h.abdlc faui":r'Cd 1nto tllrf~ Otl 21, 19861- Sc-x 11.lL11mm1nJóon IS C'\'w:fl p""11hJ1ffi m .armtd
R. Gwln103. •Arrug;un P~rcepuon. \\'c.ulJ l't•l.clhn{t. lllkl fl.'ulu1.:\-1h11r11J Fmunnm wnllict by Commoo Anide 3 oí iM Gene-. Ü><\v<1111om¡. Se.o, <.g. Cc:nC'\·• (-,,nvcruinn
l'hc C....,i: ol 1\'m.1h.• (;t"n1uaJ ~Uf(l:(rM.i, 2t C.'ol '""'" 1-l"~Jn RJ!l.h/1 l""u' Rrt-rt'tt 19H Rol.11ivc to thc l're111ncn1 ol Prlsoncr> uf W•t •n 3, AuR U. 1949, b U SI' Hlb, 75
Clq<)J U.r\ T.S. 11' tfl"'(\•lnnt1: ptcica:htln fur ,·lV\l1.1n •1Mrho11.u \Jn) 11Jvw:Nt J.iacUKuon
51 Afn1.-.n Pnxoc:Ñ 2n 64c;;t t\Ut~ pirun are- to c::nan lit,1.,J.1uon co pranttt fv• i:"Kkd (.ln
tl>M ·""""_,' " en..~ .,. tbc prclcncd lonn al """"""'<
onJ ths d.. nPu> 60. 'ice E.¡uahtv ¡.;.,.. , Worh .~J Dmi1 H1Jiz#& \.-n..,cw.t1 ~ták"' IÑ!
,,¡ ........., "' marroJ¡,< mJ t.miify, mduJcng m PQl)-x-im nunt.I rd.auoniilnl" ""' Bnmog + 10 Rnrn. 1>"""1 (\lar 21l\.!, u(>dat.J Mav Zt~ 11w1t.blr ., .,.,...,
i-no•cd on,l J"O'<'<IÑ·I.
'2 JJ 1u1 1 t; harcau anJ 11 b) ~ ~1.;to P1nie1 ·dtall t•lr.c- ali ntt-"('"'11'"" l~\latt\·c
equahr¡-naw
4.:1.)Ufltoahlc:
°"'
I; J...,,, Seuwonh, •Jnoqu.W1¡ lklorc thc 1..i~ llolJ1ng
h)r Se-• D1i-c;r1m1n~uory
"""'A<.-
u ... l.!nJn t~ Conv~uon oo u~ U11n1n.1t101t ot
;.nd othn rnr.1.tiuh·l 10 diminutt" lllKh fharmhJl pr~cti<:tt U'K'luJ1nM prohabinon . AIJ Porms of D111.tr11111n1'1tnn ,\31.un.!lt Wt'ffil'n ••nJ Throhgh t-hc- fk111n1t Ploadorm i('\_f
ihtt>u¡¡h 1<t11>l•I"'< measures backed by >Jntuoos. of aJJ fonns ol lomak l',\'Diul muri· Acoon" IS 11,,.,.,J Hum,. Ri¡¡h11Jo.,n.l1912CXm
lanon. sc..arili~~U4...-i, rncd.K-..W.S..uoo anJ J"'r" mNtcalu-:aoon "" tmu1lc ~~1t'11 munlmnn 61 Tbe G.neul Auembl•is Dedal'lltK>n on 11>< Elcnun;mm ol Dt:1cnminanon
und .&U ochc.•1 pr&1..Ch-C$ tn urJcr- tt' c:r.a<la1..1tc thc'tft • Apmo.t Womcn. Amd• J . .,...,. lurtlxr, manJ.ot1t11t ~.U •ppropn.¡IC rndSUio 1t1
SI IJ."" 11 <l •nd lh midi.:air ·proaJLo wlu,h ""' 00..J un tlw id.-1 ~I ilic a>lcnont) ol wumc:a. • D<do-
;, IJ "" 1~ 1 at and ll b1 t•lllOO ....,. lJimanauun oí DÍictUnln•uon A.:.un•I Womcn a.11 J. (., ' In... 121f))
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55 Thc •<'ITTl!IWlC<S . , . ·,.,...i .,...,¡,, np<. IDC<$I and •Wr< che connn~ xxm u s 0oc ·\ t>~llO <Nov ~. l"ú7>
prcgmnC\ cnJAn..:c..-~ the mental ¡¡nJ rhv~1~;11 hcahh ot tbt: mc:\C.hct or thc We º* che 62. ~. t' f! rape • • crirnc ~1¡1imt humanttv ID l~ Swu1c: or th4.· lnrttnolbonal
mor.her 01 dx t~cus • Id. strt. 14t I •h:}. Cnminal TnbwiJI fo1•ihe Prosecuuou of l'e......,s Rc>pon.o1blc lor Gc:n1w1J. tnd O<h«
5b llatif1,..J b) tll<' n:qui.lilc l'S 1u~1ts, tht• .o\fnc.an Pn>tucol ''"'" ª"'"" 'º'"
Ne:» Sc:nous Vu.\IJUOCli 11.1 f lntc;"matJOO.Ü J tummic11ri.1n Luv. ConurunN m thc l'crritory ot.
\<tnl>er 2~. 2\WI~ R.. ando 11nd KwanJ;n C11ucru. l!..pon.;ih~· ¡.,, (.c11<Jt:iJc ..i><l Othc1 SU<h VMil.tt100>
r. On tho. I"""' ,¡,., lm<r Amt-n<Vl (""'" of Hu""'n ~ .. h" stJ1nl rt..r ·¡h,. \-<""mmrd tn rhc Tern1...-, oi NC1¡¡""'1nn1t ''''"' \ C Re.. Q,,
t .N "-OR. 14H
Coun cotbl.lm tltJt thc pnnaplt <l ~ldy bdatt d.. lw, oqual pr<11ecuoo bdott mt1t .. ), U i'O 0.:.: \ RES/'ISS, Anna 0994 , m l JI. n"pnnlru on ll l•t,,,,_,,,.¡
ti.. .lrw MW 000 di...nminaooo bd<JQI!> IO JU> L - beca- tbc •ik.S., k!l'I smJ<N«'
oí n~nvn&I iolftJ lnttmiatton.1 puhL.~ orJtr tt'\I' oo u .anJ 11 n '- tunJm'IC11u1 ptmapk
L.-,J J.M1,.,.,/1 1~'1'1. 1602 fhtr<imh<T ICl'K \11rul<l: Stt .Joo "Ddin1111 R.r< lntc:1-
nauonally: A ÜltlllllC!ll.ll)' uo Ak.nfi• • bcJ,,. ., :'\~ ll.
tlu1 ¡.-rrn ..1et .U 1An ~ov...d.n'l, nn lct•l •1 1h<11 ~ m to·1íl1C1 v. 1h t1 • futu.Urnc'IH.J 6) Fru .a Jt1tU1t1on ,,1 tht tmtJ.-.t l'k"'t"'t't·n norm.ttl\c anJ crn¡1Jfu.:AI in Jctttmt
pill'laplc "''t°f't.ibk and d1KTlm1n ..1or,. 1r~·i1tMtt1l ~ anv l11tr"\t1". ~,._1n• to gendcr na1~n' ,,f cwtt1n11ry 1ncC'rn;al1on11J Lt"· \~ Aothc.l Eh111hdh Ruha 1' "TrAJJ11on.J 1.1nd
, " un11<c:qit•hk " JunJical Condiuot> •nd ~hts oí thc llntlu<uinc:nr«I M.igrlUll' ~1odcm Apftt'c1'"-'hf' 1n Cltttom~rv l ntcrnarlnooil l..Ju:• A Ri:concil1011Ion," <)IJ .-l;11r·rtr4Jt
A.Jvt)('lr)' t>l·1riit-.n (il..tS:, 200} \requottJ by \1or.lé'Q1, lntt!r AHl Lt. H R Set 1\) foHm•I of l•tm1Jt.,n.J LA 7S7 \20011
!>.o. I' O) , lO 1 ('><pi 17 100) 1 64 Un ,.-i.,J, for rustom.uv 1ntcm.o1.,,,.i Lo..- Stt ~t< ol •h< ln1<tnaooml
1:- 1\.111 (lrl;W.&oon ;anJ Pl11form • 1 ."411~. flJlJth \\.t:: tJ 1--"'~('renc-c: ,m Ctiurt GIJUlll•~ .,. 181 U(bl,Junc Zb. l'MI. ,9
\c.. 1055, TS !';o 9'11 (Cu>l<>m bcmc
Womm, "><pe is • - A co:-..r 1nt21J omo - i ,\ co:-;P 177 20 Add 1 ªni.kftct a1 • ,.......i pon~ ai;<:<p1nl., Liw"l, Nonh Sa Contll><'ftUISbdf 1cJcr.I
(19'15 .,.J,,nrJ"7G \Res ;n2011 ~ Ooc Alffi55U-20l•O..C :!2,1"9~ lh<tt- fl<ro¡blic ol Gmnany v n.,,,,,.,k. F<dcnl R.,.ohlic al German1 • l'<"l><tl.nd•I. 1%q
onalta llcí1ing O.cl.r.oonl: O..:w•uon oo !he ~cwn o! \ .,1cncc Again"
2!1 Holts to P•1es 10 12 Nol" lo P•&ea 12 13 • 2&9 290 • Notes lo P•I" 13 11

1 r· r _.l-4-1 lft'I• 211 1'tth1•rv aud PwrJrn1lu>1ry AHh1t1e1 lf\;1c:o1r.1.cuA \1 Um1cJ ~ 12. 2'000 ~O INtr-r""'"''"" / qJ/ \l.1tc·r111/1 \ l1 tC!flldC'J mto fc'f'Ce ~p1 q, 200S• IH'tlr,.ph\: 1 hJ1n&1h't' il"I \.¡tJ.rn • l k:k;~ ,u ~11 q: ·~11tk,nhw)Ju)M in üo..t.: bdow
'i.ucs) 19"i'1 I ( J l-1 q81 l"ft 1lunC' l7J Í1.1r ;1 roanR(' nt vi<"W\ oo cht pflltt'it, t « For- furthc-r d1~us10M ianJ Jo,umc:n1..tt1on, tt't" •pl,.,,Oftr41rh)' at Tr-..fbck1111." bclf,w .1t N1" 1n
1°lk."t.~r ~h.·rl"lfl, Nu~J" R1ili11 .,,¡ Jl1111'/J,,1t.1nJn ~r~·'tf '" C..u.. v-•/Jry l..t.u_· fl~b"lJ; 11 No 24 78 f t•r mnn: ~\tC11\~'t" dt\("1.&S,111n Ñ 'iomt ot tht- ¡,c;qcs raiwd hes-e. S« '"'Pnnmod-
An.thon, \ J)'Am,uo. lh~ (1Jff«PI tJ/ <uu""' 1n ln1m1.;1J01UI Ltlt. ( 19711. Bruno t." l,:ti'!.1~ u an t:'.\L'Cfth111, lft' ftqc1n.J. .. tr.::«~u.t, l 19~] ~
s ( R. 6~n tt111<>m anJ l l11rn..11 RJ~h1.s: bc:l•11l' 11 t\o 1
'1mJ1ui ,uwi J'hd1¡:t 1\hlllft • t'ht" 'Sot'IUt\.O ot llum.Jn Rt~t... L.tw üutom., jlJS ú.lg~ iO P1m«u1vr V ~llltutW\.I 8..1r.ay,p1u, and ~atek, ( ..L.~ ,\:u Jl rR i.J912 T. 79 ~. • 1. 'h" lu 1,i. l.h<n11. "Llbor ~lt~r.ncm .inJ lnt<mariooal :,.,xu.i 01
imJ CKna.J Pnnc11..1it1.• l'J&S-19k~ \,,11,.,.,,,,, )·,..,,~J. u/ l1·t<rn•1k,,.,/ 1.M" 82; W ¡~,,...,. 1111J "'-~"'"ª H)n: 1, 211011 l'P!...l• rrnJm,1 fh<tt1nahrt ¡1,:.¡,,-·~1. S..: vutua ut L.&l10r \ 1trnll'l1il l'mpn:U\'f'.• Vl G.1tJ~ ~riJ /rt1'flfg'J.1tt'~ 4) tDcbn l-
1\t.. h..rl Ré-1un 1n ·ne c·uh "t..u.ttom '" 1hr lJ&IC' lOth Cni1U1Y .. r; ú!J/tJf"Jl"1 C..a1h:1nnc ,-\ ~1o1cl\1nnion • 1ntC"m11111torull 0.."'C'hH.., Prn..-ccutor \' :\iah.inu:na 8JU'IC l'l<l.o<t .m.l <orqiol') i;ct..or1 N< l'l'l')I 0.tn{o.Mtna>tilll. "On1banJtlxM.ud \X'.,,.k.
W'btc'TPI l1llN11Jll0tld l..i Ja.rul 1~ \ (t~ ..- ). l 11r m ;pnhonwl\'T O\'°""'IC'W, ~ lo ,.-. aoJ ~¡7.<U," 98 ,¡,,_,,,,. ¡,,,,nw/ a//_,¡ L..u 12S f21J(>I' ,-.,¡,,,.,.,ond th< r ~rr1rw "' th< lntcmo1..,.,•I l.1hnr ~hrlt<t." l\l lún·a.J Wo""" '•
1emoat1Qirul 1.~~ J\!,. ..,x1.i.u1Jn • \Uk1'DCflt ot Pntk--..pb Applk:..hlc to lhc Fomuooa. ot 71 fhc '"'"' b,_j..,,u, tJu, ,,...,.,,.., 11\J tJu, u111e-' dfro bmottn ch<"'"" l.m Jm•....,/ 22'1 llY'l'll: :-;1n-C L (onmrn "The :'-:onh :\mm<m A = m Libar
t.;.,,..~.d <.u.tom.iy la1e.,,.tloa.ol L.w," Lond.•o c..c.f<m!« 2000) for, ,.,._._J dis •tt rniJh duoniJnl &..... hndl-t obonv.i- by Rorriéo o.!l.wr,h<-•J of l,;:-,'A.\llR, Crup<nllJIXI and lb Llla;t m \l:on1<11'-l'utkin~111 \l<:<ICOD M.<¡1111.00....." 41> A,...,..
<UYk'll ,-.( gm.kr Ju1a11n1mwn wt th< <0ntn1 oi th< ""!'<"el"'""""">' h......, nghu •I- wtth ho ,Ltgu" ~ Rh lh<>w ,l1lf•nl outliorit1n who imi-' on prncn "'I ch< 1<Pt ~•1&Y'Jl17 l~u Rn-1<" 179 il9'lK, '""'""" 11 J..duun. "To H.-.. .OOOb<)
a..w n ,.¿J in undcr 11.- '''P'tH• ..id 1H.1noluJ.. t •t ohlapuons np cann, :stt 0.0.r fmdom ol •r«<h ol thc h.,,..km1m wluk ,...,.1r: ....,. w~tcml • • rault &>I Tr•ll11:l10f!., Mul OrJ<t l!n.k., • 10 <.-,.
ll'•ih1•'1''" i.,.,, m 12002 iv.,.,.
'-clmbt<r /..:~ L.u "' Tb....,, ,,.J l'r«rKt W~H~ 09911 than "'-"' Rom&> o.L.r< 11.wkt f/...Jr a-rth tiv Dn..J lll 1ll 227, 2l0. 2ól 172. 11() Thts " "" .,,.,.. • rnor.d argwnmt tb.1 """" - " " <hoold not b... 1beir _,,
M tE.RD p.....,..¡,¡., zn. J7' 200n ,t,1~ 1h.m th.at •-omm thouJJ noc ha"'(: or roncrol them
!>O U.O.\\\ prcamblr 72 \J/i,.•••• ,,
119 U!, 188.1~'· ¡07q The mcJi.1 ligurn •"<•< dv.r~cJ v.11h M Stt l'oltcr l'oubon "Comrlia""' WJm final judl!111C/IQ ol thc lntenutional
67 ·10 uxnb.at ch< .!H<nmU10tron inh.-rml tn 1...Jltion.l n'1c.. Cl:.DA\l:' "1tt<U mwJcr .. 'lld .. l(t llKJtr.tnmt, but 1.hcy Y.'Cf'e mrxphc.abh [)&:11 rl'OIC'CUl:cd fcw ni~. ÜIW1 UÍ )Ulfl<< '"'''°
1%7" 9 ,,..,..,,... /o•mJ o/ l•krn.aJIU.u/ UU .04 l..'CJ0.11
ltá'O p;U11n to •t;akr .n 11rJ'f'l'lrrtJ1IC' PW".t~um f 1 ~ (t)a .modii) thc kriaJ .mJ cuf C'\'Cft thnui't l"llf'C' "ttt tiirn C1"11nm11ttJ st tht wm- tUlK '". 1lk-PmC" f'C"OPk m mní!ar hr.1n1ng nn1•1ncal •hJo.bn c.. "-ounUk·." cu1nplunLr ... 11h 1bc- \.oun' ~"UIOO•
tw.&I r.auttn\ PI Cl~l4'K1ofllK'O11nJ \l'\111'\m "'lth. \'IC'W 10 ac+Ul:\1tl& tht d.i:nunauan rdMioo to ihc puhl¡cabOOI .. th< killutit> th""''''"'" IU hot•<n' •nJ finJm11 lhJt <nlll('IWlcc 1..,..¡, Ott, ond bO\.. .i,.'jM lxen.
7} Id Stt ·1>omo¡; ..ph,.', lmJ>lr<." he!<,.. at ~o. 12, ·~raph• as foit-
r>t r«1Udi<o ood º"'''"'"I ltllJ •ll n<h<r prn,rM • hich .,,, lmod on me idea OÍ w tidU.ng bdo. .a No .?-1 Pan U. ~l.-wl 8 oí ~t.-:K1nnon. ¡r,,,..,, s Ltt>1, l-fn's
qurt< h•¡·h•
infaKJnc) nr 1he 111pcr1..1nty oi n1hn- C'f thC" tr"H or oo ""lC'~ped ~ for rncn and 82 ~ K.•l.ha 1>ro...i. "Am.t t:s Ali." (,04,J,,,,, S.,,. 16, 1005• AttOfd&nt, to
~ornm." .nJ "lbl ltlo cnaur< U..1 lun1ly ..Juw•e>n 1nJude. • prop<r un.krwrahng i...,. '· .d1o\" "'. .'e 11, ., m thít f'CV""· bocd ,11\ 1.ttlCT\tC"'A" -11h thc •'1rncn 1nvt..l\o.l, ~ pcrpemuor. Akk..u Yada\·,
ot M*-1 llU)' D • Mtltal l\11\lhOO lnd thr r('(,~IUflclh ~,f thC' Cl'fnnlllft l'nf'>'-W'IMbilit) of 7-4 On 1lw- lattrr, fn1 Pnt' tn\4.."lllgtiUc-•l'I. Jtt J\1a(Jt•tc-1 r. M . . k •lld K.thr")n \\lkkank. h.J tahlfl.icd ti)(' •uo f.m1ltc1 ol J.J.ii1urh1 N~11r, 11 tTUJnly d.Ju &r('a.. \\,lh hu pog
1nrn and ,.c•mrn m tht uphnn~1na and Jc.·"rlo1«1c.·n1 c,i thC'1r t:h1IJrC"n • Id .u1 S; sec At11.tflUt Bn·r~r.J &>,J"t 4a'1'f)(d'] ,\'rt1fwkr "' llftl'T'f.ttroJta! PtJt11<t l~'S-198 119'9i:n i<llC' O\"ft a dl"(.&t..l'", h•r~IDIL •rul ,1t·11und1n11 mo1~. ·i-1c- \·loLucJ \loºrtm(ll l('I
11110 bt111J('I
~ 1cl 1n J(Jfr• 1Jc.tl1na v.1th "'tltn11n1t"'n of any \rt"f"t'C\t'i-rN ron«pt oí tbc mies of Oo thc d.u;uncuoo b<N·<Cll llfOUP• UI themxlvn ..,J lor thems.:h"«, .ee loan-Paul t·{wi1n1I f!K"'n: 1hc- 111h, Ir. l'("porreJ PnliC't' he bn"'bed procttu·d h1n1 and 1old che "'·~C'n
mm and ..'tnnl"n ~u •11 lt\"el\. anJ 1n .i.11 lorm~ (lií cduc.au1.m··1. In aJdtt1on, CEDAW Sartrt', Bctlfg '"'·J Sotf.111g•t~i U taid L. S..rnn, IN.ni , l1'b> lhrv •·ere ll'l"ll· or h1v1n, An <1ffaar "ith bim ~C'nt of nmtJ, 1he napet: wttt: tq'IOrtbl
"pe.ah 3patb'°J.U~ to r.:u.hurc Ul odu:r JrtJ.,, :)ce- ¡J, a.ru. 1, J and lJ(t); ;.ce also 1J. an. 7' &....:. é te., lkiJIDft Dl·LU.rdlkln, ~11'6\lc note 'tli
lmplc:mcntJIUlfl ot 1.he f\.asrub1 hut pt1'1lcC" tt~IJ cht !'l"f(k'tf3h'r \\ho h1J n:pdrtcJ Ú)c rapes. whotn be \\"'OUld thm ('Q(ll.C
21l' IJ.f'l"\.tint: at.-1c. r.i.1tKat •[t)o t11~c: itll .irpr1ipC1.ttc mc.1,utn u1~tudmg Jc:g,W1u..,o, FP1W111rJ 1'1tl~1n~ "\cr•1c,:tt·• (,,, thc 1uh.an-.,'f'1nm1 t•Í \\011l(11, G.A Rn lb l. UN Jfter Lhargc~ \lrc:n~ 1•14.JUncl) Jroppc-J b~ t:OU!I• At kJA lhnx orighhoD \\'c:n: rcp<>rtcd
ttt n11".hl" r\r .tf.K,l1•h t\l\hriJt 1..... l'C"K11l•tlt"f\t, lU•lc'fl'• •nJ IU't(fkct '*'ili¡,:h C('ln11tiru1e GAOR. 49th ...,., • J\xcnd• hcm '17 U~ Doc A Reo 49 161 (l<l'l51 hh• N•u'Obr CULltdc.·rl..J IJ~ v.,1,l\ f 'I"~ •tl!ll<'n Wtrt" lllC:~UllC'J ,,f lltU1Jcr m hlt lciJJlng but ~CfC'
d1~rimin•1k•:n 011.uni;1 Wt'tfn(.·n •) <:1:1>AW tl~.JI~ tlirrt1.ly wi1h pm11tin1tion hv c;-nlJin11 on docu.ment 1t"Sdt dates lrüm 1Q8,): Pl'('flriam111c oí Acrioo Qf t ht 1ntcrnanonal Conftrencc rt·l<"11•ffi ,.,.,_.nJ1nK ttlal ¡,1f1,·1 "dtm1,n1ernuon o1Now t'vtr)· woman liV1nR in 1hc s.lum has
1;1a1t'i. pan1<:ll -,o ~upprell' ;ill tonn• e,. 1r~tlic 1n "11n1cn a:nd expk>1t1Uu)n oí prosnruoon on Populauon o111d 0.--.loponcot, U.N Uuc. NCONI", 17 llll Cl\l'M) <Calro); Umt«l ,Jannnl tt"PC11'1,th1lu~ f<,r 1hl'" murdcr hclli11,.l 1h~ poli~ 10 :1rres1 1httn ;JI: 1d...
oí women." rJ. 1rl. o Un rcpro<lucuon. tt.DA\\ requires, mter alla. stalcs parues N11Uc>l'llt \\·urld (..c.lfllcrcnl;c." <Wl 1huu.10 RaKhta:. Vlt1Uli. º"''l.tt.auon .and Pru)!r..m cil
Acil(>n l.l lnr,t1'1tt1t1~1J/ l.11.tl Al.1ft'f1.1b lti(1I f l!W}) lrt·~111tt1na 1ht •uboi1~nrl.1l tnput
•C"t1m1n.U( J1M.:n1n1n11uon 1111.uni.t '\l.'l11nt·1\ 1n thc lleld ol t"m1'k')'lnc1u u1 orl.l(:r to ir:t\t\lre
OÍ thc rolnlJC'f m1*'1huf1ttn c1{ W(tmt·n tn U• •w(11TIC'n 1 n,hti. .&f(' hum;an rif'hll" li-rr:ak l. On Torture
ltlh<' rigfll lcl fU'c1tl!c.hon ol hc,1hh an..l to 11-i.lt:I\. 1n "'orlan,;. con1.bUl'n' 1ocludm1t
thc '1dt'jttutJ&nJC <~I the h1nt1l41n ol ~rrt'lluciic"· • IJ an l t<í•
throu¡¡lrl: Fo...... rd l.c••l<on- ~tr.1q¡,ics for 1h• Advano:mtnt ~I Wom<n. NJUtobt. ful¡ l ~ ("onvnlu1..i Ag.UJbt 1·c,rrurci 1n,I Odin CnJrl lnhu"lan or ~rMhng T mu
~ Th:-. 11 trw tri.101 tht Pn1(0L1~ to An1<"nJ che lnttnuu~nl .\~ttemtnl for d:te
Su¡iprns"'° oí che \\hu< \l_.., T,.tnc, ''•ll<'<l •1 l'am on \l., I~. 1904. :md me lo-
15-26. 198', RcfJu#t oj 1/v \h,,IJ Cuo/rrrn<r 1<1 RrN•1• ••J
.~f'P'"" lld.>1,....mmtr qj
J.h, LJ,,11,J 1'\i.1t1rJ1u (Jr(..J.ú Jur \\ '''n« f4'1~b1-, Ot:it../.ut•nt11t .1nJ P"w~. U1' Doc..
m<nl "' Pun ..hm.·m 11 N °'"
A RF.~ 19 41\ Occ 10, l""-11
2 '>ex •«, 1ºn"T".d Dtdmtt.NI ol Humm Rqiht< General Asscmblv R<>0luoon
trn'Lt111.>o..J Con\o-mt'°" lvt tht- ~·•llfJfCUtun ,.,.t thc ~ httc Sl.r\'c: f r.dt!t.:. ~{ttk:J a PUl5
A Lont t ti 2ll R.. 111•1!!61, Rrl""I o/ tJ,, \t'.w/J e,..¡..,,.,,
of tl>r l..:mr.iWIUI 217A 1111 llk' IO. 194 1, •rt> 2 .nJ 7, ln1cmouu1ul C.:cwrnant oo C..il ..,J Poilocal
""~t., ~ 1qw \IJ ~ l'M'· 2 ll \ 1 t•N7, '18 l :-¡ T ~ IOl 10 lhc l'M~ Comui
Ir..,, • }·,., Al1>1.:o <:t11, l 1' 0.>< 1 ('0~1M•H11'1761 Riglu• l• 1 Rrt ZZtlllA j XXII. 21 U 1'i (,.\Ull Sup¡> INo 161 •d! U'.\! 0..C /\/
76 ~ t.x 1 prorotnt'nt LO~ce O..ant ()n., ·1.oh1.utt;. Sot 1n \1\ Cl'ltmt.JT
uon, C.tm\1·t11110n (or chr. ')~1r'f''""1on ol thc Tridhc In Prr)('O.\ an~I ot 1~ Explo.u1111r1n MI~ 191161, 'l'l9 U:-. 1 \ 171, <•ftr<J mio¡,.,,, ~l.lr 21 1"76, •rt ?• 11 U.. Con
5<>.u.il Oncnwim ;nJ th< l!drin~ 1l: orld Coolcttn<" on \\'omm. • 20 ,¡¡,,_,,,,.. lAC
ol 1hr Proo11ru11..1 oi Oth<"n, M.r 21 19'°. 96 U-1' T' 271 to thc bmikthr-'1
Jo.••,,, lb& ( 1...., 1
\'«>l••>0 lor 1h< 11im """'OÍ r,..,,,,
Ali .~ Dt><nrn11,.oon \~ Womcn 0 S 0..C
'°
'-"""" o1 1be P•IC"l1110 l'r'"°''il....,., l'to"""' 1'=·""1 'urprdl and Purush Tal·
TI !;.,,. ·~ l'.¡wlih l 'nd.-r th< C.-t1111••<> oi lnJu l'r<>bkms. ""'°P«u. - t
A, IU.' 14 1&1 (197'1 ~l.ny """""' how nphot """cqt..btv P""._ in tbor coo·
bdJru: m Prnom. l..pnially "'"""'" anJ f..hi!Jren. '•rrltmmDD« w Uru<cd ·P<t><Cl.d l..n •• bdow at :->o 11, ·e In ~ &tl1d \ iolc:n<< lnuoJuun¡; 1h< \ntipor
IUluuons. hx cumples >« < "'"'""''°"'
o{ tÑ C...•tnts o/ ,J,. World •Gisben H
:\'Jlk.lnl l.AW1tc11oon ,\pami Tr.ansn.auona! <)r¡¡.i. :::.:rJ t•nm('. °"'"''J /al Bg,iuhif't l\uu and \lbrn P Bl•""•'ll>. <J., 1~11-19'>1
 Noles lo P1ges 17 Z2 • 291
} Sine"C rhtS lipct"(h ~-n Jl"rn :and puhfi,hcd. SQmC ¡urtJidirnons hn-t r«o,miinl
rh1r rape• .u leasl m offirul custody or ~ l'IOCenúally offic:iaJ ÍC)r('r.5 <>r wh<:n Í1:1f1orul
by .,fñcral m."1tlm<nt:d1t1<>, can be 1om1re. Sec:. e.g., Aydin v. furk.y, (1998 ( 25
EJlR..R. 2'1; ~leji.1 \' Pttu, C.1st: No. 10970. lnter·Alnct1G.ttt <.:ornmJucc on l fumao
Rlglm. l\cp<>n NQ. ~- %, OEA!S<r t.J\l •Tl.91 Do<. 7 c.v. '19%), •V•il.rble •• "'"""
.oídh .ur¡il1umu;¡lrcpf9Scn~· Peru >IJ970 h1m <;.., ol"' M C v. Bul~Jri1 (200)] E.C H R
646 (Doc. 4, 2(1()}1.
4 Sec Arnnrsiv lm<rnational, Torture w the 80's 18-26 1198-ll.
5. foJ w .-ct.~L. Set J~oobo Ti1ncrm.an. Pruont"f \\111'1011t d N•mr, (.',-// \'fl úhtnd
; N11m/Jer ffob)' T .tllxx, lrolJ\t • 198 LJ.
6. ,\luch of tbb 1111wl)'J.I• ~"11 in11orU"Cd b)· ;\nc.lcc<t Dworlun\ "5~ "PófTlQJ:l'lpby:
Thc Ncw Terrorism." in Ut1m fro,~ - Wo-rZ.O,,t; w,·111111,t 1976-1989 199-200 {)9891
7. O.cbrauon ol O.fendan1-ln1e""'""' T..mda Morduano. Vill'llll' Books et al. v.
Cuy oi lkllin~ham (Marchiano Affid•vit). pan. 2, No. 88-14701 lunpubl1Shcd>(\\7. D.
Wosh., l'eb. 9, l9~9J. Tht onginal pubbsher ••k<J me to <>Pi•rn lh< lmguagt usal
httc. ThiJ it hcr l1..n~ui1gt'.' R.ian-1>· ;&.1'<" thc voict$ of victl.ms of sexunl iabo'le he.. rJ un
medJattd. ta\\', itnd dirtt1 Onl~ cClm1,a.rotP•th•u•t!>pcakghJc laQa.t1age cxis1:s furwomen's
violauoos. AC:ldcmit: eupbenúsms cover thcm up. To make t.hese- a«0un1s prctt\•
lhrough Jess duect langu•ll" is a kmd ol lie. 1ño cealitics <re 001 prett¡o, and nobody
ma.kts thdll lcss da.cea for l.bc women \\.flo 1t1Je: thr<>l.t!lh dH.·n1. A \h¡mn~d dlscuunc;
rcmo\-o the! reider fn1m whtll h11ppc1lCJ, pcrh~P' produa og comfon but ial.io mit.k.lng
.1c:t1an le$.~ likcly. ThCM! l('.CXl'Unti rhoo/~/ be h~rd H'I t!lkc Uvi»!t 1hrouaih 1hc::m wu
unbe....ble.
8. Id,,,, 7-ll. 1.5, 22-2}
'l. J•l'ne St•mcn ''""""'"~ Fcb11J.1cy 14, 1988 (oo file wuh authod.
10. "J'hh AC'COUDL b dNwn frc>m t~ foltowmg sourc~ Los 1lngt·ki "l únf1 t~1~y 19,
1981 ); Coltt1 Aftt11 V<11l.'I p,¡,,, CM11y 29. 1981 ); l..os A11gples 1lrr.1/J l?""4"1t"•'r1 A 1 tM.y
lO, 19SH; fun.Si.r (Mcrt<d, Cal. 1 (1\la)• 29, 1981); SunSt11r !Mcrcc:d. C.I.) (M")' 17,
1981); Ti"1e5·fklt.: !TW..« Count¡, Cal.) ()un< 6. 1981); S,,n-St,rr (Mw:cd, ótll IM2)'
28, 19~1); Sun·Stgr <Mcm:J, útl.) !)une'· 19811: l'""PI< v. Buroham, 222 C..L R,p1<.
6JO (Ct. App, 1986), MJ. JmuJ !~ I;¡ 22. l986).
11 St't' ln1em..1t1on.1I Lcaf?uc for }tum.1n H.i¡;h1s 1-l"tJJ.JN Righti .l\/iuin A&JlltJt
\Vo.,en A \Voddv·1Jr Sun•f\ (M•y, l'l901 for t'l<«rpt• livm the U.S, State ()q>an
men1's 19911 Country Repon•"" Human Righa 119901: Lori Hei,..., "Thc Global War
AgatnSt \\:lomen," UJ.- &;Jn. 4) (NovJ Dcc. 19891. No dara ate kcpl oc tht prC\'I·
lcntt ol p<>mOgNphy.
12. Un11cd N11tiórb l'ht• Sratr tJ/ tht' \Vor/J', \\7w 1t(" 1979. 4ut.'lted in Bums J l
\'Ces(On. Richard A ralk. >tnd AnthM)' A. O'Am;.uo. l'ltl'"'"''' H~/ l.Pu• (lnJ Wor/J
Ordt'r 573-580 ~ l9801 Sce abo :.Otarilvo \V1ri.n,r. Ú'Junl111J! fo,. ~t~thint \f!hot 1\.fr-,,
l 'a4'e ••d W/Mt Wom•rt Ar• Wonh 0%81.
ll. Dl- E. li. l\usscll. :.rx11•l Cxp}o1tJt1f.Nf l' <19841; Glll I:.. W)'•tt. "Thc ~xu.tl
Abuse of Afro Arncri1.;•n imJ Wlutc American \X'c.1nlm 11l Chdd.hood." 9 C.D1ld Abu~
.i,,.,
""J Nrilra 507 U•S51. :;.., Sl'1Ul< Judki•cy Commlncc M•i<>nly ~ta!T Repon,
292 • Nol•s 10 Pi¡es 22-24
·vit>lcucl! AR.. uut \\'ornen Tht l1Kte3.;)C t'>I R.pc oo Atncntll l~':lO; lú:?d ConR Lu
S..< cMu. 21. 1~91'
t-4 U S Dep.uune111 oí Ju<cicC" Cn111r tn 1ht Un1tt'd StafFf lUnúorm Cn:mc- Re·
porul U IA\ljl 6. 19891.
11. ) ,·•rbook of /11nJ1,·•l Su:mxs. 5t•t"u~s~...ieo. 1~9. •• atc:d m R. A 1'1m:ui
.nd M Edu.trw. "Unpro1eacJ b¡ cht s~edr<h Wtll.tr< Siat<" A Swvey oí B•ttcrcd
\\'mn<n •nJ che"""'.,," TI1ey R.:.;.,,,-.d· <unpuhlitlbt:d r•rcrl 09901. 11 p l.
16 Exccptims un:ludc. fo r m1i'.ti111tt, ,:c11,.- me11. ·wht' c11n be sem tO be fenu.ntzt'd bt
tJu:i; pr(.'(ffS. ::t.ftd so ilre nor e:x_ce:poons co the dee;l'!'e rbeir abuse is ~ J:S D4X seco ilS
polux.J ci.n.,r,
17 [\·en umons_ nim 11 ti mdde.quJte. Sul'h a d-cdiru11on abo ~xcluJes. rocut 11.lfOC
it1c;s-oftcn commttu.'\J iag¡a1n..a. n1m (lit color. such .u: lvnthinR. unlest Pr<Wen Llc:me w1dcr
culf'lr vf La\\' 1,111d racui.m jlene-rally, .and tl'1J,4ba~ orprewon, whach h.lrms bc:>th mm
.a.nd .,'(!meo.
lll. Nora:n Burrows, "U.tc:moao""u L.w "'1d lium.a Righu:. TheC..SeoíWomesú
Rrgh1>." '° fúm:.m R1¡,ht" r,.,,,.
Rhetw1r 10 &aút)' "2 ffom Campbcll et _ .u.. cd,,,
1986~. 5tt ~J,..._I ~l Rlu.)O(.fit-. Dr1c.·rr,.,u1111tiQn Ati(1111.1 \f'óu,.,.n A GloNI .Sun.•ey 92
q9~q1 1"111" [p11hhrl1•nv•••l du;hocomy I• deeply <ngrllincJ m the l•WI .,¡ somc coun
tries and thus the law plA)'S a cridcJ role in n11~insainmA JClldC"r str:a11fimion. "J Tk
Coln"Cnnon on thc Elinunauon of AD Fomu of Ol$énmanation Ag.a..inst \\'1ocneo W.-'e:l'S
hoth the convenuon.ill>' public lltld p t'l\'11.Ce Ul n:s guarantees.
19. S.c Occlaraoon ol Defcndant·lnmvcnor unw MArchuno. abcwe note 7, at !
17, p 7
20 Id 1t 1 21. p. R
21 Publtr 1-(,•¡¡n-igt un Ordinanct!i to Add P""1t>traPhv IJJ DiJa'1,,,Uw1on A111uu1
Wo'"'"· MinneopQh>, Minn.. Dec. 12, 198~, pp.4'-'7, publisbc:d in fo¡.¡,,.,,..,
11''•"
Ihc Po,,.ogrripby C...1/ Rigbt1 H<Jn•g> 6(~ 1ünhannc A. ~!Jtl(innon and Andrca
O,. vrktn cJ, , 1997>
22 .-\menean Booludlc" A.in" lludnot, n i F2d }ll, l29 17th Cir 1"1lSI
, .. Oqúc,"fl()nt of \ubordirua1ion 1cnd tn pcrpttu1re suhordirw.ion. Thr subortUn.iesu\rus
,,¡ '"011"'" rn cum J..ds to •ffront .and lo""" pay at work. insul1 and rnitll}' ar home.
bmay and Npt on thc stw:ti. ln ~•e langWlj!t ol the lq;osbture, 'lp)am0f;t9phy a
~tr..il 1n c1~tmg ..tn.J mru.ntituttng :1e.i as 1 bisis ol disc.n.nun.uloa. .Po~rapb~ ü •
')'lh.-mulic pr.tctttt of nlJIOltiAuon .n.J sttbordtniuion b.;ascd 011 k'X \\'tu.ch dJÍfd't:nu.aU\
h.irtnJ \\'Othen Thc b1gotn o.nd mrum>pl H product'S. ~1tb &he tcts of ªRAt'CS5JOR n
ÍO<letS, barm u•omeii's opponunitics forcqu.J.uv onJ n¡V¡IS (ofalJ kinds).' lndWllp<'ll!
Cock S 1~11••12l. Yet lhis •implv dem<>n"1a1es thc pOll'fl' ol poroog,.phv as
,pe.ch .
2). lh1Jnu1 v An1<nc"" ll<..,k,dlm Ass'n, lm .. ~n U.S 100 1 ll986l (RJmm•"
¡¡ffirmunc~)
24 P<nonal rom:spondcna: Írom Javnc Stam<n 10 thc: author. M.trch 11 19S8
V. Thc NN" York ~bue O.parunent ot Correcriooal Scmces Web sue bsts Jaync
StlJt'll(n 1$ rtlea5Ctl on parok on July 17. 2003. :Uttr C.'l\'~r tihccn )'C'J ts tO pnson.
Nolu lo Page 25 • 293
26 People- v, Bumhllm, MhoVC' note 10.
27 lnm·Ammcoo Coun of Human Righ11, \'elásque<·Rodri¡\1C> v. Hondu,.s Se-
d.-. C, No 4, lfucl¡¡mcnt o()uly 29, 19881 ( 1989). 28 lnt"'1at1on•l J..ega/Mattrufil 291
28. Stt. c.p., Dtrcaorate o( HullWl Rrghrs, Councll of Europc;, lnfonnanon Sh...,
No 2~ !Nov. IQSlhJuly 1qg9¡, Appondi• XXX.ll, Dcci>nulon oo Eqtud11y oi Wc>mcn
•nd Mtn (Ntl\· 16, 1988) General Rcc:o1't1111c:r1<fauon No. 12, R<:poM oí thc Conunillcc
etn the Eliminarion o( Discrhrun.11ion Ag:ains1 \VomC11 f'll lo Sdl Sasion, U.N Doc.
A/-4/}8 (1989181 (coosidcring ihat Anides 2, S, 11, 12, 1111d 16 OÍ thc Con"cntion
reqa.Jre scares p11rms m act 10 protect \\'Ornen ag;iinsl Y»Olcncc oI. any Jund occurrin.g
within 1he famlly, ot the worlcplatt, oren aoy «her tu'CI of socul lifo, clftclivcly =<l•ng
m an obltg;ition t e. t¡¡i,lu! stcp!I to aJJ.res:c \iol tn~ .-galn1-1 womcnt On d'foru 10 erad
icatc- violt~ •galnst wamcn with1n soc:iety and the &.mily, l f t R.tp<wt b, 1 thr Sf't1r111,.,.
Geoer•l UN. Doc. E/CN.611988/6 !1987). &""rdin~ poroo~nrphy, stt Director.ne
of Human RighlS, Coum:ll ol .Europe, lnformatíon Sheet No. 24 !Nov. 1988-July 19891,
Rcro1nméDdrtUbn Nn. R 189) 7 (principies oo W.1ributJOD of violcm, bruutl, or pot·
nographic \·1dcost Afit:r th1s spce<h wiat ~uvm, tht Cl!DA \\1 Com1n:1ttct pronlulg.ucJ
its General Rt:commen<lauon 19, sec CEDAW, C""c..J Rc<ommcndoli<in 19 (llth
Sest. 1992), °Repon of 1he Committee on thc Elimínarlon of Discriminatlon Al"'in<C
Women oo lts lllh Session, U.N. Dot. A/47fJ8 0992), imcrpmio~ CEDAW's ano-
d.i~1:1m1nauoo pccwlsion 10 cncompas.s violcoce tg11inst v..>0men lllld 1ts oíficuJ condo-
nouon 1b. C.EOAW Comm1m:e h<ll "'"' r.:cogniic:d pocoog,.pby'• role in vl<Ñ<Ji«
d,Ra!J\Sl womm In 11~ Ccnc:rul Commcn1 12: "'Thetic .AUnucks abo coottibutc to tht
propa1[11tion o( porn"tU"Jphy ond thc depU:tion and other eoromercill cxploiumon oí
womc:n as- scx"IJal objcas1 nd1er chao as indiv.Jduals. Thjs m tum contnbures to gender-
based "olence. • Id. a1 Comm<ot 12. Thc liuman l\igh11 Commmee's c-r.i Com-
ment 28 oo •t• cquallty uodo' the 1n,.m1bon>I Covenon1 on Civd and l'oliticol Rrglus
finds Uut parnogr.1phy ¡, likdy ro promucc violen.te or dcg.rading and Jnhum.un t l'CI(•
mcru. Human Ril(h11 Commi1tec, Gene..! Commem 28. Equaliry of ~hl> Bttw«n
Men and Women (Anido 3), U.N. Doc;, CCPR/C/.Zl./Rev,l/AdcUO (2000). para. 22
29. Stt, <-g., Prepo.rcd Suuemcnt of Amnejt)I lnkma1xmal USA, Harings on
Llumun Rrght> Ahu""' Agarn., Wonu:n, Hcaong B<:Core thc Subcommlu.., on Hwnm
Rights AnJ lt11ttn1ttnn:;iJ Organii1tlans1 CommJnec on F'ort1gn Afíaus, U.S 1-IOUM' of
R.cprcscntanves. Mirch 21 1990 t'"[S)omc HOVcmmmtJ do not conRdcr rape, .exu.I
JssauJL and sexual abuse: as scrious a crime as otber rypn c.í ph)'tical 11$5aults, This is
panicul.a.rly ..wming "'°"en d!e perpetnrtors of thc rape are gaw:rnmeru offi<:ials cbargod
wlth !he protccdoo o( the public" Id. 1t 6.). Amocsry lntcrnaoonid tu.. sin« ihJS
•J><'«h wu publiihe<l, inctcilS1ngl)· taken oo acxu.t.I conutt an officlaJ custody .u pan
of üs mi.!,cUtc..
JO. But s<c U.S Staie Dept e.ble. "ln ...,...,, ~ali'" rcpqn lanl!Ulll<· di< S.n11e
F~ Reb.rioos Committ•e obse.ved that gO'·eromem tolcrance of \'iolenceand abuse
11g1mS1 womén •PP<"U" to be w1dd.y prac:uffll and u.::itl> condooed tn mmy p:UU o[
thc \\•orld. Nout1~ thst !udi 11b,.1..~e ita vJol11110n ol humJn rigbts u drfincd ln exis:tlng
lcJP,slunon. che Comrn1n« culléd on the Dc:panmern to poy •pr:ciJI a11en1ion to thi:k
 NOIU lG hgu 30 32 • 295 296 • "•les to P110 32
294 • "•les to Paces 25-30

abusa u1 die truclo rc:t 1t1rt• • l11lem.1Uc:w11I Le9.;1t1e tvr ..lum...n Rt~hts. f '"""'º"'
R1Jh1s
11 Oc.J..u.h 1o1.nd Oob.Ji, \1olt1tt 1lt-U1111 \\'n•fa. ~lioveo nn1t 9, 41 1.. ~O (197'11.
Ro•<• l.anal<y .mJ RldtarJ i ""'Y, IX'1/r IWl1•1 ( 19791, 1brolJ R 1.<rlLZMr and M:u
Hffl:iur1/, k•unJ th•r .lf'JJC'llU11 iKteJ U\ 1hr he.u di 1ud&n pllJi.li,liOD .. ben he murtlettd
Al>utn A¡J11u1 w~,,,,,,.,, ,.\ 'S'orlJu J. \""' ; C.\t .." l~H '"1f>oo...c note l 1 .u Ap hü"dr"I,,. hJ,.rJan1.n l'<n1l !.1..k~o 16,An 1400'161l> ·1 fl<.,bodi..._,.
shall f\.1OdSary, Hu.mu ot Ju~tic:t \tattitu.."l, U S Dt-r.lrtrncnt ot Jumcc. lntr"J'tlllt hn ~1ti;:o. or UftC' ot h1s fcmak rrL.11""', cumm1rt1n,; •JuJtcn· wnh somtbodr and IUfls.
pmdn2
ll Hudnur , ~ "'~º 2 l
h:tunc A 51.,J, ol ~.,¡,.,., ~., ..., fri<•Jr •ttJ Rtl..llvn 11980!. Lvan ~wl. Aru.. ,..,.,.,.¡,, Pr •111'""' - "'both ot 1htm •h..U hc <"mrt lmm ony penalty 2. H< •·ho
Flucr"'1 onJ \l;Jlaom fru1er · ~k.liun< •oJ 1'11rl1.. h.d V'k>len.t' Thc '>ocuJ Con-
Jl In SOIIIC pl.1cn, mcr< •r< Vlfl<>U> IOj!Cl\_. mcrhod. fO< cuiluOIWlj! me UDpact
"t\.ICOOa ol .a Ph1'•c l \'Cfll .. 9 /'11"11.mruu/ }quTwl o/ llN11h ~ta 4ól -4'f) ( llJ?~T.
""""° h• "'"· "' anc « h" tcm.dc -.nd.tnri or d<sccndonts or ..,..,. wilh IDOtbcr
m on unt.... tul bcJ• ..,J he kllli, ..,....,.¡. <•r ui¡um. onc: or both of thcm. bcndm lram
or ql>liilvuig ihc ttuu....Wty CJI thc •..,,,.i,,1, .u.....cJ• 101. u>...Uy by """'l!"Wng
Lcnott Wollm, T~ B.itrrrJ w• ...,. 19 20 11m1 • ttdui.uon UJ pm.ahy • A. ol this WT11"'8 Anook HO h•• bem t<p<al<d. but Ani<k
•ch.fte"ttOttl• Ul 11.:141c- tQflJt. hut 1& tnrWnS che rn.;ün ruJt
l• This <flliq>•< D .i.,,.._.¡ mott luUy in ( ••h•nnc A ~hcNtinon "Rdlccoons 12. Thit -1bdm w11 <onhnncJ .u =I m 2000, ..,¡..., the pm:- ot ..tuk 9., rt'm.u1111n l'ffn.c • 11r who comrn.iit • (f'UIW m o1 ÍK ot tu.ry tdU!ung from a wroncful
en <;o Equ.Iirv lndn i..w: 100 )m L."¡,,,..,..¡ 12fll ll'l'lll, r<pnru<d in W""""'' •'OlllCD pln=oll¡· ..,• ..i1cJ b,- .., "''"'"" portn<r at onc p<>tnt m m.,,, rd.uoaship
,... locmJ ro be'~ p.t«m In Twltc:y, 4 r pn<cnr m 8.ngl..Joh. ~} pcrttm &hJ. '°
and J.ngm..n 1<1 an 1hc I"" ol rbr ...-um sholJ bmdit fum o n:duad pcnolty -
Jordoaían Penol ~'-:o lb. An 98. Tb111 ihc low mav ~ bccn gcn<kr~
l,,i,.,, lf,.'1 ÚUIS llb l~l
µ S... AoJn,..·• v l.ow '•oucq o1 Briush c..t... bu ( 19H~) 1 S C. R. l~J Rqina
v Tw¡>on. [19~9) 1 .. C. R 12%; ltqino' t..v.Jl«, [l'l"O) 1 S. C. R. 85Z. bue"°"'
oi- •O pcn:ac '° lndi; J4 por«nt m l.:cYP< • .W ¡ 1 porun1 ., r-~ ., • RuJy
th• found 22 por<Cnr ., thc UnttcJ '•utn, li1rli .., undncount Th< f!UClll011'....,...
oa au Í0«
.,...,
•""°"' pndrt·nnilroluing 11> ralt!v. for dba.nion. 1tt Fcttb h. Ncsh
llon.• Cnmcs m lo<J..n Thcu Ttanncs>r l.'nJ.r IJ.wic-'JocW.U..Cnm·
'"" Mlmual omw c:ountnc. \....,,.,,. for Hoohh inJ C-.ltt F-'l'ftty. Por.J.t- &o iaol L.wt" 2l Pn~ Sw• l•tmMllONll L.w RniN 2~ 1 1.?tl<M Foc c1ranmioD oi th<
patt Rci:m• v 11..., ( 19'!0) 2 \ C. R 906
pon. Smcs L. :-lo 11 , robk 1 f 20001
n Stt R.rhMJ R.•ny •fmun- and Pra-.- · )0 110.,,. Qt.Jrt,.¡., iv...... IJ. U/\ e,.,,.,51,.J, 1'89 12. ~ ...,.. 5
honor • nlD<l Jdtnoe in Bruu ...hoch thc- ~•remo< Coun ol Bmil "l".i,-i ttt
2) •• 2}~, _ 19'>11 ~lrla,,. ""'"- "A ·1..-.• Cnmc: A CompanlJ\'< "cudy"' t..(r;al Ddmws for Meo
1~ IJ 11 2ll IX"bo NI Thcir w,...,,. 14 Cob...W. ¡.,•....,¡e/ U.. ;nJ Socul P"""-1 597. 017
15 Id •• 11 09911 ("Thc lqjt1m.1< Jcim>< ol honor'.,..,,~ by thc Bnwlwi 1u.!i.:wy• .,,u,
2 Human Rijlhl• and Global Vtolence A11ainst Women 16 ~"""' tbít u1k .... (IJ''"'· th< Unrt<d :-.louom ha clono .,.,..,.;,,,, IDllyJU oi no ttotUIO<)' huh l'unUM1t ro d>io d<I.,..., • mon "ho lullcJ hu •'lle ~.he bod
'iokntt lpJl1SI w0tncn uwldtndr Seo RadhJb Ü><lmol'llWam~ R,,.,,, uf tlx !i/>«ul °'
C'lfn'l&J hit honor wu\.tld "'""<'l''C lutk oo put11.ltmtT1t Thc <;upiun.: Coun'1 re,rc·
1 F"' • l'''""<tfd oplnn1oon .C tlu1 qumtan in licunn. l<'t" Andr<1 O..Orlun.
ll.i1J1PO'lftlr on \.'tokná' Aeo11u1 Wu,..-, /1, C"""'' ••d Útlt""11«1tcri, L.N. ESCOR unn OC rluo Jrl<na< 11 cle.rh • mol(l< •M'm¡>lrshmt1>1 fm che -.im's GIO<'ml<llt Yct
Mm> 271-}07 09901
2. Seo.<~. Fuon1e h'..&m0«1J ind Mumi A ,,,..us, •Confbn R<soluuon Tacucs m Hum Ru. Ü•nun'n. '2J X.•·• J'rov fl~cnJ. hcm !H•I, U.N !>u<. E/CK~ l~) 1 ~· ol tbe dcfcns.e a. 1l w1f. ui«I ra&Sft somt quCAI-On.S .,, 10 hnw s~ the
Japan. IJ>JJ1. anJ tbc IJ~A." 14 Jo•rn•I o/ Co,.('4"111 ,,.,,¡,
~1.J1n r7, J82-J8l
119961. R.dluk> C:...rn1w...1my, P,,¡.,rt. UN l'SCOR llum R" Camm'n, fld s..~. dcc1"""'1 •1H ~ tn pn~tcctlllJ ~,.-nen '"l. H.uu, ~torocco. aod S~:.m. u rx•mples, a1so
Pt0< A«cn.I• hem q(•I, ll N D<>c 1 CN 4/1997 ~7 11"971, onJ Radhik. c..nnura< h.a\t' hot)C.1r ctLna t.w--. .U prcJu,:•tcd un M".xual mlnenlup of \\romtn. lo fiad.
\1'11!} 1
3 ~·J•u Gupt.&, ·~1-.::ce. <tÍ 1munu1 Jurt•pruden'"c 1n lnJ.111 A Cr1uc:al Analysi1
wamy, Rt'f""f Sub.,111rJ ¡,.., ,,._ .SP«NI 11..lpf'<Jrtrll'""" 1·,,,¡...,ct A~•rtw,,..,. fn ·¡~IJurJ<r lw • h"1hond "¡ N. •1Í< ondlor ¡-.rrncr 1mmodi1•el) u pon dú<:O\Tt'U111 thcin
fmm thc Póint <:/ v,..,. i-1lmpl....,.,nuuon•1>4 ( 199~· l 9'191 •unpublish<d LL.M P"l"''· Ca"'" 11J1d c,,,.,.~uenm. Ü>mnu.sion on Hwnan R.ghts. 'o.h Sen.. A¡¡ertda ltcm m flo~r•nr< JcllC1o •• th• «lll!U~ol 1hrodi> lo m hc J>tlrdoncd • H•irian Pmal Codc An
IHol. U.N. Ooc:. L.CN.4/l'IY5 42 (IWH 269 In Mol'(l((tl. "murd<r, on¡un anJ hnun~ 1rc cx""'1tbk tf ih"'· •re romnuned by
&iror•""' Aad""'v ol Lqtol Theory. BrusS<lsl. l7 Dtib.tlh ltnd Dvbüh, \ '10/r1t1:r 11~1101 \~'ti'C'S1 ~btwe outr 'J.
4 Sus;tn Toft. ~-· L,1,. Rdorm <.:.ornm1i.1oton of Viapua Ne~· Gwnea. DomtSuc 11 hu~bind on hti wLlt itl wcU fb the acromrbce Jt thc mamcnt U1 wh.ach be surpnsa
\'10lenct m tJ tban l>•J>l.MI. Nrw Gu1JlCQ C.Xc11&1ú11al P•p<.•i No JI.), ilt 21-2J lt986J. l8. Sin('(: thi,s 1.tk. "~•fil'-'""· thc C[OAW Con111uU« hu •<1uircly recog:nf;r:C'dthat them m thc .et 1>t oduh<ty 1><11.11 Co.k ot Moro.:co A.n 41ti. In Syma. •[h)e who
V'iolcnct" 11gain 11 "''Uffit'1'l is a fotm nf $C>e c.liscti1run11uon CrDAW, Genrr.J Rttom· ~;a1~he. lu" ~,Je ~ ont ~ IH• i.\ttridaJu1, dt"tCendant1 or swer comn1ining 11duhcty or
' a . A. \l-Aw..d1, KU'-'.UO c.1~ 111udy tSaf.al, U1\l\'Ctlify oí Ku"'illl), 11& (ttcd in
mcndaooo 19 CI lth S<Ss. 19921, Repon o( th< Commmco on tht Ebminadoo oí DJ..
Unucd N11iít1n1 C.tncrc fdr So(:a"'I f'>to\"C:lormenr anJ l lum¡ann11n11n Aff~iq, Viokn~ 1Uc~1um11te t.1.'"lU.J 11ctt ~ith an<Mhcr and kJb ur in1urc.."' ollt or boch o{ tbem btndiu
criminauon Ag.,,,., Won><n oo lu l lth :..O.Ion. U.N Doc. A/47' J8t 1'1'12).
At41•tl wº"''" ,., I~ F"""' 20 (19891 (hcmn•ltt:T l lN Cmtrr St.Jv 19/r.I) from on ucmptloo OC p<"Nlrv • Svro.., Penll Co.t. An 548 lnformanon from &¡uolitv
f'ow. w,,..J, ••d DuJJ Ho/Jmt Go.~'""''"" Aa:ot1•1t•ble rn 1ht &111"1 ~ 10 R<"'~
19 Wlllkt:r. I~ &llcrc,I Wr.v"'"" 01IW1Yt' note: 11, ~no~ \\'11lktr. Th~ &1ttrti
6 6 '< Wam;lu, 'l11Jmb1. Publ1c L1w lnSllM• 119871 ·K<nyal; 5 Skrobandt
18.tngkok Worucn 's lnlorm•u<>n Cnurc. 1~~71 rh.iJanJI, 1> atc<l m t.:.'< Ú!nt<r ~..d,
W""'"" Sy•J,...., llW4l. l'"x'"· Womcn's Altllin lb.,, Updiite 1'.i.tn;h 200-l 111 2'-26. 11v11.J1'UM ,.¡ V..'W\\'
20 C0tnp•"'· <~ , To'" ~nol í...Jr, V T CA, S 190211)(2• ··~uddcn pallioo"
I ·•89 20 law,_ ..uJ.csl. •"'"'' "'"' , Clfll..dtC)"Dtlw.orp
me1DS pos.s¡on chttctlv caUJ«I by onJ •nsina '"" oi pnwoaríon by rbe 1ndMdual Jull<d 21 S«! DrcJ•rttonn on thco l11nu.n1naon 11* \ .."'IMcr l\gaarul Womert~ CA Res. A
7 IJ
or 11/lQlhcr acung ""h the pcnun Julia! "luch p. .lon INC> "' ihc umc ol thc olfc:nS< •K"""''
h Tib.""'"" M'""nc Mu.hanp ·w,r. V1<t1mu•oon "' Ea1 ..d CcnmJ Afno."
onJ ts D<Jtoolely lhc mult ,,¡ l...mct prnvu<•I""'." •nd § l'I OltJ1 • A1 che puru.hmctu
R.E.S 4~ '11).f •F<h 21 199-1 1, •n 1 IJdiniOI W>lcott ,.....,,.,o u ·..,y ..a al
2 V.a1"""'1D 479 U 978 . . . oE • in.al tM dtfcndant mitv Nillt thr btu.;o .._ M .,hnhcr h~ c.1Ukd tbr dc.1th o<ndn-i:-d "olrn"' th.tr r<a..Iu "'· <>< " 4kch to rcttdr "" ph)..al. ..,,..U oc psy·
~ kbc..-u Lmcn<-.. 0..b.uh .nJ IWucll I' Oub.toh. •IJI. ".. 11>< 'Appropnacc
un<kr thc t<nmcduw mftucntt .,¡ •u<IJcn pot>im ol'llUll (rom ., odoquar< a -. U
diol"tl'<·ol b.tan '" suÍlcu>~ to •oawi.
ln<I~ thrttu ot such •cu, cocrooo or
\'._urna ol l\t.nul \1<>l<a.c." 2 \ '1<1....1Joo ~ "-117119781 Scc ,¡]"' Rcb<:<ca Em<n0n aib1lnry .JC'pfl\0.Jn ut IJ.>niy, wh<t~ (l(cu.rnng tn pub[i.; QC' tn pmAtc L.tc•1 ~
°'"""" .,.¡ Rusxll °'"'°-'h. \'iolnKr .. ,,,,WJ/ Wmn A e-"'°''"'''~
ll'li~ l"The ™- • • ,¡,""',.,... pLK• fo< wamm lonJ chíldttn• md mukcdlvlcu
p,_,.,,,
lO
the dri<ndoor l'f'O\"<> thc """" "' thc alfum>°"' bv 1 prt¡><>nck...n« of thc md.ntt.
me OÍfc:mr lo • tdooy ol die 0«onJ dqr..:. • Ex Pan< 11( 111ün.. 7l ~\l. Jd 26-l 2&~
,.¡,., ~-rncnJ.li.- .,J c..,ndu,...., Ant1nc trom ihc r.r.. Re-,.,. .u.J Apprm.l
cé thc lmrl<=nuranncé 1hc:'olmobi f.....,.arJ Looluna'n•..,.. foulwAJvmnmcn1
!Ta Crim. App. 20021 l"ln m,. ..-. me jun .... 111,..,,. '"""" ........ thc puru>h «\\ornea to 1hc y.., 21 • t0, U'< E<m & Scx: c.u.ciJ IEOOSOCI Rea. 199();15
d.v>,aous ¡.,. mm Thn b tbc crudol pc•nt • 1
10. L.nJa M&cl.euJ W1di Aa.ll'<C c.Jl<lllt, lor tbc 1 mo.hm ,u.,,.,I'} Council oo
""'"' pbue .,.¡,¡.h lp<(lftcaily ..&<d wbdhcr Junmy O.... W11klo$ ..,.,¡ an thc hcot
ol ,...Jdm pomon ..i- he murJcml hu ..,fo Th< /U'l' .,,._,..¡ !"<> Tho•. thc ¡ury
u" ECO~)(. 1........ 1hh plcn. mi¡. ·"·r
24 19'11)) u.-.;.
Doc. E/1990.L'\f ¿
die :i..1uo CJI Womm. w,¡, &.surt•t 1• C.<M.k ~ 1 ,..,., Cmk 10 (jm t~'SO>
 Holts 10 Pa¡u 32 40 • 297 Notes 10 Pages 44-49 • 299
298 • Notu to Paces 40-•4
1July lo, 199011 2); Violcncc A¡¡ainSI Wortl(ll "' All hs Form•. U.:-1 &.>n & S<>< 2 M•ry Joc fru¡¡, "A P"'uood<m fcnuotat L<-¡¡;tl MJni(etro !An Unfirushcd
C..lt•r;/ Ch;•g• +l 119~91, quoied lit Swk. ·ni. 'Od1C'f' 1LU( ol ihc lruem.iionul 8111
Council [ECOSOQ Ros. 1991118. U.N ECOSOC. ar Sess.• 12m pion. m<B- M.,. }0. Dr.Jil. · 105 ll•rr.•nJ ¡,,., R.'l'lrw to.t>. 10." U9921 Th• p.1m on mediod tn C•duttM
of Righu. • 1bó\·c ntllc J. ar 14 (i.ntC'fn¡J ttunc;arK)n "'·'rb omln~H.
1'1911, U.N. Doc. E/199tllNF1' (July S, 19911, 23. fol'fUn>tdy. :¡¡ 2 tomul m.mer A M•eKinnon. Ta.. ..rJ a Fe,,,1~111 Theo.., of tht Star. (19891. wm: wriittn primaríly
12 )u..lith Ga1I G.murn "Th• L,w of Armc<I Con!Uct A GcnJ<rnl R.~unel" in
dUJ " J... me C'.ISc In 200S ih>lll it WM W 1992. S... tbo\'< nO<eS 16 anJ 18.
22. Rtpor1 oí thc Sc:cn:tJJ")'·Geocr&l. \ '1e11,.,1 o{ Cn1r1t TM S1/J1.JJiOn of WtJ111c11 .tJ
R«o,,a11-·111i above norc 2, •t
171, 17.5 ID 1971 and 1972, cuculatcd, and men puhhsh<d m aruclc. m 1982 and 191)} ttt S1g'1t.

\'irtrms of er;,.,,, AICONF 121/16 !t.by 17, 19851, Scvcnlh Uniu'd NaúOlls Conljl'CU
on rhe p..,~non oí Crime and rJi. Trearment oí Offend<r> 1Mil•n. lt:dv, Augus1 26
10 Scptembcr 6. 198.5) paIU. ~7.
3. Theoty ls Noc a Luxury
l. Audr<: l.<>r<k, "Pocny Is Not a Lwrocy." in Srsi.r Outsiiler J6 (198-1)
l. Moira McCoonell. "FeauniSI Theory .. me Emb<)dunent of Mugur.Jn:adon.• ID
11.=nrnrmi Ru/111 \Vomrn '" lntcrn31Wflal Útw 61.. 6J l.Oorinda. G. Oallmeyet, ed..
199JJ IStuJ1es 111 T111nm•1JOnal L<g.J Pohcy No. 2', Amm<d• }01'rn•I o/ ltrt<rnat1tJl14i
l.au:) [heran.aftcr R""""tt"n111g:].
l. These papers are coUeccul m R«onu1r1ng, alJO\~e note 2.
4 HUary Chorkswonh, • Alicnatulg O.car? FanlniR Aruilysis of lmetnmotul
Lai¡•: in Rrtc1tttnrmg, abO\-e:-note 2, 11 1. l,.
S. &rba,. Smi<, "The 'Omcr' Htlf oi ihc ln«maiian•l Bill ill Rtghli as a Post
modcm Fcmirusc TeXt-." in R.tmntYu11111,t ll)()\'e ncxc 2. at l9, ))
6. McConncU. "Feminiil Theory as the Embodiment of M111~i nalimion." abo.-.
DO!t 2, 11 61.
7. This distmc:non was made by Barbll'.'• Sau:k in "Thc ·Otber' Hitlf o( me ln<et·
naoonal Bdl oí RiglllS." abovo n01c '· .it 2.1-24. In me same sprnt, sh• <limnguuhcs
bcrwetn thc lCCPR't replk.inon o( hlcr.uc:hks aru:I me JCESCR•s úlVCISJOD of mem
al1bo<r¡¡h the con<ept of cqualiry cmbodied in thc lnionmional c"'""'"'
on Ecunami<
SodaJ llld Cultural Ríglus, 99¡ U.N.T$. ¡ 11966). cnmcd imo foo:cJan !, 1976. filo
seems in many ways. ro replicatc those can-go-nes.
8. An!tl)>iS " prl)vided "' Cadi•aru: A MacKtnnon. ·Cnm,. o[ Wu, Crim<s ot
Peaa; bclow ar No. l-1 and Theoc:lor Meran. "'Jlip!! 111 1 Cnmt U11Jcr lntcmiuonid
1-luman:narian Ll~·•• 87 AmtNt.in Joumal of Tntt-m1111011al ÚtrlJ 42.t ( 199)~.
9 Thc liva of prooúru<ed women are prcbobly ch~ che f..., bv 1hc c:onA•
gauon. b<'Cllust they are oompeUed ro Me scx wim scor~s of ~ on ao cveryd.v
baslt, \\';U' or no u·ar.
IO See Appllauon ltuuruung ProcccdUlg.< in <he 1.c.J 6led by Bosrua .and Her-
·
zegovina. Apphcituon of 1bc Con\<cnuon on the Prcvenuon a.nd Punishmcnt of thc
Crimc oí Genocide (Boona and Ht=J<OVlna v. YuSoSlllVia Serbia lllld Moruc:nq¡rol
tt.hr 2}, 199)' 11 4:>-68 ldctaibng NJ>CS and sexual <omml: Order ol Provwoial
~lcasures. Ap~1nan of tbe Conveouon Qn the Prt!'ltcnhon and .Puru:lhmcni o( tbc
Crimc oi Gcnoodc (llcon" anJ HcrugO\'llll v. Serbia and Monu:negrol, L9'J3 LCJ
J CApr 8, l'l'JJJ.
1L 01nid A1uwy, Thr Cc>ná1tmn u/ Po1t,,roJrnut't Aw E"'lu''7 Tnto tfc On'¡111r <(
U . Robin L T<>kc, "Powet. AD. lntttdiso.pliruuy Approocb." in R«v•t<lfl11ff,
.¡,,,,..,note 2. •• 2.11. 246-US.
l_. Mtú.lnodl 1 Fcm.iuut Thcory n th~ EmboJJmr:n1 <'Í ?-.il .. tJtnalu.Juon." 11bm'C'
not~ 2, at 64
l'S Thi!I( 1itu1tlon hu ~n 10 changc. lllS CSSlf'S in J>an:s ll and l]J bdow pro-
8"",;,..J) ,.,...i.
4. Are Women Human?
1 Unrv"""I Decbm"'n of HUlllOJl Rí~bu. G /1 Re., '2L7. U.N GAOR. ld S.S. .•
., 72-76. UJlf Doc. N~lO (19481 Ali quoruaons fram die Unt,.,,rsal .Dedaradoo 10
tlus "'53)' <"'.u> be found be«.
2. For d..ta supporung ali ilcncmcnlS on \IWlencc ~llinSl wruneo ln lhia aoalysi!i
ser Radh.tk.a Coom1Ui'°'1.l·iUJly Rtpor1 Ss.bnutttd by tht' Sp~al R11pportt'ur tJtt \'1oknc'
A,totlfrl Wofftt'n, ltr C11111er 1J1td C,.qnsrqut'K#s, CC1mtnlu:ion on Human Ri~ha;, 'Ot.h
Sess .• Af!Clldo ltem 11 ial. UN. Doc. E/CN.4119951~21199,): l!adhika Cooma....,.·amy.
Rrport o/ tht S["ctdl &zpf""leUT o~ Vwktr<t Aga""' Women f¡, Ca..m •11J Conu-
tp.en<«, U.N. &OR 1lum. Ru. Comm'n. '2J Se,;., Prov. AgeoJa ltem 9111, U.N
0.10. EICN 4/1996/)J 11996): R.dhika Coom1r..,..1my, Rrpon. U.N. ESCOR Hwn
Rn. Comm'n, Hd Ses, Prov. AJ<nd• lt<'fn 911), U.N Doc. E.'CN 4/ 199i/47 ll997l
J S.. Tr.úfic in W0<nen and Cirls, Sub-Comnussion on Homm Ri¡di!i Rcs.ohníon
1002/'l E/CN.41R.ES/2002/5l IApr. 2J, 20021. The U.S. Depanmem oi S!Ate esu·
mato <h11 "'°"nd 800,000 people 2'e crillicltcd mtemaoonally annually, moot o( whom
.we ''"º"'en "1tJ dilldren. lrit//i&1111 m p,,,.,,,. Fl.eport 7 (june 200J).
4 n., m.1¡<>rny aí thc world-. Ul11era1e peoplc •n: womcn. Se<: UNESCO, Sw1111c1/
YM¡,,,,,k 1997 2..(, tbl 2-2 testímllrin~ 288 pcrccnt oi 1he '"'"Id'•'"'"'""' and 16.J
pcn:cnr of tM ...wld~s mcn are ilJiu:carel
~. See lruerpadi2tnetmuy Uníon. \VomC" '" Parúar,,n«. 1945-19!1,. A \VOl'ld SJa-
Jt1/tt>1/ SJ•Jv 1199,).
(.. s.. •wun,.n'• Sep1embcr l hh: R.dunkuig rh• ln<cm•llon.tl L.iw tl Coníl><•."
bdcn· 111 No 2S bdow fnr di.~ion of 1hU conct1n.
7 Richard Rorrr. "Fenínism >nd ~<Um. • 30 ,\fü:J.iga• Qrstrtrr/y &v..w 2) l.
234 !Spnng 1991) f•/l.13cKionon's ccntr.al ¡x>Ínt. .ti l ttad her1 ts that ·a \\'OIDan' ts n()(
)'« the n.une íor • """Y oi beiu~ humru> ").
5. Poscmodemism and Human Righcs
1 S>llldta M Gdben, "lmrodurooo: A '1mtmcUa ~r Tbcory, in H;knt Cimus
anJ C.ihc:nnc Clcmcm. Th< Newly &,m Woman ix, x lllttsy Wmg, ,,.,..,, t9S6J
one pan subutlcd • An Ag<odo tor Thcory.• The book. u • whole V.'lS publuh•.J SO\·
COIC't'n )'t':llN l.;ucr.
) l'nkrwv."TI t(I n1e Í'ovC"ault m:i.y h;1\-r bcrn wnbntit qn s-1m1lir 1hctnQ tt anJUnd
thc i:unc on1e or ~rJv later Fou.caúlt'J Survt'lller et punrr Nms111ct de L: pnro".
rontlWllng so~ bnef abstract passages aboo1 knowledgc and po11;cr ln rhc 6rS1 cluptcr.
•pJ>C'rcJ In F=di m !97S, he spokc on the >J!ttc rd<os m pubb, In 1978. Sttj.uncs
MJIJcr. Thc P.:mon o/ Mit:htl Foucvult ZH-234, )01-JO' 1199)) (dm:us.•lnl! rhe lmov.~­
ed¡¡ctJ>OWl'f rdAtlM •• Fo~ul1 upr...Cd ir Jurmg 1h4 perioJ); ..,••1,., Michd Fou
<11uh, 1 Hntotrr ,¡, 14 ,..,..¡¡,¡ (197~1: M1chd Fout11\1h Powrr Ktrowf,Jgr ~r/..:Jei
lntm.·i=~ ad 01lm Wntmg;. 1972-1977 (Colin Gordon. ed.. and Coba Gocdoo e1
.i.. <ram.. 19801.
4 S<e, for enmple, S111ttrbood ls Gluh.d TIN lmrnJ1t0011/ Wo.,,,.·, MIJl!•"1t•t
,1mholC>JY lRobm Morgan. ed . 1996) ( t 984 ). For 1n•ly•í• oí thc proce<• 1n 1hc UnircJ
St¿~. tce s~ra Evaru, Peru1'1ttf Pol1t1n nt' Rixl11 n/ WO'l'lf"lf'I Lt.h"4tion 1n tht' C1t·1l
llJ¡hts M01...,...rn1••d ,¡,, ¡\,.,, u/t 119791, Ethd Klcin. GrndrrP~11rrr From Co"'°'"'"
,..,, to .\faH Polwa (19841. and Ru<h Ros<n, The World Sp/11 ÓJI""· How the Modmt
Wo..,tú AfDV<'ffle•t ClNmgtd Á!ntFtca l2000). For docurlltflts. •« I• the C,,,.:puy o/
Wólll'ffn Voi«t/m1111Ñ Wo,.1en'1 Af0t•t,,,,..,,1 (Boorue ~·1u.luns-anJ Nln1 RothcluJJ. cch
1996) 1nd R.IJ1U1/ F~tllllft$1" .11 Dont111rnt1Jr; Reud& f&rbara A. Crt>\\\ ~ 2000).
) See R<>bm J StoUtt, •A Contribuuon 10 1hc Srudy of C.:ndcr ldemi"·." 4j
lntemaoonal Jwm.J of PSV<ixrAnalyrtS 220. 220 1196-IJ.
b. Se<. ~ener.Jl)' C11lharule A. ~facKmnon. SeXJ</JI Hor.ssmfflt o/ \l"orhni \l'lomen
Jl Cne o/ Si'"' DtrmnunJttwt 119791.
7 Violen°" Agam$1 Worncn Act oi 199-1. Pub l. No. 10l-l22, tn IV, 108 Star
1796. 1902-19j).
8 S... p.enenlly Andtca !Norlon 110d Camanne A. M•cKinoon, Pornogr<p/r¡ o•Ó
Cw1/ Rlghts A \<W Da1 /<1' \\1om•• '1 &¡ualtry ( l 988); In /Lrm 's \t'ay T~ Pomograplr,
G..J Righu HNnngt \C• rludn• A Madunnoo onJ Andtta Dworkm. edt., 19971
9 Se. lüJ1e v Kmdi1c, iO F ld 2)2 241-242 lld Cir l 99Sl lbrooslu ª"''".,
Rtidovon Kamdii< by Bosnfan Croot ond 8o.m.n Muslim 1''0men n1ivi,•on¡ fnr K?tual
•<t«idos in his senotidal "othnic deansing" C.lllpllign 10 elimin••• "" non-Sttbs from
Bosnla-H~OYinal. mi tknttd '18 U.S. !OOS 0996) A Nev.· York ¡ury aw11<dcd
rhe plwnulli $74' mollion 111 d.mages on Augu>t 10, 2000.
10. Ridurd Rony, "l'<mínlsm •nd Pt.gmujmr," >O Mt<htgJ- Qo•""' ¡u.,.,,..
2.11. 2H (1'1') 11
11. A 5j'icndid ~lustratton Í• the parody of posrm<ldcm wnttn~ tha1 wos tn faa
!!Jbbcnsb ,¡,,, "'"' t<«p<ed ond pubil1hed in a le•dmg posunodem ioumal Set gen·
cnlly Alan D. SoUI, "TranSjlJ"'mtg die ll<>undsnéS: Tov....U a Transformau11< Hct·
moncuti<s ol Quantuin Gmity" .f0/47 Su.M Tt>I 217 ISpruw'Sumrnor 19%1. Sok.l
 300 • ~Hn to P11u O SI
" ""' lo P11ts 51-51 • 301
302 • ~oln lo P11ts 54 S5
t>.ca.,,. h.-,... •..., un.iti...hcJ Uld J.d1J.1 who nt"cr qwt< unJt,..1ood
w.d 1,.. J¡J tbi. .? I St.-c 8: ncr.dfy l.it1h.1n1 • A M:1tKuuiun, •t rt1m Pt.,11..111.c f11 Thcot), or \X'hi;11 l111
how Jet,,cu.trucdan "ª' •u¡..,potcd hclp tht' wo-rlcina ,1~11 .. Al.1n So~.tl
10 Jcan
WMI •• Whu('I \\'0111.1.n An)l"'·.tyl· In \\ tJ111e11'r 111'41, Afrn·s Lli,, 22 IZOU'J Allen <1 al, • bros111< 10 Pom"l!r.1phy Cid Acttpr..,cc of Ropc Mvths. · 4} /Ot<rna.1,,f
8n.:mc1111 l·11Jurl#Llb1'- 1\M1t'111r Po,..,,./,.,,, }r.t ll.n;tut1hj Ab" f'o/'kw ,,, ~h"I 1998) 22 ~ (t1f tumrk. f,;11l(' Flu ·Poct:n1t1'1..·f1t3m ia.nd Cn111.I« RrWk1n1 m femuw.t 111 1 « l '19,t 1'hc ..an~ CQn.se4ut1kél o( opmurc wtte (oond m Jaf\lln
Co•nMJ1nttiJl1
Tht <mpcin.-.. '1 th< COK ni k"1>< paotroudrm ~Till!ljt Jd1mcJ ¡,., ¡azzy ¡_..,,.¡. on n..on • ., f..,,..,,..., p,,,,.,,,.¡,.,,.,,.,,_ ab<>vo - · 1• .. l'I ,, ·~ i.m....... of ~ Ken l,h1 Clhbuchr et al , l11"""' nf \'IO!rn1 l~'""'ll"Phi upm \ ocv.-crt R.po M 1h
rh< .urto«, ,. t.d b.ttt by M.inba C. :'\u.,h ""'· ·n.. !'mi.,... ol Pllm<ly" ~ "pnvtlqc(a il th< tnaft ... u11pr"'*-ttc or n<111pt.J trom Jctcnau\mon by ,,,.¡.,, l!o..d A \1• y ol}"l"OC'I< \l.Jc. • 1 ~ e,,.,.
•..t l..tu ·1. -¡.-~ (l'l'M
&pub!... 17 ffeb. 22, l~l'il ,.u,,_ r....... ;nd N1o.h<>loon. •""'· Mlc I(• ... Z7, J+-U i.Jvuc.wng ch. nccJ 10 '2 · llo dn •"""" """ 2"1 11 ~~ For conff.mon oí ~"" ..-uh phall" ...,
IZ Sceph.-n l\I Pd.lm.in. • J1,., Polmo ol l\auno<lem f11r1>prut.lcntt, • •1' Mtd>t4>11t ttpl.1c1:' lt'1,,il\1,nt ·, ·un111uy t'k'lclnn• al worn11n 11nJ fesnillmt SC"nJ.:1 1dl"ntny 'fJllh 11har•I Druolb (.nm ·11 'Tbc Douhly· Pntcd World Myth ~ and die Fcnunm<," 7'
L6w Rrtlt't4.• 166, 2(12 Cll)i:J4',, and ('On1r'k"ólv t\lf\Sl ntétcd Cf'lltt'J'lh001 of llN iat 1dcncic,· ll'('tllln• JC"ndc-r •~ t1ni rt"J. CtA1tt/J uw Ret·,,u· b44 61>1-~'62 119901: Ulle Ra.Janc:I. "La<"" tnd tbe Subi«c ol
ll °""••rea ol chD rinl•km •• u....... ..i "' ia<oM ..... ihl1 cal1 ...~1bin, vant srr..,J t1111- othtrt"l. ·~ alto ...._ H \\"illianu. "fcrm11m l.e!tal fpMe· 1..,. 5c'x ..., • ., inJ Oiscou"" 1n 1hc M•ppmg ,,¡ Sub1ect Por.t1•>n• Th11 G""' dio L'r
tboi cntial ol tite IUM '!'"' "posun<odn• • • ~ for .,._pk StC\'<'l G c..,., "'lb<
IS molo,r." 8 /kYl-dr, r_..., 1- ¡,,,,_¡ M <1993 Í•>nn ol l..1"" " W..b•,V • ...4 Ltt L1k &.1.,.. 1091 '1!1'171 AdcWJc H \'.U
Case,\~""" P~ r-lup Th<"f}. 1~5 L'•11mtty ol p,..,,¡,...., LMu lJ f r.i..-y 1-:. Htgpi, • Niu l:..scruialwn Rd.ti•um. ,mJ llom"" ~"' 1 IW- MOll.rt' -rC"mA"11tt JuIDprudm...:t' and PaL:ual \""auon • 2.f C...u. .J11J t,.,,.¡ flf.o/",...., 4.iJ
&vm" l~l 119%1 lc..JhnK my work poun1oJcm c.htouid>outl. wtJ Wru11 ,;'1 {,.,,, ]0t,rno11i'C9.91n1-1 ll9lh11 ~)'!-456 (l'l'NI To tacan, ol cw~. tho ph.Uur¡ • no< thc pcn1• bur tho ob¡ttt nf
l.f ~ .f&nl! f'l11.a: 11iu1k1'1¡ fr.1grn1nll />1w/to.u1•lyt11 J·rn1111u11t MnJ /lou"",J 24 Onr f'-.¡umplc L'I Anr.tl11 P H11rm, .. R.1~l 11nd Euenrittla."u 10 fcnun1'1 1.(1:.tl dc:ure for 1ha1 whrch ~ lackcd ~ J•<qucs Lacan, "Thc S11u11fica1"'n ¡,( thc Ph•lfu,,
" " ' " • 111 tbt CfJ«/r!ffJ'f.>f.Al' \t'r.LI }2-J1 119'JO) Au's .nlllY1oaa i l mrfuDv dUamrd h, Thron," 42 Si.t•/n,J e,,,, Rnm• 581. 5'11-S92119'1!1l In &..11 ..t .ldl'dwn 181, 2k'-zq¡ 1Alon Shen.Lio trtlllS., 19771 11%111. My ¡>(>rnl I•
~· JlmlW.h, {u..,,,., tft td¡ (A,,J,., ... ..,..,~.,ty 1>14 p"""'°"""''"' ,. ,,,,,,,,.,. 25 Ht¡:¡:111., ""'- n<!<e 21 • ., 95 lddinm• p - .~ cultunl relaov1>1• , ..., 1b.ot e.be J'C'lt< h., • h<h..'IOQI tcoli1' ro mal. dom .,......,_,, don .n.W u..n,. -..nd
,_,,,., E1~1" ZI 1-21• 11 "12 Nmcy ~..... • TO'F.lfd a 1cmumt Thcon ol lluman Rlgjtu. \cr.Jdlmg die F<n<c 6c th.< thocwurn< .,,,. ~- "'' utgdy fa'nl en & .. nin"'"" rh111 !O forua "'•
U J= fnu>{Ol5 Lyo•1rJ, fbe Prm-.Wn Co,,J,1100 A RQ>orro11KJu,../<Jge11Jm ~ccn Wnt('m lmpcn.ihin• anJ Uncnhol AhfilllUIW!l. - 2, c'""'"""'J R.,, . .,.
H11.,...J,, rmt«T "' ""' <NW><Únll wb.c " doa Th< phallu• ro 1his dtKO.................... th<
(Gcob lknnmgton md Bri11.n l\.1.;1:5~uml, trtuu, 1Yt$-tl. IAw Rrru14 49, '6-59 (19'-))J Ruth Bcnrclin 11 ~nt'rlllly """")('••cJ whh rhr vlN• 1h..11 pcn1s rtmlltn• rdcntl<$$1y concrete, but not Qn po.,m<>dcm page< •lchouPi <ven Frmch
lti LvotuJ WTittfl cil \·111•lu1 "gnl\d n11ttatnet" thruuf?hnut 11'# Po1fff!lf.JttJr Con differinit \'ff-\~1 oí ri#!ln and \\rona luv~ no \,1l1dny <'Uflh.lt- thnr cultua.1 it'tlln& ~ (emlrusts be~an t.'Ofletttelv lruclaUy. Sce. for exnmplc, llcooitc Groult, "NJght Poricn."
4'00._ 1<1 N..,q. Fran ..,J Und.a J NKho.i.n. mtian 1h< "qu.uHn<Uoarr11n-.." .,( Ruth Bcn..lkt P.tt""'s ,.¡ (_./1- 27R 119'"11 ll9W lurltJll~ ~ o1 nrl1ural 11'1 -..;,...,, l-Ttrt1 t Jr"'t1m11t11 A• Alfl~g¡ b8 llltil'lt' \1arb ..i.nd ta..l~lk Je Counavn:-n.
...¡,,, ch<y ttt "".-_,,,oc1.:m f<mdlmll ~ Nm<) F,_, -t Lindl J ~icbolooo. rcWt\11}' . , "1 mote ...W..ic toaal t.Jth, ~ as grounJ, ol hopo aoJ ., ...,. ~-w aod EJ1M Cid.t.utd. tratb 11 '-'<> LJc.e In~1~ r~ In< .¡i.. ,. , .r p.s "" lfl77>•
":.ocul Lnll<lSm \\"ii:hout Plulosopbv: .\n Eorounm B<n.-ccn Fcmmism and Pon- ~lar t11.tlt-r.ari..""C: che t~•a.""'R mJ ~~ v..a.J p.uttn1 ot Wll' wtuc::b maolUriJ h.u ~ P ~I" ·A o.fcn. ti th< ~boccr ~i,..,. Rrllllionshrr • 1n '"" F-rn<h Fnt
modcnu~.· u1 F~1nJlf1Jlfl/l'uJl11Wdem1¡1"1 J91 2~)~ Clind.I J N1chobon. eJ, l'NO). C.:l'C3taf ÍPf llA<lf írom t h t r,1,. 11'1.UC'n.tb ol t'll.l111t't1t:c-); sce 1lw \ lt:l"illej, Ht"'lu\\itt, '"""''· abM.·e at 76
No "'mt-tt• 1 h1h-r t\'t"r erH.'(1U.Olcr~ h1111, •lllO beco •qUA\.1" "'C.uhuml Rt'l1uviarn •nd Cuhur"I Valuc:J.• in Prnpt·rti••N '" C11(111nrl Pbtralo"' 11, I~ H . lludcr . .ibovc 001< 20, ac H
17 1 "'A •~ noto 2, •• lo.16 21 tfrontts H<nkm'Íll. cd. 1972f J..i Don~U1 "Hwnm Ri¡ihCJ wJ Hwn.on O.~nuv: .S4 'f'hi• an be' IOCátrJ t.n pa.lJ'l'k)dctn httr-ilutt \'lttually ar r.ndom, but a g11\ld
"""'*
4

•• An ni ..'Pf'Y radans rombincJ ,....¡, th< .... ol dus ..,... .. tprtbcf Ni Anal¡u, tnuquc ol :>."" \\'cstcm ~,.,.,. ol H....,, RJ,!ru. 7b A-.u"" •..,,,!'k D found U1 Butltt ~ iJ M 79-141
10 spu en ICllUDISl ""rk .."llhout auno1u ,. tound m Ooon.t 1-t.raway, • \t.n1rcs10 Pol,J"-'11 s. ....., lttttek. lO} Cl~b.2 1 Js O.. • ~ .,,. - ~ l"'C'r..:Jl~· K•hf')ii Abrarn.s 'Ftt"'1'\ ~ulf1fhlftt)' . , t\w<"CKy."
for L.00.~• S<;r<ncc. í ... hnol0gy. .,,J S<><W11• retnulWn 1n ,¡,., 1980.,• 110 s,,..,/m 26 Ft'ITlln"lt bcg&nnu'li~ W11h J( 8c.tUV\)lr. lvg~tflcr •1th llJlflf;IC.I IDJ.f)"Ml ot te&;C', F<miais< Pc"r•••tivcs on <:di Oircc1100." -!O W1/JiJ., •ni M"'I úu R,.,....,., 801 1<1<1'11,
Rn11~w b,, 11-7& (Miar Apr L981l. •J r11~n,cru~uon, tnclttcrnuniacy, ancl tntCIU<' J1,. la11teh m1,fe 1hc Orhtr• mt\n wh1u it nnw nltant: •<> pcl&UYH'IJrtn1.s1s Jjd f'IOI tlh'l'n t Kachryn Abrlllni;, ·~x Wars R~dux Af(cnq' .ind (.t)croon m Fcm1n1"t Legal Thcory, •
1h11 """ cuhcr ~ S°llnOl!< '"' ll••nnvir. r¡.,. .'iffl>.J Src X'IVIÍI (JI M Par<hl.v, ni
1
uu11 ,,( ali unnusal '" 't~'lf.a.h11ng J1k'1Ur•r\ 410 u~ 1hr f•\'OUttd phrat"I •re thc 9' 0Jlsm1hw Luu· Re.tew )~ ( l9')H and '""'"' llo)lo, •ts Sub¡ccuvit' POS5tbk; l'he
holJnwk c.j po<taodtm" thou,hL" o.,..,.¡ Ha""'!'. T1>t C-4.uo" <>{Ptn:"'°""""I) ond ll'lllS ICJ"9) ll9S2l. Pa.imodcm \tri·"" In Lc-g.I Thct")'." 62 u,.,,..,..,,,, Rft,,,.,..
.,¡ e,¡,,,.,¡,, ¡,...., 489
A• E_., ••to 1«
0..111•• o/ úJnir•I o..,,,,
9 t 1'18'1 17. A oodul .i..cu.,..,., ol 1hq tlxrnc ...., be 1wnJ m Lbpcth Ptobm, Tn.<l.., 119911 Eumpl1fimA lhe uv <1( ·\.1CtUl) .. wc \rmJv Bro-'T\, ~.rtri tf J""'-"t J'ot«r
19 1lU. ch.u¡¡~,. ubi~u1u>0>. °""
eumpk • Cdtoa Roalanv, "Au>'tl a hn11waf" tbc- Po.tmuJftll t.l.dc.atg ~rw OI th<: LOl...d. m fr11C11uw!I' lll-...i ,,,U!'f, A,c_"'"~ Dl.llir ••J F,..,¡,..., • u1r \f,.J,...,,., 91 19951 The miury of "1CtM "''"''J.naóoo" .J.c,
-1 )'alr )lNlrnt1I o/ Law u11J Jt1nr11um 2), 21 t I~ 1}. A tcrm j\1fTI<1un~ utcJ •'-' 11 ayn· l b .•• 17b rmdercd •the '1nrury of $0Clal wl»rdJna.Clon • Id te Zl; see al<t0 8udtt. •~e: n.•te
ooym 11 •rNutuonla • Sc:t- \.l•nh1 R..\tJh1•r1ry, "'Whucnt"ll anJ W'omcn 1n Pr•c:ILct' 28. P...pl< v Chm. No. 87-m4 (N Y Sur Ct. Dec 2 19AAl The (;k,, ""',. 20, •• 142- 147 (<>n "11gcncy' l.
md TI....>ry: A R<plv h 1.atbann< ,\la<~'""'"'• ~ Y•lr /,,.....,.1 o{ L... ••J f,.,,.,,,.., discusscd ., ~ deurl m Donanc Lamhdci Cokrnm "loJt\1du.l12mR Ju''"'° lb l·rus. _.,~note 2, at 1012
Tbrooch '1uluculnr..W.nt Thc l..ibcu!S ~· 96 coi.,,_ /Ju Rmru t09J
111 221 ug.,11
20 ¡ ,_, aod l'Orcbobr<i t.tlsdv """'" rb.r S<Xtal lh«>nm Lkc me amane th<
un1ver,.J l'lltf'1hcrnu ol t.:llf-tMU l.1kc &o.u.tlJty befóre 1.-onuruamg, gt'1lie11l111t1ct ot
1·>?61
29 r..,p1. v Rh""'•· tftZ c.1 R.,.. 478 11.1 ,,.,.. 1wu1
Dtl{,...,.,
111i1rv Do,.,.,,,
,,.,,..,
~ T,,_,
1" S.C. · r •Amplo ¡¡,.., ll<lidr>m ,\wulH f•l,rrtr E•/...J,'"""' .,,¡ 'intwl
•e,,.. f,..,,.,,,
,,,J
1tMl'fll"),lf P{)f"lt()t.r-""'7
57 "4 (1994•. Dm.JI• Camell T1v ,_,
Snu1! flttt11JP1J~t 91- 16J 11m1
thcrn s.,. 1 ,...,, •nJ N1dn>l..1n •lto"" note lb.•• H k< .J.., ludid! Butkr í.1..Jn 10. ~tt hl Al 48) J& !)ce Mt<hd Fouto\llt. Doaplme 1rnd P11•1Jh Th. 811th o/ 1ft Pnso. 195-223
T'°""" r ttnlttf ... • ..J 1/.y \ "•""ft/1. r>/ IJAllll ' 1·~· 1 f(lf ¡hr m('ll.f l-'"" Ímúrufi.f

tbtory""' .... ,JD<d WI thc· - " - ..~ •lcmitr. undn>tnod"""""' tbo '""'
) 1 A Kttnt ll>C'ta-analy.o rondudcd i:ha1, takrn tn~ah<r 11>< hc1<lv ol C"<p<nmm•.J
\.tud1cs ~. th.I cxposutt ao pomogupb\' tn(;:rftift rapr m~'lh «<t'pcane irt'altr
(AJ,io SbcnJ111, '"'". 19?8) tJ•Kuwng panopUL1>rnl; lngMly, '"'""note 32, ai 2' J6
1Jc.-.;nb1n& ·wutnrn\ cntraflC'c intn •une cconc•nur ~tqUc donun.r11c·>. Jacqucs
flOr} o(' - ., lor '"°"'"' i-nocr.pity b.11 .Jao hokLn, """ lor "'''"....._ """""'"'plif Se.. ~t.U 1......... T1v ¡.,.,, ..,.....,1., e_,,,.,
1 •• a{P,,.b.. lul¡u167-7R [!Jan 'h<nóm cr..,.,
1'1781 tlc¡;'JJ Con •'lfl.P:l.ann• •,C'O'S'IC dm"C ..J.,
 Notes to Pa¡es 55-58 • 303
l9, See Chnstm< Ddpby. ·n.c ln"""don al 1'rcnch fcnunam An Essenwl
\fov.:." 87 Yuk Fmuh Stu.Jm 190, 196 (199'1
.W. ~'fichrl Ft1ucauh. "On Po'Wl':r," in Pol.tlit1, Phtiofr>{IJ.r Cll./lurr' ltrll'nlt"U' ,,,,J
•th" w.,,,•.,, 1977-19$4 %. 106 •U..=co D. Kritzman. ed, md Alan Shcridon "
~. lmll$., 1988!
41. Judrth Bu~ ... "Quaodtries of the lnCCSI Ttboo." Ul Whost fftuá? Tbe PlaA
of PtYriw..l)'m 111 Co•tcmfX>"? Cult•rc J9. 4<H 1 Cl'tter Broob •nJ Al"" Woloch.
eds... 2000). Reporc:J oí events oí ince!n form thc cxccns1vc dutilboJC" onalyud by D1.1na
E. fl Ru..,..U. T/v Stt:rt:J T "'"'"" l•mt ur th• LJ•«t o/Gfrlr •nd w••,,,. (19861. WideJy
O<'edooiced is die excdlcnt srudy by Linda Williams dial b<gms wn.b mcd1C1tlly docu·
men1.cd 11cts oí duJd abu..;;;e -aod locales survlvors seveneen yean la.ter to m.qulre U'llO
theu: memor:y of t.bc ""'°'.. 11uny-eigh1 J)<rC<Jlt did aot m:.U them. S<c Llnd.. Mcyor
WiUu.mo. "Rcclll <>Í Chddhood Traumo: A Prolipc:ell\'C S1udy oí Womcn'• Mcmorrcs
ol ChUd Sc•ual Abuse: 62 Jo•n14/ o/ Crwub1•g ••dClimrol PS)Yholcgy t 167 (l '1941
42. Sce. fo, C><llrllpi<, Higgins, obo...e n0<e Z}, 11 119-120. for criuque. sec M~rtba
C. Nussbaum. The rrwltl"f o/ Gooánen. Lid< anti Elh1cr 11t Grttk Ttagedy má Pbr·
losophy 31 't986).
4}, A sptti6~ fonn of thí!I argumcn.t is madi:: c:fírttWdy. on pmtmoc.lcm lcrrain, 1n
Su••n Bordo. "'M•1erlll Girt': Thc F.ifocc.,,..,,. of P.,,tmod<m Culnrrc." in Th< F,.,.,,,¡,
Boát Ftt<im, Sr¡ln. S1>«Uf.1t,,.s 106 !Laurencc Coldstcin. cd., 1991 ) Tha1 postmod·
omrsm elaims 10 supe-1c modemism dut bo $<di, fur ecimple, "' Cluutine Di Sr.-
lino, •OJcmmas o( DJfíe,.,,<e FcminJsrn. Modcmity, arul 1'0>imodcmi5m, • in Fem1·
•u,,,/Po11moJcnta1'f, .i.bovc noce 16, 11t 6) f"Posunodcrnism h.a; 1.1.ken thtngl one ítq>
furthcr" bq'Ond 1ht0riits such a; Roussc:au. M.rx, 1nd de Bcauv01r), Sbe observa thac
it m;ay ªre.run, sn upd11ed ,:acb." whiu h claiim 10 supentdc. Td. 1u 77 lf postmod·
cmiml sccs iti;df superseding modcmism by disconrinwiy or ruprur<. Jl IS not danning
to address modanwn's concerm bdtu dun u does, ltJSt to scratch a d.ifierenr hch, to
use Wiugcn.twú m-.•phor for wbat ph"-pby 00..-.. S.... Lud.,g Wmg<OSt<Ul, i'et
PllJchlr &tmt'rkunge-H t-4 e1977). quotcd in R.chutd Rorry. Pbl1u10pJ.,. {Jnd '"-' A,,,,m,
of 1'\.J/1f1f' vii l1979). P«ha¡x p1n <>Í tht: problcm hcrT i~ that womcn·, ron~ms are•
loe more- ur¡:cnt and Hfe-thrHteninit chao itche:s.
+l. A uscful di5cussioo of thís problcm is fouod m Oenms Patt<non. "P<mmod·
•mwn/Fetrunism!Uw." 77 Comell i.Aw Rn-11:w 254 119921.
41 Pownodcmt1u may du•grcc wuh LhlJ i legcll.ln 1ubLa1íoo u thc p.Lh from
modemmn 10 polrmodom11m M1ybe thcy tbould ,.Y wbat tho • pOll" prrlix mean•
10 1ts eopuJa wu.h mQclrm1ml. If it cc:pccsenu a rupturc, why ~n't h have it$ O\\ln
MIDC?
46. Gcnrudc Su:in, Breu•>rt anJ Wrl/t< JO ( 1946)
47. S.c Budcr• .obo.." note 20, 1t 2' (ºA gr<•I cl<:al of fcnurus1 thcory 1nd htemun:
ho• n<-....,hekss IWUmed th•r thcrc ¡,a 'docr' ~hind 1hc dttd"l. N1cmche uro<ed
the í.llacy of scp•rating rhe docr from thc dccd. Sc:e gonerally Friedrich N1cuschc. O•
the Ceneal"f1 of Mor1h: A Polem1< (Doo81"" Smith. tn1ns.. L996f. Or ,., Yeais osked.
·How""" wc kno" 1hcJanetr from thc dmcc?" \X'úl!.m ll<i~cr Ycuis. 'AJnOO!lSchool
304 • Holu lo Pares 58- 59
CMdren · in The Callecud PMmr o{ W 8 Ye.u 212. 214 0~6). Bdund th• pomt
on acooun1abo1cy " a lar,..,r ooe pomon~ 1... 1oward a doer b•hmd tbt deed-rolsmg
whtther thc sdJ is thc cause: ot one's itClK)J\S (11 m Kant) or Lile. e:Íl«:t ot one:·~ ac::uon1
(,¡q¡ in Sartr~t-iwd more,~, 1 d0tr btyoHJ 1hc decd. Nenber moJcm1ma nor ícmiown
t·v..-1>m...ltt 1~ subtta. u pow11odcmimt sede• ro do
48 Anotha fonnulaoon of this samc i~" ;. rh.t fcmllll'1 pomnodcromn i$ "on
cpls•cmology rha1 rusufies lmowledge claun.s ooly msalar as they anse (rom enthus¡astic
VJOl•uon ol thr loundmg taboos of Wcs1un hwnarusm Sandra l hrdmg. Tht Ja'""
Qlu:J11()1t U1 Fem1•w" l9J (1 986>.
49. Por 1 Juc:id upcbu:c un thf: 1iarc of tlau cndasm, $CC Rith:ird Rorty. Ph1lfJ>tJPhy
••IÍ Son•/ Hapr 262-'277 ( 1999)
10. The ronccp1 com"'í from Frednc Jameson. See l'rcdnc Jamcson. Portmod·
ermsm, or. '/'he C•ltur•l l.ogic o/ út< CaPJtabmr 90 0991 !: '°' also Tri,. Gnllo, 'Antl·
E..ent.,lum anJ ln1.m«UonalJ1y: Tools to 0.sminlk d>c Mas1cr'1 JloulC!." 10 JJ..1.l!<k¡
ll'omnr'r ln• jOHm•I 16, 17 099>1: Junn C. Willi•rru. •Dissolvans rhc Salft<'ndlsl
Dúíerena: O.b.10: A Post·Modcm Poth Beyond E.uenrialism in Fominm 111d Criuc:al
Race Thcory;" 41 Ne l..rw /ormr•l 296, )07 11991) (•l1ñc] pom·modcm approach
•rans from d>c n0<100 oí a fragmente<! and $hifung ..,u""),
5L In • wnpk oíº"" bundttd U1dividu.tls who ore niuluple in a •rnd) conduaed
íor che N.adon.il ln11un1u:• oí MéntW He.a.IL.h. 97 ptrtcn1 reponed experic:nc:ing aignif·
i1;1n1 tr.11.1mn 1n chilcfhO<>d. SJ pcrccnr ~oncd sexual abuse, 75 pct(c:nl n:pOTtcd rc-
peatcd ph)'$it:1i abuse. •nd 68 pcrccnt repone<! bo<h. See Frank W. Pum.•m «al,
"Tbe Clinical Pbcoomenolof¡)' of Mulriplc Pe:rsooality Dísooler: Rcview of 100 Rectn1
C.SC$," ~7 Jour,,,./ of Clinwzl Psy<hia1ry 28,S, 289-290 0986). Cumulauve. O\"M•
....·hdm1ng, 'ei.'f:tt, lot1g las:ung ttbusc \\'!ll íouod rdatrd 10 thr Jc:vel of c.huocuauon th.u
,.,.uln from childh6od trauma "' 1 l.orge simple of inpn1i<n1t Sa: Nel Draii<r and
Willi• 1.4n¡¡eland. "Childhood Trauma 111d Per~h...t Parental o,..lunctíoo in 1hc Eti·
olo¡¡y uf Dissociarivc SymplOOU in Ps)'Chiatric lnpaticnrs." 156 Amm<an Journsl o/
PrychtJtry }79 (1999); sce also Judith Lewis Herman, Trauma 1nJ RM>u,,., 125-126
OW21.
52 A ih1rk contml io thc c<N\Cc:ption ol mul.uplid1y discuutd here it th11 ol 1'.1.an
J. Mouud.., "Wh<.n 1hc fint Quail Calb: Mulnplo Consciousncss •• Jurísprudcnrml
Method." in Who-t 11 Yoor &áy> Ami Othn Ena;r1 on R.rtt, G-.1tler, ••IÍ tb• l..rw 3
09%1 • 8. Selected tiampld includc Artick 2's rcfércnce 10 oboliJhing "=tom• and prac·
5} Sc:e 6rJ1dotti, •OOv< rwtc )7, •• U hd'emng glanqngly"' thc Boonwunuauon
m her lillCtlUIOn uf UnguJg<!'J.
,54 'Thr prin1nJ "'~"''°" 1:1; .. m1 w'" nt'll undJ J found aomc at•bility 11.nd tcn~ oí
pamal belonltlflg, supponed by 1 peonanem iob and • hippy rda1ioosh1p, •bol 1 could
aau.Uy •Un thinlung •doquatdy abour nomJ1dl$111, Id. al 35.
l S. Stcpbcn A. Marghn, "Towards the O.colonwrioo of thr Mlrul, • in D01rrma1111g
IVtowkJgt DcurlopmMt, C•ltu1-, a•d RcmlPn<' J. 12- 14 !F<édénq\le Apffd Murglln
onJ Srcphcn A M»rglin, c<l• . 19911)
56 Id at J)
Notes to P1ges 59-64 · 305
17 IJ
'58. Har'\'C')' ;iboV(' no1c J8. "' l l6-l 17, "part1ruLuly C('lttcnr
59 S<.li.:ll and Brlcmon<. Iba~ note 11, a< 209 .
60. A dúfcrem vemon of this poJnt is m•dc by Nancy Hansock, "RcthinlangMod-
Mui-Onry "· Majonry T11cori"'." 7 Cu/tu,,/ Cntu¡ue 187. 204-206 CI'lU l99J¡.
<rlll!ll1c
Tbc f>Oltmadc:nH»b are co be th:tnkcd íor dr1wl"8 a 1jnc thld 1uako me: ic:d pan OÍ .i
1nid1oon 1ha1 l """'" id1 much includcd m befo~.
6. Thc Promise of CEDAWs 01>tional P rotocol
l. U.N Doc. EtCN.6/ 1999/WG/L.2 (19991, .n·rul.tblc •• IW'W.un.org/"'Omm
waichlJ>wlcecbw · pIOt~Op pdf
2. For forthcr mtl)"i" sce Laboni Amena Hoq, "The w.,.,,..,.,
ConvcntiPn and
lt• Optional Prororol· Emi'O"-.,ring Womcn to Claim Their ln11!m:ttiónally Protected
~ts." J2 CaúJmbta '""'''"' Rigbt1 Llw Rettew 677 (200 U.
J, U.N Ooc. A/ R.ES/H / 180 !1979),
.f, Stt •Mttring of Sciatt"S Pg_rt1d co the Conventlun tm tht- Eli.rru.nation of Ali formt
of Disennunauon Apmirt Womcn. Dtcltnation11. Rtkrvauoni. Obicctiont anti Noufi.
canons oi Wididnwal of Reserv•úom Rdaan~ IO tb. eoo,..,..rioa 00 thc Elimmorioo
of All fomu oí Otscnmwuon A¡;a1ns1 Women." CEDAW/SP/200.?/2; Hd.ty Chor-
lmvonh and Cbnsone Chmlan. n. Bou1'áarm o/ ln~rn•tro,..ll.Aw. ;I FtmmSI '1n.J.
'"' 102-l u (2<JOol.
5. Anicle 18 nf CEOAW coniains rcportm¡¡ n:qmrcmcn,., CE.DAW'• Anicle 29·,
mterS11ce procedure lS hiPJy rcscrved 1nd has n~"t'r been used. Por conttm (>\'tt ladc.
of cnlorcement mccboru..<ms• ..., Audrcw Bymes aod Jane Coonors. • Enfordlljl die
Hum<n Righrs oí Wom""' A C,ompl>m1> Procedurc íor d>c Wornen's Coovenuon-
'º
Draft Opuonll Pro10COl thc Coo.'ttlom oo the Elurunauon of All Form.• oi l)u.
crímirurioo A8>im1 \\"ornen," 21 8100k!.1.. /<>'1""'11o/l•""''"""'l1..nir 679 09961;
AMC f Baycúl<y, Thc UN H•.,••
TV,Pts TrealySyrtc•11 Un,...r,./iry.,tJ,•CrorsroalÍ•
{2001).
6. ;.., n:<Ol!l'i..,d, for examplc. in CEDAW Commiu"c Gen.,.al Recom"len"4tfl1'1
19 V1ulcntt AtJiost lf'omtn 11 l th S<>•., 1'l92), U.N. Doc. AJ47, )8 ( l99J).
1 Scc WMdJ t1nd DerJ1 HolJ1nt. Gottmtr11,..,,11 AM>Nntt1bfc 111 1hr Br1nni + 10
Rmeu Pro«n (~far ~>. •I www equalitynow.org
neos wbich roostiIDte dtsaururumon." Amcl• 4's pcovisíons íoc tomporary spccial meo·
fu.r6 to td\lc\'~ af6rmati\'C action. Atttdc ,.i
rn.uu:luc 10 mod.ify rohure to cqu.due
womcn'• Wt\.ti und trcumcot. Anicle 6'1 tnca5utes ~11iMr txpktitiUWn of tr11íñckJ~
rn womcn, ll!ld CEDAW'• •ppbcauon 10 •pn\oltc hfc." mcludin~ mam•tto ond tbc:
íamdy .. sp«ilicd ui Artidc 16. Thac provil<íons rcacli forthcr man
thc sa cquality
pt'(l(ecuons of most oauotu.l t:nd mccm.i.aonal innnunents.
9. Procb1urcs. src: -an ucepdon. For ua\-aux. sc:e .. D.ivioon for the .~d,-..nccmcn1
of Womcn. Dc-p:ainmctn or Econc.wnjc .nd Socul AffOJrs, The C.Onvttttion on che lilun
 Notes lo fages 66- 71 • 307 308 • Notes 10 Pa¡ts 71-77

1nanoo of Ali Foans ol O.scrururu.uon AgalllSt Womeo. • Tho Opuonal />rOJorol. T<xt c:J1.h.1llK untctiOl\lbl)· prolo~cd domtsllc remc:dres U.N. C.ommlttC'C M 1h< Ehm1na. \21 Subsecuon !11 docs 001 prcdude aoy law. pn>g111111 or llC!l\1ty <h" has as us
01.J MJJerurls !Unued N11w.,., 2000)
tion of l>Jscnmln.uon a~Aliut Wo1nen [CEOAW]. Rcpo,.t o/ th~ Ú>"'"''''« on 1hr ob,«t thc wndiui.1t100 QÍ condlliol'li of dlsadvt.n(~ tnd1\·1du;als or gr0t.1pt lncludmg
El1m1t'JJ/1'(1.tl of Dttcn"l1tf•t1<m a~tnrt \\1n"1t'lf. }lst ~. Ann.cx &, ' 8.8 U.N Doc.
1O. CPnccrn• (~prClSCt.i. il$ w 1th othcr lrC)lty bodles. luvc 1.nclud~ 11dJuchouttr11 Ú\o\é th11t 1.&C'c i.:Ull.ld\·1nt-a.$Cd bc:c.aus-ie- of roce. nPnon.J or ctbn1c ocigm, colour. rd"af.l~l'I,
A 5908. a""'11ble a1 hltp://www.un.or~womeowa1ch/dawicedawf} lscss.bun•repon.. ,.., ~ or mmral or ph,..ie1I düabwcy •
wh(l necd tH-11 be bwytr.s 111d pc:m1blt pcilitical lnll1..1c:ntc:. buth oí wb1ch c-11.n .U,o¡o obrai.n
thcn dac~.uo.oi¡/doctlJNOOCtG.EN 1N~l462mlPOF, NOH6277.pdfr0!""' Con Ccotm. pt. l. S 15 (Thc C..Udwl Chancr ofRigh" .,,d l'...donul.
Ln domcStJc coum
Elc:rncnt. Tb~ Comm1rttt's dcc:LS.tal'I m A.T v. Hungiat) found that tJung11ty ,10l1tt<l Z. Secuon 28 pto>1de, "Noiwiths!Jllldi"8 anythw¡¡ 111 dus Chancr, the ngbts aod
LL Ameles 2-7.
Llw- Con\<mt1on ln f,u]1ng to prcrtcet her effccci\-dy írom her \'"Mll~nt íormcr C<'lrnrnnn fn:edoms n:lm-cd to ID 11 are gwmintetJ cqu,Jly to male aod ícmalc penons. Can.
l2 Amclc8.
ll Anide 17
law hu."band. RtptJrl o/ th.! co,,,,,,,lflte on th~ Eli1'l{1t.tl1on n/ DtIC1'/lf1Ul{1/JQn •1.1u11rr.
Con&t pl 1, 28 s
14 ~"" Anide 2
\\'º"'"'· J2d Scss.. t\n!U'X m. , 8.8 J.J.N. Doc. Alfl)l}S. """'labl< •< bttp; " w..-w 3 i lt"rb\"'n W('chslc:r. •TQWard Nt1.1tr11l Principies of CanJ11tuhanal L~"··" 1\ llitr
.un.or¡;1womcnwAicludaw/ cedaw 1J2sess.htm. theo daccessdds.un.org¡dooUNDOCI
15. Amele 2 Tlus .,., me
sub!«t of co""idcrablc debate lc~dir\i! to ,.tifi<llcion
GEN1N0,127'1S9/POF/N0'27,89.pdl'>OpcnEkmctt. Th< Comrruttec rccorn·
v•rii 1..JJL' Re.·r<'lc 1, ll U 9591
For analys¡s, se.: l. Su.;harira·Bdmnann, "Thc ln1li>1dual Compl.llntS Proctdure Pro- 4. lmporum .s ll is. discuSS10n of rh<: possiblc cxpansaon of l"!lislaci<c authonty
mcn(lc:J Hung;iry w.k.c: immedintc: 1&nd dfL~Ú\."t: mc:lJUra to guJINtntcc thc phy!Uatl an\I
'1ded For by thc Optioiul Protocol to CEDAW; A F1m faillwuioo; utDn'</apmmt unda tbosc ptt)VIS1t)ll> ol thc Chorter ~.¡,,,,. lillgwon msy no< nOCtSUriJy be permrti..<l,
mentid Íntqrity oí A T and h~r íamily. msurc 1h.i1t A.T iJ ~ttn sa .Je hómc, r«t'Í\a i.t:I wcll u full cU.scussion oí m~ c:ruoaJ :Uátr uruan/pr1\'~LC: .aOJOn qudlloo. u.·JI fu...•c
únJ O..Vclopmg lntt,..l1o•al •11d &ropNn L.ow b'M59 ( 19991.
16.Aniclc 2. appropri•t• cbild 1uppon and lettal ossis<~, and recaves reparation proponionarc 10 .t\\.'IH .nathcr c:Lly
10 the pbysíé\11 and mental hann undcrgonc and to the @ni"'>' al tbe violauons oí her
17 Aniclc.l. 5. IOot')lh Tussman ondJKObus tenBrodc, "Thc .Equal Pro1«tion of the L.,..; l7
nglus. Id. • 9.6. The Comrnmtt also tssU<id a repon doullu!g the 1'<lul<1 of"' mqwey C.lifomia Lru: Rmew }41, )4~35111949). Thc tcnn •fü• ,..._, coincd by latcrsdio4rs
18 Amele 11
ln10 cL.iappca.r¡nC'd1 r.apc:s1"nd murdcrt1 o( hunJttJ, of \\-Umc:n tnd girl; ovcr t.hc pnor
19.Anide 4. to refer to thc <'ODCtpt thcse •uthors clanfled.
lO.Aruclc 4121.
dOCllde CiuJoJ Ju.ir... Mexico. R•pott on M•XU'O proJ...-J hr tht eº'""'""' on thr 6 Scc td., )41>. Tussm1tn ttnd tcnBrock used thJo phmsc: but 10uglu 10 "'"'id ..,
El1"lt,,J/fO'ff <( 011cruc1nMl()n 1tgJ.111Jf Wo.rn~IJ u11dh (lr/r(k R ti{ tbt Opnnn.1.J Pro1()t0/
21. Anide 7(21. inqulr')' into whelhtr or nct l~.Jtura h.-d indee<.l C'.J.rved 1bc tociAI worlJ at , n;uur.11
21 Anide 7(3). 10 1be C°"'''""º"· o•J 1'ply /ro,,, the Goomtment of ;\lexu.-o, U.N. Ooc. CEDA \W
Ct20M/OP.8/MEXICO, availoblc at wwo•.11n.org/111"11et1W3!<h!Ja"·lceda"·l<echw}2/
j<'in1. So: illso °""'" ¡:¡.,, "Group• •nd tht Equol Proccrnon Cia...,,- 5 Phrlosoph¡•
23 Anicl., 811l konlidcntisfüy end coopenuionl. 8(1) and 151 (coopuation io- and Pub/>< A/f•rn 108 119761...re<Wly •l 12}. whcre he discl.IS$C$ the assuc.
C!!.DAW.C-20M-OP8·MEXICOE.p<lf. Tbc Ú>nllnllt.., coocluJcd truu the b<ts .rJ.
vitedl. ®d 80) ltransmissioo). 7 S.. Bliss v. A. G. oi Caooda, [1979] 1 S.C.R 181.
lcg~ *ronstitwc Jtl\~ and l-)'~1cm.11uc: \·aolationl- of thr pl'O\·i.5t00t o( 1hc Con\-.:-nuon
24. Amele lJ; CEOAW Rules of Pracedure. Rule 74, Repon of the Co11111t111ee"" S. Oe>1nc v. D.:vme, )98 So.2d 686 !Al.. Sup. Ct. 19811; D:m1dsoo v. Board o[
on the Eliminarioo of Ali Ponru of Oi>crimination agaimt Women: id 259, a.od thaa
tht- Eh1n11rJltOll ó/ Dtsb1mu1411t>n AgdutJI Wo1nen, Al5óll8. AMcX 1 <2001). lllghcr EduWJoo, }58 F Supp. 22 (SJ).N.Y. 1972); Orr v On- 4-W U.S. 268 H9i9J.
L~ r<:$ponsc: by ~1cxico had ROi beco adequatc to thc Corr\·cnrion~s standards, and
25 Anielc 7(4). 9. Miu1n1ppi Uruvc1$1ly fo r WC)men v. Ho~an, 458 U.S. 718 (198il.
made recommendauoos to bnng n m.to compliaocc. ... AJ.ong .,,•uh combanog cnme,
26. Anide fül. 10 rn.z v. Pan Am. World Air'"'>"· me. 442 E2d }85 15th Cir 19H), ttrl dt..eJ
rC(()lving the utdl\idual ases oí murders and duoppearone<s. ñ.ndm& .md punl•lung
27 Por • ,.¡cw 1bar this ;, how OlQSt laws ~-ork most o( the time. see S11lly Engle 40l U.S. 950 !1971); Eqwal Employmem Opponunuy CommiSS10n v. Ammcao Tde-
t.hQ!r ..~\(I art guilty, .aud providtng support to the \'ÍCtims' f,un1.llcs, thc- root Ca\lfes of
M<rry. "C.0o>trucung •Global t...W-V1oknre Against Women ond the Human Ri(!btS phone ond Tdeg,.ph C<>., 55& l'2d 167 <Jd Car. 1m1.
gtndtt violcnc:e in iu 1truaur.a.I ditnto5i"° md in ".ll iu fcnms-whtthtr domesnc iand
S)~tem," 28 Lzw •nd SoaJl l!lqwy 941 (2003) ¡•tw: mtt low. [tntemJllonal luw sl lJ Weinbe~ v Wet!Ctlfcld, 420 U.S. l>J6 ( 1975)
íoaa·f.amilv \'1t>leoce or sexwal violcnce and abuse. murdcrs, ktdnappings, md disap-
im1>11ct dcpend• on '" culrur.S leg.,imJ<)' •nd '" cmbodunent in local cultures enJ I~ 12. So: Gcna•I Elccuk Co v. Gilben, 429 U.S. 125. 1}5 (1976~ Geduklig v
pCArances must lx comb•ted, spccúic pobclC$ on gonder cqu.!lty •dop~ ..,,¡ a *"°da
c::oruciousneas•). Mello. 4li US. 484, 496-497 (1974): Nn'Pon N,,.... SbipbuJdin~ md Ory Dock
paspecu.., tntc~ratcd iruo .U publac pohoes. • Jd. • !70 Mt'Xico ogrced thu "tht
28 for '"'"'°
•u<h eff«ta. ..., Tbe f;,., CEDA W l1~paa Study. fou/ &port (T<>
murdcn e< thc CiutlodJ,,.rci wamcn con,.itutt • b=ch oí 1hc womcn'• hum.in ragh11,
Compmy v. &¡ual Employmcnt Oppomroity C..,,,,,issaon, 462 U.S. 669 (198'1
ronto; Centre for fcmrrust Research, York Uni..,...ty, and the lmcrnauonal Womco's U. Ser Caoad!an Cnmirutl Codc SS 246.6(11, 246.7 24&.l!2l, l-16nl. 1nm.
thc ongln ofwhath ha in cmrcnchcd culrural paneros oC dúcñminouon" Id .. Ob><r 14. Set Coasurnoon Aet, J 982, ¡x. l. S 2(bJ.
Rt¡¡hts l'roJCCt, 2000); Margam E. Kcck aod Kathryn Siklunlt, Ar:twJSIS &,.,,,.d Bortkn.
\1lt1ons by tM Sr.re Partv-~1ex1c;o,
AdLV)aJC)' Nl'tu:orks '" lnt~m.i1on1Jl Polt11cs ' 199°8). I' Susan B. Anth<Jny, The Reuoi111NJn. m A N11/ory o/ Womtw 1n A"''""'· 161
29 Se< Anldcs 12. ll. (C.rol Hymown• •nd Michaclo Wciumm. tJs .. 1978).
}0. S.. Ann.ul ReP<>n 28tb/29th Seu., Repon of the Woddns Group on Com- 7 Making Scx Equnlity Real
muniations, i\/58138 Annex 9 (200Jl and N'J9138 !Pan U 120011andAJ(;,()J38120tm.
1 Secuon U p'°'ad<s· 8. Nationbuilding in Canadn
Smcc 2004, t.bc Committ« on tbi: Elunmanon o( Otscnaunarioo agaimt Women h,a...;¡
Ev.;,11· individual iJ <qUal bcfore and undcr <he law ond hos thc ri~ht to the
lii1t1cd '"'°
<lcciJJcin1 •nd complcted onc anqwry undct r.hc OptJonal Protocal Tht
"11)
cqual protecnon md equal bcnefu of thc law wtthout tlcs<rinunauon •nd. in pamcular.
1 Can..J.w. CoosmwJon pL 1, S U (tlW! C...adaan Ch.n,,r al Righu •nd Frtt
"""'l'Lunt in B.·J v Gttn11ny allqin~ that C.rmany'• dNom: Liw• d;,crurunatcd u.lthout discrunuutloo basc:d on ft\CC. na:t1001Jl or clhruc ongin. t:olour. rdigtoo, se:x,
dnm" S11<1i0Cl 1~ providcs·
again.Jt oldcr diV('lra:d W\'lmcn \\'U dcc.larcd inadmis.$-ib1c, v.ith • d~i bv tw0 meen • () 1 EV<ry indivídual 15 cqual befo re •nd undor tho J.,.. and ha thc ñ¡t/11 10 the
•'8< or mcntill or phyurul daub1h1y
ben finchng " admillible in pan aod fiochng that d>e wam11D w.s oor ·required <a equal pro<eruori and cqual bene61 oi the law wuhc,ut discriminonoo and, ío particular.
 Notes 10 Pages 77-78 • 309
uithow ~run1nat11;m bJlkd on r.ace. n.uin1ul or echnic ongin, colour. rdir.100. llCI,
11gc- or nu.-ntid or ph~1ci&J dJs11bíl1ry"
. f2l Subsection tl~ dOC5 not prttlu~ an)' l~w. rrojo':ram or •ctivity that ha• lilS u.~
obr:ct <he amcl1omioo of tondirioos of dosadvrumiJ!.0 indi,oduals or group• mcludm~
tho.se that ate di,atfva.oro_ged btt:al.lse of t'áCe., ttaoonal or cthn1c ongrn. colour, rchglon,
sex. agc_ or Jnc::nttl or pb}s1cal diub1l11y, •
2. C.lll CooS! p1 1, f 28. S«lian 28 prov1des: "No<w1th<1Md1ng •nyth1ng 1n th"
Chartcr, che ci"h1t and frttdomii rcf~rred 10 1n it aJC 11uaran1ccd <"qual1y co male nnd
fcmale persons.'
J. (198'1) 1 S.C.R. 1-0 (Can.J.
~. lb• Meech Loilct Attord i• lD tht lorm ol .llllcndments 10 che Conn1tutioo Act
1867 IBnu•h ~''"h A.mwco Aa 1867, JI.)..} 1 \'10., ch. JI. The A<co1<l ondudes ~
n('Vt' St"Cfion 2 of thc Con~cin.uion 1\cs as foil~¡.
.,( ll Tht: Consciturion of Can•da .shall b~ uitc:rprcccd in 1 manncr coosiscenl wirb
la) tbc ce<og¡:ulion dut the tll'istence oí Freocb-sp<nkíng Canadi..,., a:mred m
Qucbcc but nl,o pr....,1 cl,.,..·hcro m Cmn<!a. and Engbsh·s~ CllSladtln;, coo-
t:dlttiltcd Ollts:lde Qutbec bu1 allO prCienl in Qucbcc, coni,1uu1,... a fuodamcnW char·
actcrlsoc of Canoad..a; 11n,I
(hl 1hc rCC"Ognirion thal Quebec consuru1es wnhin CaoJCÜ" di!>tinct tt>cic't)'
(2) The role oí che Parliament of C•noda and 1hc provinaal kt!isl:irum to preseNe
d"' fuodamerual cbaraererisde oí Cao;da refcrred tO in paragraph ( l l(a l ,. alfirmed
U) Tbc role of <he kg11l.cun: .ad G0>ernmcot oí Quebcc to P"""""'""d prom0<e
1hc disan« 1dmtiiy of Qu<l>« refm•J 10 in p•r.gNph fl J(bl I• offim1.J.
. f4) N0thing in thi• a«tio)n d010~ írom the powcll, ri¡ihts '" pri,ileg<> of Por
h~m or the GO\'emment al Can..t., or of IM lq¡islacurtS or govtmmontf of 1he
provinres, ondw:lln¡ any powers, cighis or privilcges relaang to lan~uage.•
S. Secuon 16 ol dx Mttdi Lakc Aceord Ujll<$: •Nothi"I! In S«tJOll 2 o( the C-..
\lllh/10,. Aa, 1S61 ttfítc:u 11tttion 2' or 27 of the Ca!14ldmn Cht1rtr1 o/ RJgh1r t.utJ
Frn-Jo"'-'· s«ttOn 1,- of thc ÚJ111lilutton Aa. J91J2 c11· class 24 nf k<'hon 91 of tlw:
Con.rt1/utin1t A.ti, 1861" The provisionto rtfc::rrcd to io Seaion L6 pnxect mulúculrural
riglns and ihe nghts of aborigonal peoples.
6. S.e ·Canodian Lt•dcr Appeals !or Calm oo Qucbcc Dispute." N,•w YOtlt
T1111tJ, l <June 2J. 1990). Lo.~·nu.nu1e !lU~plS let re:teh a comprom1st on thc Aceord
lliikJ 1nd che t11sucs c:Wcus;<.J r~Jun unresolvc:d Thc Chw-loucctNn AC'c.'(M'd, 1 1uc·
('CS~r 10 ~tc:«h Lakt' th-at con1a1ned o di.scinct soaecy pfO!o·i5i()l'I, ~·:)s clcfo.rcd in a
naoonal rele..,,dum on Oc:rober 26, 1992, 54.& pcm:nt agamsi to 44.8 pette11t for.
Anthony \\'t~son·Smitb, "Wbot Happen• NeXL" !lad;an's, 12 (Nov. 2, 19921; :,.ndro
Coo.ccnu1, ·Bou.nwa \tO"-"S Tough W1r Ag11ns1 Scpunust Wn1o.-c," Toron10 S111r, Bl
\Oct. l'/, l'l'lll A &<'«>nd Qu.:b« rcfcrendum on ""'1Cretgmy, p~"" the balluc m
NO\ltmbor 199S, ,.... dcfeated hy • ""'eof 50.56 pcrtonl m¡¡aimt and 49.44 """""''
fot
. Alter dcfeu OÍ tht sccond Quelx< ..,C,.~dum, die d4tina sodct} cÍfnr1> w=
crmdud L< n0< lru:l1U1vc of women an<l obonginal penpks: Meech i.;ik.-. Cb.ulom··
310 Notes 10 Pa&es 73-83
town 1111d th< Q""bcc rtfcr..<lum bave all ,¡,.,,...,
tho rulUonal qotsdoo will """' be
rool\'t-d unlc:u ~lk1ng1nal pcf;)ple. .and peopk oi tol()r 11tt pan of the rct01uoon. To
thmk th111 tllt' ('('ln"tituom1J qucstion tlU1 he 1r;1tlt'd, \\'hite- miln 10 wh.it~ mnn. 'cqual
~o equ.1l.· b to f1UI hhnkef1 cm 1ht11 c:h.11nsin11 reahLy. Dunn~ Char-lo1tc:H1~rn. *1>oriA·
malWOIDt'fl demanded a voice m tho negotiarions, as did rhe rest of dx womm's
mov~cnL \\"e ~ought for thc: pn:itci'.tlon o( c:qualtt)' rights. and whcn thcn-Primc ~tm­
lMcr .\lulro1>ey 11nJ tho prov1nrul premie,. nudo • deal behtnd close<l doo" the
\\iomen'• m<-viemm1 <'rg1ni1,ccl "'kl hclpcJ dd'c:.u 1hc 11ccord , N~r •Mllin, how~·cr.
\\UI the '\\'O(nen's nlP\'ema11 ;1ccep1 be1n~ i;.ilcnced in ""Y conJ1nuunnal procets, or in
thc mi-nin¡¡ of tho Í.anadian fcderarion • Sunero Thoboni, ·Ni:w Dcal lmpossihlc
\V.chou1 Womcn. Aboriginal.," \VinniP't, fTtt Prm. Al9 fNov. 24, 1995).
Comcmporanooudy v.•th the deÍ<llt oC tho sccond ,.fo.ndum, Caruoda's House of
C",QnUnt)m pü~f 11 pJrh•n1ent11ry rao1ouon rhat 11.ffirmeJ th11t "''Qud)Cc as 11 d1~tmt1
llOCict)· ,\.,thin Can;1d.a' mnd callcd on 'ali compontnti o{ 1he lqJitl1tti1o.-e nnd cxccuuve
hnancbe~" of the Ít'der:a.I flóvt'mtnenl 'tt> be guickd in thtir-conduc:t atcNdinil:h' '" ~fQ·
ruque Jerome-For¡;er, "Mytbs Obscure Del»re over 'Distinct Sociay,'" The F..a"a11l
Post, 77 (jan. 13. 1996). In 1997, pmnietS ol ninc pmvincesand two reoitoriesdrafted
<h< Calglll')' dcclanllon, wilith af6rmed the ·u111que d>aNct<t" of Quobc:c h•$«l on it•
fmieh lon~ua¡¡e, eulml'<'. •nd ovil low. S.. "Cnn•da• Long W.J.k down Troublod
P•th." Wmmp<g frC<' Pnt.tJ, A<> IAuM. 21, 19981. In 2001. the Queb"' Liber•I Pany
rdeased • coosritutionaJ repon that pmposed formal consriútuáonal reCORnníon of
Quebeú "spodfi<ily • Sce Scou Rod. "Unpackioj! Charest's Proposal." Na110,.,/ Post,
A19 lf:i.n. l,.100L). Di.suna soaecy tra1us: for Quebcc. rcmltln.S a l1ve isaue m Cmad1-an
palu ia, mos1 rc:cMÜ)• 1n thc ht"alth c.att aten.a. Stt Nonnan 5p~or. • /\1.on!' Asym.mrtry
Thon F<"<krali<m." T"'1 G/o¡,, anJ i\IJil, Al l (S.p1. 20, 2()().1)
7 See Spo:iB. "Petenon'• Problems as Mettb Pact Slksm= • T0t0nto Star. D5
Uuly 2. 19881.
&. U.S. Con>t. amend. XIV, S 2 (tbe nght to vme on federal elecuoos ""'Y not bt
dcnied or obndg<d ., "to any o{ thc .,•/< mbablLltltf of •ueh Sraie" tCJnphl!l$ ..Jd«l))
9 Rcc<I ' Rctd, 4<M U.S 71 (197 1l
10 "AD anlm~s are equal. bui Ktme "rumals urc- nJore equal i:h.ao otbm," Geor¡¡e
Orwell, Animt1/ F.rin 112 (19-l61.
11 Can. ConsL pL l. S 1. Secrlon 1 statel: "The C..11ad1a" Charur ()j R1ghts •mi
f1TcJ"'flf guaran1t<'.s thc rigbcs anJ frecdoms set out in u rubjm only w such r.:ason~
ablc: ltmits procnbcd by Law 11s un he cknlQn~lnbly jusuficd in¡¡ free and t~~moc::rauc­
llOC-ict)· ..
12 Bue lltt TremblDv v. D11ig)e, 1 S.C.R 489 (1~89), In wbich the Supremc ('.ourt
of Ctnada º'"'rtumed iwo IC\-.:ls of Quebec couns that had pemun.d an on¡uncuon by
• puuovc f.ther and Conncr boyfro<nd "l!•inst Chanoal O:Ugk'• obomon. 11 ah< con·
i.tit~Uan.J
iss-uc?i wctt tca.ht.J, .wd th~ ~lttch Ltkt Accord wt:rt in efftct. could op·
isbnril'ftn be- lt'Ji.111) junlÍlrd u pan ttf rhl' '"Jis1u\Cc aic1ñ'y" 1n l1rgC"], C..1th·
pc11111ton 10
ohc Qucbcc? .
B. M<>r¡;<nulcr. Smoling & SC<J<t v. Reama. [1988) 1 S C.R. }0 (Can,I.
Notes 10 Pages 8J-SS • l 11
$1•rc~
14 Can.1d1.111 C:on.tituuon pt l, S7 Th~ C.uudian t.h11ncr ~,f R1Pir" .&nJ Frt't"1o.lmtt
l~\Tryont h.11 tht' ri,>lht ro Jlír-. lihert) JnJ \t'\.'t1nty ol cht pct"iM <1nJ 1~ rt,:h1
nl't 10 be depn\>ecl lhcrcof MC<'pt m 1cuirdancc \\'tlh thc pn114.·1plcs ol flm~l11.men1ial
1ustice."
1O. On Sex and Violence: lncroducing che Antipornographv Civil
Ri¡ih1s Law in Sweden ·
J See Linda Lovdace and M1ohacl McGmd•. Ord,./ 129-1}4 1198<!1.
2. Sce OrJeal, id. ar 2&-JO, for Ltndú account ol tlus proms
} Seo. c.p., \Yo'tlll.un L Mar:;h.dl, Ciuud1 Oepamncnt of jll>IK'c, "Thc li..: ol Por·
nogrophy b)' Ro1r1>11 and ChdJ MolC>tcro" (lq8SI (unpuhll.hcd 1tudy oo fik '"'h au
thorl; Co:nc G Ahel a •I . 'Thc C~mponcn<s nÍ Ra,.U<s' S.,•u•I tl,....os.J." l-l A..1>11 "
o/ Gtwml Prrcbwry 895' (19771: Neil /.L Malamutb e1 al "Testinit HYpo<heses Re·
garding Rape: Exposurc to St<uol Violencc. Sex D.Íkn:nt<$ and tlie ·Normaluy' of
Rapú;15," 14 }ourwal q/ &16U<h m PmuJ1dbty 12111.980): ¡,, ""'""' Wtn rh< Por·
11oiraph}• C11-..,/ R1ght1 lltJnlfgs 160--16S 1C1uh11nnce ,\, M,1cKin.nt'n 1'~ And:ceJ.
Otrrirldn, ed1 1997) CCeq1nlOn)' ()f pmfe!iioruJs who '1.~rk wirh nipisn dC1C\1 mcnhn~
thc rolo of pomo~raphy in ra¡><• thcy tomm1ttedl.
4 See. e.g.. Neil .\laLunonh. jollllcs V P. Check, and Jobn Bricre, "Sexual ,-\cou.,.J
in Respoose to Aggreosioo: ldeologcocl, Aggro"""' and Stxwll Cortda1es," SO JournJl
ti/ Pm01,./,iy •nd 5.,,,¡ P.ytbo/ot,• HO 119861; Ndl MlllAmutb andJoamct V P. Chcdt,
.. Prnilr Twnc«-cott- imd Pl'tecJ)IUI&) Raponk-8 to R.ipc :1!$ a Fut1ctron ot d~ Vic1lm•1
Perccivtd Reaaioos." JO Joumal o/Apph<J Soall PS'frholoz.t 52l! 11qs11.
5. Swcdish Penal Codc ch l~. S IOb. scaccs: • Any P"""" ,.-no 1n a pic1ure dep¡as
seJ:ual violente: or coeroon. v..1th mterit lO ~te the ptcnue or p¡crures or dts·
SCftlllllCCS fuch <lep1cuon, shalJ. unlw 1hc llCI 10 \.'ICW OÍ th.c Clrt'Unl~htnCCI l~ fLWJiaWc,
be Jentcn«'d far J11tlauf"I dqu1ro,, of r·IOl~rt<t' t-o w. fine ar i.mpr'i.$onmr:n1 f:oc al 1nost
two )'C'.13 Thu 1a.lso apphtt to '*nY P'f$Cltl "''ha in mcwln1 f)icrurtS io1rus;1vdv or exten
siwl)' depK'cs extreme violence lOWard:i hwnaos-or :animals wilh inre:n1 ro cÍí:ssctninatc
sucb p1cturr:s. or d1SsenunatC$ such a dc-:p1ct100,
A persoo wb<> tbrough neglig<n«: dwcrnm.ucs • Ut'!>IC:UOn menuoncd on 1hc brs1
p.tragnph u1 die- coun<! of bu$jJ1C')5 or odlt'f'\\'l~ ftllr thc purf)(IS( ol tn.1klng monry,
•httll ~ pwlilhcd m ae<otdonce with 1bc pmvisl<'na of ihe first por-srarh •
6. Thc Modcl Orduuncc defines ·pomo¡¡rapby• os "the l!"'Pluc ~<U.Uv expbci1
subordmaooo of womrn throogb fllctUtt:S and/or wotds that al.o mdudco """ 0 r mor<
of thc followmg: .;i.. •·onien :are prt'Sd!taJ dchum•uuzcd as 11au¡J <>bJCC.ts. thtnft$ 1 oc
comrnoJiUH; or b \\'Oltt.cn •tt prot111t':d u M!xu;t.l objt"(u. who cn,oy humiliauon or
~asn; or c. WPmm 1u•e praenttd u 1<111.I ab,ectJ trpcricndng ""u..J rlr-atiu" tn r.ipc,
Jntt.SI('Ir ttdu:r 51:xual ;1.ssaoh Qr d. •'Umcn are rre&e:ntcd ~ $CX\bd oh}tttl ried. ur or
CU[ up o.r mual.1.t~ or brw.sed c.n· ph,'Sicallv hure; or c.. \li'omen are pracnrcd m postutt.'i
or poMaons ot SQU31 suhmwion. ;crvihty. or cL!i.pby: ur L \\.'Omctn's. bod~ pa.ns-tn·
tludln1 but noc hmitn.I t'3 ..·11¡uou. btt.1ics. o.r bu1wd.$-11e alubircd 11k..h 1h;11 "-i.'ln'k"n
311 • Holu to Peau 95 97
11ttmlu«<l to tlwoc pMU. ex ll wcxncn "" pt<t<n1rd bc:mi pcntu11itd by obttta or
'1WTlJ.b.~ or h 'IA.ornm ilf(' J1ttkf1Ctd tn l(CCUnot ~ J~r-acbtl(W'l, humth.aoon. 1"JW')'.
torture. Jf'-.,~n a. tihhy ur lnírrit"f, bkcdln,, hru1t.C'IÍ l'r hun 1n il ront('Jlt that m.tkes
chtH- "'nJnl<'lftl ttXuaal •
Tbo IN ol •mm ch JJrcn. or ,...,,.w.ulllo tn 11>< pl1« of """'1al • in ihis dcfuuooo
is .00 p<>m01tarbv \1odd Or.luwK<. ~pnnu:J m AnJrea 0..-orlun :inJ Catlumnc
A. :\lxNnnoo. lbmoq,ip/Jr ,.,¿ CmJ /Vi~ll A -""" V., fo< _.,,.,.. 1 Eqt.4/JJy IJ>!-
1\~119"'
7 "« Andra l:>wurlún • A,atnA d,. M.Jc fl<,o.~ C"-nhrp. p_.p1.y, ond
F.qualuy · i n 1.mrrt ¡.o,. 1 W1• ~ 2M-2611119~~
~ ·Lo dw ID<"- luiowo .. <Ouh libm, ncums ..,.,,..,_. ""' oauolly mwdettd. •
UO too~ Rcc ~IJl92 d.¡fy <d. On J, 19'>1 t1taancn1 ol !><mtor S¡xcter inao-
Jucmc 1h. Ponquphy V1rum1 Pru<r<.1l0n \et) ~••., •Pcople • 0... 1glu Fdoo~
Gom¡V.Ull :-;., 1'1' 83001!12 MUNC•rol c.....n º''""
C"....,I) c..i • •~~ ' l'Xll;
'U.1 o< Pw.:.hl< C~ '""" Murdrr \'0<1im• e-~: Bmtwr <;¡,,¡., p 10. col l I}"""
12. 1•1m duclruuia cuo ol NJ and Lakcl. P Hun1 ll!ld !>l Bami. ·OuJdrm of S.X
Rm¡¡>.• ~ 19J OJJ ~'<11.tt 19'-.?07. 1990. C.rl A Ro.chite. p.,.,¿ Bkk- Fmw Dn.i
JV;b•p to lln1111.\fc1,/-I/,, Al...,. •t T"" St"'l' o/ H. u• .i..1..n.,. /1 Tm-onu•i 0w
C """'"'""' ''· 111 liO, 20ll..itl9 11119(11 Fot """' u.,.l.11<0, ttt Anncm1c Bubt.
0.-.U~lu 0. C,..runck 1nJ M<t1c lr111nt Von H_..,..k, Ln J, CJtm X C~ "''' Ú &/.
o,,,,.,.,." (
f.l.tfllf' ,,, ilnwrt /'J.f Ut'tln f1'T r.n-.lrt' 1999)¡ Harvty L. Schwam 014/opes
°"
uuh Futgolt~ \ i,u'(t RJ.Jtt-0'11/ Pmptt.tun ClJ1/J Ahst' Trü11"1.t1 1nJ T1~tf'tLrtl
of Dwocw11... DtwrJm ''H>l, 68-74. ~'7 n.12 12000).
9. S"..Ji.h PcnJJ C:1\Jc <h l~. S 11 ""'"· •A ...,..,,. v. ho,"" o< 11 • publtc pl1ee.
txh1b11s porna,c1 •pluc pK.1Utft hy Jneln' ('I( di.Jpll)'I or odK'.r ~tmi);ir prot'Wu1" tn ;I
11W1ntt •hifh ÍI 1r1 10 muh tn puhloc lnnOylnCC •hall be: "°lcnctd ÍOI' u•ÚJ•fu/
exlt1buwn o/ poNUJgr1ph1< p1ct1,rt't 10 • ñnc or 1mpnsonmt:n1 for 11 roost stX 100otb1.
'lnc• .i,., applios 10 1 pcnon who scnds Lhrough 1hc mail to cr ocherwisc fumW...
llllOÜld v.11b unl<lllcllc<l pomcgr.aph0< pt<turc" · (l,ow 1970.225>
10 11w t~l)('flcnc:ft w.u fC'portN to Andrt'• Ov.~rkm by 1he WOIJW\ 10 v.hom tt
h1p¡'<l1cd /\nJrt1 ••poncJ 11 m • •rc«h 1n Toron10. Can.Ji ln Ftbruary 191!4, tt·
pnnird In H,..f,~r~arr•i 2' tSummcr 19ll41
l J _ Th11 b a p.ir•phr'1.\C ot th~ 1c:coun1 pvcn 1n CC"iW'llOl'IY m Mmneapol1s• .\1.mn.•
m In "'""'" \\/")' Thr P0<•~V1P'7 C,11/ RJt}t< llr.nnv M'-147 lc..bmnt A.
M.sc!Jnn"° .,.J AnJru D1rn•kon. cdl, 1'1'171 l1ouown1 o( S G.I
12 Por t0:\l¡J ahLM by dncll\fl Cfln.tw'cttJ 10 pt'fn4'1r1phy, tec \ltnnea:polís Hcsr
mgo Eahobc1 11 kncr of \lanin L....11. ui I• H•"" r W">' 1b<M: ""'<
11, •• 2Z7
1) Thí,, ICCOUDI WH (IJ\'Cll 10 dw tutho< Ji~ b, th. tum..'Ot.
·-V
I• 1ñe t.... ot 1nu.I h.tr....,,_ m dw Unacd Sute> • tuU ot repon$ o( - "
n'Cllu \ft, e a.. R.>bin_, ' J•dumv.U. ~tl')'1t.k, lnc , 71\(l f' !>upp 1 - ~l D
n. 111'11 r
Frc.lcnck R H1rr.. lnc 9-11 Supp 401 l~ ¡o.; 19'61,
H.rra v L & L '\); mp, In<: , 112 f Id 97• 141h Cu 19971. Blaft) v Com:inmul
o y
Aitbnc>, Loe 992 f 'urr 7 ll lD ¡o.; J l"l• \l. iban v 'iusqudwuJa Tov.-nshop Politt
Notu to Pttn 97-100 • 313
Oop'c '5 FJJ 121> UJ <.1r. 1'1'111, An1cltno • l'<W \'oA Trmc< Co :10lJ ~ Jd 1J Ud
Cir J'l'/9
1, Ntihtno..n. J•k""'"º" 'h•t?;r.f.t, lnc 7/10 r '•r1· 1•'1> 1•91-1~% ' " o
Fl.o l '1'10
16 l11 Hi1,..,, 1 w,, abt-""" noet' 11, \lsnntapnlss Hf'..n:rtp, •r 121-124 tt'mmonf
ol \Is. 8.
17 RQb.,,.,,n v Ja.:k.onlilk '1t1pprJ., !Ji< 760 1 :>upp Ulló, 1,2....1'17
1~ Msmt 11 \ilbc:« ...el A,.Ja M Ponn, 'Pomccr•rhv anJ '>n>al Ai.o- ni
l);omcn." 10 S.~ 11.Dkt M'7, ~l l!M 119!4
l'J Thc ...... "'thrs """""' ........ r.....w.J ••• """' tl'Wcttn« •• die \lt--
apobs H..,..,,. on ]uh 21, 1%-1 lJ, ch<~..,,._, whooc ..,<m<t'~ •PI'<""' rn I•
H.,., 1 ll'n .¡,.,.~ DDC• 11, • 26'
20 I• H""" r ll.,, .i..- not< 11, \ h - b > Hnnnp, 1t lOl-112 <anu_,
oiR\1\1
21 <;ce I>o.or\tn v H""1tr MapllllC. lnc, :-Ofo, CV s.,...r,¡,g ~\\I tC 0 Cal l.
foóq F \upp t•O. 11 O Cal 1 ~7l. !>b7 l·.ld 11~~ (<}ch Cír I~~~
2l ~ Su.m a,............n.r,
A(•mt o., U l!l \1,. w......,.. ,,.,¡JI.,~ 19;,I.
2J !>ce O..'U<ltn v flwdcr "'P"""· '"' , ~" <\' ~7708 All.:1' 1C O C1U.
"Brid nf "'"'°('.un.. on \uppon ni PIMllli A!'P'll.nl. •"" 111.t<h.J f.Juhiu "Hu.
dcr lntcn1" Gk>n1 ~,......,,·, <111," tlldt/,-. 21 lJ•mo1n·J, • Hnn..,. Hookcr • H••tln.
ll!\-IH l.\lan:h 1~8"1) •<;o Mmw O.V. 'óo Lonlr Tune• Hun•.-, ~lan:b l~~I:
!'OlDlMl J•duoo 'iru•b. ~U'W1 Brounmollcr on lUf><' '!>aop and ru :.e~· • Hu.,],.,
Jl-H. IOl IMay IO, 197bl
2.. nu. pro\..100 1n TI\(' l1utn,amt"l\t ut G'"'Trnmt"nt c:h l • .1n a6 197687l1, \l. ...
1n.nsJ1ted m10 Í'.flttU.h In th1t way ln C<>tlf/fluftt•"I r4 1),, w. r/J 'Junit l CJRS 1ü·he1 th.is
1.U. .,,., 11.wcn Th< R.lt•d.¡t Wch .,,. h1• sul><tqucntly promul11.a1td an offioal 1rans·
Jmon ~ foUo.<s ·No act of Lt"'' or 0ther J'f'OVl.POn m11v imply 1hc un!Jvow1ble UHt·
mro.t o1 a c;luic.n on grou:nd.. ol JCcndC"r. onks.1 thr prOVIStOn (or1n!o pin of cffon.s ro
l)tQll\l)lt "'JU.l&IV bt:twctn mtn inJ Wt'lfn('n Cló j 1 •t C'Uer állOAn ton;:...rih f.tr t!J
lnncbítil .ttt nlp rn('dhor,::.arc n 1111'C)'rtn011 pi arunJ A\' llU k.on, om cj Ídrti.krif1t:n
uqcór kd 1 s1r1villlJcn att ..Ut11lkcimma j1m111.lldhc1 mcll.&n mian cxh lc\!1.nnor elltt O\"IC'f
1'1mpbkt cllM mOISl'lr•ndt ll•n•1cpbk1 l..iA 1l ~76:1>7111 41 'W'W rwd=n,., c:r>¡:IO$h/
,.uJ<,iunJamcntali11."'"mmcnt.11p Whol< lhl1 "'""'º h... che mtt11 ut tocusm11. oo
~tc:r anJ wo"'c uc:.-uucru. d lc11VC• 11.mJu'I 11 Kns.c ol mudcmcnt Ctl 1hc: pttfirtenca
of u'lcquality by ~un¡ th.n ctfpn• 10 pr"Ml<Wll" n¡u.U.cy bc:n.ttn m01 .nJ ·~inx-n.
UMJalh cíf""ru thA1 tmr""'t' "nmt'l'I '' •1ru•Ullfl reLuh-e ni mm. itrnnunt tn .. untii"wr.ble
ttaUD<m • h.11u.llv ..t mml on ~..,.,n.i. o! smdtt Exrepnna dm trom ch. nuin
c.iuaJ... pcmop!I: rooo m... builJ.uig '"'º
tbc equ.i.r" ptUK1pk pe<"" ihc rn:Wk.'>looo
of an uncqu.tl tt.iu. 4.1uo ha 1br wnK' dr11wb.a11.-la notcd 111 W lnl
2, 1unr 11..., ... .i ,.,,,,,,,.,_ IJ<imv..,•z. """"' fJ•tl.il oJJ "~ ~2-4•
arccully 47..¡g 1'!511 M.1n7 th.tnlu 10 \I" \X'ol1nwi ,,, lm ..,_....,<h 111d tn1mlauon
lll1Sia« on chts Jocumcft1
2to. Scc ,..,...U1"' .. ~ll ..~ )(,0-11>7 411-!L?
3" • N>lll lo Pa1n 101 106
27 IJ H NI ¡:,,, Jot<U>IJ<\n ~f \.,r<),,h rro<111utt00 pohcy dunn¡¡ dus pcnocl, >r:<:
1J •• 'Jl-102
l8 ,,..J.., l'""nl fu<l 11kh 1 I• dl«u •)"'"''Y 1'1'19: 'A P<"°" "i>o ob1...,.
<atu.J teio.ul ttl.110i:tnt u1 cxch.ancr t<Jr 11i1yolC'nt llh.a.11 he i.mrenc.:r:J-unlcu e.he 114"1 11
runt11luhle uo..kr tht! 4'v.1'tlu.h Ptn.al C~for th(' purdi-.- ot totl:ll qnu:n to 11
hnt: "' 1mrnK"tnnlC'ftt fur a1 ~I •• snonth'4 • Act Pmhibtt.coa tbt Purchate ol ~
'icn1<0 \ f \ 19'1$40H For lft upJ...,, 1« :>llDODll Board ol Haldi anJ ll.dfm,
l~...Jenl, "l'm>t~uuon ., \..Jm, :?Ot•' ..,,.,..~, BcLrt, .md Acm.W.. oi A.,.
lnf"'"'""" • Anildnt linl IJ 1 2! IOd 21'1.J.1 J
l'I "« 'M.1\ma 5o F~1uah11 R..l •a],.,...• !'O~ 1
10 Rtluorian,...,onc:ft f.,.. h"'"'•"''"' t ~,....,..,_ ...,,.. tbc Riborpoisarion< iOr
k-"lllnctn<JrC1' och IJCl)OUttf 1 ,,.._., 1hr N•ianll lJrtrruuuon lor Womcrú Sbdttn
.and \ oung ll.m1-'> 'hdi•n tn ~..lcnl
11 " - i '« lh< L:.i...J Ü!>l-""''"" ."'1 !A•• .., E:.t•ubt\ ~ ~1... """
\\"omml, ' f ' l'f!ll HI, S h
l2 0..Jd 1"'"""'1•rh1 anJ drfa,,..uon "" he <Tlminaliicd m me l 1nucd "catos.
«'O<l•t<nl Wllh frtt <~ J"raronl<n >« l'c.. Y"ri: v Feober. 4'8 U.S U'/ 09821,
llld ""' Yorlr. r -.. Y. -...u....n. J'/6 u~ 214 11%-1• ""P«D'"'Y· buz dqxcuom al
)C'IH.J \lolmC'e .An: l'lcll .... IU,.fa ~
)) lnJt.cd.. tl1C' S'<tfnc•r•f'hY l•rdtn..-11Ct' 1t1elf ,.,..., founJ to \'l01atc lhc frtt ·~h
f'lro\i,~n of 1M l 1r11 A1nmdm("n1 u1 1hC' lJ S f..on~11t11t.on, !\é'C' Amrrictn Boobellcn
A.. n V H ..Jnou. ni r2J l21 l71h (" l9Rn
H S«: 1111101 01''""· e,,.,_. a.h ,.,,,,,.n 119'1()), for • lull •ttoum ol Ca<nn•
J. \.t-...1•'• murdl;f u1 Jl)M .a.nJ 1he 1r1.J °'f cht tv.•o doeton accused ol iL. Thry \\"ttt
t.:ouvll1cJ ol Ja.nwn1lt 1lna hrr 1--.1)· bu1 nMI of <'1U~lOK hC'r tlcJ1h.
l l. Equuli1y Renrndc: Vmlcncc Aguin'I \'(lomen
L l·or • luU<r Ju<u1>l<1n llllJ documtniadon ol tlus 11nalysis, scc Calhaonc A,
tvt.acl\1nnon. "fo'itl111J 1.1Ncw1·111:\ll)' of L41tallt): ln \\''t.11nt"1fi L11."ti, Altn-'1 L.u•s 44
12t>'l'I
2. ~<. ·-, O.·kkcr v Suchun" V~m11n1r«<<llrum, [1'1'111 1 E.í. R. >9-11 (noten¡¡
•Anide 21H ol th< Ou«1ove le'""' 10 Mcrnbcr Sm,. 1hc mli of •dopting approp~"'
pr0\'1'•"n• ·~<..'lfkcm1n., thc! proc:c:a.ion <'Í WOOlC.'D, panicW...rly as ·n:ganls p~ anJ
m.u~rrucy' l'h.iL provaa.u1n 11p(1f.tn 10 nuult tfk Lnut o( tbr uurr\'CO.DOD ol <-Ommunny
liaw 1H H no~· lt!U~ Oc Ll1"''-º"c C'Oft'IH• .),fri1..i rq1.1.duy lll Cn:álf'l'llmt br:twcc:n malc
,lnJ f.:mak ~vtkm • h1,h "' rrc#tl« ctr(Ul'IMl.M'K'ft man• .a prohlbition oo trt'atm•
mc-.~i~ cnn1l 1t'l11.s tlnnb.arthlt co rn.uun11t 1~ fl\'llur.ahh than conJiuons cluc to
~ or.ha Cadk h doe n~ 1n 1n\ wav obL~ ~1'1nbtt Sutes lO mcroducc posum:
dltUllJUn~ by '9\'lQ& prdtttnu.al ununcnr h> thc *''mtc.r at~. but mcrd) ...Uo.n
tlomo IO do IO. 1 <Onlhkt t1..1 U.. principk ol c.iual ttt>immt far malr lftd 1tmok
•wkm rmDI rnnn a sr•n:h fu, """""lin U> dw ptllblrrm ~ (1) •"OCl'lim to whkh
prqtr'"""f rln¡'> p>n ,..... H.,,...., ti 11 - r y to .dí= dw ndc:. """'""'111 tite

h>testoPaus 106-llG • 31~
L.bou1 m.Art anh &ruotat .11 thc mk JdlJldun~ t(l m..trcnu~ A."U'Alftl oar"' thc ncmn&I
n•lt tld ldt h lS, •lUTh· 1n lh•• tfu.1L11o OÍ th1"tte h\t\ rrltK1pin th.l lht toluuon mU>I
11<' J'hl' rnnaplC" ol ~11.J 11~.i.uncnt ío1 111m 11nJ womcn •• •~1111hl~ 4k:CC"W to t"m
rlo)mtl'll, i.(l('.atwnaf lf>tnln~ ilOd pn'lmC'ltrvn . .ind \'\'Orkin~ cnnduioM mU1'1 be" tnfd'
prct"'1 .. -~ that.,, om¡>lo..rs ret....I to •l'J'<'ll" a 1.-lc '"'"k<r on thc ,........i
tlul •he t> pttpW>< <onoutVln .L.crumnauon Ju•al> touaJcd oa JJounJs o1 ><'X lbutl
chr dl '"'ih-..i oi a tcmale -.orW ouwJr ú.. pc-1~ of nutcm11y ka\'C. n .ccouo1 Jt1
~h 111 .ihtence .!01 h' &ulndh "'ha<h 1 .•11if..¡1ahlccn thir f''r~l' orconhn.
mcru doc-1 (K'll canu1tn1r dit<nm1n,tion '-htt'tl" f(1unda.t oa J:IT'llulilb• ..,r M:Y "1 ~ .;1IMt
~°'"' J.e<ks<>n., P1ma.1 C ...,,..,.u
v. Chl.f Ad1ud>eaoon Offim, J 9'12} I E.C.R. 47l~
~·A ~·,J n31Uplc ot ca~ ln "-'lucb Comnumnv l.i.v.· cxp~y authonlQ
pns10\'C
Ju..,1nwu1mn on th< p.11t ol 1he Mcrnber '"'"' ".allord<d b, ARM:k lt 1 o1 0u...1J"'
7b/J07 .anJ .\nxlr .t4 21 t..f Oarr...1n"l: 7q ~ .\c;Ct"lrdma. 10 thiotir phl">Uton\ di.e dir«Uva
atl" •1thom pf1!TUcfi«o Co f4'1\l K1l"ll c:onn11\&0,: thc- rrntC'Ctlna ri v.omm, ruucularfy
a.e ,._....,w prt¡Ulal'K"l' and ma1rmnv (J)¡ruuvt 16 'l<T7J .and on rhr 1t~dt. nf matnTI1ty
10'"'"º"" "Nn>."
J Sc:c, c.g., 1lcrbni \\ r.:h.J<or, ·TOWll!J f\;('utr.tl Pnnap1ct of f~or •tnutiOO;t] Law •
71 /IJrtv•J út< IVt ""' 1 · 1..-.i1
4 f,,.
JucuWnn. ott 1 •thanno A M IJnnM, S... i:.,...tt,, l~ I~ 20011
5 Plt- .- f'<Qmon, IM U~ >r UR<>f,
"· \ce e;_,, "'""""'· l'mmp ''" HrfflltdNt 29 191.!1 tnnch <:cht:un<T
D11
IA-r Gletchhetugct!.ink• in Jcr ,.¡,lldS<hcn VcrlassungsordnUll!I, · 99 ltuJCbnlt ¡., Jir
,,.,.,,,,Ir ~l.Ulj1J:1ssc-n1cN/1 24'5 2liJ..267 et9i'f) l"tlt ernbf'Jcr of i\rJ,toldJ.an cqualit)',
,.... l IW<rfGE '8 111 119'14<
7 Stt. e ~ .\hch•d ll1 v ~UJ'<rio< C""'" Wl l: ~ J64 19!11
• ~.,..¡.,...¡ ""'C>lut""", m....i.moo< tor: aihural ..,b <it<• 1uWJ•om-
IOIDC1.l.lnQ h.t:vc the tmronaru coosequmic;""e ol rcft'kJ\ing OM l.yn ot mcn cha wooxn
llC u.nJrr Ofttti. tbe promllie or such rt'\'t.ilutk'lnl L\ bem}·cd \l.-htn thr 'tlOmcn h.nJ
1hc:m'd'~• •uhorJan.11tJ I<" thr mm t hc)' toufthl '" f rtt
9 \.tto Radhik. \.tw'1nar1L,,..·.im)', R."f'fl"' o/ rli~ Spm.,/ R.t1rrr1rtt11r º"
\.'"Jr"a-
A,r.,uu: Wo'ft'llf' //< Cili.ft'' ",,J Ct111S"'1M<'ffCl'1 U'.\ p:;cQR Hum Rh f"..nmm'n, 'i2J
~. Pro> A,...00. han 9/a , , 1>2. U' Do< E.l..'J !~" 11'1%1; RaJluk.t
C..'°"'""'"'""'Y· 1l.<po<t U.'I bCOR H..., l!s• <mm n. 5JJ '><a, 1""' A!!<'lda
hom qoal , , 21-2' U 'I O.><: IH:N ~ 1'><171•7 d997>, ...J R.idhllu 1.:-n...,,.,.nv.
,,,,J,, Rf1"1rt of ,,.,.
p,,r., .. (fH'('fJ/ Rarpnrlf'Jlr 'lf \~lt>lr•rt AgJttHI n· '"'"· (11 C•Ul(1
••J Co•r"f"e>t«J, U.N !">;COR Hum Rt< C1m11n'n. 50th S..< l'rnv \genda h<m
"'•' 11 12G-121 u.r-. °"" F.IC.'l,J 1m1Jz <1'1'1~
10 ~' La .. """"'" ol 8muh Lulumbt,, [19b~] l 'C.R 14!.
11 IJ "' l"I 4ºThc """""'""' oi <qUIÚdy nu.W. lhr ptomouoo cL • _.... •
..-ht<h rdl .,. !IC'<UR' tn tht knowl.Jv th11 they .r< '""'•-nind .i law a humon bnn~
r~u•ll)' drtirn1ntt ~ i;on,rm, rnr«t and <MJ14knaoo h h.,• t.rar mnediaJ ,~..,"
ponen1.,,
12..rm.en v. Pl.oti Entc1pr1>0. {l'l'l9) 1 s C.lt 12'2.
316 • ~•1tst0Pa1ul1Dlll
s
1l l ]Í HL.. ~ c:.n.J.o. • 197<1 J 1 c. R. 1~¡ 4~ .i..cnm.....,.. .. nol ""'
~r'iJJUl\lll~1n), '6'lth Broi..1~ Allf.'11 .nJ ow.'" V C.11\.J.1 SJ1C'\\!t) , 1PJH9) l s.c..R.
12 l'J 1pr~114ru,.:y Jl.si.:rJJrun.1t11111 .., ., J1;crimJn,111tm>.
., 1~111 ... , Re,.,. 1 -•211 se ll ~ ~2
1~ o.;p., Tn:mhlcy, 19>N] 2 S C R. 111~
16. ~lft.t V Sullrvan onJ......,.,. (1991) I \ l (l -4';9
17 \l O:l' M. 4H l. )1'19!¡ l 'LR. "-
IS. llq;m11' ¡_,,.aJJor, IJ'l'IO) 1 \ t:.R. ~52
1• l~ino v Útn•dun l\c• •l>•p<rt Ceo [ 1 KK) Z 'C R 122
20 M··~· V \1n~c. f 19921 l <;e R. 81l
21 l\Moo~ • \\'mnb, f 1'1'12] 2 S C.R. 22t• and 2 S.CR. }18
ll lñ< or,1..,,,..,.. dicaucJ,..,. an be twnd ut I• H.,.·, 11'.'n I ~~ Pr,~qjn
Cm/ llJl,Ñs lle.• •tJ ~U. •Cath.ru1< A MxKmn<"" md An.ln:o 0..-oñin t.U 1997~
12. Pomt>~raphy's Emp1re
1 11<.M• v. Hlcklm LR. 1 Q.8 360 llSólil
2 11m thérn< IS d.ho••..J mon: lull1 m c....i...nnc .\ hl;cKiruion r,,...,J,
E-·
,.,,, n..,.y o/1h. Suu ch 11 11•-.1
l 1ñ< lndi.m Pm1J C.-1 <1"!17 ch XIV S ?'12 11 dclín<. ~•f)' •• •h• ,,..t.;ch
IJ •)AIC'1\1<'u-. or appe:alt u> chr ¡-.runm• mter'Cfil or, rht díect lf t-t"tl •11 • whnlc
, • 1cnJ[sJ "' J<¡>ra•'< ond wrrupt pcn;oos ,.ho are hkdy, havm¡¡ rq¡.ord 10 all n:IO\-ant
cin:unlltMh:~." tO con~unic tht m.cttcnat Therc att ~lLt:t'poons J.t 1JH1) lot matcnah
ptll\"UI tc.1 be "' lor ~ publJ, &f"t,J· on ,rouoJ. th.u tht'\ >itt' '"m ch. tntC"tt' · of Kten'-t
lRCTatun: .an ot brnm¡: oc c1dwr cibt«U ot ¡cnct.l Ct'ft(~. ~ 1rvc.u tXl in mamt
rnoo!#nmc cw ""' ~rewnreJ ID cw uxd m '~ ~;cct'!i. or f<'f {'l(hn hon• fkk
n:l'"""" l"''J"'OOS Regt.. , H1duan •OO..• ""te 1...~ mli fonned tht b- lor S292
but lw .i.., ¡,_ ªPP""llll<ly aicd numerou• umes by t:br !odian ~rmne Couri
S.., c g .. R•n¡11 UJal11 v. ~tate ul Mahar.,hir•, A 1R. 196' SC SXl, 0..1nJr..hn1
lul)""J" K.l.Wbr v Thc \111 Cll MJh.r..,htN, \ 1 R 1'170 <;(' 1l'IO, ¡.; A Ablt..
, u.,.,,, .,f ln.J,. A 1 R 1971 V: 4RI. '>.unmh ¡~.,.,. v Am.J \Ju,. \ 1 R. 1'1% ~C
%7, Uf< In_._ Gorpounao ol Iruli.a' Proí \!Jnabluoi D <il-.b. \ lJl 1'1'13 <;e
111
~ l:a<h Austn!J.., rute jumd•"'® lw mtuu:• prolubtlll% ~>< puhloouun o1 ob-
kalt Ul mcJel;CDI m.a1trW1. A tcJC:fÁI AllllUt( rn•h1h10, 1n1pan.111on ~1t ª"'"'-
thiat >lft'
~t·nt". '"'~tnt, ur hl•rMmcM-1•. ch.u unduh t•mph•,1:tt mau~n til wx, hNror. v1
oknce. 11r <"tunC C'lf thnt .lfe" l1kdy to m<'OVt·•~ JC'f'fl"'VY '\a-, e~ (nJ,·...mt :\n.ida
imd PuhlicJllOnS \a. 19-~ 4~ 'W 1 •l<>dttmcr" • n<"C d<Med. bu<• '>u¡>ttmrCwn
od¡udiu-..,. "mdnmq"., a S.,W, Auoirah.o """" rulcJ dut • b<d "ol • uduuc
natutc'• n 1n.- '\.-C"nt • ..._ •b•\1uh: m.aucr, ldUDf 1hc COllUDWUl\! tUJ1.-!.ird Drvint \.'
Si<'lom 1 1,~•~ •nd ToJd ll'•lllSI ~ •.\ Cr1m K 1% Nf'Vr So.uh \\"ali·,. •l.a h~ •
Puhhclllil"11 C.lm1ficau<m l\._1.1rJ 1hilt rate5 n111h'·n•l~ 1n lt'mu t\Í k 1tiil 4litindard!I. tn
clud1nM •chUd portlOj[niph' m,Jnn¡¡ m tt"llnc. IJClll'lti M db,,U~· C'lf .;a)(' 4'tt Pobtt
Nolts to P•c• 11 l • 311
ou .......~" \' 1m1 \'i< 1 !'obKnlllY' d<6o.J • "" IU<fuli: ·1. 1c:nding Jrrr..~ 'º
.-nJ romiJ" l'fnnnt "'-bote- "1.uuh. ,uc· . f"pdl 10 unn1oc.1l 1nt1UCflC'C".'I. :.uid !lil ul\Julv
t'mf"hasu.1n, nl11trr1 oi so. mmrt °'viC\k.ncc. 11rou l n1il"l'Y ('IT hf"rrnt·1 ( ·u ..t(lrm
1Prol11b1n:tl lmrnrn• Rqcubto00> H ll«ler.Jl
' ~.lJln v Unis<d St.... JI 1 U~ " 119711, Jd1nr, obscmuy •• dw wludi
ti>< .,.,,.._ P<"'"' -wl> "'C cuntrmponry .,,.,,_y runJ.uJ.. • woulJ finJ, W.cn
u .... hnk ··~ah to thr rn.1nrnt mt~1 . ..kpk11 º' Jncnha m. patcnlly
otf"""n< "" .,.,..ti conJuct ll"<;Ji,·rdly ddiswJ by lh< a;>rliubk •m• l.t" md .
whetber 1hc wt'rk, 1aken as a \\-.hotC', ll'cb $t'ñoos )rtcrary, 1n1\nc;, polltic;dorsc-1t'fltific
w Juc. •
6 Lnuun•I t'.t..k lc..n.J.I U "'I(ll and '-'"'21t•I rn>lulm thc produ<1•1n. J,..
tnb..ttC>' ...1 ..k <~ Mottn< ttWl<rt.al 'i«tion 1591~) Ja-m• ob.ttn< .tllf rubhuuon
•• doma:unl ( ~mtic cf .. hich ~ thc undor orioiltuon ot" x•. llf ot ~ and any
..,., or mor< 111 the follM.,,,J .ubin'' nameh mm< horror audrF and ,..,.._ •
Theyappc:lt in th. .ccuoo -OI the <00< headc:d "Ott<n!<i Tcndmg to Corrupt ~for.als "
lb" lq ui\jCC b tcMUic:k:ruhl)· tOOl't' cunJuovc 10 a hllmlj •1,pmacb~ tite nl'tc: lS bclO\\
J1<CUS>tn~ llud<r v Ro¡oin• [ 1'1'121 1 S t: R. 4'2
- Stt Chll 6l. S 18ltlll11• tf\l"ny.a 19sS) fc-run1rualtn~ • 1> .\niv pc:n-'n -.·ho
1
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fur thc l"''P""' ,,¡ by wov oi m.k « for thc pUIJlt100 oi dDtnbuoon nr ¡>uhlic
.-.hib1tson ....k... produc<o <>< hA• "' lus .,.,......... my ..,. or mott oboceio<' ,..n,.i
oc ,....,.i
111A1crub •oc any otha ol""""" obJc<u oran' Othcr objca t<Ddina 1" '"""P'
mor-.J$' h 1tli.l) ~nmuuL-"d 1ny J"'fr~<"' \\'h() ~(el pub!J~lv e)llub1ti. run lnJ~<.dlt ,hc)v,
or ~rÍ«\r'llltn<.·4• or .ar\)' shuw (1f r rrltlfflhlOCC tt'ndin~ fil ''"' UPI n\UNllt .. A• .... 1ndl·
citrion ti rh..- rn.~llmi, ~turuch1 M•·t"'1. Atptttr o/ (n,,.,,,..,/ Llu' 111 K"'""' 77 f lqq2)
uvs dia1 •[eln nhtttne pubLcau~ 1s onr chal d1.1p)..,, u"lcttot iUustTllhl'"' or cnm 4
D1lllU<al<S ~.i.c.m1 Ltcntun:" aoJ thal • pubLatta1 ...U not be obocmc ºd wb.s ,. m
th< publoounn ,. !""<nll} ke<<ptcJ by ID<lllh<n ol lb< -.""Y as modac 11 """' OÍ
thc m..,.IMI <-'f'I thc KfC!Cb J~Jlfay 11.tm11.1r Jlu.Jlfiatton•. !he t'IOC' comrt.1nrJ ahclut
rnuld nnt 1"1(' C'\h,(c:nc" For a íurdlC'r updatc. 5tt "Kt-nyP 10 f..cn10r PClrn.· RRf" :iitn1'f
IA"" 6. 2tl0ll 1º /\ censorship b<>.arJ lus be<:n ''" u1> m lo;tni• to d..! •lth what thc
J'O''UIUDml 'ª'~ ¡¡ a flood C>t ~1phy in thc cowicr'\"s dcct:ron1e and prln1
mcd.,t"1 ~Nt/Jbk "1 !kWs.blxco uk/I lu/wodJtlllnul ll2b8Rstm tU.. ""...!MM
"· 20051
~ 7-~. i.,,... r.n.i s
c,.1 <"'1 ~ 11"6~ 151, 11 moka ~ • mt..lcn """ 'º
makc-. distnht1tC" <'r cxhíblt o~ mttC'nal1 •or an\ n d..-r <lhjm tcnd1n1C tn C"c°'m1p1
morals." s.,.
also <he wne l111~un~e in Boowana Penal CoJe 11968) S 177tl14"1
9. Rcu1<11 1qx>ncJ m 198} tlui olhcial ca""'' in A... lrotn isl..,.1b•J l<l ~mg•·
pott .n '"• <J'••nd.tr;., lhr ,,.¡.,., cruc >¡>...,.¡,, ••ptJly throu.:h ...... ..,lmh a:.JouJI~
:anempu to ·u.mi ru 1nk1'1•llMll Nhunl ~ 1r1oral w'lun olgl.IMI \:fC"C'Pil"I \\'t"Uttn
mtlamtt • ~orw1~ •cn_JllC' '>""h<'•fo prnduot1111 pnmotniphiC" 6lrni arr calhina
., oo thc viJt.o h<>om • ~._!"'"'· u is md. has •tnct """"nlup 1.,.., forct~n and
Culrure \1uu<1<r ~upp..J, Dhan.1b.J.tn s;ud. "!( our ¡..oplc an: nO! 10 he ~Jo~11 huh«
and tlutltc1 by t:VeTV lle\\i Li.J thc~· 1nt.tsc bave <lcq> c1lU\.li;h etns Qt 'li'lil,lt"c~ ume-
 311 • ~•tu tt P•1• 113
cnacJ v.JLK~ • f r...nCb L>.an1cl, J<Lu1c-r1 (St'pt 24, J•>K,,_ ln ~\·•. PrtSuJcru Oill.Oid
Arap ~1°' '4D 'flJC)lc..i .s uyau.¡. m ÜK" conrn1 of .a 4.:rati.down <w1 1mponnJ pomo-
l"'i'~ n:wt.mna tfut Mn,-.am '"t.~ LI k w 1hrn º":n cubur.I ,aiuft .., t Cop)
~:.ni) ..-hat 1\ J'lOJ'º' Ut .. l l~ rqx>ntdl tatd m~u "1M country'• rrotdttimal Aln1,;.ui
,.iu.,. ..... h<ana undtmun.J h¡· such puhbauol\•" R.·utm lfeh ¡ 1 198-ll In 1 d.
..W....., .,,. '• .wl.wd. "" un "°'°""' "' 1-boo bt-ca...., u cuhural i.boo.. Wdlulg!On
'..Lió.. h<..J « r<ui;ronunln~ .id>< ,,,.,.,,J...,J TV .,,J llr.....!<»11111 C..orp IWJ '«'•
J.111't Wcc- nuJ1t)' JI .U \\'° e.h)' •w11y Jrom u \'uu rri11' hrt:.d-t ícc:J ln publk:. but 1hC'
~rluctiÜt\M ul nudir\· iWl ,.,._ ~t'm i• out .,. ..Sc.11 Nud1ry anJ Pohucs Vie"tro·C'd ••
Toboo: Aln<•n• G...,...J. '•lt Tluou~ L ' TV Sd«nom "LosAov/<i r,,.,.,
1 IMar
1 19831 O. Pluloau Om..n.., ol d.. t.:n1>'<f'tn- ~ ~wubt -i. m .¡,. cont<>t oi 1
Jt.M.:\.W100 ol pom~aphy, rlx- mhhr.tuoa oi \\"tc:m <.;u!rurc:. "4-te.h tts Jc.,;,14Jc:nt
'º
v.tuc-" 1oto (1'.lr ~11C1t:ty ¡, grt'1U th..t tite 1)0{ of our u11.lu1onAJ ,+aJue1 h111o~ nc'IW l'l"(n
n-c:nplctch tubl1lC't)Crd.. .. •tth d1 rttuh th..1t u .'Uftll J'("fl(llr a.re np<..N to wx •(•r &oo
e ~:.. ·fon,, \lM,okba ·1\1 '>-a T«n• Prtanano~ '"rbe KM• ¡,,,"'T P,..1 (.,,. W't'
i~I I~. 191!7)
lU •The puntlolJlK'aJ ~·hnr Aftlkanen who rult ~outh Afoa llrc 1ry1og t<' >rc:uri:
tJ.. ti twJDD.I ,.,u.n1\.J b!o nk".il.111 of • p1J1tK~ f)'1m\ 1hat l.) ht.nJ) Jtpendr.cn on
J: nhltn, .nd J'<lf~.tp( " A gn;.~t ~..,.f..1p hoi.:rJ '<TUIJDUn: r\ fl .,._
f'< •tcd '" f.xolly procluml book ,,....,,zm• b.nmn~ oll uac.. .,¡ l.t<CJ\ious...,
Yn 110 mdC'lo fr(Wf'I Johann..:,but'lt lS one of the "Vi'Orld'ii most cxcnvaa.i.nt 8cshpolli! \\rn
'-'•" ~·luch 1> lull oí pom°"'oph¡c m"'""' · ll«a~ \un út¡·,. uu ·boin<La,J, tbe
raiul1 of IM ll!\'Clnmcru' r-JJ1.'I ot 3r..nt1.D¡ nom.uul ~· '"' m1wJ "~
U l't olhcu!J) 00li1Jc Sou.h Afrtu Thc- rul1q v.·oulJ '"1'llUl'C' thr C:C'IOt ln icJ ~~111.an,'e
of thc- Afnki;in<'n hy cvcnu.1lly makan~ •h11n the ltt1.1I n1a1oritv Pc)t tlu. to ~wk, the
'lw"'1cl.u>ds.' • ht<h 1tt 'bof"l..,Jv ..,,,.¡,¡. ccooomJcollv. musr <un·i•-. Thc 1"'""'11·
r.ph¡ tredr bdp< hll tti.. ••r AlLstn 'P.t!L. ·u.\'"""" Aua Tho,... "'Pwu.inocal
S -~'"""' Bl-.k Homdm..L, U ·,,h..gt '" """ 7 U.n • 198) 1 in..
1n:nJ conunucJ
i.hc:r &he O\ltnhtitW ot tbr l.l.l'•11.lic1d tt1:1-lnie Src JuJuh ~t.ttJ,1íf. •A· Pt,rn Ptol1(cr11es.
' ,'\frK.• Dt-b.it<'~ 1 ree li.~h." f'J.n,f•·lf \. s.rJti·t \Ion tt)r :5 fA\IJ k. 19CJ7) e~ ln 1hc.·
Nd old dns Cll "l'"rt!xid C'<1h1nm pvntan"m coupk,I -.oh poLtmo¡ r<pttSllM opdJ.d
lilf'kC c:ontrol sn ~uh Afn(• FilnH ~d boub 'l.'e~ cmtocu:I fot sub\'Cl'S1\'e a1 wdl ~
sciuaJ 01J1tnal. t\icn a b.tn1 ot nuduy WM h.t.nncd on c~kv1J1on.. . 1'h..·~ J.11 dt1tn~J
in c.hr thl'C't' )t'.lrJ Mlk.c thc t'nJ o1 •p.!nhc 1d ~mc.:c ~t'ltOI\ hla.n...kla iu.llWl\C.'\.I thc J"rc:.
kimcy- tn l~ • J '~[J to• urholJ P""" ·_.J Ctttdm--. \.('\ ..hop h;.11c n.mi¡d tJw.
aun T00..\ 11 f\llt ,.. r .. \ lo hw Pt111how.c- m.1•.unt(' t i R i. • ri-ck of chr.1ntr
gum lñis new pt-rnnsSJ\"t:n~• hu ¡ri.vrn hanh to an uncomfnn11hk Jebare httf .
f'ht rk'\l.' gt>vc·mmit:nt. Ln1n, to mili nm'-'1ll" happv 11 K.nl#ftn to tmd 1 baJ.ncc
lxt""'° lttalot. ,,¡ ttpn n mJ toa.o! cvnmil
11 E.x.unplo U'h.ku.k c.h.tna .The &i:k...Ulll'Jn ot "ftkfy nnnp.arcn ot Gh.n. hJJ
.tnn(,uttc;:nl 1h,n 1t wJI 11pply 11.1nrt1('1Qf Q~1n•1 nnv \\~·l<.I\ ntwSJ'lilJM"f wh1ch mJ~d~rt 1n
tbc- puhlJutKin ot ~1111:1 1Ukl pornin,raph\· • "Obtcen1tv Ban on (~hana 1 s Pnwte
l'"P<n." Th.- \i.h•• w.,.,,J<,.,......, \nn \,,.,,,. fd>. 1 1,_~I Kmu. -p,..,dco1
D•md Aup ~1.. ' - b..,,,,.,J U.. 1mpor""'"' uno K<n•• .,¡ 00..:cnr"" pon>Qgr11phk
Notu tt 'ª'' 113 • lit
molg.Ji4ncs, hot1kt 1111tl vlc.lnc1 l•Pi"t • to prorr,;t lhr nllrHI'\ fJÍ ouf Y~'IHh •• fo#r/f#
v .... f 8'rrf1 cr.b ' 14841 "Th• Kcnyan •"'Trnrncf\I ho t-ncJ ....1y 100 rorno-
v"!'li« tilms....,.. « wlnch h= .,...,,, cort'Ul.cut,- th"""" .;.i.. hbtanc. .~
"º''"'') • "Kenu &m ~'°"" ol l'omo¡~nplu. filab • R.-utm t~u~ h, l'l&I lnJ1
• OuJ(:"I of polu.C'fT1cn l\\'CPI 1h1ough thC' c ..p11.1l') nt(1VM" chcJLcri 1,~, v.eek.,. puU 11 ,,_
Ja,,._"t1 1nu\~ poatcr• ~'U1¡e W'f1\i nuJc '''l1i1'f\ .nJ -e-" :ally ~rlt~it ••.:mo ro h1
dw· .101f.:Jl"lbt'i drtr•mun.1111nn ro mÍOttc' • n. " In. ,,.,,. ~11 , • \.Ir. •\ Ha...., 1•
"In.Ju b BotdtnJI PomotU1ph1c \J.,.., p,,,.,.,.,,-n.. \rn· y,,,;. / ..,, 5 N.... t
S9!i7>. Thi• has conctnuW to be rht case S!n<:c thi.s spetth wa~ v.•rute:n lt u \\'Ort.hwfuJc:
to DVCt hett tlut thc wLe. dtsuihu.lk>n 011.ul.uon ci.C. of 'ol>Kcnc" 01 tcn.J,. b ba u1c:J
Wltk't \c-a#JO .zqz l,. 1hc; lnJ1,.,1 l'm:.J Ct.Jc bit "'di a~ m' m ~· , ...rlct mJ ~1111""'
Wr.t" hot ta.k('I Plllak.1 &azur .anJ ~chru Pf11c.t" rn;arkn, J,.11h •ltwtC'\I u1 l~ hr'lnt ~
lNt'W ~lhi], •rt' hc ..fipot! (t1r ~m lo,-ers 'TI"KtuRh t.Jus •• .1 kno\\11 flkt, nothm~ much
hti """"' about ll'Olll banrunJ 1he W< ot sucb srutl. Une can ges lb< l•tcst .,,d "'"''
«rl>at p•«es ol P<"110gnp/>> hctt dut '"" • JJtt-cb..p rato. ·p"*""' Your Po,.
:\u Cirttl Sh.1.lu!'S 111 Ddht.... Jl1,.J11r1.,,, Iú-.t"s 10tc 21 ~ ~tor~r. l.;iv. c:ntor1..i..
mr111 h.1• ~ brc-n 11hlc en .ulJtC'li~ rhe C"ll'K'f~t·ru;f" oí Jnd1Jn lnccmr1 rotnclgr,phy, •tt
Koruk• GohLou1 et •I "lndi1 rom.rom." l•i/., TO<lrt. t.O INQv 8. 200.Cl r·Thm-"
"""'Luk that tb< J"'L«an do 1ocbttk thb ne-.·...,.,,. ol lndo.tn1"0l!Wlhoodl\ai!..hlr
lor Jownlood 'IOOri,¡...J. for ,.... SJ.9' llU 11•)1 por mcruh \\'< or. vcry a>nccm.J
but 1hcrc are: kgJJ i.nJ 1c:d1ncdogn:al l11n1totlk1n-.," sai)J An.uru .Roy. comnu.u.sonrr ,.,¡
poi.ce, fl.tumb111 ") B11bftladt11h ·whcn 1ht- 'Vkk-c) crJU'" htt(.Mn, che 1-·111.c· u..rd 10 riutJ
plaa-o nhibitinc J"""''*"f>/>• l>Ut such ,.,,¡. "" lonit<r i.h pi...~ T.obibul hbOI,
-~ úa""11 in• \'1.t.o \\1iírl." /~,,.. Prrn S... ,. fOtc 2, 19~,¡
12. · 1n -sc:v~n1I c1ocs anJ tuw'rb. \\-ornen JrY OW"Chan~ illong the. tG.j,J. wllh broonb
mJ P•.ol. oC p111u or mud and blllCklng ou1 l'"•'l.'f> of kml nuJe womc:n w:U.Og cv•I'\'
thma hom Cln 10 ''iutt!O Ji tAaa. deott \1t.d.100if •uch u Úliciir 11. . fmc~ 1.hr
So\"f'f'MX'nl faM )c~r lo pma tn k-r bannr •-.lcttnt ll~l"fnC'l'nn1U. • 4ri.hcd,,. Rc-..IJy
"InJ1• W11r on on.c.,,., Pos1m J, 0n ~aon .. 1•1'1 Preu Stn't<l' tApr :U, 19871
ll for oxampk. •·w. dr.w •bom S2~0 m1Won 1 year In mini sal<> 1,..1 frorn our
Pb;m.ic oppvd,' l<:hnsuc Hdnor) ""''- i;,,...., ThaiUnJ. iDJll. China. Hong¡;.,,, ,
J;apift Au.u.t.&.. Br&.Uil !&Dd tt~ 'r-o Eürop.: .. 1 l'A"2 rn•rln t.hc tks<ulx' &1 J:ru,,.·1
are-.- lor J'>Layboy v...Jco J1unhutn1fJ •tnd lcst4.1rc- •.tic-. Shf' ~' .alfO Jcvelopi1t,. tht- Pl.1yf""
ChAllOt"I f('lr dX" hom<' nurk('f and ÍoretKn •rnJication • \"inor OUi\"C't, "'ChnlitllC
H-.. Her ~ b Cltsr enJ So Is Her Coosci<ntt.' Ch1aro Tnl-. .,. Ci lm
7. l'l"I•
t-1 f·or ex.11111'k, 1n ú.nltM•O. Uhio. JX1ffl°'raphy .. i:tfcLtt\ié.h rroa«utN 11nJ
J:Clnttl c.1'11 of town •o nten 1impl)· ~o out tlf che- ,;1y hn1lh 10 lltt n, uhJ .tl11he llJ.rtnt
otlwT ,...,, •"- ''""' loaJ ruhloc d"l'I........ done Th.. ¡, u º"' •• (f,...¡,.., •r
-htodxhoffll
1l · Althoogh l:cnv. b.nned polllOj!f'•plu, t.Jemur< thr« vean •l!<I, • thnvrn,
bJ1h:k m.ir.k.tt for che matcrialt -.ull exisu anJ SC:X. \l'IJeot att: C'lbl.ly 1.1\·aal.1bk: in tl1<'
•:OUOlf'\ • M.kolcha 1f-.-ve S\(l(~ 9
ll> ~"" Y0<k• l<rb..,4l8l ~ 7.f1fl!la2J
32G • Natts to P•1• 1U
17 lñie Jnckc:C'1l1 Rcprr-.nlhllKlll c..11 ~'clllncn t l'rc.1hill1ilun) Ai.:t, 14.J86, ClitC'Ht: ul
lnd... l.lltta.~rdinan re 11 ' 1, r\o 7.¡ ~ti
l' Rerm• v o,,,. IUnk"< Ca íl~ 1 q C C ( 1\JI H <On1 C... Cll. ~
v Wo~n<r ll9'il)unr<p0r1<J1Aka QB R-aonn Ram"nib.(19Jl.IJ 14C.CC.Odl
110 !Man. C).ll ). l'lus 1eoJmcy Lucr tf\'M>ll12od in ~.. 1·ubl\g "' 1lu~r v. Rt¡; 1...
ll!1'11J 1 se R. ~'2 • .f79 c...n 1. ·h= tJ,e lAun rukJ 1hu P<'<l'OK••rhY ·reou1.,.,
h.um piruculah to WUfllM:'R .inJ d~f\..,l'" In M.lOC'f) - .a wbolt ~ lo .&L:non ~, •t'
ph1111t lo V-•lcnc m.uen.ID rht f.nun 1 or1n100 found th.it ªdc,tn1dm1t 11t1d dcht nl.n
11in4'."' matttial' t.ui be: prohih11f'd bc:au\.f' th<"y ~pl•<C' '11.·omcn t.._nJ 'Omeumt'I mcrit
U1 l"(*hOm. C.- •uOOrdm.atJt.""1 \Ct'\Je subm1»Km or humWa.oon . lhey IWl 1:2am 1 W
p-.pb o< «fU41ay -1 Ji•nit> ,.f .U hum.., bcmp. IJ
l'I An cumple" thc ttlm O.qi T~.,.11 ~ LlnJ. L<~d1tt.nJ M1ducl \1cGr•Jr.
Q,J,.,¡f f 198(}) /lt<JI f~TIWI .. •oJJ WPnJw1J.
in for cumrk, • "ali """"' to 1he Altom<'!' Ctn<ral" Comrntmnn on Pomos
raphy fl90ól _,,,,d. uruP<Ctbcd cable l""-aphl ocn'itts ..nJ 1hardlstnbu1on
•are havll) tD\'oh-rJ wnh or t."u~ ro o~eJ cnmt SlD(t' u •~ thc •soutct ot
thclr hlnb. • 1bc rrpt.'n :iJw th.t~ tb.u lOmparue1 1nC'lud1ng CBS T1n•r, lnt., RC~'\,
.uld f.«.;t Cola 'r" 1n\-ol\-.:J 1n pt1l't'l<'gra111hy, wvmg ch.11 th(' la\t nvo h.i\~ • ,om1 a,,trtt
"" " " .i..ribu1t pom lilnu m AU<Uali.t" 1ht'O\llh thm whNdary C ,J,.,,bu P1<1ur<1
"°'Jloruz<d Cntno l.ml; 0..1metl." TM.'""'" ~1. l.r c--••W""'s Du/tlM•r
}, l~l!t>I.
21 :,....-., U.. l!tut<d So1 .. •J..•p1cJ moro cfltcu\'e ,..,.,uuls on <lulJ pomo¡;nph)..
b._¡.,., thc '""' o!"" dul.I prnnc>gnr"-· • chdJ .W-· - d.;!J J"'<D"ltropln •
pro.lu<nl. of1m ""h ThirJ \\01ld clúlJrm. u SanJut,.,. S... E., Ahlborg ·s-.i.....
Srun~ hy U.S Ae<u<•lion" Auacks S.,cre1 Muil TraJe 111 Clúld l'nmo~rophy • l.or
A"t'ln f, ••.._ 1· 10.C. lS, 19k81 1··1 V.'<>uld ,.nk ~....ien am""J tb< iop '"'"tt
""'"""•· OoulJ Gr01tan. d•id ol thr ClulJ P~•ph1 aod Prutc.;i.m t.:nu .,¡ tb<
U' t»itum11 ~rv .•. ~ m Ullol..,fwi'"'"""· SJJJ •1 'itt' a1.!IO ~Wt:Jcn-QuJ1ltcn C'JO'.'d'Tlmcnt
ro \1.:t AJ,t11nn Pumogr...phy R.a4kct." lnltY f'1tH .\"(orr ''" tJ.i.n 19, t~4l t 1ñc S•·cdJ,h
Jtl'A;1·rnmt'ft1 -.1U h.tn chilJ J'C'mt,.-rapbv í0Uov.·l1111 cl.im1 by L1 S Cu11tom1 th*-l Sean
dm...... tbc 'lmfld'. icadin11. «pontt oC u.. .... mo1 .. • Ahboud> u.. <llml''Ul«f " '
th1> bw ""'*'"Ull( the .b...,.v-.s ot proJuruon 10 duJJrai lS a.~ i..-..,_ ~
obter\\'rll h..avt' •1"'1;1,:\ll~ccd 1h1ac bc-;aUK <3' h 1he UnatcJ '1:a1d ~~n1 lrom thr ....uld'1
l.trgr.)t ~11ronn <.. tlulJ J'°"1o!o!t•ph)· to the "·orkJ'1 lJr,t'l>t am~.rt('f
22 lhrrc \ ~1. · l&nCllUt C"' 1,firncc. from ttw> l;"J .anJ o<hl"f t~t11'3 Jocunw:ruaoa
buvi11, .tnd Sel •n.r f't dúJJrm f1-.r ~ ~-c:ra.I nor" thr cutUl«twwt ,,th the dul.d
pomnttr•phy mde '>~ C..n ..cn11on oo 1hc Ri¡¡h~ ol 1hc Lhtld, l'\o, lU. 1~89. an, H
C. A R.-. ~~ 21 •.\nna, U.N (,AOR. ~41h S.S.. Supp No. ~9. 11 lb7, UN Doc.
,\ !.¡ •~ Cl'I~ f 't.un Ptn•n Ul Jcn...k1 ht prntm W. hdJ frorn .U tun:m ol K'\1.i.&I
c.xplc-,. 111t • .J uaJ ~bt.lK' for 1hne J'Otf>o~\C'I St~lc P111nirs <h11D ui p..mcul.r cde-
alJ .aprrorruatt n1111ñn.l. htlacrr;:tl 1nd molul111e~:Nl meMurf'!I en pC"CVMr· t'' Thc indutT
mc:nl (!Ir cocra.,n ,,t 'child 10 CllAA_gt: in 111\ unla"'1ful S<""Xual acovil). (hl ·fbc aplni1
..ln"r i ""Q.;. ch.Jdt"ft m pt0itlfut1w.i. Of othct unl.nful tiau.! ptaatm Ct. llae npl01t
 Notes to P•&•• 114-11& • 321
•UVt: UK of chJdren ln pomogNpluc pcrformaru;es anJ rn.itcn.lhi·1. Scc tl'° Opt10n.J
Pro1o«>l 10 the Convenuon on tho Ri{!ht• of lM ChUcl "º
che S•lc of ChilJl'ftl, Child
Prost1tunc>n. and Child Pomog111pby, Moy 25, 2000, G.A Res. 54n6>, Annex IT, O N
GAOR. 54ch Sess.. ~PI'· No. 49. aL6. U.N Doc. A/}!'49. vol. J <2000>. Addmooalk
tbc Un1tW 5uncs has cncered tttt() some b:tlatcrill agreemenr:s ro fao.lilare exuudiuon ot:
U.S. e>uttru comnuning crunes obmod, ancludmg cluld pomogrnphc"" S.. A1tcc:men1
for che Summdcr of FuJJtwc Offcndc,., Dec. 20, t99c., Hong Kong·Un11cJ :;.., ... )o
l•Umat10n•I /.,q¡J/ Mam·,./1 842. 849 119971; Agr<em<:nt on C.,,opcrallon m Crimm.J
La"'' Mane«. wnh AnMx,June 30. 1995. Uruted Stares·!Wssú, ,..,,w,¡,.,
1995 \\:IL
8HOJ71Trenyl: Tmny on ~lutual Lcpl A>slst•1"'' in Cnl11ll1al Manee>, Nov. 23, 199).
Un11.,J Swtcs·So.1th K<>r<a, •w11abk 41 199) \X'L 7963-12 (Trcuy), Alchouj;h l.bosc who
v.·ork In thiJ llttJ h..\te m.any rr.pott• on the conncnaOttS ~·ecn prold1uuon .tnd
pómogNphy of adulr '"""'''"· no1 <vm thc UN. which hu done 1u1"'anúal worlc oo
pr05Útuóon as on intcmarional form of •lm:ry, hu nociced tha1 tht pomc>paphy of
lldulr women is also a íorm o{ sl...-ery. Stt geicnilly Kathlcen Baay, Ft111ak S.Xu1/
$Ja,~ 11919); J. fommnd·Laur<n~ R<f>Ort o/ lht Sp<CUI Raf>port••r on tht Supprntro•
o/ tb. Tr.fftc m P"''º"' ,,,,¡ ,¡,,Expki1w10• o/tht PM1u11111011 a/ Othm, U.N ESCOR
llat n:~. ""' 1(Agmda ltcm 121. U.N, Doc. E/198)17 11983), repnnred ín /nl/T>,.f1<1n•l
Ftm11111"' · Nt1worh11R Ago1•S1 f.,..,¡, 5.,,.,¡ Slat'"Y opp 6 u 1J1 (K1thleen Barrv cr
al., cds .. l9Sl).
13. This ínformllloo is !roro sources familiar wích 11"' lndustry thero, wlucb aJso
repon th>t Aumllllw orgoru.zcd cnme ocu•ll), indudmg p<>mO!lnphy, it ccnrercd In
Hong Kong.. Much pomotir.1phy ÍJ ~¡>\ltcd to cnter Aíric• chmus}t Ku\va1r.
24. Rcp0n~ cndcncc 11 fuagmcnlllry. Onc Fre-nch man 'llr'11.S chArged in URJ.nd•
wub hmn~ pomographic photographs and videollpes showin~ nak<d Ugandan
womc:n. He u•3.$ orJcred tO Jeave unmeduudy and thc mate:nll was to bave bcen de--
.uoye<l by cho 8"'"'runeoL "Ugru>da Orders f..,,,,bm.an to Lea\'e Coumry, Rt•rt'<
11\pr 25, 19891
21. Sc:e, e.g. Frank Ricb. "Nakcd Capn•l•m.' Nru y,,..¡, Tunn 1lf•grJ11<. 11 IM•~
20, 2001 t t·[nhe pom business is <Snmatcd rn total l><tw= SIO billtQn .nd $14
btlhoo annuallr an che Unned Stru..."I For mremauooal figures to tbe date of dus
volume, se< b<low No, 24n.I.
26. Andn:a Oworlun llJld 1 dlsculb 1he5c HSuCS, ond lhoi.c in 1he p•r.graphs fol
lawin~. "'oor PorllOl,NPh)> •nrl C1'·tl Rieh11 11 'Ir>•• /Hy /or \T'o111tn'• F.q,.,/,ry (lq881
17. P11M1~ Heanngs on Ord1na1'ces ro Add Porno¡r11pbv 111 DiKr1rrttn11J1q,, Aga1n11
WOl'1en. Commmce on G<mmroeru Operations, Chy Counctl. Dec. 12 ond Ll, 1983
!Minncapolr., Minn l. Thc heaOOiS wen: publuhed an I• H1r1111 W<)'. Tbe Po,..,,gr•pby
Cw./ Ri¡!m 11<.mnQ !C..tbarw A. MulGMon wid Andtell Dw01kln, edi., 1997'
28. Th1. 1tccoun1 of 1he n:st-.1rch muh• es dnt\\11 from an agrttd Jlttemmt by m01jt'Sf
~,..,,i,.,.., rqxmcd in i\l~chad McManus. lmroducrioo. Fm•I Rt1•m o/ t111""''""
C.•u•t'1 °'""""'tQn on Ponrograpb) xvw \ 1986) R..carcli unce then bJll onlv ex-
tended md 1m:ngchcocd thcsc concluSJOru . 1J. S«. •·&~ Pros<.'<tltor v. Ab)·esu_ Case No. ICTR 96-4.T (Sepc 2, 19981.
2'1. Thc modd dcfinuaoo iJ a. follow<: 'l. 'Pomo¡:,.ph)' lll<"•I\• thc gr.pluc scxu.ilh
322 • Notes to Pace 119
cxpl1cn tuborJ.inmon ui ...,~ throuA!h p1aurcs and/or wc.rtb th-11 ui~ lnt.ludcs on~
1.1r mor<" ot 1~ t~ lDfr (1) women .ut: p~t~ clrhlJ!l1.11111ttd w.11 ~xU11J ab1au,
tlungi. <'f t.•t.1mm"'1hir;~~ Of lbl \\'l•ITTCl'I llrt' rtci.cnl~ ltJ t(')t"Ult) objcat •'flo Cllll))' hu
míh.111,'lfl ar pain. ar fe) w<m\~n "~ p~n1eJ ~.- wx~aJ obiccu npc:ñcncing 1e:wa)
plc:a...urt in ripe. anteu. or Olh.e:r w.xwl assau.h.. or rdt 'Q."'Omen 1:rC pre.m:ited ll$ JeX.Ual
obi«t> á.d up ar cut up or muuLttcJ oc bruis<d or phrsic.ally hun. orle) women are
praerurJ 1n p..~ruro or po!!UOl'b oi kltu.I aubn'UJ!ion, SiC:r\'ility, ()e Ji!ipl11v; ar (()
wnrncn'• Ood)· part.'1-tnc:ludtnk hut no1 J1n11tffi to vag1nd, br<:!iJs.ts, or buuodt..... ri: C'X
híhitcd 111.tCh 1h:u wnm~ are rcduccd 10 thCKC" part5; 01 1-~ •·omc-n ~ pr~1td bdnt:.
penet.nited hv objects or 111umal.§: C'T (hi \\·o.neo a.re- preserued in scem.ños of del!fll-
d.tion. hun11hati0Jl. zn¡Ul\. ton-. shown as iilchy 01 anleoor, blcoclllJg, b ru1se<l <Ir hun
1n :t contat t.h:u milkts du:sc condiwns séXu:il 2. n~ use of ~. cluldttfl. ot trans
kx.Wlh tn Ült' pl:ace ol u.-onlen in ( J > tu-h> •htl\t' i~ pomogr1phy for purposcs or thl•
l11w."' For v1UWlt1 vcrlions of 1hr onLnána-. tcc:- In H11rm'i Way, 11~'C note 27 . .:it +16
0J1J full.,..;.~
30 Anomey General• Commiss>on on Pomop~>phy. Fm.J Report (U.S. Depon-
""'°' of Ju>11ce. 198<>1 t'Recommentlmon ll.7o Le1'15larures should coodua bcarmg;
,tnJ coo'1~ler ?egbl.1uon ret"Ogntnng 1 avil ttmC'd)' for h.a.nn •ttnb1,.uiahlc 10 pomog
raph}·: ni 747 .. Por~i.,,ph~. in r:ffcct. r:xdnphfic.\$1nequ.iliry in tl$vioLnicm (ihum.,n
ri¡ilm." •• 7~81. S.c ~'1>mtll\ 7~7· i~.
31 PtK7tograpbl! 1nd Proi111uizon '" CanJda Report oí rhe SpectaJ Commiutt oo
Pomography "'1d Prosllru<1on l\'ol 11 IFeb. l981) tthe fmer Commiss1on), ch. 2~.
}°'-''' ("\~e rcromn\~d that JUt1sJ1cuons c.ntet b,. lqp~lwon 11 cl'ill calbC' of acoon
focu&.l.ng on 1hc \·aolauon of cav1l r1ghc.s mhettnt lfl pornogr•ph\·," 11 }1)),
)2 P<W1lC>f,"f1/'br krort o/,,.,,.
Al1n1itl'Naf Ct>11tnTJlfrl' o/ l11qutf'l el qg</) SIAUll, "'Wc
do nor dcni• ihor thc ordmanc:e is" brillianr stn,tcyv far expunl!in~ pomOj!mphy from
thc i8C'c oi anv society tbat mi.ght -adopt n, • ac 152. Thc toquif)· réoon1m<:ntkd ~ 1nod..
ilied \"CTSIOO ol t.he ord.uwlcc 'cou:rcd on thc íniliv1dull1 hium.s Clilt 1'3 ), nonng conc(m
th.u thc co1nmíuk1tlf thál ad.inmbtt:r hwn..o ttgbt1 l;a\\"li nught not be i:q_uip~J. 10
handJc 1raffick1n1 eompl;t1n1, Tbc llh'.'lou..'t'f, of CPUr!le:, i" to C\IUip rhcm to d11 so 11nd H't
c:ons1dcr- cifmDJ: 1uf\iV<m1 dircct acces1 'º coon in addition TIIC inquirv Alsn iáád duu
the ordi11111ct "b1noo hord anoo small a tar¡¡et• (at 1}21. lts preferencc foaddtc..U..~
wlcad "che wtderJying injU5tlcc W15 not ilJUJUJrultcd by an anal~siJ of wh4t ~"' in1u"
lke W><lcrlyiog pornogr•phy lt, 111.1d why u r> not oJJ...,...,J by..Jdttulng thc pomog
1
•t
r1rh> Onc u .11\0 lc:f1 \lºt\nderln~ how ~ J¡¡w th.;at h1t$ 1hc Cl'ltirr 1pccuum oí rar
nogr1ph)· hiti too ~malJ • t:uxc1 Í)('l('5 r.&l"/t" la\\• hit t<X' "lUll 110.fJ"I beau.~ h ~
not als<1 hu tc>ru.d abu.. of cbildrcn and ..,,ua[ barassmcnrl Ooes emplovm<nt Jis.
cnaunanon ltw lur too smaU .¡a targcc ~:iuse tl JotS not addrcss da:cranjnarion in tbc:
hcius1ng 0t eduC'át10J\? li this lav.· h11 nlolétiats t.b.at ~"tCt' not pomognphy, ()ni! suspect:s
tlut 11 \l."'OUld be "ªu.I to br too br<kld la 1t pc:rhJpit che law·~ dfect1Vl"tDS rh11 tt
1.'\.~!.ulc rc-d h1rti.n.,; "100 hol:'d"jl Jn conflCC1JQn with 1haic "ª~ºº~ by ch~ 1nqu1ry. rr
~houkf be: n<lled rbi!t tb( prc$Snl't'5 tc'I prutttt lhe rraf6ckers m po~npby is $Ub-
swuW and li supported by consumers. for whom acC'tS5 ~o the matC"lak is the bonom
Nales lo P1g01 119-124 • 323
lmt- Conhrung &he L." fCI •dd,~iltlg tnd1v11.lwal h.irrftl of1cr they h11ppc:n, b th~ in
quiry's vcriion would do. cc~ncedes 1u1J 3wrantC('1, tha.t 1hcy will rontlnur 10 h11ppc:n
1n " workl í.n \\>hich thc pomo,ítnlphy contm\IC$ to C'Xtst u..1th kMal impuo1ty.
JJ. Thc avd riglus ordmaocc was passcd rwicc io MmneapoU. b, the cu¡ councJ
snd \'t'.lat:d rw1ce by the ma_yur. once In lndi..i.napolt$, \\'bc:rc 1t wa~ .5.tgfK"cl mlo law. 1ud
once to Bdhn,t?ham. W~too, by 1cfcttn<lun), wh~ie tr tettn•ec.l 62 percent ot tbie
\'QIC.
J4 AmcritM &obcllm Ass'n v H11dnut. 771 F.2d 32} 17th Cir, 19851, rum
manly affirmed. 4n
U.S 1001 11%6) (chil ri¡¡ht> law agamst pomopaphy found 10
\OOlatc Fars1 Amcndmern to thc u_s_ Coosuruaonl.
H. Arult.., D•<>rlwl, "Agall1>t thc M_¡}e f l.,00: Ccl\lllrml¡>. P~m0gruphy, •nd
&¡lll&lity." In /;111·n ¡,,,.. • w., ?.out• 274 11988).
B. Scx Equalit) Undcr thc Constitution of India: Problems.
Prospecrs, and "Personal Laws·
1. ThJs langwgi! it • l~g~1t11i11:hn.g u1tcrprcc11uon o( Ari~1cxlc. Eth1'·.t N'""'"""'"' 0
Y} lll la-llllh, 112-117 !J. L Ackrill ondJ O. Umuon, •ds., W Ross, '"'"'• l9!lOl
ond Aristodc. Tbe Poli11CS 307 IBenjrunin }O\\·e<t, rnans., 19'131 l"f•lquality coosim in
thc saine trcatmcnt of .sunihr pcrsons•).
2. !>ce Cathannc A. MaclCUmon_ Sex B¡uaúty ~}-50 luaml in mr<m>tional l.wl.
3'-38 hruccJ in Euro¡><";n Uruon l•wl, 12-17 and p;úlSim hro<<J rn Ul\it.d Sures
EqUAI Pmrectioo dottruic) 120011 (ñcrcrnoftcr S•x E'{1«l1tt].
J E. P. IW¡-•pp• v. Sta~ of Tamil N•du, 1974 A l.R. S.C. 555; Shri Ram Kmhno
l>.tlmra • Shri Jusacc 5. R. Tendollcar. 119'9) S.CJt. 179.
4. For att<mprs to bndl!" thc smiencss-clrficrcna divide wulun tht theoreucru coo .
Mt5 of m.,...,...,,, cqll1lity tbeory, see gen.rally M1<hd R.o.onfeld. A//irmatn"<Actio•
••J /UJ/1'1' 119911.
5. See S... &¡up/itv. aOO--c note 2. 11 4-11
ó. for documen1a.Lion a.nd mah'$is. $<:i: !d. at 179-195
7. For documcnlllrion and analysís, sec 1d. •• 247-2'1, J8H28_
8. Sec PI••'} V, Fcrg"'""1, lb) u.s. '" (1896).
9. Scc Geoig \\'cippcn. O.s Prmvp J,, H1rr.rrh,. 29 (19)2): Ulrlch S<hcuncr
'Oer CkichheitJKed.inkc in <itt viilki0<hen Vetf•,..un~rdnu11J." 99 Z<tt•clmft {iir d"
,.,.,,,,, S1•atrw111enr<h4t 245. 261h167 (19)9). For funhcr discussion und dO<umen
raúoo_ -sa &¡uabty, JboYe 001< 2, at $-9.
JO. Tbi• gocs • long w-.y 1oward cxpl.wung che •ubsraru1.d prtJomiruancc of m<r1
l:l'tlt1ng \UC<'allful M"x rquahcy pbinuffs ín (uunJt11k'1n..J U.S. tcx ~ualh)' Cdtiel undtr
th~ Conunucion
11. Mahadcb Jicw V B B. Seo, 19n A.LR. ;8 (c.J.) ~l. 569.
12. See Andrews v. Lilw Sooel'; al Brihsh Columbia, [1989) 1 S.C.R. 14}.
I~. s... •·!1- Mcrltor s.,,;np Bank Y. VÍ11<0n, 477 u.s " (19llbl
324 • Notes tll Paees 125-127
15. fo< th,. hL..wr¡ •«
C•thunne A Madillmon. "Thc hig1t of Expcn••1'c. Re·
ffrctU:llU on 1he Devc:Jopmou of SouJ.l l l1r411inu:nt Uw, • 90 G&t.•·fou.1n Utu.1jtJMrniÚ
81} •2002).
16. Oihor uumplc:s incl11de the con<:cpt of rape .. gcoomlc m Kadit v. Kuradiié
71) FJd 232 12d Cu. 1995>. llntl Ak41eJ1< •hove º°"'
n. os wdl os <be enoque ol
P"""ºll"phy <lcvclopc.110 die Unucd Sra1.. through tbe exporicnccs of ..·om<n 1ub-
1«•od "' in1ury <hrough lt, sorne d.ünc:nslon< of which h>Ve bcen rccognC.cd by 1hc
Supr•m• Coo11 uf C.n11<lu, ,,,. Budcr , ~in• f 1992} 1 S C R. 4l2, ""º
Unk S1S1en
Bool< .md /In Empnñum ' CIUUlda. [2000] 2 S CR 1120.
li Lo.khman Dass v. S<aie o( Punjab. l 9M A.LR., S.C. 222, 240 IR•o. J d11·
scnangl 1"0.,,,-<mpbllSIS oo ihc doctrine oi dassificanon. or.., 1111XÍOU• and..,.wned
.tttcmpt tu discm·~r ro~ b:isís to1 t.la$Si601tion, m..t)' gr.tdu.tlly and impen:eptihl)' d~.
prl\'e che ln¡uahty) al'l1tlC! oí tu: ~orioui con1cn1 11ut p.rociess VK)u)J incvit•bly ('l\J
m i<ubstitulin,H thc doccnne OÍ duilli.c.uwn (or lf1~ dóctrine oí c:qualny: tltt:fund.11rttnll.I
righ1 <o equ..liiv befo,.. the Jaw aod equal pro<ection o( die laws mav be repla«d by
diu docinoc of classiJicariOtL "). Tlus wu qooted wtdi approval by Juso<e Knslma lycr
m C<>I. /\.S. lycr v. Baltiubr"""1n)':tm. (1980) 1 S.C.C. (,}4, 659.
18. L I' Ro,"PI'ª v. Si"'• of Tam~ Nadu 1974 AJ.R. S.C. 555. 58)
19 S.c ln<lno S..Whncy .- Un•on oftndl>, 1992 'lupplcmem•ry I}) S C.C. 217: lntlno
Sawhney v. Union of India. 09951 5 S.C.C. ~29; !mira Sawlm<)• v Union of India.
11996) 6 S.C.C. 506: Ev Chinnaiah v. Srotc of Andhra Pradesh wd Ot>. (21)0.l) 4 1.R l
705. ! 82 f"Our <:.onsutuuon J>"nnHs apphcauoo ol eqwhty d:lUSi! by gran1 of adch.
aonal protectloo co tbc disadvlltl<a~ tLtsS so .. ro bnng dtem oo equaJ pLufonn widi
1>1hi:r udv.lnllaRc:d cla.-.s ol peoplc, ••
20. See Danmayo Mon'1lm Monn• Staie o( Bombay. 19') A l.R. (Bom 1 Jll. 55
Bom l.R. }23 ll953): GO\..:mroem of Andhra Prochh v P. B. Vijaykumar, A.LR
1995 S.C. 1648 Rt:sen'auons are wha1 in che Umted States are rermed quot.. and
Afftnnauve action.
21. D~u.iltrti);.t 1'1ourunl More v. S1a1e ot 13ornbay, 100vc nore 20. ThamJi Gound1tn
v. Kanm i\mmad. A 1 R. 1912 Mudr•• 529 530 09'2) MMlm 1.J R. liS. 69 tordcr ol
m¡iinctn.mcc to wifc by husband only. va.lfd undcr Artick 14 becausc H~·umc:n wffer
from ....,,,¡ disablliaes lrom •·hkb men do 001 suffer "). Despite the someomes pos.
1uve: ourconv:.s, tbc la.nguage ol. inferioncy as oftcn problcmaoc ín t.bcsc cases. aod li
not iht\ung. S«.. c.g.~ iu t<> Qlste ..Thc a1m of i.hc <.:onuituuon.is to equip oich membcr
oí tbc v.~i1kc:r SCCCIOOl v.•1th thc ubdity tQ rompctt" \\'Lth oc.her c:ittzcns W1th tfi,nity on
• 1....1 pl.. ¡in~ 6eld Tu. pnfable <unditi<•n oí •chedulcd C'.lllCS is r«:opiir.cd b¡ thc
Coosmanon as a oational problem." Ev Oiinnaiih \' Sure of Andhra Pradesb md
º"· (20041 4 L.R.L 70>. , 89; as <o scx; "Thcn: c:-•n bt a d ..sili«•t"'" ben.cen rneo
..,J """""° Jor con.un posu. [h<ore a WOOlJIO "' pr111dp.d of a wamao 's rollcgc, tbad 'º
~'Oong í&llible "rudc:ru1 mo1y ne:n be "1bjcc:1N l('I 1n}' tc1n of eltplt1il.iunl\ .. V1J••)' Ltbhm1
' Punjab Uni''""I) & Ort. (200)1 4 L.R.I l.
22. Vi•h.ka v S.a1e of R.j.,<han, A LR. l'l'l7 S.C. JO! 1.
23. Appucl Expon Pmmcxion Council v. A. K. Chopra, 1199'11 1 S.C.C. 7'9.
Holes lo Pa¡e l21
24 On. >tron~ . . .mple ,. 1he dedsiun b\ ChifllL!pp.i Raid• an Rurullur Sm¡¡b v.
Uruon ,.f ln<l.._ 1191121 1 S C C. 618. gr.u11lJ1~ lub.ainuv• equal P•~ for equ.J w"rk 'º
tb• dm·crJ for d>e Oclhi poU«'. r<Ícrrin~ to Amele )9(d•
25 See. e.~.• MacKinnoo MKKenzie & Co v. Aud"'l D'Cas<s (1987 ¡ 2 S.C.C.
469 lrcqu1nng equal pay íor wnilar workl.
26. G.wn1v Jom •• Uruon oí lndu. Om• 8 ~e.e. 11~ L21 tl). Sn: J!$O Vuhal
Jm v Umon ..r Indio. (1')90) J S.C.C l 18.
27 See 1he enmplcs Jis......d by lndir• Jaioing. 'Gen<ltt Jusuce •nd <he Supr<:mc:
Coon. • m Supmne b111 Not l•falkbk· fawyr m Ho1:our o/ tlH Sq,,,.,..e Ú!•Tf of Jnolta
188. Jllb-JI)') <B.N. l:Jrpo.l es al., eds., 20001. A< cimes, tbe onoblenrch1c:al QUt<O•ll<>
wrongly bn º" b..,logical d1l<tr<neó$ fo1 1hetr rwon.Jlt
28. 11us -..vuld •Jdr.,.. th• pmblcm nu1.,J by .l•"""ll 1bJ1 "tht cl>t<>r<'U<"1 pro!>
k'ltl.luc of 'tqualir,·' CJ1Shrn1ed in A11icle H h.. n<>I bcc:n samfoaorilv moJ,..,d by 1hc:
Coon. In panicular, <he imerrd•tionsbip berween Anide 15 and 151J"I h.as ~r beei1
addr=cd. /\rtu.:lc 15(}) h.. bc.:n maq¡inallzed ond almosr rdegaied co die p<lOIOOD of
• ooo-¡usott>bkdircruve prlnciplc.º !J . .e JU.
29. Por 1;t d.i.$Cl.."-!lion N tho ¡:M:Jt1u 1n 1hc c1131c- i.:01tt~1. sC'C' lndt1 S.1"·hnrv v, Union
<>f In.fu. Al.R. 1991 ~.C. ~77
JO. Sec Nalim Ranjan Singh '' S1aie. 11.I R. 1977 Par 171. 179
JI. See MJbo&b Ji...• v. B. B. Sen, 19~ 1 AJ.R. )8 ICall 5óJ, 567-569, holdmg
th>< SC<·plus·proJ>"rt) distrimumion was l10l ..,. "alone." beoce no1 probtbucJ. /u
nated by Indita Ja.,.lng. ºISJ.. i. inuumeallv geodettd and '°''"llv condu1<1ntd..
(S)oh1t.u111vc cquafi1v would •u"ain dii1erimin1uion b-asrd on thc a:c.x rh1¡¡ ..:cnJcn:J 1
11spm o( te.X ií che objm of such actloo is to mirumizc the sci irtiequ.alirv.'" Jai..iin,cc,
above note 27. at ~7 1\10!i' dsscnminatioo apinst \\"('!mm is oo.- sex .. aJone • if sex m
che biolog1cal ~ Is dimllj!WShed Írom gender, lis .ocial fonn.
l2 Tu&.rim ' Swte o( Malunwma, (19791 2 S.C.C. 14) Tbe wnc would be
'""' al ti"' Suman R.nl r.pc •..., Pr<md..nd v. S101< ~r lforr..,,•. ( 19R91 Supp 1
Se.e.. 286. ln whicli <he Suprcm< Court rdkd on rape myth• roncemin~ thc allc¡i<d
tosv ,,-m1e of • }'OUDlt \\"Oman co reduce 1 nundatory m:tnimu.m senten~ imposeJ on
"'" pollcemen lound 10 ha\'C taped bcr. Qtb.,, cases show a far more ~"'"
approtch to rape by tbe Sup..m• Coun of lnd1.. Huwt-<or. nonc ul them grosps th...1
u'"· lqitlly, 1t pr11cucc u( k'>C 1nt"qu.Wcy oí ccwtiwtjaniaJ ditru:nsioo.. th~Coun\ ttrcc:nt
rnpc iurisrrndcnce. wluth nlDllC5 from abysmal 10 qwie (lOO<I. would be "'Rut..n..d by
such • reoogrution Comparo. • ~.. Moh:m L.J v SU.te of Raj.,.1han. 120021 4 LR.1
93} (disbdi0'1D8 woman:S acroun1). Srat• el Ra¡asthao v. Kish.ru.I. (20021 2 L.R.L
'~' (disbehe....mg wu1n.:ui díd nor. cxntSCDi.. rc:nrung prosccvLnx and dctendant peth-:qn
' quuc mumotc" bttaU5t" ~ oftettd to p•y ht:r 20 fuptt"J [or h.ivm.g tc.xwl uncn:Oub(!
"'th h1m) 111d Banm ond :'-101-esh Gin v. S1a1t oí MoJhya Pmlcdl, 1200114 l.R.I. !U2
f(.'tln1mut101t dcath 5entc:ncc Íor napc murdn of 11 ib:-ycar-old prl be-cause facu are
msuí6cicruly carel wuh l>lllle ol Otis,. v Thúaro Besr" and Amw. (200212 L.Rl. 5}7
llinJing 11 moot unlikdy <he '-.cum woulJ m¡urc her pnvotc pam ooly 10 r.olscly WJ-
pl..•10 thc •<nuNI .nd M.Jkh,10111>gh unJ On \" Su!< ol .M.u.lhyJ P"""'1.h. (ZOOJ • J
· 325 326 • Holu to Paees 128-130
LJU 22q (upbol.ltng coov1tt1on wber• wrom ideorüicd appclboB 10< <be bn< ume
In coun) l"he Coun.a rcpea1ed utc ol r1~ myths and $léreotypt~:t1..u4.:h ;iJ. th~ 'fl()fJUll
oí e.u, \<inuc l!UJ U' be h1th1tuiued co !<Xua1 tnterrourw and 1he Jt:.::1wrf''l'n('.nt of 1m
mment '-lutcry or proxi.matc rt"porhn¡.: ~.-.cJJ-aioc1.c;td ln St1tt of HimachaJ Pndesh v
G= C'.hand. 120011 2 l.R.l 1416) woulJ be ...duccd ii •n uodersmodm~ of '""".,
" " Jet of sex mequaluy ..-.. adopml.
H (.. B. ~lu1hamn1• v. Unum ol lndJ.J, AJ.R. 1979 S.C ll;68, L81>9.
J4 f\.r...tumaba Munbi v. '•.>h<cl..b.ll ISm1J, l1'1%l l S.CC &44 <upholdmgoex-
"11ffC'rmti.J 11.1tu1ory roparcen11ry Jimion)
35 G11b• Hmh111an v. Rescn·e Bo.nk of In.fu, A f R 1999 S.C. 1149, 1IW.
J6 lndian Dm1m: Att, Ul69 l4 of 18691. S 10 Por an>I)'"'· see N•noiul AJ!wice
ol Womon (NAWOI. Alt«rnJlt14' NGO Report on CEDA U InJJa •2000). 1nb prov•·
"""' w.is ch""gcd "' lnJun º"'º""' 11\mend) A<1, 2001 (51 ol 2001). Su[,,mut•"'1 ol
nrw 1iCCcirm for ~nl.X'I 10. lruen1ón of ncw a;ecuon IOA.
37 Sce the """'' rccem cdirion of Mullas f'niuipltt of M•/.<1mrá•~ /Ju• IM Hi.
dayotullah aod Anhad Hida}'31ull.,b. edL. 19061. For funhet ...reor cbanges. see Alka
Su>j¡h. Wom« tn M.,/im Peno11•/ Úlw 112921: .Bamala,\1. &xamu... The ug•lSt4JUS
• o/ AlMJÍl1'f Ww11r" An Apfr.,.IJtJ! o/ Alwhm p~,JQ.1t.JI ÜJuJ ut lnJu (l\\éera K°'1lmbi
od • l W8l. •
38 Mohd /\hmed Khan v Shah Sano 1leM'Jll1, A.1 R. 1985 ~.C 94'i
l9. Dani.t l..at1fi v. Umoo of lndia. t20011 7 S.C.C. 70
40_ Thts IS also t fault of many Canadjan decisions m wluc:h WOOJtn prcvail \P
ootcomc: but the Supn::mc Coun of Ciiruda rdusb to predi:catc thi!tr 1io1ctones: on scx
cqu.1ltty pnnapls th.tt \\OulJ ~li<ltfy eJ dttnJ rlglus and rujsc." dk'ir legal 1tanui.
Exij1npl1..-. .a~ Rcain;i v. CaJUd)2n N~~"'PAJ>Cn. [1988) 2 S.C.R. 122. 11nd Regan. "'
Lov:illtt, f l'JQO) 1 SC.R. 852. In borh ca..... women'• equafüy in substaote wos af.
fumed and considenbly straigthencd by tbc rcoultS of •he rulm@>. but thc: doctnnal
rccogmnon oí cqu.ahty l"l@hts as the b-.tsa for die rultog w.u not cam.mmtíurace.
41 S11l• Mugdal •· Uoioo ~f In.ful, t l9951 J S.C.C. 63'.
42 M.iclhu Ktthur ,. S1.11< oí Bdiar. 09961' S C C IV, 12i
41 See M•ll Ann Glcodoo. A WorlJ M•Jr Nrn· Elea'Wr Rnow<'('/t n•J rlv l'•t·
,,.,,,.¡0.,;wraM• o/ H""'ª" R1gh1r 90. 111 {20()1', far an C\'OCa!lve hi>toiy o( <hit
proccSS.
~4 Lar lunber discussioo ol. <bis d)n:umc, scc Catbnane /\, MJCIJnnun, ·wi-e
Cuhurc? A~ Note on 1\f.,,,,,,...: 1· Sa111,1 C/ar.t Pr.~b/o,* m Ft1J11n1$m Unmu.!1~rJ6l
11987
45 One Bntish p1ett oí ad..-ocac:y oo d'liC quesáoo lea''eS no room for doubt oa
.~ 0Ull't.1?COUS rondesccnsion md opponumsm lm'OIYed )ce 135 Tbe w.'P..,l•rl,.,
&i:t<w, 'CbdJ M>mo;¡c: in India." 11} IJ:m.-June 18911. N.,.. reporu P'°'ide the
bwt evenu Thr .\/,., y,..,¡, Timu) IFcb. 16, 18911. Tl<e 1'n1· l'ork Tm<I 5 U•n 11
r,,..,
16ql> r¡,, ,...,,,, !'urk 28 lSc:1•t. 26. ¡Q29¡ T/.d-ln.• l'•r~ T•-• 7 ti\ug. 9. 19JO)
frcponi~ iba< "effettk~ in llMtish lodi. Jun• 1 che mínimum rnaniagcahlc aa• for
¡pn$ ,..., >et at 14 ~nd th.1 for bc>ys 1 1 18."I.
 Notes to Pages 130-136 • 327
46 S..C. • g.• Wa<td Jtcald1 Org.u11u11on, Wor!J Rtp<nt ,,,, Vtnlr•<"• ••J fle.:lth
ll:c1t'nnc Ci Kru~ c:t .J., cds., Gc·nn'd 2002): fbtlh1kit C:oom1u""'<1Jn). Rt-port S11/.•.•111t~d
bv tli( Spra4l Ropportt!ur on Vu>l~ner /liointi Wovrr'1, lts Ca11,er ,,,J Cnrueq~cnctr,
Comm1Ss10D oo Human l\igh!S. 50ih Scss., ARcoda hcm llM. U.N Ooc: E/Cl'4/
1 99"~2 1199,).
~7 llxamplos uc Orr v. Orr, 440 U.S. 268 (19791¡ lo:trchbtr¡ v. h:msira 450 U.S.
415 (198tl; Palmorc v. S1do<1. 466 U.S 429 119841. A partial <•«r>uon ,. Nc,,..i.
0op•M1C'llt of Human Serví«' ' Ríbbs. 12) S Ce 19;2 C2QO;). ..hkh uph<>lds thc
Family and Medial Leo"" Actas 1 rcmedy far ses: srereocypmg m gnamlng f:amily '"""'
by cmploy<rs.
48. for docum<m•dan uJ>d """1)>1S, """S<x El¡,.,/11). •bo"' note 2. ai 68-1-714.
49 Stt id. u1 68-1-70> for docume1111tion "nd º""'~"
'º· Dani1l l.;uifi" \Jnioo oí lndw, 1200117 S.C.C. 740, 742-70.
51 Exomplt< .,... Come v. B.u.<di & Lomb lnc.. )90 f Supp. 161, 16) (0 Añz
J 97') Umdlng th• sexual bnr:assmenc .Uq¡ed • nothing more chao a pe'sonlll proclimy,
pcculi>ruy, or monn<n•m "); S.m"" v. r.._in, U P.ir Empl. Proc. c.._ (BNAl t2J, 124
(0 O.e. 1974) (ho(J~ rtgurJmg ulk¡¡AIJOnl of sexu.tl h.rillm<nl, . (l)M i> u contro·
Vth)' wtdrq)innt'd by th<' subdctK"!I of dn lnh..1·montou1 perr;o11al r~Luion.4hip"}
'2 Seo Mericor S••in¡¡s Bonk v Viluon, 477 U.S 57 0986)
53- C. ~1~1laman1 MudaJiar v. ldol of Sri Sw1m:u.nathasw~mi Thiruko1i. l 1996) 8
S.e.C. ,2', HJ.
H S1>rc of Bomb:iy v. N;mu App1 Mob, 1912 A.I R. J9 cBorn.J •c 95. ') Bom.
L.R. 1c 779
55 Id
16. Eumplcs mclude Hlcks v O.ces Rubber Co., S}J F.2d H06110ch eir. 19871:
Anchony "· Couruy of S.Cramcnro, 898 F. Supp. 1-1}' IE.D. Cal. 1995); TO<Tcs v.
t>woo. 116 .FJd 62' (2d Ctt. 1997). Worklns v. Bowdcn, JO' P.JJ IJ44 <t lch Ctr
1m1
57 Se<: Carhorint A, M•d(innon s.,,,,.¡ H"'ª""''"' Qf Workini \Vomt•
o/ S•x D11mmJ1t•llon 57-99 11979),
~8. lndJll Cons1iwaoo an. 44 (p.L JV, Direcove Princ1ples),
'9- This approutb is t(>r'W!itcnt wsth thc c~ution th.at "{.i) un1focm l:a\l•, thoogh ~s
highly de1ir11bJc,, c:nillc:tDlC'fU thccC'OÍ ll1 ooc ~ pcrh.ap!li m.ay be cuuntcr product1ve 10
urnty and m1qrity oí 1he aoition. . h "'oulJ • be in~pcdicn1 1nd inC'Orn:ct 10 th1nk
rb:ll .U l•ws luvc co be m•dc uniformly appli<ablc 10 ali pcoplc in ooc RO 1bc mischrcf
or dc.fec1 wbrch Is mosr OC\lre can be rem•died by proctS• of 1.., 3 c stages. Pa.'ll1.W
Btn$iW .Piru '· State oí A. P. 11996) 2 S.C.C. ~98, 'JO.
60. Midbu Kllh~.., V s.,...,
ol Bih.r. 119%)' se.e. 125, lH-U,. A •rmrl.r Vl<W
wu .-.rccrou:d in Ahmcd.ibad Womoú Acu0 n Grout> v. UnK'n oí lndio (19971 )
S.e ': 573, 58}. h mígh1 at.., bo noccd diat 1he cqllll~IY principie is oonsomooa.Uy
enshrioed. OJ'ld ¡udges are calkd 10 apply che Conttirucian, how=r d1fficuh •nd mmd-
bo¡;¡¡hng.
61 Sp.eak.tn~ acnttiilly, 1JJ111 ti 11 waittng penoJ Jfttr dmohJu<>n of m1rn..tg.r, Qm
3?8 • Note¡ lo Pacu 136-1~2
cr..Uv thrtt m<nSUJ.lal cyclcs Tbe purposc "'10 kam ""hcthcr die wifc"' pn:flDiJlt (a
c:rukt boro dunng uld•t " ton$íd<rcJ ch., hU<band'sJ, to proviJc lor rcé()!Kilmloo ¡f
pe>MlbJr, ar (or VttJ0W1 to rooum. h viincs in ¡>at~irulan from rounU')' to rowury fí
th• """'"" " pr<¡enam, lor aamplo, the lddJ1 m•y llUI umil die binh of 1he b.by.
four month$ plus ten da-."S or birth whichc\"t-r lS lonJler tc:n moruhs. or onc ~e In
sorne coumnei:, anothcr m'llrmge eods the idda:t. Mttottn1tnce 15 geoerally avaW.ble to
che wtlc folJO'Ollog • "''"'°"""chv°""' or. d prcgnam. •Í•cr an l=--•blc chvom:.
Rcvoubibcy IUfOJ 011 the n.uurc oí che brc:.kdown. SccJamalJ . N•m, ni., n.1,¡•.,.,,
L.r•· of l'munJÍ Si.tui. ll7-142 Ud cd Klu'""" lmcrn•rional 2000)
62 ~ Canadi:m 'ª"' ~f M0«• v Moge, (19921 l S.eR Al.!, providoi an eumple
of 1h• pnnciple ol equic..ble sbanng af1cr brcakdown of marriage m a comen of rcc·
oplizcd social mequalny ot thc: soces.. 1'hc Cll$e al$Q Rn."'tio to illlL'ilrate the crcatlon of
equ.i.luy·pn>nlodng cot'ltepts id sd:tings \l.!h<:.re t.he ~ inC'C(_uaLty is uadloonallyt:wt:ml"
.mJ t.hcre ~u·I!' "irtwJJy no Wnil:arly suu'1.ted men w1th whom to compare.
63 ConvmtiOl'I on tht- Elimination of AU Fomu o( Dbc:riminatloo Against \'Vomw.
Dec. 18, 1979, 1249 U.N TS. 13. 129 C"With rcgord to anides 5(al and 16111 of
[CEDAW] dedar« chac " $h.tll ab1ck by and ensute mese proviswns m confomury
Mth trs polJC'\' oí nOO·lDtcrfettnct' in LlM" pmon.J affrurs of any Co1nmunuy •1thouc
il• lnJU11U\"t" v.nJ ron&ent. "J.
64 For lnduft rq>011 on ns compliMcc with CEDAW ro d.1u:. "iCC COlfstd~rallt)rr
o/ ReportJ Sob.,itteJ by Sratn p.,,¡., UnJer Artrd< 18 o{ 1~ C,,,,IH'nttoa oa 1~ ¡;¡,,,,.
1fr.iJ1Qri of All Fornt.S u/])um.mi11olifJ11 Af_81n.íl Wo1ntn, lrtltt11/ &portro/Sl4les Pllrties:
lnJ1a U.N. Doc. ClillAW/C/JND/J 11999). ror CEOAW's coocluding obsc"""°""·
scc R.tptJrl o/ tbc· Co111"11/Uf on I~ fh,,1PWtHH' ()/ Oocr1'*l111J.11t.>n agau1.ft Wan1en, 22nd
Sea. 117 J•n-4 ícb 20001 .md 23RI S..•. 112-lO June 2000), Suw No l8 IN551
}8t, 9-12. Thl" Cammittcc, in addn:ion to ~·~ung lndio to wkhdr:aw irJ ded11rauon to
' amele 16. paoagaph 1 o! che Conveoüon, siso ªaúls upon che COOCOU11em to follow
cho drttem.. pronopbut tbe Coosmudoo and che S..prc:me Cou.n dcOStO~und enact
.~ c.,,
~ wuform civil cod~ -th•.u <l1ffcrent a.luuc llnd rd.ig.ious groupt may a<lopt." t bL
6S. An •=nplc "<iuld be Daolal L..ofi v Union o( Lulr.i, ()001) 7 S.e.e, 740 ••
wcll ., S!Nlh Jl.mo u~í.
66. In cl>e Uoiced Swes, Cahlano v Wcsmm, ~~3 l.J.S. 76 09791. "'Preuly •e·
knowlcdged ch1S l'O'"lbílity, as SdJaChtcr v. Cunada, [J992] 2 S.C.R. ó/9 díd in
CanacL.
14. Crimcs of \'<lar. Cruncs of Pcace
l. Ofütr Wdldell Holmes. Tht °'''"'""' üw J (18811 t"The life of die law has
00< been lo~ic. h has bcai cxpcncna. "l.
2. Scc Ccruer for Women.. Ctobat le•dcnlup, 1?91 "''°"''"'f ú•Jmhtp !Ju111•1<
~,, \t'~ó,1'kn, 'l/jo/Luu, r111J llul#Jn R1,Pt1 ( l 9921. Appdkillf e, "'St.JrÍ'IJÍCll PI\
Gcnd<r 1r.,1enet Global/y•• 11 n-RO
J f'or a discussioo of rhe killlng of womco as 1 syttcmaüc prartice. ~Ftf1ttliriJe;
Th, Po/1110 o{ \17om•• Ñllm¡i (Jtll Radford o.nd Diana E. H. Russell, eds., J992J.
HolH lo Pages 143-144 329
-4. Fot thc: mou .dvanccd of A.n1nc$r-y•1 dforu IP lhc J.uC" oJ thh IC'CllltC'. ,t't Am
flCJ(V f(X""'
lntc:mutionid. lttp1 M111I Aburé': Torb;r~ 1J11rl 111 T1Nlt'1ntf o/ Wonrrn "'
Dtt611l.Jt>n t 199}}. Tht .adnntt is th11t rape is ootic:éd~ thc Jim1uwon renuuu rlut j1 !S
nouceJ Onl~ whéll WQC!lCO 31'< (n offia;I a;smdy mus in cf!ec< raped by U .S<lltC.
'· INarue WiJ.hbclJ], Lc~cr 10 .1uthor. (),;~ U, 1992. Mosc ol ~u. informJuon b.u
•lnce bc:cn uidepcnJontly oom>bomnl by "'"''n•IJOnlll rc:pom nnd publiihed •c:«•unrt.
See Mis.• Ksfl1•i ••J Grnutilh me,..,,,. 1991192. A Bt>t1h o{ E11Jr•er 119921 ldocu
mc:nrína &•n<>ci<lel: H1111t•n RlghtJ W<>tcb ~ (Aug. 1992) 1• A pohcy of 'tthmc
cleansmg' has r<Sulrcd in che summ"'l' execua1on, dísapptannce. arl>h:ruy deteotioo,
dc:pon.irion, .,,,¡ foroble J.ispLtcanenr of hundrcd. ot thousmds o( J><Opk on rhc b'""
o[ chctt rchgion or naúonalny"); e•rl C1U1af Srrolun, "Sc:rbcn \crgew.JrlRcn •uf ob
emcn Bch:bl," D1r We/J IOct 1, 1992) 00,000 wt>l'n<n P"'Rn•'º' írom nopel; \'tt.,...11
L11t (Sept. J 1. 19921ldocum<ncina20 rape/d.. ih ""'111>" for non·Setb womeol; lbndum
Kajan A4inlima111ltt Da11.t1lt U 1Vv1. S11~nstra :JM,,11 n1d Musliman1ma (1992)
lgcoocidc of Mudun> •nd rape cunps docuroen,.dl: Wómco's Group "T~DJ<'\'U."
R•port IZ-lg"'b· Sept. 28, 1992) ("11>e exuconc. of r.ipo/dcadi umpo muse be undcr
~rood iil" .' tilCUC of "c::nocidt, ol 11 'fin•l tolu1iun' 1 gcnder·lpCC1fic oniliught th..1
1s iystemanc. . ITThe tonures includc npes. MJO~·napl!'5., fon:cd. ince81 . thc dnuoin~
of die blood of captrvos ro proYtd< bloo<l for uansfusions for ihe needs of che crimmals,
setu.ng ch.ildrcn abLtze and dro\\'Dlng bab1cs:). G1vcn these rcpo~ n t$ lné:Xcusabk
1.lm Amncscy lmcmaoooal's Oc10ber 1"12 repnrt oo humao ,ig11., vlol.woos ro chJs
war documcru~ only thrcr rapes. 11nd thdt frmn an Englbh ncwip.ipcr nuhc:r 1h~n
6rs1h1U1d. " <>thcr .cmclfl•I ""' docurnc.,,ed. S« below n0te 9 Edi1h Níchui1, h...S
of tbe Germao Padiruncmary Commmec for Womco :md Youth, <11ilod tbe "sy$ccmotic
mass ripeJ• in Bosnia :m *e;ic1en:nm.1.uon war 11gíltn!lt "-'Ome:O. • "\Xru machen eucb.kleme
Tschoroilu." J),e Tagme111.ng (Dec. 8. 1992).
ó. Unrvorsal O.CLn;uon of Hurn"'1 Rrghta, Ce'1cral A...,rnbly Resolutlon 117 A
mu of Occ. 10, 1'148. Prc:amble t"Whert:., disrt:¡¡;1RI 11nd conccm~c fa< human ri¡¡hu
ha>-.: 1t<uh.od in barbara"' 11c:u which bn'" "'""'ll"d <h• conscienc:e of lllllDkind'),
7. An cxampJ. ol formal condonarioo is che U.S. case m whích pom(>l!raphy Is
r<rognm:d a< promQUOg rnpo, bmcong. llnd unequal pay but j¡ prorcctcd as l:ree
•P«<h Amencan Booksdtcrs Asin v. Jludnut, ni F.2J 32l <7th Cir 198'l.•ff'd,
47' u.s. l(Jcll Ct986).
~ 8. For do('ummtation of thc w:~ of ·~rvutt01's• 10 1h.t rrultor (00\'ft'ltion prohib--
'
1ang se.x discnmtnauoo, see Rebttca Cook, ·Reserv-ations ro tbe Con\'ention oo thc
libminatioo OÍ All l'omu of DiKnmm•uon Agamst \'<lomen." )0 l'ttgm1a }ouma/ o/
lntt,,t1111on.1/ Lttv 64.3 '19901. A b ..•wtt may be brooght ro tnv:Wdatc: thc r1ufic;ulon$
óÍ nouonJ who!il" cxcq>UonJ are wicl to bt t.xces-•tvc. vou.hna 1heir accep~e uf 1hc
Coo.ve:ncioo oo the Eliminarion of Al1 fonns of Discrimin;Jtion Afl:ainst \\'01ncn
!CEDA \X'l. "Cowt Rulin¡i Soushc oo Womeo's Conmnion.• 1 FJunun Rlg/.11 Tflbun<
21 tl992).
l.J. AJ1U1t:$l)' lntcmalJonoJ says rh..at aU patries succttd to thc intern.aoon.J \Jg«c·
mt'fltli 1hat \~uQ01hn·w rinifinl t\mnQfy lntem11uo11al, Btu11u·llrr:rt/J''"'" Gm11
ANiS<I •f BarK //u111'• RJ,¡.,., ln1,....atmna/ SwtWflPI IOn 19921 Hcl$mkl Watch
 318 • ~ ole> 10 P111 IU 11;16 lt P11u JU-IU • JJI
lJZ • N tu to Pt&H 146 IU
U\"I du1 Lr1.l<ltt1 .ad ) u~ln-1.t tbc IJn'-"f •vr>.arcndy rctunn1 to Xrb&a/~tnnrC1tqr:roJ 11.ov IY'I~~ l'lttlllp J Cvh<n "ü.pl"""'"°" ul 1bc: l lolcxau,¡ •• l'"'l'•g.onJ.. llt< 1iJ.
urc 11~n1M 10 lhc Cent"V~ l.l'llVttUlt)ftl un~ d'Cl1 P1'0rocob, t.:ru•uJ h)' ron1r.11.1 on ~1.ay 1116,.t110f'I <11 ~r~1..ui ~.,.1u Louct• lunpubli1h"J n1•mu11.Cnpt fulv 18 19921 Sce .r,,.,, ~.,..,,•• wett J.xumcot<d '" luvc l1<'t'D unp......,ucJ. thm n:ka.nl. 10 "bcu Gctm.n
11 1 "12, •nJ ~..,¡,., a11d Montrn<~ro unplo< dv. hy opm"'1~ • ,..¡.¡, 10 ¡,,. m;o,¡ruml \\"1r Cnmn lnvntlfe'Unn 8urnu, FCJ,,rth t;,._ .,J,.,
uf 1Jv /"" 1 \\.._r r. &,,..,, b.lb~ • 1f-.,\\·n~r. rhr N.w,, tc4uirtJ tb.at ¡pc:1:i.J J"C1'Mt»1Uft be obtitiJXJ bclurl' 1hc
M th . .)\JCCU:ll;:lf tUI~ fO -...J..t WU \'UgLl!Sla Ja lvaD:l ~7Kf1 ..,.,,. Cr.1'f{"f ' " Jm,,,,, H~rp, .. :-ar...,_ !i<pt !'1'12 Alam l·inli.dr- amm<l'l• m this hn C..- 111 fctuscs of U,tnn 1 UN'pCID ""unm 1tuJ Gcrnt.n D1ftl ... ,..w lJit •l •'lle J J ar Ju.1oua•;on
Htr'JfDI u l}l<-1}9 IA1111 19921 llo<rm flcrwa-ua ""h<dti>< rdevam P""'•ltln$ ~·~· "" cnNJd so 09'11. •y '>crhoc w.ihc k - oltlu• -~1,iu.,., c..111.,., ~•11 ~upp 610 ., 'EDS\ 1~ 'I
in l~.? tlumo&n.1.tJ.nm l..W' • custom.m !A,,. •1th unn~n~ Junsdk."tlOn. but hUID.10
ri,ghr> pr\'J\'IMUOi ttqWrt'. athrm11U\'e aubm111•tt.JO hJ accutt 1untkLc:uoo,
- al .L..nt que ...
C.:rwtcs C14kfU taus n.uu d la ~bo lOlb r~o. laiii&bc l<" pramt ftl d.:s.aru que
la Cro.atn rarcot un rnirk grn(,ad-..tuc.' ~ .Wnc il J'•bn Jl'.' <C::fll' lktubk leh11ilo1
11 I \ : - \\ ~h<-ldl l..<ttrrto 01•ho<. °'1 "\ "12 -;.. .t
11<1«n IJN '<>ld.it.., m Bo<ntrn •o.~ W,11 •Oc< •· 1""2
'"'"""''° \'an urk

10 AJ,lrQ.J11ng tlw (olf'nlc-rcn" ora Sc:-cunty •nd ~r•tltlf\ 1n Euro~ U\ ~
"""" nl '°"º Lr&Tcnc. úaglri.ulJ!Cf wd tb.i '><rhWl 1...lm "Tf< 11Uiltv of ,..., cnmn
.opuui hum_.,. anJ ,houlJ be p._,.ttJ. ·.,.ruy .. Hultrs assaaat<> ...,.. 01
1'umnboq • ·~ ComrN..l(]Q ro :>tan lm<>t¡pDOO oi ' ' ' - vrll\'Ulll forTMr \u
pj"'"'"'·· .il,g,11c~t' Fr•'11:f' Prtn~ •Occ. l.. t9Yll Ar the &une thcy w(rc publi~ly rcc·
c'lgJllinl, 1hr 11routlm. h.J lx."t":n Kó•tlK un h>r .-p·rro.wnatch 1 vur. 11lr:re 1111l1u lk.imc
W.C-.1mon ,,f ttc•tma • JlC'nn.U'lc1 1 1ntt'm.C111CM.l • •r mrrlC'-. ,,,un "-'hoce ftn:t ,_,, w,Ud
be to lfl war crimínals (....., tht• war ·¡,<;,fr.,,... DiJC'llltin¡t P..nammt 'lt'ar Cnma
Coun • Rn.tm •Doc 15 IY'lll
11 !>ce ~Y R.,. (,uunan, ·v.....,. !l«Ot1111 J>;ighu ,4 Ttttor m MACl!ult
Bor<leDc1." NrwJJ.y (J\u~ 21. 1992) p. H. A •l>tti.U mi..lon ol the lutotmn útuncil
concluJN .iflrr' prdi1nin•tl) VINt, th,;¡¡ "lhC" riipa rot l\tu.lam .,.. ntn] '-l't: -·hkt.J'rt.ld
IOd aft r-n ol • l'OC'<lllllÍ..t>k p1ncm Thr ""1<nl ....,., .,.,,.._.¡ ¡,,. mi<lion.tPrs
""'°"' thc ~rim COllU•~ rcspon¡ihk tnd ettdíhk ,..., dw a~ numbtt
oi MusLm "'""'"' b.J aullottd rape anJ tlwt dus.,.. corutnlllll,t! •• n.. ma.1,...
IODN n11m11h lt.tggcstt-J ro lht Jclcg;auon mJ1c.11tcd a hgurc an thc regi.on Qf 20 ~
vktim• . lbc 1nJ1(.ltiunt •re L~H a1 lca.1 llltnt o{ thc r.llptl 1re bcini;. cQnunac1t:J In
pan:inJlarl' Jx1J,fK' tri\'' Thc ddc1aunn e.11('1 .rtrtn~ ll'1lontui1mn sunn111v •a
- that raan; "'Ol'O< .nJ more pan1.W..r!y chíldttn m"l' i..,.., dotd dtam, "'
aner ap< (TJhe ddcw•1100 ln!qumdv he.rd tb. • ropat<d (.....,.. o1 "crbwn
urw;l,. on .\1ll!lllm tO..'lli .¡nJ 'ill.t~ \\4 Lhr: U>C ot r.ipc, or thc lhl"cil: ot rape-. • •
wr.apun of wat. . [0}()(."'\.llllrm1J [rom ~rb1M 1outteS , \'cr)' cl..-:arly pul SUl·h .14 u,ttU
1n thC" tct0ll"J1I ~r m l'x¡wu.ai.•ru'c !lthlt'IY. [R]apco c--..nnot be fr\rt:n • ltkadimtal to
tbr tmin l"'IJ."'<O ol tbr "",_. but u ..-n1111 1 '"""''º purpooc in uodl • I•
Pn'ltf#ta.., .\fm1Qlf urto 1~ Trr,;t~t'IU o/ M,.J,,. \t''""tw ,,, 1/y for..n l'-zorl,,n, 2-
~ Doc 14 19'121.
12 Amo111( thc .KOtt't t•I cx.uopla ol 1h11 t«l'lllJlltly r-rt¡flUi1llt" cqu.iliztng ~1t op
pruMllt" ¡¡.f'M.I oppm~ . .J1hough u as <'lfl<' ot 1hr lcu1 eMfC,:tou1, lt Amnetr.• lntC'm..
'""'al• &1•w llrrJI"•.,.• IY,., ,.,,¡ ~,.,,.¡ ,,;..,"' 1, ,.1,.,¡ f....-n J Han ¡<¡q}I·
"kpons lndlcatc U.. all ..dos i..,,. C'Oml1Wlcd tbo,o ,¡,,.. bu< rhot ~lu.Lm
......,_ ti..c bccn dx chlcf '1<UlllS aod th< m"'n _,...,.. """" bem lll<IDbcn of
l><rbun onncd '"""" " WorlJ 11.or U "'""'"ª •¡¡min ~ b, Croaun. anJ Mus·
hnu •rt" ofu:o c.:hnl by ~rl11 o11 hbiorli:.ul Jlt:Jllfh ..11100 for i.una1t Sci:rb1.an "t('\t'llp>.•
f'olhm1 ,,,Jiet R'Cft0(·1J.:. Thcl"C' a. .i:IJO Ju,u1nc.J C\1'~ e- 1h..c ".i<rba;an ••r l~n
i....., btto _,...ti,· <><>u<ntcd onJ ·~brin, uoeJ as• pttteu Pltd!ir J Cohm, "Hn-
loau.. His<ort ~buppn>pnllttd.. \ld.tr,.•~ A .\t.thl, J.-u'tJh k.WU\ 13-20
UUC1 ).¡¡ f1r(11l ltft frUtrre r.K'is.;I" l..llX l'EurOJlC' ill ronnu dcpu1J f ln~cl Pour lr J1rC' J un
moc. la IMf" M all< J.irttJJrt º"' t"7Wht ,. ;~,t"(' "'""' pour ki }•1/t." tSe:rbMi f.!Mhn
th< - i,,....,..,, tb. dx ero...... .....,.. ali :-.:.... - i die -...t. aD ............ l.tltiS..
dx - '" "'!"'!! dut tho u_,_ """""' • ,.,_,;.w !'<"P<. .on<l
ihc <h.Jow ul !hu Jouhlt lalsili<;oon, th< hm r•a.l ,.., thot l..wopo b.u kn1•wn
e.u,,.. ""'
!IUk:(' llitlcr To r-u lt ln .t "''rd 1f•t \fa~1o/1/111 Ut>ry Jrt '"'"'Jo fl.HI 1bt'"ftrli~ 1 off
. i tbt , .... ._,
lJ A IJunn, "\\"., C:nma ..\ptnst Young Gui>." ,,.........., ú · 1~L 11 1""21
("Jñe\ .... ,,...., COO~ - OD tbr dnJ bo.ilCS .. thc t<)fllm, ,..,.,. ,..¡,., ....
.dtct tb.t thr.,..n [out)·¡
L..I Jn iaJJ1uon. whcn 11t< Jr..J .aT<" tnun1al. th~ir r.a~ ar~ nt'U ~n r.ipl"d
'\\'ornen ilrt foon1nl, th~ir mm lrt not
15 AfJI Armaod.L Tb, U'~o.,,...,, 1 ..\1'1«''1W'ft fet!U'IW't, 1,,J :f+r De_;¡,,,,.,,, ol U,,.
IJrcu fCDW>t>t Grocp, Oct 19'121.
ló "A Pctorn ot lt.p<." '""'""n-.l H }"'1. ~ 1'1921 •in tu.°"'"'~
illL.kket tolJ R.l~.i.. f h.ivr b1 Jo 11 othe,._.~(" thn ",U kili rnr •• \c1;0rdmM ,,1 O.,
Wr/1, • r1r1,, tnld rus
vicdm • 1wc hvc 1(1 Jn 11, bccall$t' our Ct'mn1andt'n (tr1.lt'r"I
Lt, and bet;.eu~ \'f'IU are t+.iu,.Jim-.cod thctt: •re too mam ot fn\I .\1uJuns.. \\..-e bJ.,-c to
dcRro. anJ ni.........., "°" oo that tbc 00- Scrbtln P«'Pk un uko "'"' tbc .....,.
"' tltls ª'" _.. • ~. ..,.,,.. """' '
li a..,
t.uttn.ul. -M..., R.ipc MwJun,, Re.ali !xrb Am•du." ,\..,.,,¿,y !Au¡¡ 21,
1"'12) p." lrf'P\lMJOA on r.ar~ .., 1t 1uiir oí""'ºº wherc ,...¡com, v.·cre 1okf ~ S<rb1..1n
fomos thf'l' ,..,. undor ord<n tn raro thcml. John I' Boms. • ,1 "°rbt.tn Fi~htcr" Tonl
ol BruLJJJty." '"" y.,.;. Tmrn 1,.,..,. Z7. 1'1'121 p Al lr•por"n• •n mdw:ted s.rb t<r
"'""' ..,~ "h< anJ Cllbtt ~ li(:ht<n ......, ,,.........,..i r&J>< - 'º IOd tbm
t.k.c tbtm ••'IV(O UJ. thcm •)
18 S DJcvnbtc, •Gu .nJ (11V(' Blrth 10 f'.hnndu · \'rt1f"mn l.J\I tNnv.1'. 19'l21
I~ Th< puor roal)'l!ÍI •nd rh• facu undetlyirqc n •ro bllJ<d m m1 rmling oi fiN
h...i x..-u rn>vidcJ i,,. •'Kt•ntt
20 .\lM1) bntJ>.ad ...,.,..... tt'polt tlus. !)<..,, .u...
u.,..,. '"' Ami v;u .\cr.
W.... H'""°'"'IJ 11.-6 ~r-July i 19'121 Cuan...., .ix- Mir 11 lt a un.:leu
whrtbu thC' br"thrl" sunply oc11...nue- krul r"pc ur •htthcr IOl1K' mm att ~1n¡ pal
or r~vmg ocht:.r beoefit• 1n ClCthilnl(t' for :h,(ttt h.' th~ woml'n
21 (),..IJ\h,c. •~ Mt• 18 \lv rem111<lllt<• lunhcr 5Uppon thtt.
22 E:viJcocc mdato tlut IN'tih babta bom m <m<'<l>trWOO cmipt ~.,..
.i--i...., TÑ Tn.J/ofc;,.,_JJJ"" w.. c,,_,.,i..,. '· 1 1-J :-O:oJ"ilh
14 "ln\·e11n;,to1ui-'n }.ga¡ns1 (1tncrlll Mb:Kcntk'" \"n'ml}I l..JJ1 tNov, 2,, 19921. At
i.:orJ.1.ng ui iU1 Jllt('I\ 1cw ~1th R.i~1b l IAC.l.Ltc. hc.-..d ('t 1h~ (.cn1er for l~atc:h oo Lle~
,,Je .uW \\,.1 ( rin • 1· 2'..c:t11l.1 U..11naa. GcuC"hl .\t«J..:mnc,11ucJ 1hc "°cClJt' rni..umt
111 111 °'1Mnia. whidl wn a l>rrahd ;nd hod i...:,,,... • • umnr '"I~ <loth amp ! lo
"'1'<'rt..dl1 lo.1,lcJ fnur \luol1m ..,...,,.,, m h" l:r-.'PRC>FOR <ruck. •n•t ,1.,,..., ...,..,. Thc
W\ll'lletl b.ii\t' .f'l<"\tC'r hccn ~n ·~.un. ·ve:rge\\.J.laicun~cn a:ls anc rüuk Jcs Krtctlt.'S.
Vit \rt,/1 <0.'< l, 19~!1.
15 ::+-;ms dotuml'll.lt'd maty a1t1'1(1t1C1 'll:uh Jil.,:1tl'lthlrhs andudw,a 1h..1'-C1hot.-n U1
r¡,,. Trul a{ e~ \t..,.. 11"., Cn..,•41' r< 7 99 1111 119461 "theo< .,kcd __,
•ro~ ulton '" th< cxroninn ,..,.m.i c..w.dt11•..J to .btb, th<-<c ,.,_,, bz,..,. !>«n
lorceJ. b, tb• '"""' Oh<r¡¡rupp<nluhrer co IX"" hctoro dx c.tm.:r-;" lphot()j?f:lpht
pre><:ntcd by ~Wt<t prosl'<\mon l<•ml Scc •ho IM~ ~<kr anJ ll.irl>ar• John, 00..,
ílf'~U., ,,,,J µ Jr, .t~ Ant'g, \ r1ru•J!Jtg1'1tgcJ Á.1,,JtT 1J l-U4 eJ!Nll <._;c;tman (llKI
h~•I* ut Jc.i.J ,,.pa.1 Gnm..r1 .rnd Ruaan v.·tmatn• On tht pr•1n1 i,( mc:di. m.anrp
. ....., ol.u.'" In)' cum•spundmt trom C'.n111.o• IL'lSl'W' "1'"11l"lhdd) l.mN • ..11sthc. ~ 7 •
1'1'121 oot<S' "Th< man1pulaoon oi film documm1.11"'" '* •troattc< m · luda Mml""
liu\d CroatlAf'I \1\.IJJnl OI: Serb tAArniuon h.ave t.all.u,l~)U>ly btto pr~ntcd ;j,),Setb \1Cltm~
ul ,\1usluns .l1\J Ln1.;ttuna. hu l'lie'C"n 1 noublr ll.r.atca ol che w11r 11~•.an ..1 Croot.lU .,,ti
tk1uu• llcnqm1na" ~.IM.1:\ K.tunn •\\.1rr.111~ ,~1.1 '1·04u1.1C,ut...· \n,·r,q/
Úfl\'iq>t 11 1992H"pocrutt·und>.,.in><•pos\>lth<concmtra11..,,-...,I."...,·~ \IJ r
¡;,o,,,,. ahn.c "'" ~ ., 2l~ i.i.-.J c,...u.. boy r.....,ta:I • JcaJ "eri>tao ""rl.
"\illa~ m Cro•tw Kecount M•,,.tn: br S<rb1"" r ,,..,..,- .\l'IL for~ r,,,,nH>tt IY,
1'1'11): Ka1.an, •bo.-. noto'· at l l-14 '1-52.
'*
1(,. •M.t.c.N.nr,..1u'1 lC::OlraJ pumt tlw '• "'{"".ut "not ~~t th~ n.amc oí .i •.t\ ,,f
bnng huaun R...hanl R..nv, "fttnumm anJ Pr.....tJwn." 10 llt<hq.¡• QiNtrtnly
11.r <u lll 214 !19911
27 ls...U. lkrlm, ·r...,. C:OOO'fl1> ~r L1bertv." m fne.r f..,,,,.."" L1brrn Cl9'>'l1
28 /Mgia• l.1•gu1111a C4u, l.(.. H.H., l %8, s.,.,.. J\, t-;o. il, ~32.
~9. Ülkr·Amt1i\'.MI Court l'I 1tunuu R.ights, \'t'1b4.1ucz.•.Ro.Jrt;,!UC'Z v l lunduru. Sr
'"° ri~ ( \'ti 4 lud,n~r nt Ju!y ~. l'•RR
10 Lon lkuo .pxcJ m Cmt"' h 11'~ t Gluhal tc.d..-nhip, 199111"_,,, r
1.-1..J.lf' f~llllldt ll.rp<>« \r"o,.,.,, 1,..,¡..,,cr ••./ 11._,, Rzén 17 11~2
) 1 Far 1Uumuw~ baclc,round Jt.-e \1axnnc r._rJu. HJ,,,,;1,. RiibtJ TJv ¡,,,e,...i
fJ(Jl,rJ/ P~tllkJ/t \)•lf,.-rN .¡5 tAug lill\,) 1· fht: porcuu.11ol ldtvl!iolw: poi.1wJI l u.:•:_ dt'bltC'<C
lcil 1.unil1...--i c1eal1lJ1'h •u so oh,1ou, th,. 11J ~tt<'mm,·nts bttame hr-rc;~~ Jctcnnlnt•I
to k<p lb. l'fOCnl llh<kr tbrit "" n nxmol 1ht.'Ulth ftJ«'U\I incli>1dwJ comrlmn
l\'Uoml.-l S.. al.o Louia B "ºhn "Thc ="""' ln1cma11onal Lau Pr0tt'<'rion ol ihc
 Holu to P•cts Ul- 1~ • lll
Jll • ~oles to Pacu 151- ISl ~"" to Paces ISl-1 S7 • 335
Ri¡;ht> ... lnJ.qJu.J. R.<htt llwn ,,....._. l ,.....,,... u,,,,.,,111 uu ¡¡....,.., Jl
i l•IK21 ~ 1 AJ> 1mcU.,i:nr dt..:uSSIOll of 1hCK prrn111om un be lound in ¡;...., Eogk, l) MMl¡ odia hu.,.. Dt!his ..W.um.,..11. noublv Anide J .mJ Amdc lb"' U..
12 Fnr an 1:r.unplc <.f thr uwhd1h· h.1 ~ • \'tol.t11J111 oi" wvm.111'1 hnman rilt,111 1 • Jn1c1n11uon.il 1iun111n ~~ns Wl'"I 1cn11nb.1n '«'hen 01Koorses f\1.et1 1~ 1\.1.1L/ng,.u1 lntrm.&tiooial Ú'l\CJl1tn1 M\.rvil ianJ J1<,hu1,;al Right¡, llt•c Jf\ 1966, ftUlr,\nt« IC'X
"' 1ht dqrtt •h• .1,,_" d....,.,J "r<,.,.,.,.¡_. ""'l..aro Moiaro • 1' ' 81J F2J 14l~.
/no,,,J of /11lr'11111•1,,,J IAJ• Sl7 1 t 'WJ) tqulllJh' Thís ('C'l\TflUll N.mds 01111 an ..u.~lftK, thro11nh .1.n nvuonAI Pn,h-.14 'mi
l•lo-t-1-4: ("'11 (,u l~b7J tPook ) •lRH"'O'lf 44 r \1 \Jam ri.. .\lrt•rJ>• J " Id/ ..J 'll'o•/J r,,....,J. "·-·- p¡,, pWnll ~y mJn;duaJ, U ....u U OUIC l'U'ICS, bca anly oprb<-; m ,¡.,,. 1'-ho h...., 1C
J\ ~T.. rJu.lh•\~nattJl •Cw..lttl . P.trtll,~ \',pp2.fw1J.!5.~ \[ «!"'.d 11 ~ r....,.i..;. rhJ""' ~1 mdudcs cionW>CIOOOn"' ,..,.
p -1.- fGam...n "JJC"i1l1n~ m.tl'klt1h"~ u.N lb • pn1fNllJCh.f.t b.uc- In 11thtf countna b~· 45 ~- ti< lk•u'""· Th< f>ro,.J \a (H. M Panhl<v, ed. and 1r111> J9íi~t 1... lf'&
(1~52• f'ho~ mOl.tlTk"t11• tlrc
"·d.J J.xwncntcJ See jll/rfbau./ l!f Glulvl I'f.t* lnt«
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ll11"1U11 Rit./, \1 C1971 (nan('ln• f'l:'aJ1u:d cha1 mdnhl11al pTOtr<iront <;1nnot he iif.11 411 J•cqocs Jll;rlwn, fhr Rlt~" o/ .\lm "'"' N1tufJ/ LAw 6' 10.m AlUón, rrans.. n,;l111N•I ~101t"11111 A•lf.olot:t IRt>bUl \111r111n , N. lq<)(~). \.c-n1tr (or
\t'''"'"" J:
>eldy lO " ' " ' 1~~1. frcnch l'M21 "(Thr:] bunw1 JI<""" pnu«<lal n~h11bcc•uocoi1h< '""' Í•<I \Xon1<t1'< Global r....J...nl11r. w....,..._ 1·,..¡,.,..., ..J H•.,•• IV¡ht Stt "'"' ~t.nlm
U Eluab<th '1..:lmm. ¡., 1w/ V.-.. U9881, E'"a KudU• Tlrc- Rni• o/ tbt- thM n "• pc."nl'.lll '•b<W. 1 mantt ot 1tW"lf Mld oí at' aas by \'lft'\tr uf n.u.nl U.. \X"anna 11 w-... C-ottJ 09901 r""""""" ~ ._,.. "'ml<n indudm¡¡
1 ..1 • (I~~,, 1h- ht•""" penan h.. to ¡,.,~ che nch1 "' be <ttp«tcd. ,. ~ subi<ct roí nt<his. pos- ª'"·•'" womcn·,
l1I .,,vft trQm m~ kcoun~ t~lCIDSt. Thr rd'crak.""e to
l,. Thl11 u, ~lt'(UJoatd furthrt U I n1y Tr>U•.ml" f,.,,.,,,,.,
r¡....,,,, t>f ~/;I/( t:h 12 ll9AA) ses-.e!I ngbcs.. Tha.c are: rhi.ngs wh1ch .are ow~ to a ma.n bccawc o! thc Vl"fY ÍKt dut C...•J. 1a"' iM -Man1rt,.J M"""uc" 1111>hich 14 Y<'Ulltt womm •<tt murJcr<J by
lb Jolul ~nU1rt Mill and H1r'IOI T1)'1or, "On 1h. ~ub1cmon ofW.,.,,cn." in¡:;,..,.. he: ll _. 1nan.• 11 man •<:n:.arrung he h.:uN feminuu Joule- C:apuu anJ Ot.ant 1!. Jol. Rumll. •r t"f'n1citft.:
,.. \, • f,qt;a '>' 121 Ali« R.os<1. «l. 19;'01. ~ • llttbnt C. K<lrNn, c.,_, o/°"''""" ll~~q,, M M...Dou~.t 11 1....,...,u, ~>.1111 Tt"rrorum AJt.1nlf WNnen" an Ra..lít,.-d and Ru1KU cd.'" . Ft'm1nJtt •hM'C' nort
) , ~" ~laU<r Okul, ro_,, 10 11 '""'" p,_._ lb.lúg/!1 (l')ljt) , }oM Lodo •nJ 1 rlxn. H• .,,. l!Jtf11 ,,,.J W.,/J P•/.úc O,J,. 1 l9'KI~ l .. 11-14
Tbt- Srwo.I T"''u• .¡ c,.,,...,.H ·11 IJ IX' ~h. <J , 1%<.J. n,., ,,. 111.hbcs. lnt·
11t1'.ln lt\-1 0..ii;C"ahott. t"J l941\)
4R Mnnimtt Adltr, "IW>m Bo.lt· Tht 1 . - 10 S. Lamed" •commm" on
Robc11 H Borlc. r;., T<Mpl1•z olAMmui, &! J\m fo,¡. U•n=ty I.au. ¡¡,.,...,
1121
' ' lo ""' ........ e.¡uaiilY lS dmo-111\'< .. nnuaJly all !-1 $\'5t<lll>- .,...,
\.'tTlflM for thc Pro1n:uon ot Human R&ghu anJ Func.Ws,cn1.tl Ft'ttdonb 11.tt t-4. 21J
º"' C.on-

l~ llü!I J"'f'int ll fnl'dt un1ntmUflf'l,llh· hl Thc,1ck'r /\,rnlll in hiJ ~1t1Kk M CF.DAW ( 1'1')01
fot conlhro~ "uh rnsung º°"""'
ol bWIW> ri~hu '" ndOU> ·~•<. S... Theodoi 49 M.u S.Jomon. Dn Bqp!fJn c;e...,htrgk«t lw AmtoJrl<s 26 119171 t~« page 8
Mnna. H•..,.• l!Jd:ot• t-.\1,f ,, ,,, 1~ l"mJ ,...,_,t.?~. -.1>7. n t 1%6 '""" J111p \nlolO!k anJ I'• 2o for thc lñrrd Roch ...J 1h< rm1-11<>n 1h.i1 • <qUA1i1J rn
)9 Stt "<Aun R.dtng Sough o • \X""""'$ U>nwnoou • 1 H,. ,. RJ, ·u Tnl. ~ 1hc ~o[ «'11lpWt< ~11)' .. idcnnl) """and !he - '""'' ·1 m...,......,.
cqwlny
21 !1'>'121 dur1lon,¡ dunn¡¡ thc l\w penad. lcadm1 c:ommuoonal tcholir Ulnd> Sch<un<r. ·o.r
1JO ÜJO\'tf1Uc1n tm che- Elamin-;u1on oi AJI ff'tmt 11f T>i'cnminauM Ag.uru1 Wonlfn, Gkrchht:1oged..n~ in <l<r vollaschcn Vcrt....,,,goordnung. 99 u111chn/1 iur J,. G.s-
0.-r IR. 1979, 124q ll N.T S 1l cn1cml inca far..- Sept. l. IQAll íhcránaft<r ""''e S/.J11J1UJtth'n•,h11}1 l-4' ( 19)91, Jtttn th•t tJ1e Jubshintc fil Lhc cqu.tbry 11~h1 u• Art
eon,..,,..,,.
CE.DA\\-• .m b fot tho ~prewan ol Traffic m P.....,. IDd tbc EJ. ~tci-.hht11 · of \ry.tn• tr 2a7 • Fmm tht" · .. t1lkach• 1cnc-1 11f Cllnternpnrarv(,('nn.&n i.w.
'*''"'-.,¡!he"'-""""' et U.hcrs \IN 21 . 1m. 96 U.1' T ~ 111 :..., .tlso w, ..., f"i<" 267. "ldanm) fgj¡¡t....,.,.mol11 ,1,, A~ Je. aitfmndm fJrnmt<.u>
Jn.11, ·u.'1 C..r"""""'n Apn" 'e ,..J Exp&.11,....,,,." 1<port<J in .lfr 11 Scp•A1'1 ,...._,,1.,.., dtt J..Jcn. 1uo dan deunchct> Volbkiirpn. und 1hn: dútormadle B<·
l '1'111 h:inJlung lfollows ~ die'"'""'""" "'<l=ents el aben blood, p.irocularly
~I In l'IM, ThlllLAnJ en•c1td 1ht Snv1ce E.1o1bh•hmcn11 Act, •hl<h NI"" speofir J.ws, lro1n ihc boJy ot 1hc German p«1pl<, •nJ tMit , Jilfcmuc.Ü 1<c•tmt'111I. How 1he
lqral i.tatus to "~W ~"Ice garl~ · Tht \\'t1rl'ICll h.d 10 tum to th<' ~11shmons (or J~ 'li'C're trca1cJ u 1hw ttndctt<J ..diílf'r~uu.I t~~unc:n1 .. ~ ...i~, 1ht U'-C t.-1 1M Arll
Pf'l<roJOll from .,.._IDOO unJc. _......,.. i...... wlikb = p t th. ,....,._,. bw """'"" rnnc:ipk" ¡,...-u.o Scli.uncr ª'" thc u~ ~-rmnc Coun wuh •rt""..I wuh
"°' ch< ,.,_,, llwih Dum T""'"I! t.,., 11o• ., ,..,¡ \fo.,,/11J Promn.t- oJ
Taul'rt,,, ,,, .\;. 11tf '•"' 111.t, 111 'q."})In •nothc-r 9'"nM", .. hCR"\'(f rrmtlfUtlt,,, ... le
rq.ird "' r.a.l ,,..~unn and ....,.,,......,"" 1-t. n••nna 1h.i1 dm bd. 10 •8-:bca·
h~~· I~ rol pc<iplc of rolror "·hich IS ex.t<th 1'-bat is il11mdtd. •t pp .165-
1e.alaleici. thc llJtt' •• tr•ffidcin111 in wclfnen 2bb J le abo oouca lht t:ourt's beg1ruun1; to wcaken U'l lb ddenk ot scgrcfrZ&Uon.
42 U.S. \ratf' l>rpanmmt. Ctn111tn· Repor11 º"' ll11"f#'lf &ih1s p,,,,."'°f'J ftw Je;<}/ 'º "'°"
UnllmBl Oc<l•.,uon ol l luman Ki,h1• •n 2, (;encrat A»<mbly Kooluuon
to l"-1~ UXGAORO IJ s.,., ~urr 'lo ll ... ~10
811>-'Sl9 19"21 l'b¡""-11 rompulwon ro aihmi1 "' .tlx>ruon or rcriWauoo r< - 217 A lllJ
•U1hona:d. bu1 c«ilmua 10 occw at of.biaali Hmt; to mtte popu&.mun w~ 1cpott,. " rEDAW '" 1 w 1 odap1eJ DK IR 197"
of for1..'C'J .ab..'tfl1tG• an..I Jk'ti!U-.u,.,n11:t,n1tnuc, th.111 h wt"ll bcft'N' 1M ln'fl" uf thc e.rh '2 C«rullllltt.,.. U.. Elmúnat1.., rol Oocnnunaoon "'"'"St \X'omcn. ("........, Jltt.
19'.'4(>., \'t'hik rrolf(JU11n-. 1.h•11 1h111it<1: t~cur. oft10.al11 ni1urn•un (h.Jt (J11n.1 Jocs not ommdld.uoo No t~. V10lence Against Womcn, Cf.f)A\X C/199! Lll1AJJ.IJ, }411
cmd'''" furc.d ahoruon or tlenLtdlJ<>n. and dm •hu,.. b) local ofn..,.ls •~ punishtd 29. l 4H2. nw Jocunl('nl goa vcry t1r 1n recogtuzlng thc •t.."'Opc oí thc. pn:,ble1n and 1n
~ .6d.s!ot, ho\\ n.tt t.hat pun1J,mc:T11 ll- rare and ha\ e \C1 ro pt"O\ h-lc dt1cumcnta1aon .-J..rtin.c ICX '""fu.alll> w.1 • toncrpt to 1.JJra1 ,.lolc:ftt'C' 111g.tJnR. ~'t'mtn f l'f a wJuJ
JiscUU>t..~ - ~oo. .. Bunch, •\¡;.,,_·, Righu .. lluman Rl¡d.11 r ......rd. Re
of llft'W' {M'tthnc-nt1 .)
'"""' rol Hum.m Rtdns • 12 H-• IU,Jtr Qr-t,./y 4 l 1990)
U.'l.TS 221. E-TS '· U.KT.S 71 fl'l'JJt IS<pL l. 1'1'11• 11;h1ch h•• br.n hdd 10
pt'mllC OCl Cl~tnpl:.nnlt <'n tlll own. but Ol<'rtJ~ te'Íers to nsuaJ ii!Cct"H 'º
t\l.hf' riJtht111 X
and Y '" lb< N..berland.. E.CH R 1"11' ~enes A 'lo 91 r•" n
' b Andrctr. V U,.. ~el Bntl>h Co/umlm. ,l ···~ 1 ~.c..R. 141, 171-182..
17 1- Doc v 11.>ud el C...m"'''*" ol Pobcy tor tbc M\mKlp•luv ,~ ~1~
P<~lhlJI ÍOfUOIO, lll/''8! 12b C.C.C. )J 12
'1' J•n1t.-n v Phuy Lrnrrpnsa, ! Jf:)tl\)] l SCR 12'2 C11t"1n1"l h;1r-1111)('n1 lll tcx
dlti.:rirruJWi('ll'I undcr tht M•rtu~ h11mt11 "-hu codt•
'q llroob.Alknanc!Dwiov CanaJ,Saf.,...y [lq!i'IJ 1 SCR. t219•rrcanancy
dacnminmon 1> scx dlocrinWuoonJ.
C>O. Norbcrg' \X •nnb, l19'12] 2 ~ C R 221>-
M M !K) V M 111 1. íl'l921 1 s (' R h
i.l 1Vfli,1av t..1111« [1990) 1 ~ C R. ~12
¡,¡ ~ " CanaJwn ~ ...."P'.,..., Co 119881 2 'C R. 122
"" Scabo,tt • /!qmo. t199ll 2 ~e R. m ~,.,. "rape .i..dd"
th< (AO.rdun Cnmuw c....i.. R.SC.. I~'·, 4o• .._ 270,,,.¡1"71
"'°'"'°"' °'
6' Kipe was ttd.-h~ m Ca.nlkL urK,ln ~ nnr law Sc-"1..11,'>n 271• w• anu.·n..J&!.J
In l<N1 i'lkl 2002 1111J nrw (l('\;tJon112761 27(1,. Wctt' itdJL"J in 19'>2 ~llt'lf\ 277 •r:is
amcndtd m 2002 ""' Cnm>nal Codo of C1nad.. R.S. ICJ!l' < C-46. • 27•· •11M:Jlded
.,.. 19'12 """"""' ol ~- di. }8, ' 2 anJ 2002 S.an11e< .,¡ Umda. di 11 • u.
Cnmin.I <:.odc ol C....J..,. 27t>.l-2;b 1 •JJtd b) !"".! '"""º o1 C-J. dt. 1& •
2 lrllftan.J C.odc of C..n..t.a R.S l~•l,, ( 41>. • 1T7 .... "'""''lcd by 21102 .,.11.,...
r-f C.;an.atla ~h ll i. 14, .,,uJ.1blt .u hup J/lnlft.JUJil~ AC·c• C'n C,,.....bl"2~C)I h1n1J Lcss
roduve ~ulu: occurrtd an pro1utUaon l't'~ ~a''· C\klMC'r, f19QOl 1 S , .. R 12l5,
anJ m >tatutorv rape. Rqpna v. Ngu-<:n 11.J HesS- l""<ll 2 ~ C.R. ~. ~" """°"'
-a¡ua1.ry-.. . .. --- ~

336 Notu to Pu•• 157- 151
66 O•iglc v. Trc-mbley, (1989) 2 S.CJ\. 530
67. On '''''"''"• nglus 111 chddblrth.""' Regina v. Sulhvan and LcMay, [l991) t
S.C.R. 489.
68 Ktt!•tt•' RrK1.., [19'}0) ) S C R. 697; Butlcr v R.girua, [1992] 1 S.C R. 452
69 Woancn'1 Help Nov. and Kon:ta. •Who Are Wc? Whcie Aro We>" Uc.tle<.
7..ai<reb. Oc<. Z, 1992h Na<Jllic Ncnadie, 'How Do You Get Rid of che Guos?• E...,,,.
"''""..• 19 Uul>'-""8· 19911; Ku¡a Gawn for Kareta Ftm1mst Group. ·~"heie Hiave
Ali iM ~<n\l!USI$ Conc?' (11npublíshcd pa(>cr. Z.grd>, Jno. 20, 1992) t•Jn 199111992.
Croaw it " ,,,.OJnan, .. )
70 A Ubd'ul ~VICW ss Yougmdn Khudi.a.l•nl, D1f.,.11y 11ttJ fl<>"º''' p{Wft"'~" 111
B11i' oncl FunJqm~nt6.I H1an4Vi Rígf.11 ( 1982).
71 ProtOCQI l. Protocol Adduional to the Gaicn C.,m-muon~ o{ Atagust 12, 1~9.
an. 76tl) fviaims oí mtnnaoonal anncd condkt protea•J •gam.s1 ·~pe. furctd pros·
aruuon anJ any othcr forn\ ol indecent ass.uh ); Pro1ocol 11, Protucol AJdiuonal to
che CenC"':t Con""Cnuoru oí AuHU81 12, 1949. jlrt, 4(e:) (\IK'1ims of ncmintcm11ucinal
Armc:d ,onRim protcct~ 11.¡;a.inst ...CM.ICraRCS: upon pcrwnal d""it)·. in p1tnicul.tr hu
milt•ung <1nd de¡uoding creaunent, rap<:. cnforccd pnlOunacioo and 11ny fonn of mde«nc
assauk•). Murdcr and torture aie prolubit.d undl't mmy ímcmational convcnllons.
wuh ..Jditio...J prottttlons for dolng so on «bruc grounds.
72. In re Y~1ruuhu11 , J27 U.S. 1 fl94,,. Counnq \\"hiu1•y. Brig•cl1<t General, U.S.
Anny, Th< ,_.,. of Gnirn1/ l'amJJh1u· A Mm1om11lum :5-16 09:501, oontllÍns rkclliled
euerpq from the toronl of che tria!, ""calin~ many tllpdl The U.S. Suprcmc Court
uphdd Úlc d<cision oí iM millwy tribunal. s.. also .Richard L. i....,1, Th< Y"""'1hit•
PttttJmt \\'f•r Crimn a11J ComManJ R<Spo•mb:lil) 83-84 fl~82); L C. GJttn. &:s.,'J
Oll lh< Modem uw o/ War 227-22& ( 1985); Aroold Braduruan, TM Othtr .'lur<111¡,,.rg
'fl.t lJntolJ ,f!Ofl of th< Toho War e,.,,.,,, Trla/1 )79-180 f 1981). Brucltm.,. dis-c:i.•<se>
ch< death >entonce of C.,ncral lwan< Mo..W. who was oonviacd of "foilin~ ro .._kc
adcquat~ steps- to serure the ob.servance and prC'\•ent bre3c.hcs of con\.~tioos and llws
o( ~'a.t in respect of pnsoners of war and clv1.han internees" m the .mass rapes that u:crc
alled che Rape ol Nankang (~19; '" nlso 108 and 4091.
7}_ Liel, .ahow: not~ 72, 11 81. Ali th;.&t d d11tLn_guilhiabl-c in cheJap;an~e accounts
is 1hc pNnop1Jphy and thc lntcntion lO cre11e pregnancics
74 Joon Ficipamck. "The Use o{ 1ntcmocional Human Ri~htt Nonns ro Combat
V10lmce Agamst Womcn.'' m Human Rights 1nrd Women: 1"'1ai10n#Í anJ }Jttema/:lonal
P<r1fJ«lw.J 4R«b«ca J. Cook, eJ., 199~) is a luaJ, mfonncd Ut•tm<n<. On che capet
in llangl.ulcsb,""" Susan Brownmiller. Ag•i•SI Our \Vtll Mf'I<, Womc11, •nd !Wrt 78-Si
09n1.
75 Tbt Trt•f o{ G"""ª" Ma10r W11r Cn..1n1/s p<. 6, )00 (1946) lcvidcocc oí Soviet
prosccutors); pL 5. 159, 32:5-327 (<v1de.ncc of French prosccutorst
76. Ld. at PL L, 24: "Ooe hundrcd and chlriy-rune '"°""° lud chear anns pamfully
bcm lr•ckword ond hdd by war<S From some ch.Ir brca.L> had bccn cut off, anJ thdr
c-.ars, 6n1tCf1 wd toes had bttn 11ropuuircd. Thc bocha lxu't" rhc: mark¡. qf bumt ...
fRu.w.an womcn·s hodla Ífl Suilingntd n:gioo a.her Gtrm11n e~ullion.)
Nom 10 Pages 1 51-1~3 • 331
33& • Nole• lo Pa¡u 164-169
77. Opcruug SLott1n<nL by JusuceJackwn, 1d. ut 53 On. .xhibn of a Soviet ol6cial
wos ICl<rnng no< only 10 thc sexually eiiphcu roncen< ol me m•«nnl> but to che cxtcnt
~c.!'l\hnA .. lt\'olung aeu af rnpc .. by thc Ccnnian ín,adm ~ rhll "Un
oí thcar <lastrabuuoo anJ pub~< legn:louuon.
qucsoonablc facu prow dut cbr rt'Rime . . d1d 1\0C ~s1p of e:en:1in cxce;s5"$ of in • B..ma. ·A Kdlers Tale: abo..·c n91e J
dividua! un<hs<:iplmcd mtln"Y unns. or md,.idual Gcrman of6,..,.. and soldte... Rather
7 t.I. 'i<e al•o Michod Pa4ich. "Kilbng, Rarc: 'h \Vu an Ord<r." 5,.,,¡,, Tmm,
docs u polm 10 • ddinuc systetn, planncd lllf in advantt an<l oncouro¡ed by che M f¡\far lO, 199ll. o.,;d Cmy, "Sttb "aldier Rrcounis AnocitiCi. • Pr11rhur¡/t P•SI·
Gcrmllll Gtwc~cnl anJ 1he Gcrm:i.n Army CommMJ. • S)')>tdl\ whlch tnccotlonall)
G.r..<11•- A• !Mar. 1:1, 199>1.
unlCl.)hcd 'A11h1n thar •rmv the- loVr'CJI 1nimal insun<.:u PilllOng thc offictrt and 1ncn...
8. Bum.. "A Nllcr's T.Jc, nb<we """' J cMJ-_ H<tal< u:knaJicJ che.,.vmcn he h..!
Id. u pe 7, 26 Cnot"'I of V M Molotov, N•rional Commasm for rorci,qn Affiain in
USSR. Exbibit USSR 5'1, dat.d as ..cly-.s Jamury 6, 1942•- The Nurcmbcr¡¡ tria!,...,
11u..ckal-Ern111.11S.1buui.. Antcl.1.a.od f.ttima amon.g oc.hen. lhie \'O\IJllCSI of thcm tct'O·
-'fte"· thc ul<lnt .1bou1 })•); ·c1p1urs' C..oun C.OOdcmn.s Scrbs to ~th,• \'anrotJi'C'r
c:oodu<:t<d urulet !.he com1non bw of '"'" evcn 1hough me violanons of che Gett\'I fow IC..nad.), AIO (M..r. n, 199ll f"ln <0un, he ..-ciccd [Ju, lin1 nama o( oome of
Com-.:nuon• un'.1<' .,•hi<h [Ju, Nul l.-.d<t!lup w>J clui¡;ed had "'" b..:n madc • ~pccl6c hiI viaura: N1úla. 7.chra, Fati- lna, lncsa, Sumbut. and rwo oruncd Sabina");
penal off'1UC. S<e Howml S. ~•• Th• Cod• o/ fottm•lio~J/ Arm•J Ctmj/m 862
"Muslim \Vomcn RApcd Th"" Killed, TnaJ Told," Etb"""'º" ]ouma/ lea.udal, Al
f19&6l.
41-l>r.1,, 19931 (The ac:cused mM listcd has .,<tJm! n.amd-Amda. M<'lt•, lnn, En,..,
78. "C.,nsiste.nt pancrn of ¡trO<S and rcliably 11tested ,;olatioru; o{ human r!¡zbts
Sumbut., c;..,.J,1, Alm., M1•• .,,d Zchrn "l.
and fundamental frcedoms" viobtcs J~lurion ISO} tXLVIIll of die Ec:onomic .nd
9. S.C •c,._'flocidc's Sc•u•fity," bdow •• No. 22 nn.15 ond 16
SocUJ CounaJ authorizm~ the cstllhlish1n~r oC_ 1 subconuniu.ion on Pmreotion o(
10. Srreic"Mr1 fc:ir publishing. wos coovictcd for mcimnan to murdcr and ~xttt·
Dastnmin.ouion 1nd ProtcctJon of 1'.iu1ontie1. h I! m'lpOwtt!!d to 1ppciu1 .. g,ruup co
minaoon, a Íotm o( pttsecutioo oo poliunl and racial ~rounds. a crime agamst bu·
dct-cn:ninc viohuions and b~ tl1cm to tbc rutcnuon of tbc tuhcomminion. ancl ic
manuy. IUld ""ccutcd. lm/ oj tht Ma¡tir War Cm•m•I• \'OI. XXll. '49 U94814Nurcm·
enables thc UN l'O interfcn: in •domc:sti<;" 11U1ttm. See Fdix Ennacora. "'Human Rlghu
b"'l!, 19-17-19491 (6nJlng Stttither g...ilty oo onc C0<1nal: •nd Val. l. J6' t"'n1cne<nJ<
and Dom<Suc: Jucisdkrion," 124 Rl!r:Uei/ de. Cours }7 t. 375. 4}6 (1968>.
hrm ro de•th)
79. llogdan 1'iroaoié, Bo1i1nsk1 Bútz 101 (2000). Mkhad Moorcoclc, "Wor!Ung in
11 Td
tht Mutlitry OÍ Trutb: Pon1ogr1phy :ind Ccnsonh1p In Contcmporary Brit.am. in Por
12. To •he date of chis volumc. ch< 1ntcmational Crinunal Tobuoal for ch< Formcr
11~gnpb) Womto, Vi;>k.c•, •11d Ci.-.1Uhefl"t5)6 <C•ahcnnc lucn. ed , 1992). qu0<cd
thas .,.tancot. then askcd, "Ha,.., "°" cnmct droppcd m Serbia?" l550).
Yogosbvia bas not mdtctcd any llJch bgures. l>uc chr lnternauooal Cnnunal Tnbunal
for Ru-.anda h.. conic el°"' ;uid to0\1Ctcd Lh<m. Scc C.chonnr A 1'LlcKmoon, · p,....
80. 1t <hould be notcd thac che S.tbs consadet tb. Serbiao•ocrupied ate.s oí Cto•Ü•
ecuU>r v. Nabuthan11, &~"go.·n~;. 11nd Ngeie,• 98 1lu1NllYJ11 j(,urr.ill o/ lntC"rnitltalWI
and .Bosrua-HettcgO\wa to be Scrbtan <IA<C!, partS of che Unncd Smes o( Serb1.. So
thc S.rblon milimy forces, in oddtdoo to bCU1g rone actors und<rorders from Bdgra<!e, Úlu· U' (2()0.l I
funcuon urtdtr color of offla.11 authori1y of 1he scJf.d«;l11rcd Scrb1an m1nist.ue1 witbi 1,
ond _"tl•Ílm the tstabli1hcd ¡O\·cmmcots of Crootlll aod Bosni•-H•rn8ovina 1..ocul 16. Rnpc QS Nutionbuilding
Scrbaan ur~ars. tcrmcd che1mks. ptovid< yec aoorher la)"' of acro.I and apparonr
J For an •11cmpu:<I gcnealogy o! LWs LCrm, IC'C "f'rom Auschwir.a to 0rnilt$k.a,
$late authoruy.
from NuremlX'rg to Thc J l~¡:uc," bclow NQ. 17; te:~ sl&0 Snmantha PO'l'Cr, 11 P"Jbk,,,
/..,,.,,/MI Amm"' anJ 1/v Aie o/ GtnoaJe 249-251 (20021.
1,. Tuming Rnpc into Pornography: Postmoclem Genocide 2 ToLAl llo<OW> ovilwi aisualties are tsWllllt<d ar 200,000, in addiaoo ro 2 miltioo
displa~. S<C l'aw<:c, abo«: note 1, . i 2)1, abhaugb ch• <xacr numbers are unknO\>n
l. S.. LindA LO\'Clacc and Mich•cl M.-Crady. (),¡J...,/ Cl980).
P«cr C.ry "llosru.. b> thc Numbct>, • U.5 Nru" t. W~./J Rrp,,,1, 5J IApr. 10, 199').
2. Gloria Stcincm, Outt11ge001S Actr dltd EV<rytUv kbe/J,ons 250 f!98H
Ol cx.humcd jlCnC1C1dc: v1ctum:º bo.J.es In eo.nia. 9j pen~cn1 havc: bttn canfirmcd to
3 John r. Bw:n<, "A KtlU:<'s Tale-A S~tul Repare A ScrbW. F¡¡¡lucr's Pnch o(
Bnn.Jily," N,,.,, York Ti11tes, Al fNov. 27, 1992) UnlcM<W ,.,u.
1fer.X by Btarn.l:Jolan he th""' of mitian<. ·ao..,¡.., MusUms Rcp<X1cdly AtC0<1n1 for 90 p.....,,t of Bodia
Exhum«i So Far, - BBC MQnrton•g lw1cr>t111U>•al R•p<>rts (Aug. 2002) Thcsc numbm
f Bums. '2 S.rbo to Be Sboc for Killinp >nd Rlil)cs," Nru· \'.,.A• Tmir A6 (M.or 31,
19931 <cestímony by Heralc). are COhS1'1cnt w1th those tD other modcm wars, m ,,.·hlch an C$tl1Tt3t~d 90 ~~l oí
4. John f Bwns, "Ending R<smwu, U.N . Aidt.< Denoum:e Scrb$ for Shellinp •
oll aa<ualtlts "" avdwu, Se:<'. Save thc lltddrcn. Swe of tÑ Vl'o,/J'1 Motkr< 2002
MGthrn u•J Ch1/Jrcn :n War .J11J COlffttcl 9 C~ia\' 2, 2002l lc-11lng Gria? M.achd, 1'-t•
Nn• l'ork fonM, Al {Apr. 14, 1!193). '
, llogd"" Ttmorué, BaunskJ 81~ 101 1200()). By daís. Timomé dorific:d 1ho1 he '"'P"rl n/Wa, 011 Clt11Jrer. A Rrr·1r11· tJf Pm1,rf'1S Sut¡,'f' /~ 1996 Unurd i'J411ll1n~ Rtporl
<InIM lml'<1ct o{ A,...eJ CMRu:t "'1 CJuldr<n 1 {20011), 1v1J1L:bk aL ,,,.,,.,_..vetbe
cbddmill$.org.
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v1c:;thns to thC" C'~tcnt that Ji rirt,f,abl}· l"'l>rJm on geno..:iJ~ \X.1(' !w.·en l )'t:t deeidcJ
u-bcthtr llf' ,...~ . . . . . lrf..J m..ucr lht o.'"Juct U\ lkioi.nw 1 s~. '11.u el~!)· 'lht
ah.-.'"" h•.,. """'1'«l tht<r ·~u thc t - · - - •• ,h 1h.i1 ih<y .. t ukl. h<>rdrr
on rhat pam"Jar fc1!111rrm · ~('Uill ~we [)operunonr Bn<ánJ on Repon ro'""'"""
on Human Ri,di1> Pracru;cs lor 1991 U111. 19, 199Jl, giJ,/Jhk 11 wwv.· f<doews.com/
iardu\'C.hun
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that rhere "'""' r«>Pt. M •ff 'ld<s. 1"'11 '"""' dconM h•J 1h1""' • ~U•• 0.:partm<tlr
Rcil<tlar BnehnK \Aug. 3, 19'121, """"4blt •t www.íedn...., rom/arcluve hrm
>. Tbeodor \\. A.lomo. 'üdrural Cnua.w and ~1cty," m p,,,.,,
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17 From Auo;chwirz 10 Omanlui, Nurcmber1110 The Ha11u<'
L üllm, l.roatu onJ &..,,.. .
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c;.1~ • drv(ll\ cd battrrnl ~Üt' ·mc formt-r ~In \t'hcte'\cr •
2. Thu rrpnn Wt• ~l\t'n tu lnC' d1rMly t'iy a •t1J"\.1vor Any orhcr'\\-1M! uni1unbulffi
quocaoom or Í•Ct> abou1 thr- cootlict m thit talk lll't' from •urvr\'Or" wh" 11 ,....,kt co ~
) ·a:Lc- 11.1nd. for ·ea..a Dora Cp(lttsa Cllawau." ,..¡,¡¿, U211Úit<n1tes as
.....,,., Sfot!1 ~rbono Spaw,. · 1lhe CinlL.: C. curttspaoJu>¡r 1 • thc fr~ kc.:r SI.
munlrrg ºOnly l'n11y So•-ct the "''"'-•
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l te~'UI• th"< Bamian Mu<l1m• ·~....,Id J1oppeor ¡,...,. 1~ Í1I« o( rhr f ...snh •
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l;,ajink. th< ICTY lcd ..,¡Jenc., tlut -luJoJ .., uirttcq>t ot K.nc:U..! .,.¡ Gotiro
Dvl)o. pr"1Jc.n1 ot tM AtarM>hllkKl ol Sc:tl)j frum. Bo:sni.a anJ 1fcttcf!t'-"'IH•. '"'º tb)'ll
J'lfklt ttl&tmR th.u choulJ 1ht ~1uJ1m1 pC't'liM ln thear t.h·mitn,lc, •rrlhe\· "'·111 tb11-aritx"•r
n.1 P<OI"-' ....U dssappear lmm rho f~ ~r 1h• ...uth if <hC')' flan n<'W Our ~lfer.,....
rheir mh ch.n<• • Prosttu1or ' Kajasni1 C... No. IT -00 19, T rul Tr>mmpt 1feb
1 .!0031, " '22 He conunued ., thc um< ronvmanon ºSau)<WO WI be 1 block
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l• l • "'""' ,.,,.. ,, ( 77
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b Jt fk C. tW.rdy cfHr •he,., OrlJJtn.ITcJ tfk IC'f'lll cthL...., c.an...nl-t 1.11 wbo btst
arrücJ U m d r ~ l\'"O•X1d.al cont.-,t h l5 ...J to hit- .a trantLuaon t1t •ctnido
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K~va '\lo'\"rt' c.l11CU.~ ui 1ht: mass mcd111 .afrtt 1981 rdicrnng to tlw- beh8\·io.r of
""'°'" Alh..,1am '°"otd thc ~"""'""Y m rhar pro\'llltt. Stt o.._~.
• úlmi< Clnn uic -An Aurmpc ar Mnlw..W.., · ' (;.. .../""# ,.,,._/ 1 ¡.,,_,,,_,
/.,, l-ll •l'l'"'J 'Slclx>J.rn \lit....,,.;, rhe ~mr•n kaJer, .-t thc: 1<nn c<hni<1lh
cJ".in' in Arnl 1987, in ..catti.nJl A1ban1,tn• of lf1"1nM tn fttrc:.: miti('lnfy Srrbs fro~
K"""a. • h•nle ute ,.,.h • cru<W rok m Serbwi oarn>n.d1M lore The rh.- Jw alsa
bem uX<d 1 rlx focmer ~1<1 U!llCG. """""' ., 1%1> Annaiwa and Alcd.u,..,..
u1rJ w íor..ic ,.,,,}, othc:T •Jtll ol thr mcl;a't:ic <'* 1'.~ Karab.alh m .an opn.atJOn th.i&
"il.,.LCC ofhc1,1b c.lt'ICrtbed v.1noutl) ;u ~,,,,,hf"l•tr ,hntlt1 'n.hn1.. pu~c.· AAJ r11t1cbt 1
Ji.rrr" dto&lir11n•t-'ethnK c;lr111,1ng • Th«' phr.1,J( fi"'t uppeared an Ensdi•h 1n .1Rcutrr•
J"J)•u:b on Julv ll, 1'191. quouna Crow... ~rmM C..rnal u 1mw11R !he Sabs ot
expelbn¡r CR>Ob lrnm rlx borde< •ras ol Cro;sbl ll'1lh die- - o1 'die nhnic deans.n-
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lk,.,n.1Ml forc1¡cn 111tniMtr lf'I t•l9l, latnt":1l1tnM that lhC": w(1rlJ h11d srocxl ,a,u.11.' h'Om. both
tht' c.f1tinr~het1on u( )~Ut•1tl11\t.1 -.nJ the: N'¡1.>1 ..itr<1C1ncs ot che- J ~\O..· La. rtnc e \Wkin,
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C~ Parlra. cd• 1996
7. Abo..< no10 '· "201
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'im>u w 6nt <ounrrr m Eumpo dedored l•ti<•fm. ·mi.. c:hcrnik """....,...' tq>'
~rtd rho íJrologioil crnror of Strbun polmr:al culrur< and enioi..J •1desptl'lld
1iupport &m<>nt( tlw: Scrbt. Th" Ustashtu. in Cllftll'a)(, 'l\'t'rr i.1n..11bcrraoon 1n mu.Jan
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Notu to P11e$ t71·181 • 141
lc;l1 Cfl.OIMlll~I .lfl,On:H any '-IVslt.tn ptlpi.~fdt ...,n. Uf ~rwt.Ulldflt on JX'1Hh,al. r-.till UJ
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rapn "'en: bcbl"''hl ro h..... c t.Rcn pU<:c s)'tCc.11wuc.tll)- .a.nJ on • Jmbn~ t«.Ic Junng
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wh)ttt
l4 Abo1.11 11 '°'c:tr ahcr rho 1.dk w:.1s ~11.cn, úu.,"i pr'O\"UIOO "'ª
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tlut provtded th&r "coo¡cnt •h11U nOl b~ .allow..-J .b a ddcn«.:c if thC' \icurn 11) hu bttn
1uhJC."('trJ to ••t dvearcnN w11h tt hu had rQM.1C1 to j"-"' 'ºk nce. dure.· lkttnu"n
"'P'"""'°""'.J "l'rre<...,., "'lb ~ ~,..¡ &lut" rlw. •'icum diJ""' submi1
.,.,.her 1111~"1 he"" "'bi«r«l ~ ot I"" ui l<ar" anJ • w bd""'"'denoeot
U.. \1cum's oon ..111 IS adm111r:J, rhe acruseJ ,hall swslv che 1ootl Chamb<r m canxra
t.lut thc t\ld.:n« ls r<b.ui1 1.11J c....i.blc: • Rulo 96. lud<11.o in <.:»es ol '><•u.si A"
uuh !CT\', "" t ~ '2 Rt\ 14 11-·l'l'tt• The <>n¡:m.al Rule%.,.., adop1r:J .nth
I~ tnl J th. R • s oi [,,Jm,y nn Fdtnurv 11 1994 11 ' j rin d , .,. f.an, ""' J1l,
l"'lS aod M.n l. 199'J -.....n~ th,. chan¡te •• a sub.ianriat ""''"' lrom rhc ""IM•I
l"Mlprchcns1on cha1 conscn1 undtor 1hc condn">M $pec:ific:J m rh" statut.:e l'li tht crlbuo11J
"' .. ttrelt\'a1u llWl~' SOl\1vOD lo.t .IM' t.ru.:.1 thc-. had b..J tn l1lc: tnbwW.
,, 1D 1~2 rdfordT1,1or 11rucnlXlllL-.flX\llcnmtC•nlhrhJ<10ntf"tt~tm00
~r rhc a . ...ta11t Julrut '>Uric~ "'"'""• " •• '""rW'""' .,¡ ""• .i..1-i--.
•l"'tth<S ami ruM1<anunt" rh.11 •dd.n.cd rh< t<J<al ,..,.,, íolnh m <•'1>ctu,.,.,, and
""'' swnmanlv • Afk>winil rhat 1h1s ..,•• •ll ·weu
spoken," h• uked. "[\'Q]a, 1he pub-
1Ja11nn ot 1 GtfltWl newtp1pc:r in Gcmu.n~. n<' matn:r hou ~wnl~ .an uucmaumal
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2~ f 1992• T •vlnr rcma:ined Jul•ten•" ahout thl" C'\tidm« llft.atn~c Srrrichcr, l'P•n1n11 th:lt
"hdt" 11 '\\'5 ••p}'llrcruJy suíñciau to a;in,·ic1 m11J11 not w1i1rr1n1 e<tpaal 1en1('nt"'f:!I "Id.•
>r 169 111 21XM t.bc lnr..,,..wnal lnbuml IN R,.,_j1 founJ rhne r..dUI¡¡ Rnndao
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1or diM.:1.&Ll'lO, 1tt Ladu.r1nc A i\LM.:Kmnon, • 1.ntuo.u111Ml 0.:1.:.Wion Pr~tCIC' ~
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l "'12
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1 Mocb <>tdlcm Joc"""'""'""" bo....,,.. .. arl.tbtr •lt<r rhu ulk w• 0 , tin.df,
publi..hcd. ~ R..Jlu.k.1 Coom1uibw.m)·. Rrptut ,,( Ú1é Sp1·aJ/ RJPP<J"'""' °" \ lfJ/~,,'"~
Alllf1•;1f W""'~"· llf C'"''"'"' .,~J Co,, '"/1t'"''', 1, lf N ESCC)k l lum Rt,. (".ornn' n. ~Zd
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S..., """'· AgtnJ; hem 9C•I , lil. L..N o,., Ei(,.N 411'1%/)l (1996~ R.tJ!uk;1 1
h ~ 1th ,.>OOJ 1,.lo1,u1111·1n.auon. S.u11.1nthJ1 P,-nr.r• .1n.aly1.cs chbc.· e'1U1C• 1Uun11rwt
Ü• 1u1atat'li'4.my, R.tport, U I'\ 1 \C:<>R Jlum Rh (.ornm'n. 'Y\J \c::u .• PJ'O\i Aif"fkJa ill(llv 1n h<r 1""'1< º 1 p,,,¡.¡,,,. ¡,.,,., /Ir//' 11 ..,,,., ••·' '"' .'l¡r o{ c;,.,,.,,Jr 120021 lb ~.. ütbnmc A M...Klnnon. "Tunung Rape into Pomo~uph}. Pcmmodcm
h<m 9i•C ,, 12 2l U:-./ Ouc í ! ~ 4 1""7 4• 1'· 'li .and R.Jluu C....-r--.my, 7 Ali "'"-"'- ..,,.¿.,..,.,•
.,¡ mf.,...__ "" chn ,...,ocidM ur " ..i..n dim.1ly Cdaoc1J~ llbO\'C .Jt ~<' l'
PrN1,,,,1N7 ~ r>J tJ,,. S¡v-M !Vrtvwtntr n• \',,. • n ,. A ,,,,,_., Wni-.-11 ltt r J. 'J
•.J C.o.r1rqu"""" ll 'l ESCOR Hum. Rrs. C.<>mm·n. 50th Sc:u, Prov Al""flda hnn
lr<>m 6n1 pmoo "''"""" l)f ...,_,_. ...,.¡. "'""°"'
1 lu1..- •od.cd. od><r ch.m et.e
lntorm.111(11'1 oo ffunprtan' m \'otvoJ1u.t. whu;h t:1.1ma fmm cibecrvauo1» by uthu
li ~ smcnJ!, (,. • 8 -;. ...., Thc: s.,. !ni....._¡ lo• Prot..,_ o/ che
fijzhr ol lndtvidual• R.otl.:t Than tAt,.." 12 14.,,... •• ('.,."""> ' - Rttt"' 1 9--
lito! 11 120-21, U.1' Doc E/L"l 4 tm/42 119~H Ste .bu Myre S. Md)uuKll ce fUJVl\'~1-. P 119,21 •outhrun¡ !he .-oluoon oí human n¡¡lm 1•., 1fter W....tJ War O!;~ Tardu.
.J 'llullWl R.ghLS f<>< 'X'om<n onJ W~rlJ Puhh. ClrJcr in.. ( ~ui...'Ul& ol \<, 8-J ~ In Í•<t Jc.r tlus c.dk ,..., Nlpnall• puhh hcJ che ~·~rld ,UJ ,,.... tho •ll<•nr•ru l u...,. 11.itht> Jh, l•tm1•rio••I P•111ion Sysw• 4' Cl98') ¡··ni. potenrill ol fJI.
~ .... rln'UIWllJo¡'lf» • b9 4.llf'rr: ~• l< r-u.. o/ llflt-U ,,.. ' ÚJ. 4 r¡ 197' ~ an ""' u11 ni ~-.. CÓ di< 1-:noo. or Albmw» lw th. <;..,¡,.. rr<dianl h<rc, • ma hum.n \'Uf\C rc~arJ U..\: dth.atct fot o_-,nfü\I aalauan ..... IO ol>\10U11b.1 .Up~mm.tt

'<°' h.i.'<'J d.1Senmu11oon won..N-1.lc• lfrutcd ~:u1 -.n, \.ommtt1t'f'On thc Elim1nj11 1nn flÍ
Ra<1al 01Kn01JJ1ar«>n Conunenmv md Bac:Qround lnform•uon, ( ERO c..,,•.,¡ R.c:.
01nnlenJauon on (1en<lcr- Ot.mensaon.,. of R.aal 011«immaoon. U.N. Doc Cl:.RDiC/
'4 \!,,. •l IL.,.,..C Cd<'<.~ •<crdu.won "°""" oo l'k;W, cdm•c. .and K• -J
sr."*" • r li".' Br.i.ul n l'1 OI BJ~k .and todlfl''°""1, "'Omm) rtul ft C. Sculittfdidd
.nJ o.,,J A Cnmt"'> ~pnc Abort1vn: 1JI 1\ ,, F.,,1.lJJ }014,tt.t' o{ M,.J1, ... lJO
11'1'141 lr..-..,.1ng cv1d<-t1<e -...,rldw1dc of dcaths ol w.:>onm from llk~al •bomon•I. Ann
Tirucer <i .t. W...,ro 1 H"'/Jh ••d 'lu1n111»r M•/·,.g • Drff..,,..,... 14 r\\.'orld 8mk
D..ruwoo l'opcr No 2'1> L'rl-ll •..,... ,~ <bar 1ll.CJOU10 .nl,LIOO "'"""'° conunucd
10 Jir evtty )"CSr trom una..ifc .inJ tlk..:JJ .bont0r111), <A:nttt tor .RcptUJucu\~ L. ... llG&)
P~IC) u·(Hllrtl 1Jclt11fJ n.,,f Ch1!• •, lhmttOlf Í•tt'• 11~) lnu.,fyinte 119 low U\C(lft'I('
C_tulc.·IO W\1men J.ulrd fr,r .W0111iC"u1• ti.~.-clhu 1\1shwi1r, "Thr Co1u1nWf1A Dcfii.:11 of
'X'om"' in India and the lmpocr ~r Amruocenc«tS.° an \fur-.11.;, w0 .,,,, H"" '""
Rq~~ TM"""'t.10 A//"1 U.-"'"' }0 1c..n. Corea tt .J., .,¡,_ 1~7 • \'oala
~"""""'P· • Ah..,ruon al a SJ>«.1.J t.'.inJ ~We \e• !>dcctlOO "' India. • In Tn f •~
Wu 111r• \l'ha1 Fulur, /r1r .\IP1h<"rl'Y1tlfl' 266 íRUJ Artl1t11 et al., cJ.., 1984); Xh1ron- LI,
"'Lh.enM:" 10 ('°..otrct': \'K1lrnec Ap11n\C WC'lmcn, Sunr R~J"f'n"ibiliw 1nd L~al f1Jlura
ID f.htnú F1111ih• Planmng Pn>,nm. R }'•k /O<mf• ,,fLttu u• f,.,,,,.,,.., 1~, l~·I
I~ Clunos ""le·maodat..d fmulv .,ian...., polocies .nd diar _ , . , . , 10
"''*'"« "º"""'
"l!.wbt .111d rcnuk ch1ldrcnl; Munun Rigbu in Urna. ·uu¡<h1 lle·
1~-.x~ TnaJ1nttn Wld 1hr ~bit.e. \t1t•lilUon1 oí tht f lwnan R.ighu tif {.huu~si: Wttm1...'1l."
17 \f ·"'Ir.,' Rlgh1~ /4111 R,.pm-trr 2H' (1996•. rlkn Kma. Notr •popubonn Conut'IJ
Tluaui:li ~ Onc C:húJ Policv in C.hma. la Efftto"" W.-n 18 w,.,..,, R1(.h11
Lttw Ri('<1'1'r 205. 211'1 1l'l97J lnouna ,.. ...i.:c- >bonJoos,.. China att í11tJ>I but
rcm;¡n •lmost r<1<1tlnc b.couse o1 prclettnet for lx>1• .. d.c •m~lc lcpll1 pcrml11<tl
n ...... """ll""<JI mronJed to ¡,, hom~ "" s.,¡,,.., -""*
pootlOO> bl• ji; ~ f( ), ~
Cnug R. \\'lumey. "NA IO's Plan A llarr"l!". No1 • l'rnpndr..° :-In. lwk T1m<1, A)
{~t.11 . .?4. 1~99) (-Ju Wllllhlngtc.n. ofht.:htb &opc-.i.lunK oo c.-ondition 1.11 .1,nonYlntry wlJ ;au
•nJ 1nt111Llt' 11ni1!1- ""'t1111JJ be a&ma:l 111 rnor'" rJwn J11,,t thcw .crmy itncJ rnl1<" unte• .-a~,.;
'lill# ..tp.lflll tthn.K Af,..1ntm.- in Ko. '() Pr<Mna· hua would anac·Jt ch" Y~ mJ
iwy "''"'' ~CDCtlllly, ctnlnn, ai ~n....n tar¡¡<tS .,,.¡ to >upponm~ di<...,,_...., ºh
Ene Schmm, ·A Wary S<nate Give• Suppon for AJr Stnkes." Nei, )',,..k 1,,n<1, .\6
(JIU. 24. 1'1991; ~U<h.id 1\. Gonl<'n ;nJ Lnc Schrn11t, ·11,.,aneJ NATO A~"'" 1o
Bomh ll<lsr•de Siln ,_,.,,, for< 11•. 1 M M., ll 19'1'1!,}clin ¡;,¡,,.,, ºllnw ~b
F.,.... Purrt..d 0n< \1•11••"1 !1lh.n1am.° \'n.1 }' ~~ r.- · Al \1' 29 19'1'1 <'•"11
R. Wh11ncy, ·&mb1n• Ends • ~bo Bqm Pulloor tiru' fo,. l 1•rr• Al ( lunc 11
19991 "NATO suspondal JI$ bombon• "' Yu¡tu.Jrna wd•)'all.<r ~trbmn uoops b<:~..;
\),·nhdra~ *"I from l\.C)Ml\•O. b.ahtn1' ¡ln ~swult tbat rillncJ 2J .000 bomb1 an.d D'IJi-..lle~ on
S..b1• wnh<>ta loan11hc lafe ol • ""l'i< :>:ATO •Rhr<r Th< hah m rh< bomlnna .um
78 J.H, W1 thc A.a,c.· fcn che- UnnN l\.1t10ftl 'i.ttunt)I t"'..oun("tl, 11-.1;1ít •Pf"'Q\ nt •
'º
raoluoon that permit' 000 mtt"m;iuon,,.I peattlc('('pe'f" to mO\~ 1n to hdp mono 1h;1.n
a m1ll1on AJhania:n retup:ees dnven 001 ot Koso\'o to tr)' to recum "1. Sl('V('.o Erbn"''·
•NAl!l lroops Ro1I mcok"'50\'0" \«u y.,,.¡, T1,,,ro. 1 tJime ll, l'ffl John l.:.if•><r
anJ lan 1 ..htt. · ¡¡.,....,, t..o.l.upc L.r-. B.tt ~, ·~ BruuJ c.n'I"..,.. ''- 1 ,
T1-w1, \J lJl.ID< lo, l•llrf fdocum('nfln,¡ t\idcno- ot \nb 41.lroatk"'' 1n KOIO'W"I ~ "'
er<d •Ífl'I rhc •nd of tht NATO b""'hinR c•mro1~n1 for mall"i• o( 11>< l~•l 1mrl1
caoom. ..., •Womc:n't Srp1<mbc:r 1lth: &:rlunlun~ che lnternauonll l.aw olConllict."
h<IM
<¡
a1 ~o.V
i...,.,.. f> '<dv drt...,,,uwJ lo k«p IM pmttr Ur> o,., thcit OWD atnctnl th""'llh ,,.
rv•Jwl C<lmrlamt tntmi' •)
jttt1n111n
18 Thu msr¡?llt wa< 6rst expttUtd 10 me by A•11 Anmlnd• ol K>.ret• Fem1nm
Groop
19 f j" ao .uW), th.1 •m 1991 1992, Croan. .s t ..'()man• i t t JUi11G11un1or
lúttt.a f'",.,..' Gro 11 1 \t'hcrc ¡..1•vc AU tht Fttnm"u. Gonr>• c· .....11 funpublUbN
PIP<'' 7..•r<h ¡.., hJ, Wtth d.c Ha•.-rl w0 ,.,.,, , úu frwm•f
20 ón Au¡¡ust 30. 1'19}. Hii Exctllcocy Muhamtd Socirh<) •mbmador 11nd pc:r·
'º
nunont rcrrestnlaU\'C "' Bosroa ami llcru:gol'UU thc Unn..d ~.oons. bnlL11ndy
~ bdutt tho Urur.J N - Sc<wuv CotaioJ tha Bosru. Hcrugo.,.,. ,. '-11
g.ana nipo d, lorttd """ wbmlsain through ~ ..., ol \-.olencr .nd 'W"'""' 1n
<:.l\ad1n1' r•rc. dcpr.w.J ''' muru oí at'lt dcícnSC", anJ chcn crt'a1nl 11 1f 11 h1J httn
saluc<d for«d 10 emhnoco tbc ronl<'qucncn ttnd •l<nr..d "-al ,.r..r Hls Exe<llency
~fuborn..d Sorubey. A#rru .r rlv l '.,¡tJ ."61,,,,.,
Snmf't Cou"Oi CAu, JO 19'1}) loo
lile wirh . . lhn>MJ .......... s Uu. jw.....tr.
11 Anu.Uy. lh< obltll'llOll to •a to 11op • -«idc a lrss l<it.dJ, cJ..r °"''~
uo1,.1Jv th.tn 11 •hot1IJ 1>< or " oftcn 1011J 10 b<:. On &.ni... """· l<:e. Ordcr 0 ( Pro
,.J.»onal ~lt";a\ures. Artifu41t(J• o/ 1h<' C"'""'"''º" on thl' Prcw,,nn1t ,,,¿
P"1t1rA,,,,.,,, ttf
/,,_en,.,, of Ccusal< 'Ro.rua and Hcnq<Mna v Se.hu md MorUC11<,,.,I. 199} 1 C,J
J CApnl 81. rrpmiuJ •• lZ lLM. 8"" 1199J lordtt o1 pl'tJ\'TSional -.res!.
21 ..:..Le v. l:.mJí1c. 9J C1v. 116) tS,0.N.Y t'i'JJ1 Sce °""V IWadíié ll6I> r
Supp 714 (~ D N Y l'l'l-ll ldl.11111•1111 pl;onuú1' tl.1im• for lack of •ubj<c; m11tcr

s..
•n .\f¡¡ • &.p~
(O< ·-rk..,. . .,
t/.,
11cu......
\l 11r • lt"'""'
.u.:,, •~1.du." 1muJr Bo.Lo u.e S..tkn..kl.
w,_,,, "' Bo1111J l lr,...JX.1.Pr,,r1 lHO fAk~.mdra ~1_,I
1uri.J1<1lon1 .1>Ja,.r•1 •r•
cm k<tr<J. Kaodiié v.
,.,,nJ
b; K.Wc v Kandn.., 70 íJd ZlZ 12nJ Cir 1m1
l:adrc )18 U S 1()0) 119%
2l <:c.:.~ C. Res 82~. U 1' '>COR. J217tb tnrJ U,-; Dile \ R.ES 827 !M•r
chdJl • · m•yrr cJ , J'l'NI 2). 19'1)1 S C. Res. lSOI!, U.N. SCOR. l17'th mrg. L..N Doc. StlUll> (fcb. 12. sos
l t ..t11ft from ,\l•t.lllk Nm.a.Jk IP tl\C 1uth•lf hi11'11 7..ilgR'b. ( n•tt On 1' 19':'2 10 '\unilar expenrnM •re fTP(\ntd 1n Roy Gu1man. A Wttlfm tn G('f'IOOJ,. /..4.- l '19}}. •
loa hlc •11h tbc Hm..,,/ w-...,, ¡,..,...,. ¡..., 76. IM-167 1199Jl. 24 \' ,...,¡ ti ol 200), duprc che IOYs ••'<amplodtment• th• t~ _, thc
l Id ll ~ S OiombllC •(jo aaJ Gtvt: Btnh tu l."lHu 1ka,. le-u-• fl Wt •t\ov .21, top ol th. 1... of ..... 11 h.u fallm shon
4 IJ. 19'121.
' ~ lbeoc:k.r Mtr(\n, "R!I~ lll.M • C.nn1c Unckc lnteroaoon.J f lw1w1Jtman L1w" 12 ""J\kRM- ,, c:.i.i.oo, 491 1 Surp. MO. n~ ff DN Y JQ>lfl},,,. 'J "" ,,,¡,,, 19. Gencler-Based Crimes in Tlumanitarinn Law
S1 11Wr1~11 }OtA,../ o/ /1ii r1U11a&1/ úu. 424 .. !4 ...C.!~ (1991> trapeo a• cnmc ~I ,_.,,, •..b - H.m, • McRar. .¡.¡~ U S 297 Cl"'Oi
hnmllftrty mdtt 1Dt~rn.1l~ Lrw. l.t1ttt Í1"0ttl J••hi&n P.1usc, 8B A•tTiur" jo.m.J of 1) ~ Oiomb" Alw ...'f' norc t 1 1 '"'Kcw D At.111.1n •\\:omcn-J l icttn.toonal ff .marut..-un t.. .. • m 1 ll"OllJ'r_,
lntrr1'<11f1W1.i./ Ln.o íl~ tl~I •mre: •~ .-cnoode .nd t1rhrr mmtot under nmom.ary m 14 Ncn..i.c . .eb<M .... 2. dlfJ 1~ 1 " " ' ' ' .,,.¡ ff,,.,,.,~ R.I '-ti l..n. _.,_.- Kd!y D A.km anJ Oorc.t \I Koaua
remauc'Jnal la'il'>. 1) \rt •tn\'ct.t1J11Hnln Ag-.un't (t\"nc-r.al ~1cKm11<' • \."rl"t"l'ltp LHI tNu,, 2,, l'l~.lJ ah Jqc.)k frotlirun1 tht nC'ln emtf'nt or rnre rcte-renctJ co RX or ¡tr"ndcr ~tt ln
mrernar1on,¡¡I human1unan lav.- documtn1s. mucb lcss to any mmts thlu acrually mcJudC"
 Notu to P•ges 192-193 • 345
""' ,. ""olomonrl. The Romc Smutt ol U.. lnmnatioo.U <:.rtnun.t Court chan>le<I tlus
by Jdirung p:n.tt.uoon <1n thc hli)ii of gcnJcr at ,1 crll'l'lit' ..¡oun'c hu.mA.1110.. 1u .an
71J)(h) Pc_rwt;UUon i!I Jeflntd .U 1nt('n&1t'ln<tl 1nd JC\~~ Jc:rnvi&tldn of fund.ammti,1)
,..,3 t'Ollttary to 1nlemauonal l•w bv tta«'ln oí the 1Jentll'\· C'll rhc fi:rOup cw-roTierovitv
atan. 7121(hl. Gc:ndtt •rcfm 10 thc 1wo sexes malc und kmalc. 'vuhm the cornext
ol «>a«y " •.\J-L 7U• Rome Si.tme Julv 17, J '198. U.K Do.:. A/COl'i.F.15)/9.
1 Stt ~t Chc:nf 8n-sa1owu, Cn1,,a Aga11t1r IJ111riJ111~ ur l1u<t<ní111on" Cnnn• ,1f Luu
H~-l~ 1 12d re•· ed 19'1'11 ' 19'121.
) Th< Rnmc Stanire •l"' thon~cd th¡s •·ben h Ulcludrd as crim"" ~irut hummi"
;,<rnpt, sexuaJ slt\"et). eruorced pros;ocution. torced pret_::Jt1U'IC)'1 eoforced srenhzauoo, or
any 0<hcr torro ol sexual Vlolcncc ot comparable gravit)· · "·heo thesc cruncs ar<" .. COl']}o
auna! lb p.Jrt of 11 '1ldoprotd oc .s.vstcm::u.ic au.ack dua;to.I .tgaln:st any avUun pop-
ul.ouon • Rooic Sc•otu« •n 171~1Jul¡-17, l'l<IS. UN 0oc 1\JCONI' ISJ"I
~ F..- ei<•mple Amele 6 of 1he (,,nvmtioo oo 1hc El1mm,tu<>n oí Ali Fonm oí
D1scmnm;,iuoo Ap:~1nst Womcn lmplitdly r«ORTUZCS thic tnffickin~ m \\'"Pmcn is $C:X·
bosed d&nmuut.ion lll • WIY U..t the l'J.19 Con""'°"ºª on Traffidclng tJl Women a."d
thc 2001 Üfl!aruzcd Crunc Protocol oo Traffickinr, Jo noi. Stt Convcntlqn oo <he
ELmmíluon oí AU Fo:rrm of D1Kn1run11uon 1\gilln'l \'('orni:n, Oct. 18, 197~. G ¡\ Re!i.
H/180, U.N GAOR. Hih Se.,., 'it1pr !'\o. 46, ,, 19J, U.!'\ Doc A'l4/4~, 1249
UJ'IT.S 13 temereJ inro force Sep1 3, 19811 fheremmer CEDA\\"I! but ,...c-.on
'-entioo for thc S11p¡>r<$Sloo oi 1hc Tr.diic in Ptr""1s .nd of thc El<plonoattoo of <he
Promrution oí o.ben. Oec. 2. J'J.19. U.N. Doc. All l64. 96 U.i\;.T.S. 27 l, and Protocol
to Preven1, Suppn:s. ond Puni•h Traffu:l<.111¡ in Pcr>ODI. [.,P<'a•lh W<>mcn onJ Chll·
J,..n, G A. R.< 55'2', ann<x TI. u N GAOR. 55th S..t .. Supp. No 49, "' 60. U.N
Doc.. N45149 (,·ol, n (2001). ln thecriminaJ prohib1tioa..,., th:u it Is m..-ünlywomt'n whn
11e trafficked for sex " m:ogniud; tbat chis pracricc tS irueerál ro dtscriminmoo a¡¡ainst
thcm as membérs ot a genckr-ba:std g_roop ~ not,
5. AnJr.-.i Dworldn. Wo••on /úting 95-~4 (198-ll.
6 Diana E. H Rt.ts~ll 11nd Nicole \'.tn De \'cn 1 rr(' Prot.c•rJ111gs o/ tli~ lntrrttJfu)"ol
Tn1'1-nul Ult CnMt"S_1lg.u11s1 Wornf'.of l~-1'0 ( 19i6l, 11..nd Ftt111aJt-. Thl Poltfll-& of
Wom.m Killmg l]ill R.dford an<I O.ana E. H. Rü5$Cll, eds., 19921; N21al1e NcnaJic,
·Fcm1<1de: A fmncwock for l!ndmtandUI~ Genocide," U1 R."'11<0/I)' Spulemt· ¡..,,~
mtm Rffl,a,,,,cJ 4,6-11>! t Dun< Bdl '"'d R""""' Kl<Sn, cds., 19'16) tinch>Jlng d1"11S>lt>n
ol contnhuoon oí Aii• Aman.:Li oí Kum• felllJlll.r Crour•
7 K..Lc v. Kor1cfüé 70 F.Jd 232, 2'!0 !2d Gr 19'1'!)
8 Viniente Aµui¡1 Womco Att of 1994 fVA\\Al. Pub. L. No IOJ-L12. ut TV
108 St.1c 1902 lrodúied as ameoded 01 42 l!.S.C. SS 1}9)J-141l-1112005H
9 Thc uid"-.du.ol federal cowe oí acd4io fur gwJ.r-b>.S<:J viokncc .. se>:·ba>ed
di.ktuiun.11100 cn:.1tcd In VAWA •• 42 U S.C. S B"81 w.,. mvahJatcd 00 ¡ur1"'1iruooal
KMUJ_1J' for purpt,nW t'XCCS..I (,f UIC'. CIÍ thc- lc,rii;l ..uVt' powoer. orhtr pJru of th~ 1.. w
mn11n. m dfett Unned ~'"'" v. Morriion. $29 U.~ 5qs 120001 Por commcmuy. "'"
C.dw-tDe A. 11.l«Kmnon. "Dlspuun¡¡ Mile Sovcret¡¡nt\• 0n l/.rr11d Sr.:ur, Mnmson,
ítt \l'o1nt'H J Lt't':f. ~fl'nJ l,.,,u•J 206 f2005).
1
Noles lo Pages 193-202 • 347
346 • Noles lo h¡u 193-1 98
10. Kodtt • Karadik. 70 FJd 2}2 12d Cir. 1995). cert. áem-.1, 118 U.S. 1005 S 1 or1gin.J)~ fila! ~ e.ase! togethcr \\1tb tM N11uanal O~trutJavn cor Womt"ll
119961 Lq;.tl DdcnR 1nJ EJuat:iC'n Fu.nd tnw· kn<~--n "~ L.q:,11 ~l('11Snentum •U co coun."(.)
AJ it proct-cdtd cu 1nal P"ul. Wcin: RHkind, ~ñanon. \lnd G•rritnn bca:mt m:y co
l l , Se.: F'ordg¡i .SO-•erc1gn ~nmun111.. Ac.t ul 1976 U'SlAl, 90 $!JI. 2891 (codifi.J
•J "'."rnded •t 28 U.S.C SS IHO, 1602-161 1 12000) luphcld ,,. ror.,tituuo<JAI by
counsel, to pamrul>r, Maru Vullo, Gerrv H:uper. Fay Roseoteld. WiU \l:'olkcr. U.a
Vcrlmden B V. v Ceotral Bank oí Nigeria, 461 U.S 480 11'111311 For d.micc.,.. on Vduqua. and linc Block.
9. K.dlc '· Mi:aJHc.861> 1•.Supp. 7J41~..D.'I.\.1994•
1hc docrrínc gmcrall¡', see Thc Schooocr Exchan)le ,, McFaddon, 11 U.S. J 16 11812),
lll Kadic v. K1r>tlh<, 7ó F ld 2J2 12J Ci< 1'19~1. 7~ F.3,I J77 t2d Cu 199fi)
•nd Jl,,,co Naoorul de Cuba v. S•bb.ilno, }76 US. 398 11964). for dLSC<1$$10J1 o( me
Thc U.S gm-cmmcnt supfK"ncd our ri,dn ca pr<K«<I wnh che c;asc
FSIA ln rd.uioo to thc Ai><n Ton CLum. Al~ wb<o • (o,.,ígo """' or indiv.Ju.~ •<till8
11 (~TI Jcnuvl. 518 U.S 100511996).
ln 1hc offid.il c.1r.c11y o( <* fl')f"elgti ~b&tc 11 •~d. '~ In re &111c "''' ~iattot J luman
Riitht• Liti-•tioo, 978 F.2d 49) 19th Cir, 19921. 12. Oo Au~ust JO, 2000, • New Yock Cuy jury awarded S745 nullloo roour clíeot.S
12. This is mosi typicalJy aclütved throUJh rtl>csvarion~ to intcmational tmtia
ln puntU\c anJ rompc1mtory tbmagtj,, :as "'·di ~ !lfl mJuocdoo. Chr~unc ~l;au_ghn<:\·
Sec Rebeca J Cook, "Reservarioos to the Convenaoo on tite ElimJnatioo uf AJI Foml$
.ultl Bill Mtll<T, -i.:.r...J>jc TolJ to P>l' \'irnnu S74S MJliOCL Gwil T1·1al in N.\ En'6
oí Discrurunauon t\gains' Womeo." JO \'11gmUt Juurn;1/ o/ l111e11111.uo1111J .Ltw 64J, 687- \\i1h Judg1nm1 f-or 12 WcHnen Who Survh~ Rare T"nu.rc/' W•sht,.t,lfnt Pllit, A 1l
(Au~ 11 2000); Pamcia Hunado. ·A '\foral' 'rriumpb: fwv Awards $745~1 for eo,.
707 11'189-1990) likscrib111~ thc 'p1-Mll0<1 o( rcbgil>U• ar ""'"'"'"'l 1,,.... .,thc
nun Atro<iucS," Nowtb;. AJ IA~. ll, 2000); John Sull"-.n, "Amcncan Jwtkc
"sine quJ nan" of most C0W1tries• rcscr\latiorn to CE.DAW'). and HWarv Charl~nh
áOd Chnsrine Chinkl.n. T/v &und.trif"f o/ /,,/tTn11l101111l IMu•-A Fem11tif; An•fvsis 201-
Tockles füghn Abusa Abroad," N& Yotk fo11'1, 0 4 tSepL J. 2000).
l J. ~ rlus r41k u.·ciu tn prott ong.inillly. 1ht lntem~rion1d Cnmin.tl Tr1bun.1I for
213 !2000t
Rw>1nd01 ilCTRl m P~uto1 ,. Ab.~'CSU ttrnt:ni.ttd r1.1¡X" •I~ nn u1sin1m~nti111t~ of
ll. Stanitc ol the lattroatiooal Cruninal Tábunal for tbe Fonncr Yugoslma
~cnootlc. ~.,.No: ~CTR·96·4·T, Judwn<'n• tSept. 2, 1998l. •• wdl •• • cnmc "ll"'º"
lodop1.J May 21. 199J b~ S/llES/827 099))) an. ,!¡).
bumarucy lbe !Cl ~ subsequemly indiaed Slobod.ui Mdo5evié and others fur rnpe as
1.4 S~ Am..u't).a Stn, "'1\i\orc 1lu1n 100 MilJion \'<1omm Ate A1iss:1ng... 37 ;\fri1.· Y0ork
~enoode .s wcll S.:. Pro;ecuw v. M1lokv1C. Bo.nia: Amcndcd lnchamcnt oí Slo
Rml!I< of Books 20 fDec. 20, 1990).
bo<lon MJ1o;c.1é i 321ct, c.,., No. IT OJ.,4 T IApr 21, 2004).
14 Sec, e.g .. Un11ed ~'""'' • Montj!(lnicry County 8011td o( &luc:ouoo, 391 U.S.
20. \Xlar Crimes Remedies at the National Le\'el 225, 2J(,..2J7 ll 969l: Owtn M. F.... /n¡u•cllo•s 411-176119i21 ~..• i.o cue< ir•non~
cniJ "ltb&S 1n1unctiollli n¡µtnsi prisons: Ncwman \'. Stalt of Alabama .i66 F Supp. 428.
l. Sc:c:, c.~. Cath11nne A ~nnc>íl. "Cn1íld of Wat, C1imcs of Peact," .1hM:~
6J~6 !M.O. Ala. 19791: Adams v. Matlus, ~58 F Supp. JOl. 30S-J09 •t.LD. AJ..
Gt No. 1~ n.4 f~cKriblnH AmMsry rncern.01iooal's nunimial d~umc:nuuion o( n:ipc Al •1
19781; und mcnr.U h..Jth •!"•<im: l..yndi v Bmdcy, J8o l'.Supp. J78, J%-J97 t~LD.
hu.man ngJns \"JOlanoD at that óme),
AJ.¡ 19741; \\"y.u V Sucltn~. H~ r Supp. )7l IM.D. AJ.¡ 19721, .ffirmcJ •• ""''·
2, App!1cab0n ln,-utuUng Prom:dmgs in thc 1.C.J fil.O by tbe R<:publk of Bosn"'
and HttiegoviM. Appltcatton ol the Conven!IOn on the p.....,,tJ<>n and PubU.lunent
m•m•J 1• P"'· ••á r<m,.tkJ, IX'y•tt ,. Adcr1"'11, roJ I' 2d 1lO'! 11th Cír l9741. <;.,.
abci Oou~ Rcodlero111, "Browo ll's '.'\11 Deliberare Speed' 11 Ftfty. A Golden Annl\'tt·
oí thc Crimc ol G<noadc, Bosnia .tnd l lcrugo•·u,. V. Scrbra ami Montcnogro fftkd
wy or • ~Ud.Lfe Crisls lor d....- C<m:;ntutlOll.,l fn¡wi<TIOn as a Sthool O.:..:grcg3.QOo
M... 2), 199)1 n ~S-68. W•J/qh/t ot "'ww.1cj-cij.org
Remedy? 41 S•• Die~o l..uc Rmeic 1'7' !ZOOll; 'fr>cy A. Tiiom..,, "Ubl J"' tbi
} In the Gcno.ídc Convention, ·~cnomlc m<IIDS aoy of thc followíng acts <0m
Rcmedium Thc Fundamc;:nhtl Ri,IH l() 1 R.nncdy Undtr Duie Proct"Ss.., • 41 .5nlf Drego
mmed wuh u\t.tnt 10 destr0y.1n v."1.olr pr 1n part, a oat10:.W, cthn¡caJ. racial or rchgiout
l..iu• Rt""" 16H 120041. Myriam Gillco, ".\n AUIOJ>'} ol th< Stmcturol ltot~nn In·
group, as such lal ki1lmg members ol the group; lb! causing seriou> bodily or menial
junctioo· ()ops! . lfs Still ~lm11nj1!• 58 l1";,_.,.,.,,,, o/Afia,,r1 I...r~· Rn·1c-u· 143 t2(l0ll.
h•mt 10 mcmbe,. oí thc group: Id dclibc:mdy mfuaJng on !he: group coodmoas of
hfr calcuJ~1c:~ to bnn¡; .aboi.n ns phy.1(ul dc,.1n1rtton &n whok or '" p.lr1, td) ampo!ltn,8
21. CoUecrive Harms Under che Alíen Tort Scarure: A Caulionary
it\C2.'1UfCS uuendtd to rrc\>tnt birthtl withln 1hc: ~·roup. (C"l fcircibl)· tramfming '-hildrcn
No1e on Cass Actions
of the ~roup to al!Othrc ¡¡roup • Canvention on 1h. Prevcnclon •nd Punishmen1 oí
Ccnocidc an. 11, Doc. 9, 1~8. 78 UJ'l.T.S. 277 <cmeted.inro focte Jon, 12. 195J).
1 "'Tht dü1nc:t courtt 1.h;all h:ave ori1fin..J jurisdictioo of an)' civil il'1Wn b)' ui aJac:n
4. Allcn Tort Cl.Jou Aa, 28 U.S.C. ) 13'0 !20~). Í'Or a to.rt oolv. rommitttd in violatÍOD ot che ln• oí 11atioru ora tttat\' of the- Uo1ted
5 Tonurc Vlrum Procccuon A<1oí 1991 l'•b L No. 102-2'6, 106Suu 7) C<od·
ífic:d 11128 U.S C. S IHO 120°'1)
Smres. • 28 U.S.C. S 1J.50 (19901. Th1• "º'"'< "'"s pan ohbc Judttiarv Act e( 1789.
Judu;,.ry Act. ch. 20. S 9. l StaL 7l. 77 11789)
6 Filarti~a v. Pcn•·lrab, 630 F.2d 876, 838-ll89 12d Cir. 1980) 2. UnJer f,.J.ni] Rul<t ní C.víl Procedun: 2J,
7. Id., 11 ~2.
348 Notts to Pares 202-206
). F~.! llul.s of C1\'il Pr.xedure 2}(b1H ltBJ.
4 rodera! lluks of Civil Proccdur< lHbH 11 lllld (21
S roJc,.l llul« of Civil Prticedurc 1l(cl!21
6 Awcmlin¡¡ to i\inchcm Producn loe v. Wind"''· 521 U.S 591, 631 (199])
íBr<y<r. J d1Ssamn~I. oun~ "&>pm of The Judicial Conferent. Ad Hor Comminc.:
on Aslx'Stos Llu!l~tioo." "7. 10-11 tMuch. 1991), asbes1os lawswlS '""'"'more di.,,
(> perc;em oí .U t.:<l<ral "'"ª
filong• U1 1990. S.e Dcbor>h R. licn>lcr. As l'lfllC Goc.'S
By Aibott'! L1t~.i.11on Aftn A1•1c-hc-1n anU Ortti, .. 80 Tc-."'61 U,1,¿,• R,·J·tt't.IJ 1899, 1900
(2002}, 1'>tatin11 liut In 19'10. onc.third ()(civil CAK$ likd 1111hr Úlffcrn DistnC1 1..1f1"c'(a$
w•re abe.tos c•se<. árin¡i 10 "&>pon of l b< Judicial Confttence Ad Hoc Commonee
oo Asb<:S10• Liopdro." a1 8; C.rq C. Jordan, "Mcchcal Mooitorill!l to Toxic Ton
Ls<'S: Anndior \\•mdfall lor Te.a• l'b1nuffs?" )J Homton Ltw Rrote1<· 47), 478 n.18.
.uuni cb.11 .. ol 1984, 2'I f'Ol'C<tll oí pcodtog """"" ln ª'º fu.1cm Dutrt<t o{ r ....
\Vcrc- uba-tt'>:' cuai, ciung 10 Dchot.th R f-lcndrr tt ..t.• Athl'•IOA tn rJ.r C:Curt;: Thr
O•llengr of.\Cas< Tovc Torts 2S-27 tt 98'hJ•<k B. WemSlein <nd FJlen B He"'º""°'"
"The Effe<t of Ec¡uiiy on Mass Ton Low, • 1991 UmV<'f'Jty of lfl111ors Útw Reu1tU' 269.
29' n.145 (19911 (statúig U»< •as ol <he encl o( June 19')0, 7 598 ol a eoi.l ol 10.818
pendmg cavil caStS ro t.bc: E.1Sttm D h.1.1lon ol rht Northeto D lsttJ<.'t Qf Otuo \lo-Cl'e
a•l,e¡¡1o; cases"); S1cphen ubacon, "JuJg.. P•nel, !i«ina Coun Cm!$. Combmc:o
26.000 Asbci;tos Ca&e1." Ne11· Y,,,f Tmm. 111 Ouly JO. 1991 J ("Asbe.10! nC\'W accoom•
for thc lar11es1 number c.lÍ civil ases in thc Fc:dcn&I <ouns, and Qsbestos ases are alS('I
plagu.ng manr snate colltts.• ,_
7 On1> •. J'ibrcboard C..:Orp. S27 U.S. l>l.5 t t9'J9).
8 Federal Rub of Civil Proc:cJurc 2) (bl( 11 •ncl (2 l.
9 Ko.clíe" Korad;ié, 70 FJd 2l2 (2J Cir. 19951. rrrt Jrnu•J. H8 U.S. tOOS (19%)
1O. Dc>c " KarodHé. 176 FR. D 458, 461 IS O ~ Y 1997) O,,. toun.d l•tcr dar-
ified die claim os 00\'efÍDI! penans inrurod from Apnl 1992 <n Februa111 199)
l l. Ñldk. abovc note 9.
J.1. Ali t.bc oc.her panclisu ~·orkcd on the Dt>t Cllk ;u 0 1\1: ttmc or u.nochcr. Thc
cl.v.i. ~~rutíc1111(')n rru.·ui<'n w1t1 filcJ ..-hcn 134...-th S1cpl.c:n ... Qn,¡dn;al leotJ counscl was no
ioo~a iacuvely O.SM)Ci111u:d with thc c-.tsc, an<l aíter f lamld 1-lonJ(ju Koll, v,.-ho contributcd
•t • prior <rucio! period, had wuhdrnwn RS rounsd 10 •ssume hi< ¡>OSirion witl1 •h•
Sttu~ Oep:srim<nt...
IJ U.1..- fron1 R.tJC>\'.in lúlradhc to rhe coun 1 ti 997), quot«l'" K.mtdlie, °'"""
176 rR.D 458, 46l IS.D.N Y. 1997>
14 Dot' Kn11dfit. 182 F.R.D 424 (J'l98l
15 In,.. Es,.« of 1;,rdinWld Marcos, 2' F }d 1~67 !9ih Cir, l'l941.
16. In« Holocaw1 V1t1101 .~LitiJlRli<>n. No.% Civ. 48-l9 IE.D.N.Y 2000).
17 1ñie setdement 11moun1 '*'ªs $1.2) btllion ro be made in four uw.a.Uments cwcr
thtte yean '-'·11h a fu~1 1>•Y1llCMl al $.2'0 niJhon 11ca>rdtng co Joseph P fncd~ "S~'1fs
&nb R"""h llok1cous1 \ccord: Nru• fork Tt•'·'· i\1 11\ug. H. 19981.
15 s... Phíh¡•pint$ V Mortc)<, Civil e,...,
Nos. 01~1 and 0185, •lip op. al 17 !Re·
pul¡hc of Phihppmes. San~nba¡>11n. July !7. 1\1991 1Consolid.ued Rlsolution. Gar
chttor<na. PJ 1. Tbao coun º""''
1h"1 ont Lowya. Roben l>W<tt, who also parlKlfl"lod
Notes to Paces 20ó-2-09 349
.. «>un!id ln moJang me bnutcd IOnJ d111JU lll me Due dosé. Wd dunlllJl! $)4 J51 .000
od thc $40 mill1c.m IOUght hv thc Lt-..').,-r;, 1n 1hc .\lttl'mi: 1e:rdm1crn.
1'1 Id •1 20
20 Id.• or 15- 16 (emphHJs 1dded],
21 Id., a1 16.
12 In •d¡uJJ=ini< d.Um predUSlOn que.uo.. "' duuns broUM)>1 by 1I1JMd...t d.iss
mcmbcr.s f~1llO\llmg nc.n \11\AICtmful cJ;us 11cnoot, JC'\ñlll o .cCUHi h1h:<' foutid rhAi u
\ianous li,1b«lity or pri ncipal,..~\~cnt rclationship prqvkk::J cnc.\ugh pr1,·ny to 1'1~1udc
lhrir Loter cl'1ll!1$. S.,e. fm examplc. Pcllcuerv. Zwcifd, 92 1 F.2d 1~6,, 150211 Cir, lm
19911, cm kni~, 502 U.S. 85.5 U99H; Lubrizol Corp. v. llxxon Corp., S71 F.2d
1279, 1288 l'm G r_ 1988l; Calull '" l\nl¡ur Andcrsco & Co., 822 E2d H (ld Cu.
1•$71; L•mbcn V Conrod. ')ó r 2<1 118) (7ch (.ir. 1976). \X'h1k. •11h>cqU<llt suh by
" urvrvur \\•l-.o w. 11n 1el>K1H 4:11b-' rncrn~r ~'lrt:tL a l'-"''t'r-kvd pcrpctrarClr n11~1 001
b< pn:duded from ""'kmg reliof by " 1uc"°"'ful re<olu1ic>n of /)m., io mi¡¡h1-• <uc-
cessful ca.e b:ackod up by the hmnod-fuod thoory havin¡¡: • potcnually mono powerlul
pn:dtWve cflcct.
2J. Tbc pmcttJu1~ 1n thc Ho/ot11us1 Vu:JaJt 11.sktJ hc.igmoo 9J'l' mulciplé an.J on.
j;(.'IJn~- Robton Swif1 il 11lso in\-ulvr<l ln thenl
24 S.... for example, Exhibu H. Dcd of l l•n• ~il•jdii< Co Ch:aimun oí 1ho
Cooocil of Ministc..,. of llosnit·Httz"!'Ovina. ~ v. K•r•d!i¿, No 9l C'.iv S78
tS.D.N.Y. 1997); Exh1bn E. D.:da ..uoo of Modilia fili¡xm<:. Paclwnem Mcmber o(
ilalOla · 11 erugavtna, id.
2J. Oti< ,. K.trncüoé, 192 F.RD IH, 1-14 14' !S.DN.Y 20001
26. John Sul1ivian . "Amm<:~~n Juscioe Tacklc; Rattlns Abusc:t Abnl..d,'" 1\11·1.4 )'orl·
TP~ts. 04 (Sqi1 ). l<lOOI. S..: abo °'1•id Rohck. ·,111ry m New York Ordm Bosnún
Sab «> Pay Bilboos." N<'W l'ork T1nre>. AIO (Sqi1. 26, 20001 lrcpomn~ on ihc Doe
ttie: · Tht verJ 1ct <ame JU>'l wo:d<s •Ít« anocher j11ty m New York re<urncd l $745
milJ1tm ''crdln .LJWJUI Or Kar-.idl.ic; m a ovil CJ$c IClC\11ilflll an ~'Omcn \\'h<> o;1;·cre r~pcd
clunn~ chci \\'J.r in 1ht t 11rly 199ff,. ").
22 Genocide'~ Scxu1tliiy
L. Andte. 0..'0rlun, "TI>< Unrem<mbcrod. S<ardlln~ for Womdl •I thc Holo"'1!>1
M<1nori.J MU><um." .\h 48, '4 INov. 19941.
2 p,_tutor v. Kupmlu< et ol. Na. IT-9'-16-1'. Ju~mrno tmmscnpc oí oral
OP'nion c>i- Joxlii;c CaSS<$< ICTY, Jan 14. 20001 (qu()lltl8 word, of MU$lim ""rolAll fram
8osm1-l lttlerJOYUUt t<Slllléd lo by """"" at mal>. Jtodl!" Cassese uses mis qua<otioo
10 Ulus.tr1Hr pcn.ccunon. noL g.tn0(1tW, In thiat the wn ol d.\I! acb was c:ci'Klbioo, 001
dntruction. In n\~ v1cw, h.u ccJ C"-XbUthi~ c111n br genot:jcUI atid 1he áeta dt'M:rlbcd uq
1,. gmQciJ.I On 1lti1 J'(li1u <ce Ordcr of P,.,.'i•ionol M<1>u"" Ap1~•<•11<1n af ihe
Co11v.-n1ion on rhe Pn:vcmion mid Punishmtn1 ol 1hc Cnmc of GencJdde !Borni.1 •nd
1lcrzegovioa v Sebu aod MontcnqzroJ. 1993 lC.J }, 1 69 of ...,...,. aplnion ol
Judgo L•uletpa<h<(Sept. 1). 19931 lher"'1.lf1<t l!osnLt ond 1-!crugo.in• v. Yugosbvu).
) S~ ttt:nc,...Jlv Unital N.uioos, Oi11\JlUJ.<loo of Exf)Cns: on th<- JOrmrr \'u,;oda\ u,
350 • i.otes ro Pases 110-211
F111;/ Rrpurt uf th• Wur"ltmtm of Exf'<lts ErubluheJ Pws""11t 10 S.amtY ÚJUJU't/
Rrw!..tm• 7\U 119'121 anJ Anno..,,, prcpa..J by l'rol..,or M O,.,ní BlWiounl oncl
thc "1idt ~f I~ Dc.PtLul Uni\ l'nll) Callejee of l...Lw and 11:1 lnh~:rrutioniaJ ¡.Jum.i.n Ri~t~
L•~· lno¡fltutr 1THRLt1 in CluctiJ,'O ihcrtiruañtr Bl'lMO\iru Rq>nrt•
4 (',onvennon oo the p.......,.,.,., anJ Punis.Juneru of die Crimc of Genocidt. o.e.
9, !949, 78 U.'1 l~. 277 ·ben:m:UtcrGcooadc Con•-.naonl. Aniclc2 dcliocs~moadc
:JS 'anv ot th~ fc.t1lo"'..ng lrt:I tommitted with 1n1ent t() destroy. tr'I ,,,.holr or in pan.. !l
n11uon.a), rthn1('ül r.u:Llll ot rdisriout 1;roup, as sucb ,11l lilbng me-mbcr.l uf Ute i roup;
lh c1tu'j1 n~ 1é'rious bo<llh or nu~n 111l hann ca mcmbt"n of 1hc ~roup; fe> dr:libr:r111cly
1nihcun~ oo thc jllOUp oondioons of lif< colc:ulaml co brto~ •boot ns pb)'Sical ckstruc-
tiOO in \\•holc or m p-.t;rt; fd) u:npos1n¡z: measur~ m1aideJ to prcvtnt b1nbs wrthm thc
group. \el forobl•· translernog dllldren o{ die group 10 .lDothet group.
' A1 mied by Ju,I¡¡• uu<erp1ch1 o( die ICJ, 1m ol ··.,hn1c deamins', [11tt)
thllioult 10 reg..r~ •• other th;n ><lf uf 11<1•oc1dc.' &.n1.1 and l lenegavuu v tll1'0·
sbv1a. 1 69.
6. Thc $0Urcc\ io; the a('(()W'lt in thc abo\•C par.a~raphs are my clients m KalLc v
Kanodi1<'. 70 FJd 1)2 t!d Cir. 1991>). ~ llm-persoo .a<:COUDts an: provided by
!>cad• Vnuuc. 8r<•k1"g rhe Wa// o} 51&,,.,. Tlx Vmces of FWprJ BornM (19%1. Akx·
undr11 St1glrn•ycr .\1'"sen1:~rvu.VIlt11,1111g. Knrg gt'g~·i d1r (r.iuNJ (I~)) Son1e o( the
f11c:t11 mcnuonrd af>o,~ wcrc prmccut.cd •n1ctt5$.ÍU1lr hy 1hc (CT\'. prominenth· in thc
FOO. case Stt ~enerally Prosecutor .-. Kunllf•<. Case No. IT-%-2l aod TT-96-lJ/IT,
Judgov:m lt'eb. 22, 20011. lindln!l lhose rapes as slaven- bur ru>< genoá<W.
7 S.. B>S>•oun1 Repon. :ib"'" 001c }, for <10...Uco on killmgs, "" Annex V SS
l and V; Anna \'l, SS l C 11nJ 1 D; ..,J Anncx X, S 1J A. Far• >ummary of ~"""''
rm •cxuial llllwult' .titt Ann~ lX S 1A1•1 Thrtt ilft' aprrox1m11tcly t. 100 reponed
C'QCJ ot tApe- ttnJ K"xu..J •su.uh+ 2 Aboot 800 ,1cum• 11re named (\t lhe- tuhmirung
source appcars ro koow the 1denricy of die .-icúm. bur does oor disclose ir. }, About
1,1!00 """'" ar< opeatioilly rdt<rcd to but are 001 oamed or icknunc-d sul6oondy by
W \ll1U1e» ttp0nmg (he.- t.nodcitt., 4 WW'lel& tcpOJU uh.o rd'cr 10. JJ.Jioo1wl numbtrs
'-l( v11..um• thruugh oappro-1rn11ucim. Thae rcpQn1 s.u~etl lhr:re nlaJ be l*baut 10,000
wddirlonol vittum che repam <OUld cvenru.Uy leiod 10; 5, Ah001 550 o( thc l'<P''"ed
CllS<S n:io:r 10 vi<tims of rape and s<XUul ossiwl1 but are un,_¡fi< aod do aot ~ lUlY
Jdeonfying lnfomnuon. . . Thís stausticaJ 1.nformat100 may not r~presen1 r:hé trut= a-
IC'Jll ot wluc has occucrc.-d lD tbc iocmer \' ugoslavla ·J.
8. ~e 1\.U.1.Jen Lon~r. ·sc:cu.iJ Tonurc ul ~1m in !he \\..11r; in \\7it, \ •,.,¡,.,,c.t',
r,.iullLI ""J 1hr" Capi"J. Pro< rr lr-lfft'd Co,,flttt ut Eun-_Jpr ~ttlÍ the Surr·tt..'Vf' Rnpó•tl
112 (Llbb. T ota Arcd cd, 1'198l A man'• 1.,tidt< ,.•• ,. hin.:n off as publi< 1ortur< 111
me Omarska camp. S... ProS<Cu<ot • Tadic. Case No JT.94-1, Opiruonond ludi!mem.
, !06 HCTY. May 7. l!ml.
~ S... C•lhann< A M•cK111non. "Turrung lbpc mro Pomograpby: Posunodr:m
CA:a01..1Jc."' abcl\~ ,lt ~O 15 hlt.lctHn~tlf\'4 lhc m.1ktnte of i1 ñlm OÍ• rllpt: OÍ 1t ~1o•lun
woman b> Scrbian ÍO«:<:< •
10 Id
 Notts to Page> 212- 213 • 351
11 Scc K,.i,Ju: v Kiua.Jiic. 11bovt ntu.c &, Pro~c.•tteOI" v M1ktl('vic, Cuc No IT-01
'1 T. lndictmc:nt1, 12 INcw. 22, 20011 On chi:: 1.-rp;aconccxc of che Bosni1'n gcnoc:1Jc,
, .. Nonnm C"ll\1lr. G<nonJc m Bom" Thr Po/1cy of Ethmr Cfumsmg t 19951: PIHLp
Coboo. S'Yb1a·s S-et War Prop.ga.JJ •ná ,¡,. 0-t o/ Hmory UY961
12. for ll srunning psychoanalyoc study ot thc:- r·retkQrps. 11 Píl\:ilU: .trmy •n (rcr.
many bt:1~ccn che u.•m, (X'nn«llnll, 1hr me ul f11x:l1un u.11tb J.r.X1u1 tnu.uJ."'flf.Kt: Kliau~
Tlle\~·clcir 1\f11/~ fi1nl•su·s fJqgJ)
J} Joon Rh¡¡;elham percepm'C)y observod rh"1 io her inten,..., wnh Jcwuh
\1r-omeo Holocaust sunivors, ""althou~ th.:R" are many storics oí JexuaJ ab~ the:y are
ooc casy to come by. Somt' thtnk 1L in.JpproprutlC' ro 1alk about lhc:sc ma1cm; Jisan·
sluru •bol.Jl scxu.úu.y cks«r~tt' tJH: "'""ºnt' oC 1hc Ji:-..ad. or tht= h\·11\.g. or tbe f'lillocloi.Wi1
n><lf for otltcr" 11 " •lmply roo iliíli<-ulr ond p.rinfol Still n1hc:,. thiok ir m•v l>c- "
rmi•I issut Onc sun+.-or wld tn< that .bc h1d """n ..,,.,,¡iv 1bused !.} • oumber of
Gtntilo men .-bi)c $he WIS In hidm~. whert me
was abour dcvcn )'t"alS old. Ha com·
mene abou1 dus-was tbat 11 '\\'38 not 1mportant . exetpt to m~ Sh~ mt:a.nt rhat tt haU
nu •igrufh.~c< w1th1n thc larser píc:twc of tlk lJoloc:at1s1.• Jo.an Ringclham. i.\~omc:ri
ianJ che lfoloc.1uA A Rtconiider~uon al ·1~~n.:h,• JO ~t'&Jtf }(>urn11/ o/ W'o,,..t'n tn
Culum •1tJ S«itrv 741, 74S ISum""'r 198S). A• 10 thc ma.tl mc•oin~ nf th• <c:xual,
it is wwr:b poodoring 1hat pcople whn can d.$cribe tbuwaocl< of poople beutg killed
on " <inJ;k day In froa 1 of them 6nd it s desectaoon o( thc mcmory lO la!k about
brochels, or tbosc wbo cm tell of 1hor f-aoiíbcs f1dling un top of t:l1tni ·i.a1hen shot u\ .t
pir find it too pniníul ro Ji$CU.'I! h;1vmg bttn rn~. kin8t!lheo:í1n rl'!pon• tholl 111 " C"On·
ft'mtCt' lh<11 prcst"nlcd p1&nc!J an mynid dctiaik of thc 11,,toau111 whtn .he quetuoned
tbt l11ck al " sln#e mention of womeo or gender. me
OfRAAizei'$ ill thc Holocaust
Mcmonal Muscum said, •\Ve lorg<>t: Joan Rin..,lhci1n, '"The Spüt s....,..,. Gender
aud th• Holoomu.• m Wonren '" tÑ Hoooust !40. 346 ILeooro J. Wcir<mlUl ..d
D.W. Ofc:t", ccb., 19981
14 O~.nur H.t'nog, ...lubri-1 ¡¡nd H}l)OC'ris) lnc1tcmcn1 11nd Ots:Jvowlll ScxuaLty
•nd Gorman Fa'IC!Sm." 11 112 Journ•l oflh• Hiimrv o/Se<u<tlitr 6, 6 (Jan./Apr 2002),
l' Tnal o{ tM M•JOr w,,. Cnmmals. vol. XX:ll, l l '47 ( 19481 (Nurembor~. t947-
l949) 1read1ng 1hc conclusions oí rhc t'.ourt ai smt.eru::1ngt
16. St:rt':IL-.her, (01 pubLshing_. wu con\littcJ for Jnorcmt:tu to murde.r &nd cxta·
m1n,11'an, • Í0tn"f of pcn;ectinon on pohncat .1nJ rtc1~1J grounJa, 11 crunc "1,1&imt hu
lnNlicy, 11od execmed Trul <f t!N ¡\f.i1or W'1T c.,u11111.1ls. abovc no1c 1,. :at ..·ol xxrr.
}49 (futding S.reichor MuJty on on• rounll; and •"OL 1. }65 úenrencing him lO death),
17. Geo~ Mosse, Th<' lm•t• o/ M•11: Ihe Cm/11,. o/ Mo.lero Af.,a./mm J75
(19%1
18 GC$Cl2 'lchuuo J.,. dcuudten Bluret und ller dn11><hen Eh~. ¡q¡s
1\iat
Rach•g-:d>bm. Teil 1 11~6. Thi• pJ'O\'i•K>n forb.h "rnarri~•<' bctv.ttn '"""' 11m,I
German n:arkmals of German or rdatcd blóod" (an. 1} and •sexu.J 1n1ercourse factpr
in mard"J!") bori>...o Jews aod Gcrman ..uonlls o{ Ccl"!IWl or n:lared bk.od" (on.
2). For !In 1Uum1ruung histoncal J.isrus.'iion oí tl\e Nill t.:uncrpt ut "blood," .see All}'M)n
D Pohk) • BlooJ. iu.:., .nJ ~"""'"" IJ<muy: Scicsudic .rnd Popular Di<e'"'"'"'·" l l
3S2 • Notes lo Pace 213
) /4 Jotmi./ f!/ .\le.JNJ/ llkw1<1•llm 171. 174- 17& !OC< 20021. Onli men vwl.mnii tho
pn."'-ihttJ('f\ t\U c~troun.-riul intcrgrou11 11CJ.ual 1nterc:oune ..-ere 10 be purnthcd "'1th
frnprlsonmcnt c>r hard laOOr l1rt ), S 2) je:\\-.: il<'t'f'C alm fQrb1Jdcn to cmplO)• Ccrm.an
W(ml~ under furt~'"fi\'t yc:ll"I of ~ tr11htir housthold~ (an })
19 foc eadv docwneniauoo, 11« Hcnsley Henson. Tbt YeUow Spot: fhe 011tt.tw1g
v/ H"/f" M1/f1Q11 "'"'"'" Bei•t ' 2t6-lH 11936>.
10_ Pht.-cogmph m \ fotc:l'J únJ ~'itutJ A lluJor.t of th~ llal«aJdl l-42 IDcbot.th
0,.-urk cd 20021 lphoto~nirh óf Au1 15, 19!~•
21 S.. Pwici• Srobar, ºTelliog Sexuol Swrics in tho Nazi Coum of Law. Rae•
Ddilcm<nt1n Gcrm.lO¡-, 19J> to 1945; 11 Journ•lnfthe Hirtory o/Sexu•fity l l I l}.,.1
Apr.1002). &.o al'° Alexancltll Pr2)'rembel, "'&.ce Dclilement' in Coun" lunpublish.U
p•¡><r frotn \Xlork>hop. Y.id v..hcni,Jcru..ilan, Nov. 20-23 •.20011 lrtporuog ro<>tch
on O\frt '00 prm«u1tUnt tt'lr R.u»(nuhr11uJ(' m NA.ti 0>urul
22 An O'\'CtView oí the prf'jeci: is proyidcd by thc indktmcru of jt¡ operaUvC$ undt-r
CC)ntrol \,ouncil Law ~'' 10 in T ,;,,¡o/th ~faior \l"ar Crsmmal1. abo"" note l}, ,-al
rv. at !>08. espeoally Uld1Ct1nerus of liollmann. t:hoct. Tesch. and Viermnz. 1~ JU~­
mrots a m be found m vol V •.r 162-164
13 Sa:- Jofhu11 li11nuner, • tt1tlcr's Chlldren.· f\cu•oottk l11tr'r1JJl/ólfal CM::ar. 10.
2000L Georg lilicnth:al, Dc-r "Ltbt•1tJl,ortt r . \ 1 " E1n /nJl'flf't4'111 '1ilfl(Jn11hoZJotlis1uch<r
Rro("llpn/1J1k 11985). The beSI •rude in En~U.h is Lmy V. ll>ompson. "Ld>ensbom
and ihe Eu~erua Pobcy ot !he kichsfübrei>SS." 4:1 &ni,./ f.mopea" HrstDf)' 14-77
<Mar. 1~711.
2..a <:a1nnc ~J..y und l\.lrc:h.acl LciaplllilO c.uefully cu.nvdSS tht ~uknre (Jft llh~ 4ut:s
don of "''hcthtr l-A'h(1f1bar11 homa wcrc 1ruJ t.aon$, t.ndudinx liunmfcr'• n:poncd
remark ch•t "T h1h'~ made n known priv.i11cel)' cha1 any uMlatTied "'-oomrui "·ho iJ 1doce
and Ion¡¡¡ for • child can rum lO lcbeosbom with perfect roafidcn<:c • • (WJc rcc·
om~ only r.!Cbllly íaultlc:ss mtn :l$ 'coocq>tion ass:iscants. '• Fcbx Kcrsti:.n. T~ Ker·
Jl<n Mu,,um, IV41!-liN l !Hutchln""1, J't}61, qua<ocl m ürnne eta~ aod Mich.d
l..c;apm.an. M111Jt-r &1~. T"" Lr""nt/ir1rn fu1x:n.-tu·111 '" N~1 Gnmany 11 (1991J.
Cerman ""'""' 1mJ •trck> .,. repon.U. Id. •t n -69. Ir i> •loo noced 1hor 1h0fu•picíon
t!m Ubemborn homes rrovidcd for amm11cd liaisons bnwcm suir•blc po•tntial rr1cial
st.ock and SS meo \l.'Sj,-widespread !11 che umc, id. iil 69. but Jt 1s asserled Uu1 t.he real
tllSJ:ppm\'111 of such ltttlJl8emrotS W1S oo grounds tllJlt th<) "1<0urJg<d <00cq>uoo
@u1s.1Je m.arn~1:. .\tu.re liilld "ºJ 0.1ri»a f-fi:nr)', ~~·"·'"°'"~ \: lw 1'1111"·n Jer
Rau1· t l97'~· Ji$t..'US11 .all "'P«'' etf thc pmjc:ct 1n dn11il bu1 nC\"er ÍIK'8 on how thc
wtwnen. ~'hc:thrr Gcrm.1n wt•nu;n or chm<" of occup1td coun1nes. hecame pftJP1ant.
Ooe source dw purpons to prol'ide coruemporary mdcnce th., úb.111hom inclmkd
r<pmducU\'C hrorhc:ls. Fretw1/bge &uugen (volunwy brcetling) atablishmcnlS, r> Pc:tcr
Neunwin '.1 account .n un of6ccc on lea\'~ ot hts a~nencr \\.·lth .t )'OUl\g Cum.an
womtLn Scc- ~ter Ncum.ann. 01b,., lle#} Gt1U'f'r 74-85 (Con,ti.uuu1c f'i1:& G1bbm,
rram., 1958) DiaJOMu• lndudes; "[Her:J D"'ú you think u's preny horribl• clús bUJi
nes;s hf stllinft one·"' bod)• ..s ltD irutrumco1 of procrcalion?" fH.Un:) •You arcn'1 5Cllma
vour bodv. \'ou.'re gí\lin~ tt 10 Gcnna:ny. "'·hic:h ts a ven· dJfferent matter." Id. ar 8.3.
HDtes to P~1es 213-2 14 • 353
M.ny pcople ....ho ha\'l' studied th~ subittt in dcpth srein «n1tin th11 Lhc h()lllCI Wctc
maccrruty homn: kl up to ful'thcr ri&C'JSt ~enu.~•. nm brttding fmn1. Ser al-.o Jac.-ques
Ochruo. Th, Gert•p<> A HISIO"I of /fo""' 70-71 (Ml!tVYll SaviU. 1nom., 1%-1). Evan•
commentr on ..the an~pu: b~ t~ Nazjs to mobiliic womcn volunurily by metOS of
• D1"S51Ve propagvid• campaign" for ttproduruon ol Germ.m. Richsrd J. Evaos,
•Germlll Women •nd tbe Tnumph ol liule<," 4~:1 Journul o/ Mo4tr1t fúitory, On
Ootn.•nd Supplc:mcnr 123-17' (M.rr 1976), 11 1;9 M11t1fred Wolfoon'a "Con1uamr
and Choico in die SS 1.eodcrsh1p," 18 Wm<nt Polttiffl Q•arterly 55 l, 5'7 <Sopr. 19(>)1.
dc:ocribes J,tb..,,/,,,m ., "prO\;din,¡¡ ...,,... confioomeots in. special l)mg-1n hom<S for
die uo1>'ed comparuons o( SS men." Anneue Timm. ·s.x wlrh a Pur:pose: Proomutioo,
Venc:rc:>l Disease, 1Jtd Mrbt>nzcd Mascuhnny in the 1'hrnl Relch," l l:V2 )ournal o/
the llmory o/ Srx••ltt¡ 22l, 24<>--247 0111>.IApr. 20021, i.kc:o 1hc satll<'. "cw. bw 1ÚM>
rcícrences Blut:l'~ ac:coun1 oí 11 '"policy ~,f providin~ so!diet'$ on lcave. wnh pl~nt
fcmale companv whh a Yiew both lO increasibj_I¡ tht- men ·, !luppon for thc pany and 10
cre•tlng sod'!) situatioo• th.r m{ght m tho cnd lave posiuvo popuLnion pobdcal out·
com<S." id. ar 247. wluch ~ pttcit<!ly what Neum:um dc:Knbes. Thc Nnis oosrroyod
., m•n) o( thc Ld>.mhum filc:s ., 1hey rould during thc la.t d.r• ol World War Jl,
.Jthough somc h.--.: smcc h<en recovottd Scc •H,der Ritco Projea Rtturda Rcv..l<d."
AP Berlin INO\· 23, 19991
25 Tinun, for example, commenu: ·s.x in the Third Rloich Wll$ fot roo long a
vinual torra lncogns•a for hisrorians o( Gcnnany. 'l'h•rc """ an undcrmntlahle ~,...
11.1 avojd provlcbng: th.illatiog dctlllls about so munlcrous; a regune.• ·sea: \\1th a Pur·
~." 11b°'-e nntc 24, ul 22.3. Wby il.:counr! of KXu~ •trodhcs would ncceu11nly bt
titillati~ is not c:xplaincd, as the po1111>Je role of te.xualiry in makina rhc rcgjme mur·
derous is evaded.
26. Sec 1bompoon, abo\•e note 23. at 71-72, and Lilienthal, abQl-. note 2}.
27. On ti,.. NQrwq¡ian vlmuborn homes and chiJdren genttally, ,.. Ot} anJ
lc:apntan, 1~'t' noc.t 24, •1 IJ l-1,,.9. Atron11:y 1t.ndl fologén Spydc:vuld $\ied thc Nor·
we:JP.Ln gOvt'mtnent íor C'Ornpcnf:~tion fur L.t1Y11tbom chilrlrt:l.1 in caMy 2001. llllcRinR
Nl>rwq;i:m officiol coopemioo in the molrrearment o( 1n euimaied 12.000 chíldmi
bom to No~ian womcn by Gc:rtn3J15 und« thc l.tbenshom progrnm. One artic:le
on this bwsulr oorcd tlm "lalcroos occupted Europe. Ccnnat1 soldien falhtrcd moro
thm 200,00Q chlldron • C..rl Monore, "ChUdrcn oí Naw Sttlung Pe•« wtdi Thcu
Put. Norwe¡¡lon l..w>uh: M•.ny Eodun:<I 'Symm111c Torrurc' 1n Mental Asylum• Aftcr
Gcm>311Y• Oefeot," N1/10#•l Pon !S.pr. 11. 20001 Tbn:c huncl.-.d thOCJs•nd Web.·
matht rolruers wc:n: s••aooed w Norway. wh1ch was govem.U by the mf.Jnous collab-
or>ror Vi.trun QuW!ng. C.o n be that non< of th.,.. ch•ldrcn .,.. c:oncaved through
l>lpcl
28 U1wJly. commcn1arics uw l.anguage 1l~t prcliú.ffitlo that wo'™!n, "thcdler
nr
Gcrman ""'"'"" or WO!n"'1 óctupic:d rounrri<5. ¡¡.i\inR btnh OUl of wedlock to chil
tiren o! die Nazi SS lud scx wirh them roluru.nly. Lany V Thompson, """"" nO<e
23, . i 71, 1~w o( soveral tho"-"'"d F""'ch womc:t1 rmpregnoteJ by occupyiD¡! sal·
illcn itt tcnn• o( ·ihc 1nc:vnobl( Ír1ucmintioo bttwttn tbe uoops md tht: rutU\'~
354
O.y .md Laplllllll, ab"'" n<H< 24. ot '2 cmph.¡>izc scxu.J lm:doo1 • Ahhougb lhe
"·hol.c t:Ol'k'l:!pt of sclceuvr tkW brt't'illng I~ d!Jgusung. thc- •ug¡_~n a( ~dom and
\\-holn.alr '"''"'"""' coupHttg u ""'- '"-holly uppropriarc. Wh1k famC' oí thc prc-fUL.&n<"io
nuv -.-en hav-e l)tt11 mQU'Vilca1 by 1 W(lflt.Jn·s t1mn, &eme of dury rQ t1'e ,une, ,,, in
S0111c a,... luV<: bc<n brou~ht <ibc:iut by «>cmon, th< •con1 aviulabk !!'1dcnce ""!Ul<S"
gaiwne álteaion bct'ft·ee:t nun~· o( the motbers anJ tbt-it SS lovets.. The)· wtre. 1atter
.U. hdthy )'OUll~ wom<D "'di notm.U o:1ooúoolll ntt<b • Ancne \\"arring. J'ywr·
r1i~,.__1111Jt'' heM.<f"lt~ÍJ(' '1g n'ISt.JPtl' (199•0 •lJft.t'. "Dur1ng thc occup.-1ion 1cn~ oJ
thouPnd-. of Ot.rnl'b htrd '1ffa1n u."'lth \\"1c_hm111;h1 toldicrs- rC$lJltinf( in more
Wf'nlc:n
1h.n fivo 1hou<•nd ""' children" lernpha.'1S •dd"dl. Ton,· Pottr>On ond Afian Hall
"Nonresim G"'.. mmenr 5ued .,.,., Cbddrt!l Nws Left Behind," Ttfegr1ph
!London). ls:rut 2102 (h :b. 2'. 20011 notes <h•t llimmler's pohcy "•ctm:ly promc<e<I
sexuid rclauons lxru.·ccn Gcrman troupl and u.'O.ll\C'O tU~.;;ed !U true Ary¡in~uc::b lLt
thc NoN"t'~1an$. ~ bur .iJ$0 tha1 .. m c:stim:atcd 50.000 Netrv.·s:gian womcn wcrc th:ouifi1
10 h._.. J..J •ff.,r< ~,u, GennllllS duru>« 1he e><cupguon." AJ. oí Ckt<>l>er 2S. 2005,
No"''>Y repcnedl¡· qwetly d..:ul<<l 'º pay war pcnstoos (toe dtose wbo odbered 'º
"good o•uooal pnnc1plc> durli>g thc: occup•uon) 10 thc: fcw WZC!ll s.urv1"1llg womco
~\\'ll to hitvc b.d $CX_ "·1rh GMmm soL.Hm dudng \\:"'orJJ Wu 11.. pJOtlucing un <$·
u.m.1t~ 12,000 chtldttn. Evo ~ÍJno-11 of thc Univcrsny ot O.lo dcscnbod thc: pnn
c:1ple vmcLca1ed *' no longcr punishinA ches.e 'll'Omen •for l.ht l(Jl.·c scorits oi thtir
yolllb.. In me AJD< anicl•. tbe occupying fore<s ""' descnbed .. "1<1h..,1y en·
<:our-'l!t[tllj!] '"'"'"' bdwttn lcx...l W<>m<n and Gwn:m ..,ltbcrs [,..J pan <>f an SS plan
to t:nnd:. the .Af)<Ul ge.ne pool " · NotW*) fus.alh Jotg.lvo '11."<0men '11.•bo ilept w1th N.u1
M>IJlctS," ncw>.tckg,.pb.uk 110-18--05! A~.!n. W<tt nene ol th.., womcn nopedi
29 OpcmnR 1t111emcm of the proscamon, Úl• Ru>ho ..... l?rosecutor McHaney.
4 r,,,¡, of U1.r Crrm1•<1lt Brfore tb< 'iucrnb<rR .\fdt1al"( 1"rr~11n•/J 687 119'17).
}U. Ann• Rosmus, "lnvolunblt)' Abortions for Pollsh Forred Labore"-" m &pe-
rt<JIC«lnd &premi;n \ffom••, /& ,\,zu. •nJ ih<- HiJl<NJtW 76, 78 IE!wb.lh R. .a..,,
onJ MyrlM GoJJcnberg, cJ1.. 200)).
l 1 7'b. /!lJclr Bonk o! Po/11~ In+")' "" .-lcro1mt o/ thr .\lartrrJo•n o/ PoltJb ]ewr¡
P1tdrr ibt N.,; Oct"i"""" 25 Uaroh Apc:mlak et al., eds.. 1995) (194}\.
)2. Yilia Elitch, ·women ond the Holocaust: Hi<ioric.l Background •in Wo•m
of v.i,,, Pamsa•s a•d RrsJSt•na l'lgh0s, Onl\l]lallv poblished in 6:4 /~tmtal of tht
Ccntn- for HolouUJt !Jtt,.hti 8, 8 (Spring lq<J()) • '""'"'· Ki•á" (Hdke San.ter .nd Bari>at• Johr, eds 1'192)
ll fJ/Jdc &u~. ..i,,,..., ncro JL, •• 17. Thc Je,....,h co1nm\lll1ty l<odcn reponedly
otJ.mantly n:ft,.t:d
H S.. .\·ru, )',,,,r, l'"'" (J1t1. 8. l~ll p. 8 Ueue1, name witbhdd!, ropnnted m
Z...· Garba, ib,..b. Thc Pa=itf."latrr: Genoadt 98 U 99-0 ldJKUSSlllg au1hcnndty of
kttcr md Jocumenung JlllÚlo< .is Cluya Feldnunl.
H R.ul Hilbcrg, Prrpm.mm, \'ull•.,, IJy1u1tJm Tht )ct<uh Úll#JtfO{>ht IYJJ-
1'141 2 l l 119921 l~unuog repon by thc <t;«Urit\· Scrvicc in G.alid1, Kom0>.1Lndcur oí
Sttunty PoHrc/Tíl-A4, to Olxssnumbarint\ihrcr \t'illi ~ibcn ¡,, Bcrlm .,,d ro Sl"'1·
dm~r lColondJ Heimm Kraków. fuly2. 19U, N1acnalArdúvesohheUmred
Stitc>, Record Group 242. Tl7,. Roll 57').
Holes lo Pages 216-2 ll • 3~5
t6, BirgH lkt..:k. "\ crgC'W•lugung ,·un Fr.aucn JJlll Krl~»rwltgte un Zwoten Wd(
knCM'?'"' in l11r11lt11"" fr/iJhru'fl. uiW \ ·.-~ "'"'"'"' ''t)" ~·Jfl nt l\n~al'r. Jr 20 /"¡.,.
~••Jerlr H. 4l-41 (And~as Ges11ich eJ., 19%1. S.-. .i,o Oons Be,..,.n. W•• 0 ,,J
~J.. ,¡ C,,n~ H.worv ol 1~ H.°'-"'' 107 uo (200}•.
.l7 s.,. •b.lve note U .
l8 JuJuh \1 l1M1<•<>n. S.-.J o/ ~ar.th ,\lemom o{ u 5uniuor 144-14' ll'l'J()> J or
~n w_naly¡:1J chac ~l\'t'!i fu.~r Jer11h to Aluu: Frank hC'.rtoelt. tcc Ciuhtrinc- A Bcm,1rJ.
Annt' Fnank: Thc- Culuwnon QÍ thc lnspiranonal \rKnm" in Baer and GC\L.:JmbcrJ.
•bao... no« 30, ª' 201
J9 lsaxson, abovc no«: JS, at ' l
40. Oll"' L<ng"td. fo.,. o,.,.,.,, Tlv S1or¡ o/ A•u~wit> l8' (1~71
41 Rulh a;,,., Du Ho/f•••M ,.,¡,,.,/t rnrh •'" 1..t¡,..n .\Ir,. U:'<g ,.,,. Th"""'""..Jr
und A•<rbu·tl: n•rh lsrJtl 149 (1~881 f'Verrewalrij!W1K Jcr jüdisc:htn \!Odchm ,...,
erloub1. o.. w11r Joch k<:mc R.""1sch:mdc'•
42 Survivor quo<ed by Rtn;\elhefut. "The Splu Bctu·=." abovc n<>t< U • ., }41.
43 See. •i!·· tht occoun1 of Swtlcy Rtt.un, ·c.unps. · in PfO(ttJmp ,,¡ th, c.,,,,.
fttvtC< o/ Wo"fc11 Sun.n.<1111, tk l ltÑUtottdt 165 (Eather K..ti .and Joan /\.1 Rtngdhclm
eds 1983 · l<>n Skan.,~kol , top ot wh..rcvc.r .!1;1mc m1ght nthcN·1~ c:ume fro1n n\Cn u,jng cupH~ 01· pttbt11ut~
44 They m: l~oo. Stt Heleo F<m. •G<:nOCiJe ond GenJtr The Uoe< .,¡ \\"omc:n
<1nd Group O..nny," 1 )uurnal e>f Ce_,J, Rerurcb 4J. '3 t 19991 l"Wha< ts stri~
abou~ thc Holocaust •.• is die Ltd< oí• panero of i•ndcr &$CM1mat1on .00 ..,,cuoned
ro pe I; Mym• Goltknt,.fl!. "Mtmo1rs oí Au.thwm Survl\'ors: The llurJon of Gen.!•r •
in Wtitzm.ui and Ofcr, aboooec no1e l3, 11 J)6~Jack G ~IQrOSf-'n, ""1ttt"-•bf'l.lck g,.._.,,,¿llY
/.;feIn. Wo-.'s ÚlnCl'nlfJIRHS C,,mp 19}µj in-17812000): Melissa Raph•d. rn.
F•molr Fa« o¡ GJJd m A.scbicri:. A ]t't<ub Femmw TI-~· of tbe Holowm JID
o.48 C200JI.
4' ~ce } uh.a Roos. •llackl.i!h A¡;...ns< Proslllu•c•' R,¡¡h..,: Ongm• •nd o,..,.•ml<'I of
Niui Pro,:~IUtll.lO Policiei.· 11 1/2 ]1H1rffal fJ/ thr H11trlf')' o{Sr'l(flilÚI\' t.>7, 69 «.f.in Apr
~002); Chn11t..i PnuJ. lu..wnvpros1tf11l1cm Std.1tl1rh t''ff'1dotttr &rdrllt ,,,. \4't1n,,Jbt>v•l·
ª""" 11994),
46 S<:c Tinun. 2bove ncite 24 •• 221.
47 Jl'\\.t>b WQC!lco w1:re •pp.,,,nüy no loog<r ot6ciallv pttmmed "' ¡,. w.d m
W'ehrm.atht bro1hela tfttr J\ilarcb l9.-1. Sce &for1~r ""J Í3Hri'ttc- Kntg, \ '~rg..-~.·o1/11-
~ S. Poul. .oo,~ note ~5. 58-75.
49. i\ilorrison roUec:u sou.rres desc:nbmg tb~ r«ruitmtnr$ m dc:ujJ v.1th no meo.-
don ot rehgi.t)ft, rac:r, or eduuory. Scc Motru.oo, ,.bo\'e 1l0tt: 44, .ál 201-204
")0 Stt Nand• 1ietbertnilfin, The Bl~JseJ .-1.btJ1 lnn1"J' llh11f! 111 R.#11(-111/:+ni~ eo.r.
rttntr.u u>nC.:'"" fCJ,. Wo,,..,,, 1}2 11lnte.r 811tr. lrtan), 2(1()()) ~1K"n"un1 by .a Cemtm
Calholtc """'""« 'º
mcmlxr innm• ftom 1941 19"3 who "'"'block eldet :u Rav-
coshnkk lor -WO proscrutes). s.., .Jso Tunm •• ¡,.,_.., notc 24, •• 214
' J Heui> He!!<', Tbu\ fro 1wh ú;, Plflk 1"rwngk. Tbc Trnc ujunJ.Dwh St,,,.,
()/ llo11fd.St.,·ual~ tn thr: 'tJu:i Or.uA C""'fl! <l6 tD.h1d Fcrnb.&ch. LrlM JqM)¡, ..ad 1\lot·
ª'
r'50n. iho\~ note 44. 202. bolh rr:pon chi.s
356 Notes lo Paces 217-218
52. Chn•to Schull "Weibbche l·fal thn~e '"'' R.\'erubruck U! l!orddlen det M.u1
ncrkonzcn1r.uwndJ.tt'l:C'." m fr.111t'" In K{Jlltl'11/r\ifknt1Llgtrt lkrg('t1·8trbr,,, R.lvt·nsbfh1..k
1l1, 1l9 tClous Füllbt-<¡1 ~mlbel'¡t. M•ru•• Jun~ Rma<e Rcibe. and Mmi"' Schciten•
btrge<. ed., 19':141
'} J lq?er. •bovc no« 51, at %.
'4 S.., lnnc Georg, Dir wtmthi.tftlxbcn L. •1t<rneh•ni101en J., SS 11 b •nd n 47 l
( 1~} 1 • t.n$trucuoru Ú'>het'mln$[ che Gnannng oí Spcc~ f,jv()ll 10 PNQnerJ: trAns
~r °'1<ummt :-lo Nr-100. Office of Ch1ef ofCounsd for \X'ar Cnmo; Rcmhild Ka"'S
wtd Chrisu PIUl. ·t-hftlmg• Bo<ddk m dcur.;ch<n l\Z•." ¡:;,.,,,,.. n-r (M.ir. 1992).
55. Hqiec. ubove nól• 51, at 61. No forused arrenuon appears to ha•oe been paid
to the ctluuci<y or nroonaluy of these yoon~ meo, allhough IJc¡¡<.r'• repon locvses on
Poks. llrgér, who '11.1&5 .Aos1nan. \\'.t.' wcd 1n thl~ wa). 11IC Lttcnture. [rtllllnt1n8-Jy,
1cnd~ 10 ooi1t r11aal, cthn1c, or rcLgiow spcc;i6att0n• ""~a pcJ10ri u. »CXually dr6~.
Íor cxamplc, a.s g prOilitUtc or hCIJllPSCXlaal
56. A. • turthcr l3ctor in ll(Jllrépórtlng ,, shouJd be oored mal throu¡µ. these
ª '"IJll!C'lldlts. J<""1>h meo had dio possible Jbamc of usmg womeo m apuve <ctongs
u.• rcvtuds from t'Xtcrmin~Lors íor ío.rctd labor contnlxtdng to thcir own ~ on
\\'OOlcn. There are ~lw rc-pom rhat }t'Wiih mcn uscdJcv."1Sh worncn íor 'léx fur Jrut'\1v1J
outlidc th< brothds and rnped lhi:m: undcr ~enacidlll eondtñons. womeo aro andér
"'"" mere prt<sures no< w repon uuracommuniry sexual ass.ults than lhc:y uc o<h·
<N1sc.. J""ish women ,,oo bad Úle pc:wbk shame el bdng u,.d in thts "'"Y ., ,.,,u
,..h" ,.¡,,,,,.
'"'• for 1h""' hved, thc: <>Í h.-•ng """"ed poosibly for üut r<.oon. PctluP"
1he cvocatrve JeKT1puon of thc ~11m1nfr cfkct!> of thc: R.aJuwst#:iJ,,Je wnl~l abo JP·
pli.. in rhc cont""t <:Á "''".¡ abu..- "'l'hev v:ene ash11med oí their bladt h.U, their
Semlnc º""'· Úleir defensdessness. ..• Tbey were aslwned ol lheir sham<." Joel K&ug,
D.n Ne/U1f <fl/""1"'8 1'5 11%71.
17 Scc Lugcn Kogon, lÑ1' SS-Sta.JI D.iJ SyJtC'111 dt•r JeutJt.·IN11 IW1tt,,11TJl1011IÚ'e"
21S 0994• ll').171; Ka Tz<rmk 1356H, llm1u of Do/JJ tMoshe M Kohn, 11'111J. 1m)
Thi. book was wmtcn by Karol C.t)'ll•ki. a)IO nuncd Yebld Dinur. ba..J on lhe diacy
of DanioU. P,,,le<hnik, a founeeo.year-<>ld Cm 19}9J Pclish Jeq• ""'° ....,
fur«d mw
prosarution in Aoschwitz's "House el Dolls" brodid. Shc tS idemifit:d m sorne edinons
as bis sm<r. Chr!SU P•ul !ound 1"31 ""'ílc R.'°1i<hnkk ,... u5"d 'º •upply ü1c brodicls
in rnott uf the campi. \\·ornm •tl A\,li.c:ht. 1u v;cn- fotc~d lnto pJmunauon tbcrc for 1u1
1hm: brothc11.1nd !11''"1a1cl1Het SC"C" Paul, .tbtJ\·c rK'lfC' 45. •t 26
58 WomM t• 1h< H"IMlu.tt A Colk<r1"" uf TfiltflfOntff viii CJthoshua Cibeshi<<
.00 Atma Eib.slutz. eds. and trllls~ 1'19Z): JehoshtD Eibesbuz, in Remtmber' A Col-
lectw• o/ T<Sltm01t1e• 12-1.l lAruu Edenbc:r¡;.-E.ibesluu. u•ns.. Eslhet ~aroh Eilcobc:rg.
ed.. 19921 IS!ory o( ·~uwm").
59 Scc: l'aul, •~< nmc ~5. 11 106 Cquating ul.
60 1..m~rcl. ,.¡,,,.,,"""~o . .,
1s1
6l P.uJ. abo'" OOte 45 .•• !().!. Th< hierarure oonuins murn deiml ci dus fac<.
roo~ 'ºlho oonuary ~iÚl w~in~ ~ttl o( ll1Sl5leocc and vehcn,,,..ce. bascJ
 Notes 10 Pa¡es 211-219 • JSl Notes to Pagu 121-224 • 359
JS8 • Notes lo Pa~u 219- UI
pnmarily on l11ck of C'\ icJcntt 11nd tht \'1C'W th1u nn« n W.&ll UleJ.al, tbc S~:tl' c1.-~J nt-M
( ,,..,,,,,.¡,, .¡,"'.. '"''º 1', •<vol ll '2' ("llunmlcr pcuooo.11} ordcr<:d t.h.ac rcwamnng co ddtrqy ·¡n \li:hole ar Ul p;i.rt' .a na.Uon.:d. e-thnu:.'ill. nicml Ol' rd.Jg10UJ Jtroup " 1ll-.,.l1t'l#
1

hav• doD< IL :\ ivp1ad mswice L• Momson, oho,.., not• .14, ot 7l. 202. For turihcr •bo.-.: noté 74, , 497
by tbt> v.iatmLb oi human bodlCf iaba be auemptc.l/ ' whJch ••.U du1k' "b)' placH1g &he
di><ussloo. ""'Janc1 Aruchuu. KcfSWl Moer. and Sania Oba¡dm. ··o.eses 1~ Ge- 86. Set. "'"-· Coouaón plU'll el Esdarecim1emo Hutóm:o ICEH) c...,.,..,1. M<-
dulle<l vi<11m bc:.-.'«n rwo nak.:J [G>'P'YI womcn" Í«otn Ravcn~rilckl
fuht unJ .Le Bhdtc dcr ..,.i.,rcn , . " SexucUc Gq.!t gq;cn Frauen, • m Fmu!• in "10n• J,,J :i:kn<tQ , 224~ !CEH, l'/991 l"wlicn ocxuol vt0lmce [rapeJ tha1 fonn al
•¡ Thcv om he 5ccn •• Yod Voshesn md thc Holocausc Mcmorul Muscum
Kon~·•fr,,tff»Ul.r1t,rn. ábov-c: note ,2. oH JJO-ll J Scbuh.i. olbm'C'. notr S2, al 131. Unid \iolrncc di.ttc~ tpecdioUly Agill.lnt womm, 11 uulaed lo .a. ma:i..ih-c- 1111J publi..: m.anntr
74 See p..,.erucoc v A~. C..c No. ICTR-96-1-T. Judj¡nldl~ 45 iS"PL 2,
Pa11l'i book, thett "''ª' not • lot of C\idcnce. bu1 •·h,n dJJ cXdl •iti 61'$da11nd 11h1t tt •• 11.11 m~11.uon of fhe m1cnuQn fO cx1tttnmiatt " J4!0up. '") Scoe al)(,) Unuc:d St111es
cht N.az~ \\'en: ln•--..bidin(l. p~r11.cuhrly 111 thc camps and whcn: fon:-N R2 \\'15 con ~
ettned, 3tttl1S 11n odd amde of &itlt.
. .,.n*
l'J'll!I, 112-129
~t:ncNlly &n..uter ~ai. toJ«, Sb1111trl'J Ln·t'~ Sncu.JI V1,1lt:11r.~ Dur1ng t~
P.11..,11d"" Gtnoadf' unJ {11 A/trl'1Ulh 11996). The- pcrpc:tn1on 'l&'C'rc 1-luru mc.l al~ r.ht:
CPmmiaion on lnccm1tuon11l Rchgious rr«dom, JlNfln& ()lf Ú>•'lmu1111/ Vl(jlr11tr ,,,
G~rot ln4'•• .,,¿ rhe U.S Retp<>n<r, W•shington. 0.C., Junc 10. 2002; Ruth Baldwm,
6l. Oiz:tbcth H""'<=Ul cummcntS, ·~irch íruo Nazt- brotheh clWlengesoor •Gu1an11's Ccodeml Vcolcncc." in Noshtng S•aed Womrn Rtrpond 10 R,//gl{)ur Fu•·
c1ar~ wttt Tutsi 1.1nd wme- modcraic ;md mtcm11rricd Hu1u S« Hu1n.m RitlhLf
UllCoi t..bc moJd OÍ 'pl'O:!itJIUUM' í"1hith ford'r('lntt. el.changcl lQ dt1itribc DCU th;it JJmmt•iiJ• anJ T""°' 1~ illcts¡ Rc<d, cd., 20()2),
Watch. St.iu~htrr Am°"g ~"gbbort· The Po/111c.I Ongm1 o/ c,,.,,,,,.n,J Viokn~ 24
migh1 betr<r be <k<cnb<J "' 'r•~' !wh1eh íorcíron1a ,;o1..,ce1.• 11 tn
"Sexu11l11y .md
um). 87. Th" Supremc Coun of Can.ad.a i.nsuurtlvdy to íounJ in Rcpn11 v. AlcCrn.,..,
N.w.m; Tho Ooublv Unspcakablc, • ¡,,,,,,,.¡o/ thr Hiswv of Srxw•lm 22. ('6 O•n./
Apr 20021. Shc und<ntands that bro1hd sc:r ,.... 111p<, bw tlus undmtondin•. could
76 Prosccucor v. S.,ni.,.,., c.,. No. ICTR-97 ·2().T. , 2'3 tMay 1', 200H Tbc (1'191] l S C.R 72. 8)-84
~. Kadic \' Kmtd.iii;, •"""" note 6, establislxd tbi1 COnttJ"Ualiz•lion unoo in-
rou.n 1:1.an~d at idetn tluu th~ w11ncu nplw.n~J th•t "thc Act·~d wcd thc Nn)1~r
jl!umjn-:uc prosarucion 10 general rather t1u.o clullengt: che usage ol thc tcrm lll tb1s Lel'lbtDOOiÜ bw 1n tbe Unitfd Star.. under thc Ahcn Ton Oaims Act in die Sooond
-..·11M1d.1 wor-d iulrtJrtJl,Or.J, which mc-;1111 'to marry' o"'"-" u •to rnll.e-love '" •
.$~tlng. H.cr :an:d\-sis mt$$C$ bolh e.be cxchiangc oI SCJi. Cor aUNivll in the c.amps ánd the Cin:un.
77 Cathonne Bonner. 'Le vial des femmos sUl'ivwm ele ~cnoodc du Rwand••
forrns oí coett:i<m in"\.'OIV't'd 1n th.tl s11J"M" ~change tn mé)$1 i1\jlll.l'IC'Cf of prruucuuon 89. Af•l<l•, abci\•c note 74. at H iJl-7).1. Wby 1hc Yugosl•v TnbWhll hosrurcJ
10 JW.mla. Un génoctik ,¡,,XX.e >redr l8 (Rltym0'1d Vcrdia. Emm>nuel Ec:iux. and
oulfick """I" 5, C"'11nu1, M•R>Ju• Hinchkld. Andr.,.. C ..pill, 411d í Aquil.a, ..U.. 10 pr~il t' gn;iocidaJ filJ'M= until Jlll Milokvié indlccmcnt (see /l.f1Jolni1,. is~·c nC'lce
J=·PIU1'c Chriticn. e.Is., 1995).
in Stttmirrcbteh~ dei ZW<'it'1f \V,/1hie~<r )41 f 19681, 00.en·o: ·Tuc ccnn prostitucicm 11, •• , )2). Lending to ch1r¡:e l'llpc Ji at1)'1hinN bu1 geno<;ick anda> gcnó<idc sll violcm
78. Un11eJ N~uon.s. Rrpon on 1ht• 511u.it1t"1 o/ H11"'ª'' Rightt 11• RWlln"', SubtruttW
shou!J nOt b. naxrowly ddincd when •p®n~ ot prosoruiioo m wtr. 1t DO< oolv ws bu1 rtlpc. mllains difficult to C'X)>lain.
by Mr Reilé 0.Rm·Scgui S~i•I Ra.pponcur of thc Comnusslon on l lumon Righrs.
uxludes bmlhels but almost ru•·•ys u>dudes rel•uonslup; b.""ecn OCCUPl'"@ fotccs 90. Sce, e.g., James Ym and Shi Young, T~ lVipe o{ Nanl:mg A1r Ur.demitbk
unclcr p.irl1'\foph 20 of tbe Raolution S-J/ I of ~l.y 25. 199-1, f/CN.411996168. Jan.
anJ local wc>m<n wbo hopo 10 mantj!t m 1dv11ntogc throuj!h !ovo .Ji>Utt. Oft,,, thac H.;toey 111 Pbo1ogr,¡ph1 119%).
29. l996, a1 7 <csnmatmg ftvm at least 250,000 pregnancies to 1t most ,00,000 ...,.
is~ fon;c.d pl"Qlitfrution "•h1ch 11 equivaJcnc to r.apc:" 91, 111111 tite Nul Jl"Ontide kill<d <Wd llllMportedJ.,.• to Germ"°y f0< llquldotioa
ol rape lll tite Rwandan gCtloadel. Onc cypial aa:oont: ·Tbc: sol<licrs told tite lnt<r·
6> s.,, Andmi Dworlún. Sr611<'goat ~ Jews, Imul. ••J Wo,.,..,, ·, 1.JJ..nuto1t ¡;
ahamw• ro go 10 work. •nd rhcy lulloJ ¡><eplc ond .i.o smglcd out someglrh •nd pu< •nd thc BomlAn HCnoe>Jc \iU<d >1.0d <kpocted or ejened aU nM Serbt f.,,,,, &.ni1
(2000! HerzeflO"ÍN only defines the perpeua1ors' ""p<etive rt.nitorial a.mbitions and lcvels of
thc::m IWdt A"orJmg to tht!. wltnca1 they 'h;id thd1 "''ay' "'1Lh che1e gsrls t1.od thm
¡,¡ Eh< A. Coho:n. H.,,,.,, /J,h;Wt<Jl<r m 1he eo.-ntra11or: ÓltNf' H5 ll 981SI. S<e
lúlW tltcm Mool of th< ..vmcn k.Ucd wttc stripped of tbe.r clnclun¡¡, 'so lhac Tuui orptuzau~ h does º°' make ooe a gmlXide. t.be other not.
o.1to EJltb Bruclc. \\'lb<> luw• Y.,.. /..J:e Tb11.l1 44, ,7. 1U-11' (20011. 92. 11üs is 11 lblst rcported m Joannc Csctc. The if'dr WstblJt tbe \V.1r. S~ua/
womcn couJd be scen naked..· 1be lnterahamwe conunued to 'h:3vc thc1r way· unttl
6~ ~ll)'<I .•oo,.., note 40, .r 182. Vt'*1tct' Af/111111 \~7"'''t'" anti G1rlr '" &11a11Co1igo2' {2002}. Suth rcp<>ru nuy rdl\!ct
tltcv left saushed at around 11 P.M" Pra.ccll\o< v. Rutugando, C.,.No. ICTR-%-J-T,
6/, l'dici1 B<rlanJ Hyim. Clllfe Cal/J ~frmnm óf • S11n·1W< 71>-77 t 1991) the comple.x tntny·Mdcdnm ol dtt" conftíct or the lad of iníormiltion oí oulli<len: on
Judsma11 and Scnrcnc;e, , 271 (0.C. I>, 19991.
61 Cttilc Klcm, S.nunmJ to w ¡; (19881 . .For funher repares, s<e ]udy Coben,
7(), S<:e Nowrotce-, 11Lbova no1t 75. 1u l'- 19: PRM<:cutor v. N11hunlll.1, Cu.iC' No.
1a ~ho1c dimension.s.
Women ••d she Hol«aMst 120011, 41 www.rolwni:Ha.edu/aas/.hardcbr"Jewca; Auu:b· 9), Helpful worlc on chJS topic 11 Roger Srruth, •G<Ti<>cidc<lfld thc PoUucs of lUpc,•
ICTR·'l'l-12T, Judwncni 1nd Sentcnce, , , 114. 1}9. 117- 180. 182, 188. 210. 245,
um r,.,,. /iJe¡ from, Crotaq•< U.nd 14 tSml1 NOJllb.,rg Pey'l<ylt, E!J Pt<ffcckom, P'"P"' pr«=t<d •• lhc con/crétlce ot tite Assooatioc oí Genoad• SclJOlars, CoU'JI" of
935. 964. !079 to.e. l . 200}).
•ncl t>.viJ 11 l lct>ch• ..U.. Rmlyn Hcr><h, "'""" 19~Jl; R.iplud. ""°'º tl<'I< 44. •I WUJum onJ ¡,,t.ry. Wllh.uruburg, V.1. (}une 1~16, 199,); HJU·Mtng Too. ·10c Con·
18) n 48.
SO Scc. c.g.. l>ro,;ccucor v. Abyesu, abo,,, note 74. 1< 1 449. ,
8J Set. e.g.. Pro>«umr v MusCD12, C..SC Nu. ICTR-96·'·0. JuJ¡¡mcnt .ind Scn- linuum oí ~xml Violn1cc In Occup1cd Germ11ny. 19-IS-49" 5.2 W0Htrn'1 H,110,.,
68 L.cíb Lanefuss ·10. Horrors of Munlet • in T/v Srrolú o/ Ammw1r.: 209 lllcr R"''""" 191 {1996)
tcn<t, , 932 l}•t> 27, 20001.
M.uk. ed.. 1985 ). 94. J did not ""Y that gciocidal rape: ls wo11e, bcre or an.,wbere. and 1 dn not think
82 ld .. , 9)),
69 2 N;rmm. JJIJ.9-194J A H.tstory ,,, Dóau110t1s iJnJ E)'<'Wiln~s1 AcaiuntJ ll80 u. iJ. lt jpparenúy bears. .repeaung duu nolh.lng ben: implie$, wggcscs. or prcsupposes
!Jcrcmy Noulcd ..,,J Gcuflrey Pridh..m. c<lJ., 198)) 8J Scc e J., Rhond1 Copcfon, "Surfaán~ Gmdtt Rcconceprualizi11¡1 Crima
..a.oy bJcr.arcliy ol h11m\, vWJJC, or tcriOUlncs.s bct"ll'ttn r~1pc _m \\'I!, uape m gttiocl<lt:.
A¡¡ainst Women lo Time o/' War. • in \l"om.,.'s Righrs, Hu.,an ,Righ1.s · Int"1t'1ttut•I
70 Myma GolJcnbcr¡¡, qumcd by Judy C:e>h<n, "Women'• Holo<ouu N''""'""" rape 1n tl~\'Cry, 1nd rapco &n t>thcr •t1tlll&J. For exQ.mpJc. 10 •U) th11 gmt)Qdc aoa
f("'1nnl Pmf'«ltv•IS 1'19 'Rdact:a \..()()k, cd., 19961; ooncmt. No\>'!01~ abovc note
Violcnco md SeirualiN u o Themc in Mcmoirs by Wom<n ~un;vM" 120011, "' www hcyood war tJ simp}y an e.mpinal obscrw1t0n th1u jl('oocidc i1 not confincd lo wnnimc
75. " H-36
.mterlog.rornl-mlj!hryl=•>'silcssons2Jmn. 1 wu oril1J1Ullly rtittrtd <o most oí the
'\.I C":~t>t'tdé Con\c-ntion. Jho\•c not~ "4. setangs. Nar is the purpoM: he-re 'º creatt" a typolo;tY or co produ~ cnteru on che
"""""" fde<<nccd in nores 40 Wl<l 1>1-70 b1 Judy C.,bcn's acdkm \\'cb suc. ba•1> of which npes can be classi6eJ one w:iy º' mOthcr Nor lS th.. analy!iis • moral
&5 "C',omrAI')' m 1><>pul•r bclirf, thc cnmc c>Í Kl:nO<:Kic Joes oot iroply tbe actual
71 Hegcr. abavc note ,1, tll 97. dis<wsltla
r-xtttm.inarM>n oí [a] Rf'Oup ln us: eorirery. blll is uodttscood 1tlS s:ucb ooce aoy onc ol
72 Thi, "'-'+Pl'CI of thc: &eczina expe:rimentt lt JtiflC:fíbcJ Jn TniJI if \fa!Of" W.1r 95. PrOJC<utor , Jdill<, e;.,,,. No. IT9$-IO·T, JudJ!ffi<nt, •1 78-&I !Oec. 14.
che occs m<11úoned lo Amele 212) tbrougb 2(2lk) " <0mm1tt<:d ""h the sp<Clbc m1en1

360 • N•tts 11 PltH 224-226
l~..,,; <..a>< c.....,crn.n_ ~"o( u...,¡ l·0tt• v..,.. .i.... V Bdgiuml, 19'1'1 I L.)
...,,l.Jhü JI 19'1'1 \\ L 1~91067., n !)une 2. l'1')q1. ""' .1... 1•n_,.1or V ll•r•l..h<nu.
< •• No lt:rR •1~ 1A T, , e~ l<>rc111on <>f )uJgc Cunow.rJ..n• )une 7 2001 ), p,.,..
"'11tPr • ¡:.1.,tirma •nd Ru21nJ..,,a. C,.. So !CTR 91 1 T, luJl""<nl· , , 91-q7 tMoy
21. 199'1> t"'m P"' n'qWttS die: 1111<01100 10 d<:srrov • cunwd<nbk mmbcr ol mdi·
,iJuals ..bo •~pan o( die group lnJi»du.ds Oll.ISl br UIJ-1 duc: IO thcu incmbcr-
.tup m thc ~ri-..p tn ~ ~ Jcnruoon •) Ot mtcrac .i,.._., 11 ~ ltJ ' oplNM sn
1hc: KOM.l\'• bomh1nK ~.üe. 6nJan3 1har 1hr NATO botnblnf.. .J1hcqh m1cru.1\'t' anJ
u1r.1 111nal, 1.n1.:lu-.hn1 ('f populiltcd ~rta (lf Vu¡c05-lJv1.t, ~·en~ no1 genocídal in pin be
CQUSIC tbc)• dad nn1 tntad destruc:tt\"C: Jnteru .. C0"1i'ards 111roup u such.'" CUC" Coocc:m1n¡
~.. ol i.;.. .,¡ro...... 1Yugosli1'1' V Bdgmml. ,IJo,c, .. , 40
'lb. AtW<D<) Vcncral al. lsncl • Uc:hm:ano. 1%111 ' ' 1...-1t.... ~11 m...
ln<l Court. ,.,...i.m , 190
'117 \J 111 .. ( c..-OPUnceonGtn<'l(idr, J GAOR.. Pan 1 ~111.1hCommJtltt~umm&l'l'
Rc"'rd. (1"-IR• 1 24-12~ 176tb me~.). IS accd in Hunc llonnum. "lnc<mouonal Law
•nd Camlx...lion (.enocide: 1k Soun.ls of sa....,.,,- 11 Hu..,•• RJghu Q1..11,./y 82
110 n.lOl 1XXXX . Nritsh<t1U •"" R.:111Ja1U. obo\c oocc 9'. 111 99 ·0acr.,.,1og'
•<
b.. 10 be Ju«.W JI thc group Uto.l>, WI 11. q.., V'"'~
0
361 • Notes 10 '•IH 2?9 232
..,kttJ \ ..IOL:nt-f" Tuuma .anJ t.br RoJy Pnbuc m 1-bt R.· • •I" Ucon South • '~'"" 2001 (/. 'J \IM/ ¡'1J.UU" 114 /}I(' LJ,fl/cJ 5t.WJ l(l'IO) f lllf $WDDW'Ci QI ;t.l\J tt~ ~O
Pli O dis><n.r"'n Y.Jo l.:m•....,cn·I, ._¡,, .. , "" ( ..1h1nnc A M•< Ku.noo, .\ -x 1 u11/Jt1· 77,.,._77g C2C-.l1
109. Sornt1une; r($1St:m~ sucCf'eds, In che c.aseof Alnc11n Amc-nc:an.s. tor (>eiampk 11~ A pc,..·crful o•mrlo oí bcin, "'""'"' •• J Jro 011 Arfl'"llUM) " pmvided by
t.lpc_ bad 1 ih•Ul~f&nit dtéct \\1:thOU1 cmJlrt=1'1 desc.roy~ cornmwuh- t;ohQKJn Thc i«.lt'l,t J;h~ Timrnn;U'I PmolU'r Wuboflt, ¡\ Otl~ e.u u•11J.au1" """'""' ~Tobv T..thoc,
tcrm dtC''--b ot :t)Udnauc. r•pe bv whíle mm m po.~ul.ar on th.at CIJCIWW\11\ ,,,u!J m11t... l'll<ll.
L...i.1t..1_,lwch<r1t11Jv 1ho t.a 1hi1 r..,.- • r11CUI ,loe>,.... •1- nwk< 11 . . -..w, 117 Quoc..I 111 "'°"rolo< .bo.< _,, 7', •• l' Tbctt ,.., mu<h ullc du""I t:llC
which 11 nin: I• .YV lhal n 11"""' da.rf\k"1t\-C. 1bc dit.tme'l.on• lic: 111 other Dpt'CU of 1br BcJU\l.an con11.ft•i."' ,abc.111 ~1u.Lm ~ R)C'\tUtfl r.a¡wd &..---n1M1 ~tuJ1m "''OMCft CNr
lt1'1(1Cldc ddirur1c.11n $rea~ \lo,th anreM cxrcnnu.'C' u·•s th.ec 1hc 1e1c.•L1.nn ..-i..·1t no ~r~.ettf 1nd tn man.y e'*\'-"' lt°'-' 1h.an ,,.h11 "
110 loJec.l, lrom <Lavcry torurtl. 1hc pcrpctr.tton ol tht C.pc5 ti- bcaur~u•bli "(lind11rJ f(lf 1:neo 1n thr L1nhc:J St1lCS rclauw to •-amen m thcir tam1l1~ who .re ra¡>C\J
oh\CJ~ \l.1lh pR"k't'\''"al Afntan Anll:rlc1tn1 1-1 a J.isuncl 1.ruup *hlle <lottV}lntt thl'ir 118 Qooccd en !i..prrol•,. Jbove note 2. 1 752
lolmdy struaut~ .. tW 11c-rvin1: 10 oblJ1ers1c 1hr Jbun...ti\eneu ot c-.tth culture fttim •h11;.h 11~ ~ Arulrc;i Dw<>•loo. ".Rancmbc:r1t1• cho \l.1tch<.. U\ ()ur 8/1..l Pruph<Dttl
ch<, c.m< Th• J'OOll ns ca oopk•I thcm Í<>< t.bor anJ kttp cht ""' P'"'P Afnun ,.,¡ °"'""'"'º"X-/ f•.,W,,, 16 tl'l7h' t"(•)"l"'iJr,. tlw ..,,.J duc .i..;,n..n clw
\maiam ucúh ddlina ro ......._ wluc• ....,...._, IJ du• J""'I' ..-.. clt-<rmwd •do"'~ , ,"*- rcrrrt"'cJ by tb< i:rn.J<r -las• ma1 •ll"'f!'I 1ht ~ cla.a
qut grcup, 'I'""'"' .. hcxn ..vuiJ '°"""' ddmr tbansdvCI., >11p<n0< b< diwncuon• "'l 'llt'ft • 1 ~ Jlso .\11.rv Oaly with]IUX' Caru11. Wr~tt'f s Ft"I ,\t'u /,,ttrta""'1u- W :.
~'bo ,.'OU]J Jo che 1... J IJld unpk...tnt ,mJ law p.uJ ....,et.¡ 110\\'<''Cf murJ""'"' ,J.,., of ¡~, f,n,/,J, Ll•g..,gf77 119871 Foc • dtscussion ol tcm1mlc,..., FvniaJt ••
r.u.:un1 :it;-it1n111 Al11uan A1ncri1:ao1 h11; h.tJ .i ,1.Uu:· m prt"kl'VlftM rathct th..n c.k'lth-1~1na G/,.J,11/ Pe,,pedW< 20-2) <Duma E. li llwsdl 11nJ Roben• A. 1t•n>•... ods., 2001)
ch~ 1roop •" tu.k:h ·rn11 Amenc;in ro1cn1n 1ndudm~ che r.&rr und('r ilo\.-rry. 1111..loJrJ 120 Oworkin . .rbn\-·c no1c 6}. nt ~~
c-runes ~"' hunun11v ts incontdl..hl~ 'TI>C' lCT\ .. "fllmM m thc Fob C.:iüe. an 1i1 Proo«utor V Knu,, e-"'º IT 9, H T. Jud¡¡mcrlt , , ... fAug 2. 2PO:i

con«MDI? somr r"~ m che Bo&na.&n IUWIJOn as ·sf8'\-cn • (1« Pro5«utor ,. t.::un.uac.. 122 Prosc<utor , l';<Jlt~ e- ;\o ICTR %-14 T, J...tar-ic and <;a.e.na,
9&. PcOK°'.lllor 1nc;a e· .J \,.aw ~a IT-95 JI T,J.ad~ oa Dtfrr« !\louao .i,.,.,, noto ól, ..-.. th.t. .oblc l<l b""' out many luacuoru ul SdUal ...ix.Jin.1..., • 4'ol \hy ló 20011 nn.hn• a<ru...d "'"'" e>f ,...ouoJ nolcnc< 10 th< bodi ot • d..J
10 Acqwc, 1 Sq nm· S..,. l. 20011 1ho>U~ thl. l>''aall.l bw puctm~ thcn1 on the .b•·C!)' ¡,...,.,.,.,.. at che klDt n"'lc l•c),.f \l·oman asan mhumane 1er. a carne igams1 hum:in11y) c·Tbt Accused ordcred lntrr·
99 Rtporl ,f 11it lntenralmnr1l l.1U• Com"1tflt0n º" lht Work ol 111 fOf't,..nghth 10 ronfe>tttUJ11.c thr .-n1 "1tb1_n fhc li?t"nlll('lc.lc of 1¡1¡·hich tlkY "''trC • p•N. ~11Mvoe to uodre5t 1bt bvJy o( a TuuJ ,.,u1n..t.n who had IUM l)("C1l d101 dcad. ¿nJ lll
5mttm MIY 6-/11/1 JO. 1996, U.N Doc. N5VJO, 88 111 5.., M"""''• 1ixwe ""'º 81, ll • 9H (",\crotdcn)(ly. che Ch>rnhcr "'""' 1h•1 ,h111ptfl 11 p1«e: ol \l.'Olld wh1ch he 1hcn 111\IC\H.1cd 1hem 11,;' lrlk:rl 1n10 he gl'1'Ut..Jw
100. Bas1Jounl R.port. •'-• nutc l, U li l }. on the lwtS ol lhc cvldéncc pr<s<n•cd. 11 c:mer~ dm a<tS ol 'IOTIOUS bocblv .nJ rn.-nt.al 'lll< bc.111.I\· oí th~ wom.rn .... hh tfk. PI«' ,,f ,.ClOJ rni(rudtn1 hum 1t wu ldt oo 1he
101 1 1},y. ".ix,.,.., oocc 74 , ~21, .al'° Ri.tut.<•J• "b«.U>C chcy l>elonerJ"' h;rm. -1...Llll! ropo and od>er luon. ol ..,,tul •wlcncc wctt oll<a xcomponioJ t.. n...w.k 1<>< ..,..,. 1htto J.,. tbcmlÍm "I \lthouob dw Jd'mdmt .,... llso fouaJ
11w TUUt 11011p .nJ lo< die: \TI\' 1.n lh•11bn bdmgrJ 10 cht ,.,.¡ pnup" .OO.. nck h•1m1l1Krnt; utltríln.;n. whkh doarly inJK-.-tied tha tbc mr:cru1on underhq t".kb ,pe· ~ ot ~ thu paniculu .a ..... ""' mduded m tbo.c findinp
'R , )99 cúic ..a"'ª' t~ rl"~rtl\ (})( TUbl ,,:n1Up tt a •-hok T1M- Oi.amlJCT narct tflr (""\am¡C 12) Sh:ibnam H..hmi. quo1od m llalJ~cn • .OO.~ .ootc l!O. &1 1~'- "«.bu \.cm
102 /Utu¡o•.Ú abo.-e OOl< ill, , O() ch .. dunn1 thc rnr- oí '1>v•<n«>uoc1, \111t<CJ1& dcdarnl Thc ~ndo OÍ ch< Tut<11 11 ill i:cmcJ C.:itl2:ens lnbW111I Ct1'"" Ag1tn\t lllfw1+1ntlJ Aa '''"""' '"'º thl! úrn4Ct: '"
IO). S.,., <...a1h.ar1oc A. Mod<mnon. "A ::..x E.quaLcy Approacb ro ~omaal ,.....ul1." md tOdav. In thili context tht aru ot r11pe end scxuaJ \1Cl!Cl'K't "''ere an 1n1q¡raJ pan (,,.,.,,,,, (2002•. C11i1m1 Commincc: fnr 1'Jttr-M.1rJ1nary Rtpt<1n flfl Gujar•t, 1ntllA. S11h
5ri.ll.JI CfJm,Jt>" Lt,.,Jerrtand111t anJ Af.111111,~mcrtf 26' fRobcn Prtntky, T:nc: J.u1UJ. 11nJ of die plm ronceh-eJ to do.troy thc: Tu1si ~.roup. Such 1n.---C$ urgtted TIJb~ \1.on1c."I\. tt1 ottJU()"-J ,,, ,;.~CEPA \l? r.l)lfl"ltll~t' /nr ~t't·Kt•M 111/m.H!JfltfU t)1f Gt',,JtT Bttu-d r ,,,.,,f
~ada•d Set<>, "'' , 2oon. "" lunhcr clJh<lnt11C>n r•rn.:ul.ar. anJ •P«•6ull) coombuc.J to ..,.., cbcrU<t..., .,J thc:t<forc tboc of tht •.J ¡},, (",nr,k...J '"''"'"'uf 11'< G..wrJ/ Ú""'&' 1MlY 200)
104 Th< hi>uw)' .e 111< o.l.111•"' el •• sudi • 10 lh• W.1111•~ of thc romcnnon .. Tutw P'OUP .&'4 tu<h U"1tnaa ~ tnuncJ bd~ dlC Lh.mha dw !'~1rMnusug&. v.bo 12~ lo addt!DI "' bcin~ lCD<lOdal 'hcn thn omir m gmuciJe, .t< rom~c:moalh
no gutdc. \'cnoudo oti""°" • comrronmc bct..-..n thooo wl>o .._..i 'ºdom mo- ..... lcfl fo, JnJ by 1hoK ,..¡,., rape.! h<r haJ indee.I bttn kalkJ on • ....,. lndccd. Jcfint.J. tcxU.ll tu'lX1t10 an llOl1"\c' arcunuLtnca ou~r- !-'<"OOCh.k~ nuy •-dl be •....-rlJDQ
"""and tbooc ..ilo wao1cd to""""' or.,.... sucn..,bm d. prupooed adthng ... ...da"; thc Wim<s> •r< 1W dw '•-lw """' did 10 her is '~ 1han dNlh." I •pan~1 hum:mU)'• un.J•t "'"'"-U'.\it JJ\tc:rnatJ4'11n.tl human1un.n 1•\' •h•ch dan 001 n
thc 1Je¡ "'a 1tut 11kll1\'CS .ouLJ be 1n{.ludt.d bu1 rM.>4 c1'1\uncr,ned. Stt J\ehmuah Rob·· 112. IJ ,11urc .t 1'1oo..·i"'1 ~ HHC'fU 11nJ nn'll· p~h1b11• witk11>rnd 1nd ~r\1cmJtit Jtt11cki un tht•
tnlDn, T'ht' (,r1ttl(.1Jr Ct1,,t~11t1tH1 , I ( r'lttt1tt~f.lr'V 60 h 1 C1QhOJ; Will1.un A S:1..h.il'M~, 113 Group 111ell, tor J>wpó""' ol gcnoc.W 1111.c nc, mduJo• bcmg 1Jcn11fl<d .., b111$ uf $<'.X !U wdJ 11'1 othtr ftC'OUl'ds 5tt" l~C' <;tannc of lhc f_rn tmAtkln.al Cnnunid
Gr11rJciJ, ,,. IHt•·r114Jl(•"J' Llrt Tlv (n"'r of e,,,,,,, 2-41·2'} rlOOO). Wlxthcr thc ccrm :tuch b\ othcr• Uh.luJa.ng pt'.rpt.tr•lOn uf the t:rimes · Mr1bJWi4, ~·e nocc 9', .a1 <.oun l'l'IS, U!' Duc VtONF IM/9 tl'A8 reprirueJ en 1 '"'"""''"'""' f.4•/
..dded l lllflC l \"C'. C'kmcnt dut •.u och.:N·tte 00& tbu~ or ttn'K'Wd OlK" thac llUllht h•""e ! 98 Stt- Uso &lt,i 1f~c~a .ibowo n.1tc- ~ .11 1 6'i Ri.n.~.1..W.. .thm.T note 7S .u i ~ M.uffl.J> 9'l'1 An. 7 1 .tciino · ct1D1< ......,... h...,....cv· .. .n ul che tuUo.-mg O<U
i:-. ""~' ...,,.,..... cloud1 11........ .i.o... . - 81. •I • 161 Gwm tbat idmm¡· •a -W tan. m •ubocanu.I pon •iacn conte:Ulud a p.rt ol • \1.-lJcsprrotd Of 'J'SlctzUIX .i:i.-.l dun."1o1 at.t.DC .ID)'
t<n 11iil ..,,.¡...,,. pmcnt.J m üch..,,,.. A M...1'Snnun. T....w.J • ¡,.,.,..,,, rompn><d'" ad.nahc1Doo b> ochcn. th1> 1> appropnatc , ,, ~•• f•'lf'Ul;1nc.u'I "'nh \:'00\l.YJcc 01 tlK llfl•'-k J!I ft..pt" '"'La! al.f\'Cll tnf111raJ
TMn o/ IÑ Sl•tr !19~9l 11~. l cw ~e1cr.I 1t1focmau..., >tt ¡,,,,,.,,.,te
llrm lh< l:./Jttt1 <>/ Otm1br'J<r1•t run,.,umtioo. C1f ~n\ t'lhf-r lt'nn o( ~xwl \111ll"flcir Clf comparable ~\'lt'Y lhl Pcrwcuut1n
I()(• s.. ,,,.,.,,Jr Tf< Pnlt11a ,.¡ \Vo,,.,.. K1//1•c 10-11 1)10 Radf~r.I anJ º'""' furrr1rtr, t on \ f111J. &>J_-' a.J .'N~trlY Uktii.c.I A \'ftl J"r h:ullw. Ak.x.ani.lcr C. f\•t 1,; °"
a~31nu 11n" 1dendfiablc: gruup rollectivitv on r1olnial, racial nanon;al, cthruc. culru111l,
F. H Ru•..ll, c.I• 1'l'l2) r ...i.n.. ; nd 1..n w.;...m...... 1-1 u:L 1uoo:s. IZ'CDJcr • J..1:1nal U'I p~agnph J, vr t:ttha- gruuuJa Ui.at •re unhas.ally rc11.
107 In» .. .ur:ucJ in ~1KKrnnon. •bo>e ncn 1m 11' Stt Owla E H Ru ....u onJ R<b«ca M Bokn Th. r,,J, "'" Q/ ll.tf'< •""
10, for • .cunnin¡¡ sruJ, .. die: Laucr. - ..... ur.MI. •$cuWJz.J Ko.»01 veo
 Notes t• Pages 233-238 • 363 Noles lo Pa1es 238-239 • 365
364 • No1es 10 Pace 2JS
o{lliit~ ia6 i n1pcrmitt1blr
uoder inccmationW J.1\i. In COMect10D with ...ay att refcrr~ l2 Id. ,, t 1'17
J1gm1y. m part1<ubr bwniliittng .l!ld degr.Jin,t treaanem. rope, cn!orred prosuruuon
10 1n thi~ r.ar~t:aph or AnY (nmi: witbin Ü'lt' juri:sdic:uon Qf th~ Court. 'Gender' fi'Í1:r1 11 Id 1'8!!
to ·,~ N'O su.es. mnk Md Ít'tnale, "irlun the cun1e:xt o( l\OCl<:t•;'").
12). Hcincman. abovc-nOle 62. 011 55
.u1d "'" lonn ol U1decenc >WWI.. lonJJ 1hrem to conumc any ot 1hc fo..,gClUl¡¡ac:..
ICTR S.1;i1u1r 1111 l. 'll•r ~1.llUt.ef c,fbath 1h(' Rv•1,lnJ11n unJ. )•ugosbv tr1bunJ1Jproh1bit
15
•I ,
14 T\.fR ~"'IUI•
Ak.rvr>~.
.,, 1. ~e Rt• 955.
ohm,, m wro 9. H 692-<.'JI.
u:-; °"" SIRE."l<);s 119941
~rmor.:idc: at ('l'lflYCnt10«U.ll)· dcfintd: .. Cienncldc mnim .mv nf rhC" folJc,,.i.'ln¡t ac:ttt rotn
m1ncd v.,th tntl"l'll t<1 cbt.m~.1n whole-0r &o pan,• oA.oonaJ, cshn101l. racial. orttltltious 16. lCTRStatute ut. 21b). Prt><OCUIOrv. Ab\'CSU, e- No. ICJ'R-96+l Ammdt'<I
23. Ddining Rape Imernauonally: A Commemary on Akayesu [tf(>Up. t t sucb· killm¡¡ memben of the ~roup: causmg :;cnous bod1Jy or menml barm ludtcm1ent, !)une 17, 1997! i W fir,¡t <OunL ~·., cmociJe, tbc t:buge for ..,,.u.J \'l()lcnc:<
1<> mcmhen c>J W< group; Jcl1benu:ély mthu.ui¡; oo t.he gmup condloo1u ol hl• uku as ttic:luJeJ u\ p.sr~r11pht 12(.t\)-(8) CJf tht amendc-J mJ1am.:n1
l. For • useful .....,.,.. 11« l'"'6CC<11<>< v. Kuuaroc, C.so No IT%·23 T and IT t7 ~,... K.dic v Ka..,J;,< 70 F ld 232, 236-237 l2tl Cir 199SI lJ..críhin¡¡ th<
l.ual 10 brmg •bout its ph)'li1c..J dcbt.ruCUOO an whoJc: or ll\ pJrt; impowtg me..tln d
96-23/l·T,Judilmem, t 4;\2 lFeb. 22. 2001) lgroup1ng t..:t<>rs constmJtM: of "'P< uuo "'\•a.rims 1.rrocides. indudinjit brum.l acts of t11pe, Ívrced rr~ituriQn, forc:cd imprcJ
mti:.ndc-d tn Pl'C'\'l'IU bln.h' v.·ithin 1he firoup; ÍC1tt1bh· 1r.an,ftrnnA chlldren a f lhc "oup
three broad atc:t,"Ones: 11 h) thc sexual aahiuy i1 accompamed by fottt or tb.reat of nauon, 1orturr. :ind swnm~uy ciu:cuoon, camed out by Bosnían-Se:rb miliu.ry torcts
to 1t1olher 1raup." lCfY SLJ.tutc 1rr 4; ICTR sHlnl[t an 2 Tht- tamc list ('f rnmes
Coree ro llM' \o"lnim or • t.ht.td pa.rty; (u) Lile &b;uitl 0Cby1ty ¡,. tCCQrnp:uued by force: or 4S pan of it g~oetdal ca.mpaig,n tonductcd in t.hc: coursc oí the 8o"11JtD di;.il "\\'Jf 4

oeamst human1ty 1J mdudcd m thc $Wntc of eac:h tnblllh11: -murdcr. exte.rmam.tion; )

11 ,~aricty oí 01her speaficd círcu1n,1:1QtKc:1J which rn111Jc rhc: v1c:um pi&rtlCularly vull'H!r"ble 18. A.k..tyrur. abo\c 1u noc..- 9. ' 1l J ("The2'C' rapes result~d in ph)')tcal ..ind p•v·
c:nsl.tvdnt::nt~ d~onuuoo: imprisonmcnr. rorrUtt; r;¡pe: pmecut.i.ons on pohtic-.il. radal,
ar ociated her iJbilicy to mak~ 11n informtd rcÍU$."'tl; or hii) che ttxu.11 •cth·lt)' QC(."U~
.aod ntltgi<ttB ,t:tounds; odxr tnbwnanc ICU, , •·hen oon11ntucJ as, p:1rt of oi vtick· 1.:hol('lttitlll d~trucuon of Tut-\9 \\"ttn'lcn, thesr fanulit"I anJ thelr rt1mmunititi. Stx~
\l1thout the- C'c.'IMent o( che victirn'"), violence """ .n in1<;;r.J p.irt of tho pro«>S oí dcmuctíoo. ~peoficallv '""~c:tin¡¡ Tut"
•prud or ~\""lro1111t1 .1nack- q;.ainst • civJ1an pc:l'f'ul..tion ICl'Y S111u1c 1o1rt So lCTR
2. Comp"11'. e.¡i.. lhc languall' of France, wlucb prohtblts rape o.• any act of scxwl and speci6.cafl\.~ oornnb:unng co thc:1r desm1C1X)n and to 1he dcst:rucaon of the
WC)ID<?ll
•unutc an. ) 1-!nwt'\'Cr. thc ICTR Jhtnue disttnttwtly ~pc:dfic:a: tlut crima aAAin,r hu
pcnelruillO c:on1nutLcJ ttpin.R !lOOCht°r pcrsoo b)' •,·iokncc, COCl.Lt.liolt, mc:nacc, ou TmsJ poup O> ~ wh<>k. •)
mmity must b< b"""d on ~ds: •on ruuooal, polltial, edmk, racial or religrous
St.ll'tJl'i.;: e Pm Art. 222, "ith th11 oí t.hc UnueJ King&>rn, whtch ¡>f0\1Jo rl1a1 ·c..:i 19 Id. Mony t>1 tb. r.ped women \\'Ctt killc:J. For a vmJ q;,wuoess descnpuon,
grc>unds." 1CTR St>rutl! •"- ), while tbe ICTY siaruie spoofu:. iha1 tnl1lC$ apios•
pcnon IAl ccimnÜCI j,j.Q flfft'ncc [oí t}lpcl ií he: inrcntiPnulJy pcnctnHes che var:nna anus.
hwmnlty mns• be ·f.:ommiuc::d in 11r1lkir.l co.utllc.;l, whcthcr in~nut.iun.J or lnrcm.al in ..., &"""° D.illáin:. S~Jitr l l••IÚ u'll~ th< D<i•IÍ 430 IZ<»!l
or mouth of anothcr pcnon !B) with bis perus. B does oo< e<>nscnt 10 rhc pmcn•tion. 20 •1.1:.ivrsu, obo~ •• note 9. '1 70/ 7H-7H
c.hDN<.1et/' ICTY Scatul~ .art , 5, dfcc:uvc:I~ rct.u.rting thc orr~n.J lt.'1r.'1 «1n.nirctkin oí
and A <loes oot rcason.bl¡ bdJe"é that B comems. " S.~wl Offeoccs Acr. 2003. ch. 42 21 Prosccuror v, DdaJic. Cose No. IT 96-2l·T. Judpnent. H 47~9 INov. 16,
crime!I ,.auul hum,.nlty tn .i "•rttmr telUAfl, ~ •t Nurc.'tnhC'f"ll.
(l!ng.). 1998) ....1Ltble at brrp://www.un.org. ir<~lcelt:b1a. truk2 iudi;omcm ccl;¡9Sl l11>e.pdf
q Pros«uto• v Ahyesu, C- Na. JCTR-96-4.T .Judgmem. pat11. 6118 (Sqx. 2.
J. for ll. cnt.iqut of dl-e reJuni.Lancy of rcqulrmg both eoctt¡oo iand. ooncoo.scnt, .as lnt>ung t.h1t "Thc 1'.W Ch>mbcr dn\\'S gwdance on dili qu.,tiM lrom tbc "''"'"''"on
1998),
motl lhlt~ tn thc Unncd St11rn dQ. lli".t' C11th1rinc A. M-x:K'mnon, Tct11"i11J" F~1111s.t in thc rttcnt 1udgmcn1 ií the lCTR, m thc ~ ~ íAkilJt1·11]." and tgrreang \\'ith thc
10. Conv<ntt()n A~in<t Torture ami Ot.her Cruel. Inhuman. or Dq;rultng Tr.. t·
TJ.fOf'Y o/ tite Swe 172 (lq89). Jofininnn of r.pe m A~amul ~ T>.L1br rñhuJUI •ho no<>blr hdd du1 "'P• could
n1enr ot l'unl.bn1en1 .m . 1m. •Jcpt..U Dot LO. 198-1, S. T=cy Doc No IOIJ 20
4. For • supcrh anal)'Sís of rape as a drprivarion of autonomy, sec S1ephan J. S.:hul· b<: a fonn of <0t111r<, concluclin¡; th•r "tb. violen<.., sufkred hy (thc witnm) in ~
1198.S), 1465 L' N T.S 85 f"for thc pu,._<>! this C..ovcn1ion, thc 1crm 'to,.urc·
holer, Unucanted S.X: The Cu/111~of lnt1mida11on ••d /M l'atlurt o/ Law (1998). fotm ot ""P"· "''IS mfltct<:d UJ"'ll her by [the defendtnc) becauS<' •he is • wom... . ,
me.a.os any xc bv ....-hicb SC\--e~ p¡i.n ór suffuñ.o~. whcthcr phy¡ical or mcntial is i;ntC'tl·
S. 5"" Cu1Ji.rmc A. 1\ticl<iruloo, •un"'l.W Sex: A Se.. Equ.dny Appro.ch to Scxwl Tlus rc:prcscns a furm_ at d.iknmtnauo11 wh1dt a>n5lltutt5 • ptobLbucd purposc for
riom.ll\' lntlktcd on ;J. pcr$Qo for such purpascs a!I obta1ninFt Í'r'OOl h:im ora durd pt:rson
Asuuh W"''""'t Lü"N ~f~,,·, L41wr CZOO'J). .i,. offen<e of "'"""'· · Id. 01 , 941.
mformat1on ot 11 oonfess1on, pu.rus.hin~ lum for a.o act be or a thad person has com·
6. Smru1e <>Í thc lntcma1ionol Cruninal Tribunal for rhe Former YuHnslinli•. S.C. 22 A I'"'" <>Í April 27, 1994, 10 JuJge Anmnkl , .......,., Pr<S1dr:nr, ;and )ud..,
min-td or IJ iuspeetc.d of h.tving commuted. or lnum1d:1ung or coc:rcsng lum ora thud
R.. 827, U.N Doc. SIRES/827 !1993 ), arailable •I hnp://www.un.otg/'tetylbasic/
penen. or far tln~· r~n b~I on disaunin.;u..im of M)' kind. whcn su.ch paio ot EU..bcth Odio Bcnm" Via:·l'rt'Sid<:nt oí 1he ICTY. from ti.. lncenuuon1J w-.,,··
St.rutlst:ltuto.htm lhcl<ll1altcr l<:.'TY ~rure): Suuure c>I thelnterru111011ol Cnrnin.J Tn- Human R1¡rlm Cliruc a rk Cúy ÜM'tl'Slty ol N•w Yc>rlt :md thc Ccm<r for CollSll-
suffcrin1t ¡, intlictrd b~ or At thc insri.µ~ion cYf or with thc con$crtl or ucquicseftlcc: o{
bun..J for Rwanda. S C. l!d. 9,,, U.N. Doc. S/RESl9)' (19941, "'"/ah/e .i lutp:// ruoonal RJplt<. .unong oth<rs, argucd for tbc dlmin1non of th<. han on the def....., ol
• puhli< ofñcial ur "th<r pt:rst>tt octin¡¡ in .in ol6cul capacny Ji does noc mclude pam
W'\l-W,un.orN'inr/"111utc.html (h~mn-a(tcr ICTR Sui.turc), tt'ICb<:nt 11.n.J j¡,uggéftcd "' Cíl./Nctil aJ\'ttSíltw.l hc.anng5 wlW!tt rhe lt.kchhooJ al .1 \"Olun·
or Sllffcnn~ •rain~ only from. utkrem in or mcidenw to l•wful sana1om. l [hcro1n-
7. For llR c.xcdlcn1 nnAlym of the rcialuy of 1hc- ~xuil) at1;1.Xi1ies in thc Jh"--:indtn t"n· ~t'xuid rc:lauondnp, ~houlJ thc -.:ruwd $t't"k to put it uuo t'\'uJence, rouJJ be
aher CorivcutlQl1 Agaut$t Tonurc].
genocide, see 8il)1ufor N"""ºICC· Shattf1'eJ /.n:es; $f1<1,./ V1q/ence DHnng th• Rw1md•n .........i
11 1lk..,c.n1, 1bo\'t' ut notc- 9. íf (t87 t "'Tbc Un1tci.I Naoo>ru. Convcntlan .A,-.-tlrui
GnfOa:k •1ul us ,Jftemwh. a""1labfe •t bnp://w...w.b<w.oqzlrcponsfl')%/.l{,...,,da 23 Pr0<ecuror v. Furundh¡a, Ca"' No. 1T.95.17 1-T Jud¡¡mem., 271 10e<. 10.
Ton\lrc ilnd Ochcr C:rucJ, f.nhurn:1n :ln4 lk,l.ll'lkl1n1t TR'.1um:nr nr P11ntthmcn1 doa nC"IC
.hun.. Far dorumenr:.1i.on of 1he sexual waulu 10 Croau.;1 aJKI Bosnia.-Hcrtt-go\·loa m 1998t 1tl u:s ruhng on "''ar crimes. speofically ouuq:es upon perSonal dign1ty, mdu~ting
t.1nalojl\le ¡pecihc uu m Jti ddinnioo t'Í tom1rc.. focusiog ratfKr oo 1hc concq>rwal
fht: conilin rhc:r~ lt"t' F/1111 R.tpott o/1h" Comn1uriott o/ EX/'C'l'lf Es1.ib/1Mt·Ó Pt.rru11n1 Npc. thc rrul chambct nortd th.at. au. to Witnm A~ ·eonsen1 •·as no1 ra1saJ bv tht:
fram<W<1rk of Sl""l<-Mnct1oocd violcrn:e. Thc Tnbunal fin.Is tha approoch more usd'ul
to f..etmry Coucil Re"""'"'" 780 ( 19112), U.N. O.,c. S/19q~ 1674 ( 1994).
IA lhe ronttXl oí 1.0cemaaonal law. llke lOtru[t. rape a used for sucb purp05Q. ~ Ocfcntt, 11.nJ m lln'I' ciuc, Witl"tt'b A ~'\.l.$ tn aptt\11) Further. u ..- rhc _pt'l'l1Uoo ~f 1hc
8. Articl< 4 oí thc TCTR S1•Wt• ¡trams pow<r to prooecuro .. w•r mines ti.. fol- Tn.d r.b.1mher rha:J 1;1ny Í""11 oí apmity \icij'tell C('ll1f.Cl11 Id.
Ultam1<.Lat1on, ~kgrad.iuon, hurn1lil&OOn. J1Krl1n1n.11JK1n. punh.bn1cnt. con1rol oc Jmruc·
lo,.111g 1dcvam 1iol.moru of Common Articlc J of thc Gcm:va Com'<nOOM and Ad·
diaon.J Pro1oool 11 ·.,.,lcntx to bfc, be.W. and phyuod or mtnt.J wcU b""'8 c>I pcr· º'
uon a pcr"<ln Llkc tonuri:. r.irc ÍJo .. \'Kllllt.JQn (lf rcn;arual di¡::nity.•1nd rape f1e• *"
c<1~titutts tc:lrturt' w'1m u ít inílictcd by ''r 111 thc m~iAntJon of or \\11h the con'K:llt or
24 Id •• • 174 C"The Trul Chamba n0tcs i:hc unchallenl(<'.d RJbm,.swn o( tht
Pro:s.erut1on m ns Pre-u:W Bnef lh:at rape 1s -a. forciblc .1a: dus mcans that thc: act JS
Wns, in p1n.lcul.1r murd:e.r IU "''\!U u e,;nacl trca1n1ent a.uc:h ~ 001r1agcs upon pedl."ln.tl ac:comptis.btJ. by iurce or ~..1, of torce ag1u:m 1hr: \'U:tUD or • úu.rd person, suc:b
•cquicscentt ol 1 publK ollta.J or othcr pcl'llOn Ktin~ in 1111 <'fiícíal cupxity "l.
 " 11 to P11u 110 11~
ihm" h<1n~ •"l'rOS> "' 1mrlinl and mu<1 pl<1<c ,i.., V1Cam ID rH>on.iblc foar ihar h<,
•he. or a 1h1rJ p<!notl w.111 be "'b¡c:ctod io Vll~.n~. ddcnlk>n <iurc.. or psycho~'llicoi
'-'i-'fl""hk"' • l . . tuth...!tU 1•rnurd
!5 .... ~ .i-........, 9, , ~._, i-n.. ClMmh.r con.iJrn tb.u rapo ... "'""
d aia:rnnon •nJ Uw rhr ~m1ral áanrnr" of lh<' cnmc <'lit ra~ nnnt br- c.apnu·'ftl m
• m«lw11coJ Jc.icnpooo ot obi<-cu •ocl Wv pm< ·J.
26 fu,..d,,,., uix..·e " note 2l. , 185 r· tbe Tttal Llwnbcr lmd. <h11 1he
tol~q nu, be «('rpttd ., thc ob.JCCCJ' e elmit'nU al rape; 11 1hr l('xwl pftle'rr.ch.lft.
""""'<f .J.d>1 11 .,¡U.. •"PM"' _,.al th< \1Ct1m b) th< jl<'W>"' lhr l'<'J'<Ullor
"' "'1 orhtt nb;«t .-i i., '"" l'C'l"'='"' " lh oi '"" mt'"ith .f ·li<: ........ ¡.,. .....
l'<"lll ol 1h< f'<Tl'<"r.tror •)
27 Id. " • 18()\• all ¡ur.,drcuonssurvtted by !he T naJ Charnh<r ra¡wre"" dcmc:o1
ol !Otl"C. l.:•'l'l'CKHJ, threat, or '<U,,, \l1thout rhc C01ua11 of tht: \11i..um.•, Stt al~d t~
tnal clllll'l~r • J~ ol JM~...J..:.q. m PrUIC'allor ,. K.un.r•< C'1 .1 . Caw Nt f1
%21 T & rr "b2l 1 T. Judpmmt , 4-1() Fcb 21 2(1)11 ~., httr ......,.
un~" ,..,.. \u..racJrnalcl. 1ud_.. bm 1fllOZ22e pdf l"(n ............ "''"" r.....,,
T.W Chamh<r the le¡?al 'Y'l'"'> ihcr< surv<)..d ki<>kcd al ., .1 ,.hale, mdtctted that
e.be baile unJalvmg pnna,"1/r co.m.mon ro thttn \llS tbat sexual pmcc.rmon will (Ql"l4
1u1.utc r"l1if: 11 1o1. Ji nar 1rulv \·ohmtary or ConM"m11al on thc- pin el che w:um lñr
ID.aUcn idcnoticJ ID ÜW f•rff~ ddinu.M'lh-forct t.ht~t, t for« or roc10t~
- " ""' ..w.n1 ......,,.i.r......... in m•w ..... ""<"" hui '"" fuD ~ ol r""'
ttons. mc.rttd co in th.1 rud1ttmn11 supQ1 th.c 1he: true- romm<'lt'I c.:knomioat:('lr wh.a,h
un1fies thJt vwnoui .Syst~rm nt11y ~ a WJdtr or more basK pnnctrl~ of pc::n4lu1n• VL<>'
buoos ot 1<.11uaJ 1•tOM.#.''lll l.
28 Ph.!M'-1. to.r: \ Seman~.a (..-e- ,"\o. l<:TR IJ7 20 T.Jud,tmr11t \l.a) ¡,- 2C.l0\)
l'I P.-cur1x • l;,Jdij.h e",..,-.;., ICTR 9844A T Jud¡mm1 Oec. 1 ltlll 1
lO f•r,,.J!.t¡.r •ho.e 11 IWC 2J, , 1-
}I, Id l"The TriaJ Ch;mhcr thertfore comidtr> that. 10 ' " ".. 11 an .coir••t cid·
tmaon ol """ b...,J Oll thc rnmin.d l>w pnnaple oí .pecúich\ (/kJll"fmJ.lwtti..,•J>.r:,
.abo rd"~rt:J to b, thc nuum ~,,Jú¡.,, m"'lrlf ,,,,, l~t' vn.1.; }, 11 I• n~ t" k'Oli,
fue prm..1plcs al mm-' 1-" - to 11><- mapt lqr.J '>"""' of lhc 1ro1IJ •1
ll Id "1 17' "'-cuinr Todic e- :'\o rr~ 1 \ Judri<ment l )uh 11,
1m1, G'a1/Jh/, ar b1rp:11,.....,. "" "'lL lct)' 1.1wc/1ppedl¡ud~<meo• ·1..d of191iJ1 l'• pdl
I>. !!<e e~. C..lb•g 11'c Ghom IManJy Ja<obsoo, du., rel<..,ed Oct- 7. 19'<.l 1•
úocummtvy blm pom•Yl111! tbc ....tf'cnn~ ,¡ "'º .,......,_Jadunu Ci;iel1 anJ N•M<Y
\J\ ... • ho e:~ hdJ ~pil\ (' lft Om...nJc•
14 ~ "'-altor • T1kk 1 ,,.. -.;., rr 9'I 1 °"""""' on ,¡,.. p.._.."ºº \k-nm
'" '\\o1hd,.... {,ouno 2 Thn1<111h 4 ni the ln<l1am,..11 ~·1tbou1 Pmud1cc, TnalCh.vnbtt
U rJune2S 19'!61. Accordm~ in pms reporto, 'lhe ral"' ch.ir¡¡.:s ....,. wiihdnwn "hcn
lhc \'lctun t.1.IJ lhc wu lltO .arrud ol rep.rUab. to lCIUÍ) 1'-1.u lu.c !Mmact.1, 1\n 1 llt-
bow::u.ai ~ ·h C.'~J Admn• Rapt' ~1' ,\lu~lmaJ m W.u f\111 l"or• T "!'ll'I AJO
\IM • 1 i'I
H ICTY ~•llltc Ruin ri Proccdure and f....Jentt. Rule e¡,. u1 U.N Doc IT/\l
IM.uch 14 l'l'loll. repnnieJ m l l ú11<mattn••l l.1gal ,\ú1ffl4ft 4>\.I, Sló
Notes 10 P11• 140 • 367
)6 Sc:c len· ~Wtutc R.ilo ul Pro<>:du"' .,.J LY1Jeoe<:. AmcnJcJ Rule 'if><ul, U ~
Ooc lT 12 Rl.'V l 1,\1» '· 1q<l.fl 1 In ....., ni •exu.! """"" Id) '"ntcnt th.U ""'
"i•
be ..U°"''fif .. • dc:frn« if lh<" !.ll'll fat h..1 L..-m 11~ 10 º' 1.htraimcJ \l.11h or
¡,,, lud ......,., 10 lar ""*""" .iu._ dnmono ar ps~-.1 orp........, ar fb
moonabl, b.J,...~ dw u th< ncum did ""' "1h<ni1 ~i... ""Ch1 be to ,.,¡,.,_ ..,ed,
ihr<a1cncd ar put 111 tcar"J
}7 G1,~ rhJt "com~t" ut l'••llon.i.l ll\\• l)'pt\'.1lU) rrich.klra, lor cxunplt, lu\'IJ\tt
IC1' undcr d1rC111t C'f ..1Uioot 1Ct1\c R::Wltan,i: aun-1\wt ~tt n(~ ron\·Jnc.c:d th11 1 chey
....,,.iJ b< b<J1ntJ "' ronJkkttJ r.¡..J •M ih<y .,,J lh.tt rhr' •'<te tnld th .. th<ir
duldrcn ,.ouJJ be ttatft! ¡,..,,., .,.. thm ~UlllcatDa wnuld be r-.1 to ........
ti tbey comrLeJ sau.Jlv Furt~r ftl\tt che ....,odJ.U cm:urmi.ncn md. typt<alJr, 1h<
ctmdtllon) ol 1nc.&rctr111<>n undcr wludJ thc rapo tuoll pL&.c(.. chcy WJ nor. dunlc. tJ1_.t
thc¡ 1h<>ulJ he-., 10 ¡¡o 1h"•ut<h 111<b prool
l~ ~' ·~ lulv 21, 10M °"""'Y agh1 md..1!'0<11t• b, thc JC:TY thuged rore or
.,.¡,.....,.., ....uh IS toml'lh1o¡¡ acher th.o '"""""° "' thr ., \'..,.i.v rqioo_ T..-ch..
addibottal Cil>cJ ...,.. <i rbcm for thc auoaoe, ., \rcbrmia ~ J!e1IOCid< ..,
b<ll ih.u wJ - meooon se•ual -·ult.
)9 TI1t 1c.·n C>tJICll lDW:~l\ln¡t tlunttn indJv1duub are. P«Mtcutur v Staloc. t:A&C' No
IT 'l1·N T Ju.l~emcnr 1Jul1 ll 200)), "'" l.tN wl hup://w,.,.·.un o!ll"irn/<t•kk
rnak.'íudlt<tncw!ollii.q()J07J •• rJ{ <Pnicdor' p..._.,.,, v PI.,,,. \ .uc N~ IT OO.
196:.:0.PT ~l'llCIDI! Joo,.-m (Feb 17, 10011, ,...,,.,~ •1 hur ...,..... un oq:
ict\ plarnc m.Jc/1~""' tnJcx..btm Ulosru.i anJ H~uw Pro<ttU1or , ~W
o!\1<, C.U. No. JJ 02·,~·T, • Wcl (Nov 22, 2CX1ll, av.u'4b1< 111 hup://wu'W unor¡c/
kt) tnJ1'""tfl'IC1tt t'n~lJ.~b. mil 111040421 -e bcrn f"ThC" <"•UM.DG of tc'rle>itl l"'KIJ-, llfW n.-n1al
1
h.11nn to thouua..t~ J BosnW1 \1u.J.uns dunn11hñr ('Cll\6nt:mc'f11 ut drtcnuon facJ1un
wuhín Bo.naa ~ H...,.,..,.,nl. tncl...im. <'- '"""'C<! '"""1n !he ""'"''"" lntcd
...,.,...,, IS •pe..·15.d .. Schedule e"' thrs tnJramax. Mombcrt ol •hc>< ~ps. dunni
lhCll confiJ"M;tnnu m JmnuC')n t.ac..i.laucs ¡nd dun.n,c &hw true:r~llllk.ln 1t ~ locau~>nt.
JX1hcc •ratlnnt1 .nd mi.ltw.ry b,,n.irk., -.·ere 1.:nn1tnlaóuJy 1ub1mtd en, ur lorcaJ to "'11
nt't5. inhumanr •et• mcludut~ n1urJC'r tcxn.I \'ktic-1~. tnr111rt .ind h4:aunp "l. Pr<>
lttlácr • Brd""" 6: TaLc C- .-.:o IT qq \;. PT o.a,..,., "" f.>nu ot Funhtt
."'-lod lnJscunc:nr md Proocnruon .~to 1\mmd l}une l~ 200l 1, 11J.wit./.k
., hnpi ,.....,..un org, 1m brJi.1om1'tri.ak; th.,.,,.., .., 1006FU l l~~ htm Kraim1 ,
PrOl<'CU1or • S1kmc.1, CllA< N•• 1r.9,.3, ~l<nunM Jud~cnt lNov l), 2001), ,.,,,t
""'" ., http "'"""""' Wl l"'tte 1to1.I) 1.1k1nca rudfetlnn'l l Mk·uí(U 11 J \r lrtm (f\rr.·u rnnl
Pr<'ICClltOr • Kra1ímik. ArnmJrJ lnd1ronn11 :-lo IT-00. J9 l\lor 21 200(l) .,..;¡.[V
., lmp ,.,... un or¡¡ ICt) 81drn°*' ~'\ro Lú000l2le..btm IBow. ond H<TZ<'
• .,..,.,. • Pro.C<Ut•>r v. Jdu.<. Luc: No IT-9'HO T, JuJg.mas Hlc< H 199'11 ..-.J
•hlr " hnp ll.....-wun.t>r11'1<1y/1<IJ....m.Jd juJgC1UD111d11'Wl2lkpJ/ tBt<k~•
Prtlli('CUlt)t v. ~OVkl'\K:, rr.97 2.. l. Am Jn,11(1mt"nt IJunr l\ l'l''lA) '""""'hk .;
http-//v.'"&''ll' unnrg M..1' sndlc1rnc-n1 n1J4ish 'kc- 111<>~}4!' hrm 1Pupc-)(lr PmK'C'U1or
• Zdjko & \lr.altre C- :-.o IT 9'-J L lo.iic:1a>mt <Juoe 2. l'I'/' .u11.r:<k.., hnp
........_~rny tnd.ctmc11t, <OJllsh. ID02·1'11<06i\?< pdi 10.......U• ..,.¡ ~ y
i;,,,..u,; & Ml.oL,, c.,., No IT "' 18 L. lndictm<n1 IN<>v lb, l'l'lll ""'1/Jh/,,1 hnp
ww-w un.o<Jt'1rtv/inJ1amenrlenKlidi/U.r-~l l ll>< h1m 1Bosm•·ffer><~O\,nal. l\otal>w
C'lm.&..1-!Jon;s mm!\'"- ¡~ or lnc.111oos asco \\'hteh sexual \.1olant:c \\'b tepon..n! an
dudt ~"'"" ""I'" , 1 n. l l "On' ~t.y 199< JuJ,ic Vobu.b "l'P~ che. .,u,.i,,....i
ol durgn _ , 6,.., oí tiK eo«aucJ •1: ....t I"'"'· supra Ali tboc eues inroh..
SC" • 1..n ~ 11t ' nd &o..til•I\ ¡\1..,,lua or Ba.niMt \..rou VtCtH'n& !'\n cha,,. , ni
l{t:noc1dc ;a.rpt'llr hl hil"\1: bttn btt•ttJ.tht for sexual ..sutJ1,. 1n Cr(l9tu1 Nt:uhcr KarAdnc
nor ~iladic u·b nniuull)' char¡c:J Mth rape~ ptrb«'Uuon, a. crimc ~amsr bU1JW11ty,
Pr....rumr '· "'1.Ji.ic & ~Uadrc 11 ~ 5-1. lnuw lndiaman, • l~ f}uly 24, 19951,
•..-v.·""
•• • • rtr o<1t- kty mdaanwru rn~ \a.a u9)072~ han ~Al lCt
t · ht1 1..... 1hn .1•1· <nmm..n. rt:1pnca1hlc Ítw ÜM unl.\\ltul a:infi· ·rr.- rlt murdn rarc,
M!x ,,;i.I wauh t('lnurc-. heuirne IT-hbttv and uihun1.u1e ctttantttr °' c.:1vtlians ·i,
11nd \\-'tth npr 1n dttenuon vnth 1nttnt to descrov 8<."Krnan Muslim Md 8oslll3n Ct'Nt
pcopJe"' SU<h througb sub)eruon. Ullcr w. to rape .,,J sexu.I m•ult. JJ , Z2 IDOl.Ul(I
thc n...Wom1> •I ddcnnon .anJ
l'k
'"I"'bu1 ""' 'l'<Uhc;.Jly char.,,,~ u .. cnmtnill IX'hm
u...hanw;uu. ~ ~tt ammdcJ. \fUdK TU th..rttaJ .,.Jtb nipc a Cf'lftlpN:af":' m ICftO'
<llk 'C'linl: ro thc tlctnrnr> (..¡ 'c:nou• bNI.1.h •nJ rnn11.J harm .nd c,.,nJ.Jtl<'lf1S nf lile
ulruldtcd 'º º""• obom ihetr phy..cal desmicoon Stt Pros«u1or V Mladic. r.-
"lo lf.C)j.)/IS l. Amrndcd lndietmait.,, }J. l4Cbl-Ccl !Oct. 1l. 20021. llNtt.h/, at
hnp ''""' un Ot(ll 1m uuirrun<f!L eniJubimla ú>.2 IUIO...b1111- K.uaJ,bc ,.... ch.ar,<J
'º
wilh IOU.d \~ID l J>Ual':trh tha& rould,., ~ore«n1('1.dttm ge>"<I&.
S<t- Prok'C'\ltl'l-f V J\.arwJi:rc. c~IC' ~o rr 9' s 18. Arnt:n«d lndktn't1U., l/1b ,~, ..~
11 2000) . .,.,,f,¡.¡, <t hnp w..w un cx,r.ayiuid1ctmmllcn~lt<h'1tor aólOOoll~ hrm
lchar¡rng lnm 1'11h thc "cou•tnR of """°"' bodilr nr meruaJ hann to Bomiao Mushms
anJ 8osnJ.n Lroa1> dwm~ iheir <onbncmem ui c.mpo and dctcnu<>n laahuco. anJ
dw..i- th<Jr · l<I 'j.oOJOOI . . !he.e ~><- pul1<..: ...,._ anJ 1JUhun b.mto. •
h. re dc:t.Pincet,.. 11; r1nun~J, h.bt«ted t(I etr ~.,r<fti to •"1lnt-..,_ 1 •humaoc "'"º
lne< udlllfl murJc:r 11<1<ual ,....i.:,,"' "'"""' bcatins< ond robb...,.·1 Th< :\UMbc
11mc-ndcd 1nd1Ctn1cnt Dblcd rhar thc amp.a.rgn of ptn;ecuuons '"escnlarcd to or mcluck •
~cnocidaJ ronducr Mt.dtC. supra 1 H .
•O Dcor1te 11>< cxp,.... .~.l-4¡ •• r«:Dg11lboo ol r.pc n genoc:.Jc 111 1'198, ,. e(
~"'.,.,,¡,.,I 2001, upe ...n had noc bttn cJwsnl • 8.-&ir m • omgle addrfi.-1
IC:TR •.rae B1 J1noiArY 200! ,¡,....,,
ali ICTR <•,... •uh ÍOCD .OepnM •nual ..,.u11
h.1J heen .mm.led 10 charlJC rhem • ~mocid<>. ._, wdl os orh<r cnmco, und.r the
proscrumoal Je1denh1p of Ha...n Bubat:ar rallnw l'mnúneñ1 e><ctpooos, DO! "'
11ncnckl aro P.-.:u1or ,._ Senwu.t. Ca!<: No. J<..fR 97.20.r JuJKll>Ctlt l~\,y 1,,
Ztll1J1. ond Pr°"'"'"" i;..,a.J<L C- ~~ ICTR •lM 4~A T.JuJ11:mau 10..'C 1. .?00}1
An.11hct " P.tl.llft'JU•~ \ R~·.ar.1r1 Caw ~ ~ 19-1 (.iW" ~ , .2fO"' 'S"1 1
n l 191i1" n< 1t 11%• l 2" \lul• l, lOO(l1 fofl<~1•( lor cnmrl< 1h•t Rtli.unb.ruo
wa tdl<Med. \\1th l.Ju~1 Sent.in••, 10 ha\'e otd~J lmcraham""' "in,..,., and k1ll 1U
thr TU1S1s w11h no c.xcepoons • anJ tbe ronurc ot l"u1~a "'ornen "J1"ludcJ the slttulj:
i•U t 1l theu bttaw1 ...J. tht peun:raw.n of tbcir pri,•tt patb w1t.h 'Jl'C"..,.. .nd oi.hct
·~'IC< ... , l 191
~I Stt CA<hmnc ~ \t..:Kmnnn "\._,J.,. "cxualíT1'," ~:'\o 11 . ., ll l.
tor turtbcr an3h u'
 Notes to Pages 241-242 • 369
42. Thb d ll mythic namc. Thc cdmes occu.rro! In tl1osc p-.lrU l¡.)f t,l•h.ai h.W 1~11
'Í\ljtflCl1lVU th..tt thC' Srrb1o1n Íde!Ul fac;lions wi"lh«i lO 11.nnes anJ rtndcr Scrb t'nly flOl
in c.i"ilian Se.rbi11 or fl.Jonc,nqcro.
4} l'rosecutoc v. Furun&ija. Case No IT-9:H7/l-T, Ju<lgcm<:n1, lnrroducnon
(Otc. JO. 1998), •vailabk •t http://www.un.ofl''iay/furund2iia/uulc2fjud¡;e.,.m/fur
tl'J81110..pdl.
4~ ld 111 1 ~6.
45 The ICTR'a full of6aal ude-S,..u1e of 1he ln1emouonsl Cmnln.11 Tribunal for
thc l'tosccution of Pmoos Rc.ponsible Í<>r Gcnocicle and Other Serious V'iolaaons of
hu~mational Humanmuun Llw Commirred in the Temtorv of Rwanda and Rwaodan
Cmum k•pooublc far Geoocide md Othtt Sucb Violii.1100S Commuted in the T<r-
rttor')· of Nt!ighbor1ng St.alt$-mt111..1on:1 genoc1Jc, rcflccclng d"K" inccmauon.tJ ccnlmu
ony'a ll\Va:rt'J1C:S!I af this reality ,•• wcn
46. For funher CJplonmoo of tbe param<tor> of the d<lirution, comf"""' ProseClllor
v. N1¡11cgd<•. Case No. ICTR-96-14-T,Judgcmau, P<lW. 463-67(May16, 200)) (vag-
lnally peomailng • dtod w<>m&J'I with • stlclt was found not t>pc: but an ' othcr mhu·
mane: act. • bticd upon tbc rc•sonulg tbat á cor~ canoot ~ coe:rcttU, wu.h Pi'Okcutor
v Alu.)'C'u. C.~c No. lCTH 96·~ T, Jttdgmc•n, p•ra. 686 (ScpL 2, 19981 ("th<usllllK •
p.ccc ~f wt)~ 1nto :!'e: ¡;c:xwJ organs of a v.'Oman as shc lry dyin~ constirulCli mpc in
the Tnbuoal • voew ), and Prosecuror v. Multimana, Ca•• No. ICTR 95-IB-T.Judg-
m":''• par>. 557 tApnl 25. 20Ml Uindmg dm slicing a pre¡¡oam womanopeo vcrtially
whiJ~ she :and her ferus \lie¡lc: all\"e il not rape,. ln my \'&cu· 1.hc !let in Aluhur11 ,,4 wia¡
not 111pc bu1 $t>Cu.al vaolt:ncc t~s wdJ i.is 1onurc). ttrtainly grndtttd violcnn!.
47 Prosca11or v Kun•rac et 111.. Ca"' Nos. lt-%-D·T 81. IT-96-23/t-T,Jttd~nient
pani. 4~ (Feb 22. 20011. wo1/able al hup://w-.'W.un.org/iay/lruniltOciuialc21
judgemeru/kun·q010222c.pJl.
48. Id.••, .4'8. (" 111 prac<ice, lhe absencc.of gcownc aod frcdy gn~n coosentor
~untlu'): p~ru~~tJoo may ~ n·sJ~,,eeJ by thc prncncie q( thc \'Jriou• í"'t()rs •pce1fiitd
in ot.M:r 1uriki1e:t1onf.-sudi t.t force. thrcats of for«. or talcinsi adwnt»Ac cf 11 pcrton
who u =ble 10 resist.'l
49. Proseaitor v. Kun•ra<;, Case No. IT-96-23 and n·-~11-A. Appe.JsJudg·
mcnt. t 129 (june U, 2002).
'º· Id. •t,
U f,
" Id •t • 132.
52 fd.
53. Id. • l • 133.
14. l'rosecuror v. Musem.i, Case N... l CTR-%-U-1', Jud¡¡ment. • 220 Um. 27,
1000) (tndomng thc ddinMon rJ n.pe m Ahi,...1u)
200~~ Pro!locutor V N1yuegdc.•. c-
No. ICTR-96-lol-T ,Judgmcnt, '456 (M.1¡ 16,
56 Proscauor v. SClIWlla, Case No. ICTR-97-20-T, Judgmen1, t 344 (Ma¡• l5,
2003)
'7 Id. 1 }46.
58 Id. •t 1 H4
370 • Notes to h¡es 243-246
19. Id >t { 25l. ~ "'"""" explamcd tlm Semanza osed the Kuiy"1'WIUlda "'°rd
l.-11rongt11J, ,,.•hkb meaos •to ma.rl')·· ROO :also •to m.Jc.e lovc... Id. Th.li lCrm iJ dl$CUSscJ
' 7~ lnterpol rqioru that SOllth •.vnc. has <he hiW>est pc:r capii. ratc of rap<>ut the
1t1 F"'••cr dcpth in llkJm•. ohovc noe< 9 n 1$2-1'~
60. P"""""""r " K.11c~jcli, ('..,. l\o. lCTR-98-44/\-T, Judll'"c:nt. , 9 14 !On:. 1.
200)),
61. Id , at, 911
IJJ. Id. 11 • 9U ('Gwcn thc "'oluuoo oJ the law in thlS ••ca.
c:..hrunaU11g tn the
endor""1<nl oi lhe Fr.nml:J1•' K11••M appm.<b by lhc JC'fY Appcals Ch1mbcr, the
Clumhcr fin<Lt thc Liucr •PP«Mch oí pc:oo,,,.,,. ""' h<>n1y lll1<I hcreby odopt> 1he Jci
mition u fU\'en an K1Jn4r;1r and <1uoced obove -).
63 Pursuam ta thc !CTR's Smutc, 'A pcrson "·hQ planned. 10$1lgared. ord..-.d,
rommlru:J cr othOIWL.< aided 11nd •hetted io the plinomg, prep1mmoo or exccnuoo
of a cl'lmt! m .rodes 2 to 4 ol lhe presco1 S1arute ahall be indivtdually <c:<poru1bk far
tbt <rime." ICTR S101u1< att. 6t 1) Thc S1•rutc •loo p<0\1.k. 1hn1 'thc fact tlu1 wy oí
thC' O(;fJ. v.•.u commntcd by 11 subordin.Hc dOQ noc rdh:vc his <tr hc.r- supcnor of
criminal rcsponiibUiiy if he or •h• lmew or lud ttuson ro know that the subordume
,,... •bout «> conuni1 such aru or bll<I done so and the supeoor Wled 10 takc die
.neccssary and rea.sonable rt'tQ!sures to pm"'Cfll such aas or ro- punl~h the papctntors
1hcté0Í • IJ. un. 6()),
64. S<m••U. obo"e 001< ,6, U 9)7-9}R
65. S<mJnU. obm·e note 56, e.... , . 6~. n (Ranur050l1, J.. disS<!ntiog).
66. Proseou1or v. ~!ubimana, Case No. JCTR-95-1.S-T Judgment. , 546 1Apr.
v. 20M).
67. !J. .. , ,46.
68. Id 11 1 l50
69 Fnr funhc:r 11n1fy:i.is. ~ C11harint t\ ~1iac-Klnnon, Gmocult>'s Sex11aÚt)'.1upra
note.
70. s.., Cathannc A. M•clúnnon, Stx &¡114/1tr 772-776 (2001 l, lor documeruaóoo
m thr Un.itttl States..
71 See g<ncr.Uy R..dluk• Coomm•"U·amy, Report ol 1hc SpeeLd IUppone•ir on
Violc.nce A¡;,airu:t \\7umen, h1 ÚUK$ 4Vld Coo..,equcnca:. U.N 1-:.s<:OR. Comm. 1lum.
Rtr 52d Se..., P<ov. Agcnd• lt<m 9{al, U.N O<>c. f/CNA/1996/5) (19961: Radhib
Coom• ....,....m•. Repon of the Special Rapporteur oo Víoleoce i\¡!amst Womm. hs
Causes ll!ld C00>equcnca U.N. Comm. Hum. Ri. .. '}d 5=, Agcnd• ltem 9. U.N.
º""° EtCN 4/~7 U9Y71.
72. 1ncorpora1ui~ .-lk•trJN't im1gh1. both C.Ufomiu and IlHno1• Jcfinc: gcndtr ,,.
Cll~ t()r aval puq>0sa 1n pitn to 1nc:luck "'ía1 phySJal tntnis100 or ph)'Slcal in ...'iSion
ol •sexual ru11ure unckr coerrooe rondnioos.' Cal. O.. Codc l\m. S52A(c)l211Wesr
200}); '40 111. Comp. St•t. Ann.1121,.21 1West 20041.
13. Arudc 'U Ug) o! chc Smute ol che lntenuuonal Cmruoal Coun •P«•fi.. 1ha1
rape IJ 1 cnme •SAW1 hum.muy whcn commrued u pw of a. w1dcsprc.id or t)'ltcmuoc
ilftadc. dirccrt"d a.(illlOR iUl)' ci\ilian pc¡pulat1Qr1 '1111th knov.•IWKe cif the attllltk. Romc
5t•rure of •"-' lntem•oon.J C..runuW C'.Qun, July 17, 1998, an. 7(1)!-), U.N Doc. Al
Note~ l o Page 246 • 371
CONf 18J/9. t1h11fd1Ñé 41 hnp:/.i ~·ww...ohchr urg/enp.ILJill•w/cnmin.i..ICC'lurtJHm f he-rc
inaf1n- tWrru: St•tu1el
\\'Ocld. SA Hold1 Gumu" 1Wpe1 &co.J lÜ<t. 17, 200JI, hap://www.ncw.?4,CQITI
Ne\\'S24r.i<>uth..Afri<a/NcW>. St'C 1IÜO '""'" undc.ocglunoJ./cnmc_clcpJW"'"Y'·hm1I
(Jocumcodng 1he: ,..,,... 1m..20021 Thc hrghC11 prwmd.J ra1c ''°"
tte0rdcd In <h<
N~nhc:m Cape 11 r<l\l~h!y l'Xl 1naden11 pee 100,000 pc:<>pl<. S<>u1h Afrio., Am""''l
Jntem=acion-aJ'.s Human ~ts Contcm. al www.am.nesn'Wa.or¡v'cQuntnesln1th
_.Jru:a (20051 'Thcse figutt$ .,. h•sed on pobcestaasuco fo< theyear 200)-.lOOl, wbtch
only Jcilco: tht: number of tapes teport~J.. At thc: t'\\ cnry-6.b.h ano.Jven:11ry conlrrencc º'
the Cluld Ac.adcot l'rC\•cntioo l·oundu1Jo11 of Somhcm Afnc> "' 200l. thc «8""11.adon
Rc.oul"Cd A1mcd •• thc PrC\'Cntion of Child Abuse 1nd Ncjl)cet c"imntcd 1h•1 >00.000
,..,.. •<m•lh· occurrcd 1n South Africa whm obou1 50.000 ,.pe• hitd been r-ncd
SA Holdr G•mNm Rllptr Rffllf'á !Oet. 17. 20031. www.neu'S24.rom/N-24/South
_Afru:a/Ne\1.-"S.
75. Scc Reme Sututc '""· 6. 7H)(g) Tbc conve1u.anal mcunlng of ~...,ocu!e w••
Jdopted. which as C'flflllicitrcd ia de6n1u<'Wt R:.Jpc 11,·at not defined under tht! Romc Si.1tt1c~
i1>f'IÍ For clc:menai cf rt:pe uodc.r thc: \'JriOU!I tnn\t'I in the Romc $taturc, lntcm.atioo.al
C..riminal Coun, Elcmcnt> ol Crun,,. Adopted by die A<scmbl¡ of S1111<S p..,;.,, l'i.rsr
scssron, Neu York, Sept. 3-10, 2002. ICC-ASP/ 11>. """'lable •I bup:l/doccesadds.uo
.org/doe1 UNDOCIGEN/N()2/6031},/POF1 N0260l3,.pdftOpc:nElcmtnt \lith thc
A.{i.,)'t'IU tleMhi~W elt:tl\cnu u&licittd, tec Id •rt 7(1lfg)-1 f "'Crime ~l1nt hun\i:nit)
OÍ "P"' Ul Thc pcrpctt•tor tni~á.J die body of • pc1110ll by conduct resultina io
pcn«rauon, h°"~ slight, of any 1'3" of 1he body of die •ietim o• of 1he péll><tra10r
~ith 1 sexual o~. or of thc mal or ge>i...t openmg of <he vu:tim wtth any objea or
my othC!' P"' al U\e bocly: (2) The "''""'"' "'" comm1'ted by focce. or by threa1 of
for« or coo-cioo• ..uch "8 Ülat Cill~ by (car oí Y10lc:n«. c:lurcs•. detennon. psycho.
lotcinil opprasion or .ab~t of power, 11f(".aln1t such perlOO or othc:r pcr¡on, or by tüin1t
.dvanca~ of- a roeraw ~111·1rtnt"letrl. or th~ h1ws1qn ~ CQmmirted -agaiosr a penen
lncapable of gh~ ,geouint cooscoc~ 0) The condua \\'as comnuu.cd as part of 1
•1d..pread or systan•uc a1uck dl..cte<I a~:uns< a º'iban populaoon; (4J l'be pcrpc-
1r11ror k.ncw rhat che conduci W"JJ p11n óÍ or mtcndeJ t.M cor:uL.tec 10 be: pl-rt etf a
•1d~prud or sytL«=m11uc attaclc. dlr«tcd u.gainst11 civihan pcipubuoo.'"h id an 7(l)(gl
6 ("Cr1me "gainsc humanitv of ~ua) v1oltt1c:e- (J 1The perpctr11rc>r romirunt!d an na
o/ " 1exr"1/ nature again.tr ooe or more persom or '1tusc:d 11uch persoo or pcrsoos to
mgage in an acto/ d SeAJJ41 nat.111e by force. or by chreat of force or coercson. $Uch i.>
tbac cawcd by f"r oí \'lOlmc.:c. du.ress. <let'-nnon. p¡:~-,;:hologicu.l oppttsMn or 11but.c
al powCT. 111g.abat $UCh ~non or P'f"M• (lf ~tw>(htt l"Cfson. cir b) wk1ng MlvuitaitW: of
• CT'lrfrll < (nvlm"'"t''tl or such pel'5()n 'f nr pcrRlnS' ¡n<:.ipOlacy 10 ltfve -~uinc ronsen1.
1
!21 Sucb condua wu of a ~,.,;iy compW'llhle to the 0tbcr t>ÍÍ<not< mamde 7. para-
fl'•ph Hgl of <he S..rute, (}I Tbe pcrpetmor was awatt al the &cru.I cm:umstances
lhnt embWhed lhc gnrvh} oí lh• conJua"): 1J. an. ~(21!b1(xxul-I "\\"ar crlmc of
r.;ape [Ekmcnts l .a:nJ 2 •IR' 1drntlc.al Lo rhc cnmd ..at::unst hutn.1nny dd'llt'nt5 (3) 111<'
372 • Nolts lo Pt¡" 246 2'7
rondlk."t td pl.M:t w thc contc.xc ol anJ wi&1 ~1o1t.W ... 1th 11n U\tan.al.Wn:al tmtcd.
C'l.lnflKt.f4, TI'C' rn1Ktrih'tf V.MI •'IJlllt' ut t111..tu.J ( lt(\111\Jihlfk(:I 1h•1 ~1•blahN ti'K
C'J.l•t<nle ,Ji 11n annal <l'lf'lfhct ") 1J •n 812•thH'~l.ul ft t•\t'llr «lmr CJi tnUod vkll~ce
ITT=tn• 11 " klmuc.i "' t 11 in c~ f""'R"'"- 121 Thc cnmlll<1 ,....., of • .,-.vin
t<l<nparlble to th.i ,,¡ 1 ~"'' brtt<h ol rh< (<ft>C\• Ccm\'mnaru OI Th< p<rpemror
..-... n-.n: ol rh< Í•tu.J <•l<U,,,..an<<t thM <tubl..bcJ thc ~To"1t\' ol di< rondua; (-11
The \."'('lnJUc."I 10iok P,..t.:c m the ~occtx.t ol .nJ -. • Mso..lltted •1th .n antrm..uon.d
arrnal ron.llit1. l') ~ pctprtract•r • u 11w1rC' •'* l•tual cucwmt.mcn 1h.a nt.1blnha:f
die .,......,« of •n armcJ ainlbu ·i
•• lnt~ Cnm11MI ( oun, Ruin ol Ptnc.dutt' and E-.i<lax.: \dopml br
die A..enblv oi ~u<c> Paruo. Fe"' -•on. r-;.,. York.~ 3-10• .?002. ICC-.o\:)P
l J fo< aampi<, .., id. l{¡¡Jc 70 Cprohil>óM1 uÚ<r<n<'< oi cammt "'
by •oÑI O.- conJuct ctf • VICtitD ~ tciw-11' •-hrtt • toc'ftt\~ Cft\~ UDJo
""º"' "º"'""
mincJ '1>1unu.,. and ...,,.,_ """"'' "' ¡..,... ~ "' lodc oi mimncel. od. Rule
;1 •r.,,¡,,¡,•""11 . . i - of .,;.i..., ol roo<"'"'~"''""''°"' ronduct al ,,..,m
ot ..,.,_,, mJ id Rulo 71 •1""'1<1in• 111 Ull>ttl prottdbtt lO ainsider ttlonntt ot
..i.-bWt) of c"dm« ol tmt<tlt 111 <Ud ol Jau.ti '"'l<n<c 10 bolan« probuí•'<
\llut ~ 11rqudk:ieJ No Jcin.n•11m. dnnmu.• ,r pnJ«'Jura. go '° gcnaadc thc:
«•rn"Ctluooal Jttvut.ll'n 1prarc-ndy han.a rq¡rdrJ u t11thomt
~ Exllllpl., mclud< ~,..,,.. Lc.•n•, í ""'11<'. anJ SuJan Stt Sututr có thc Spccial
Coun fot Sierra Lean. l\u~ 14 2000. U 1' Doc ~o. 5/2'J02'246 .,..,/& 11 bup:
•~.>c-sl.o~oal-.uturc.hunl IMl1 H.,.....-\ ounir. "lonunc:rn. Cl<:hrung ~A
Mnos 10 """'"'" jU>u« in che s1-•ol Cwn fu• ~lt'm Lcun<, • 6 01,•go jOMnf41 of
/1flrmti1ht1114/ /..,1t ..19 12l'1tt1) Tht IC:C P(l<'nni lA 1n\'nl1p.t.t1(\n In thC' OdnocrilUc-
Repuhlic of e°"'º &fict rtpnJ'I\ hy Jlitts, l1Htm1onnal O'IJRIUltC'tfll .tnJ OOOftO\'t"m
mc:n:ul ('lf'pn11auon~ of th00,10(11 oí dath1 hy mus munkr and summary C"JCC'Utton
and • pauem ol ••1>< anJ 1onu~ m ~le ORC .,ncc 2002. Set Preu Relca;c, che Haguc.
1br O/jiu o/ 1/x /1,.,sea.tor uf 1ht /n1tT11_,,.,,,,¡ (.n.,,..,¡ eo,.,, /Jp<•• ÚJ Fmt ht!N's-
"'"""'' ()""• 21. 2!Ml-!). hup://www I« <1" 1111 p,.....,.1..,1.._dtta1b&od 2o&I en
h1ml Tht ICC: . 1,0 11 1nvt"'t1jl.ll1n1 11ll(Je~J crlmrs •A.atn111 humanJcy anJ "ir crirMS in
O.rfur, Sud.n <;,,e Pr<« Rclc-. TI1r l lo~ur. Thr Prn1ta.tnr nf ,,,_ líC O,.,wr 1...,.,.
n(OllOll r• Darfor tpr"" rdcaJ<, Th< H•~ue Juno I>. 2005). http://,.._ icc-cpuov
preuiprb.11relcbe!l/t07 hunl
2~. Pomograpby aio l'tufhdru1g
1 Paul fohheui l<>undmg pr«><krn ol Adult Vidon Nn.'< <>om•ml 10 C8S M...
dm somo 800 millioo oo·colkJ •dul1 'iJcoo •~ roiccJ ea.;h >"'" 1n thc lnual Sur..
.i.-. "'"'"" .., csnm.tl<J Uo b.U..>n annu.illy 'º •
p,b.i inJusuy eRlllW<d to CilJJI
Sfl ln!Lm .,.nu•U. ~ Rochard C..otl1u •n.., OIJ 1 ..1.,, IXn... p,....,., w .. Cluc."
r, •.,., 1 \lar 29. 200)1 M""h c•f ih< rn-rh11odutuy ,.....,., otpn1ml cnmc'
"'"""" • unhkdv cb.1 ali Clm&np ·~ C<pQflnl ..,....ht'tt 5tt l s o.p.- a(
¡...,..,_ Auomn Gcn<r.I, Camm..,,.,.. on P.,.,,.,.,.phy. f,_
R,,.,.. m-:!'lll Qui..
Holes to Paau 247-248 • 313
l9~1 1viul.lbk .ir ,,.,.... w C•lfllmunnyi.kfcnw t1'¡t.1.wl~rjry 1.,,cp...'n htmJ (hcrc:uuhn,
FutJI R.·pcwt).
2 At. tc1 f"<1rrk'@r•rh" 1hne &n1unn •re dt)(11mf1uN 111 ttttamcinv 1n f,. H..,,,., 1
U7n TJ.e p,.,..,.,a,.r"1 Cm/ Righll flNn•a• l<.a1hann< A M*'Kmoon ond Andra
°'1.'0rkin, cb 1997) lhcrdJ'Wtcr llf Ho1,..,,,·1 \t'•vl. .~ h• pr~UtuUan., rhtv ~ Jocu-
nl<lllcJ 10 Mdi.u huley <t al., •f>r....uc.•""' ;nJ l r..Jb..k1114t u>"""''-"- An
Upd.atc- uo Vdt1u anJ Pt>lltr•urn.u.; Scrc:u DuordC'r • tn PtoJt1hU1tJ1J 1,..J/hl.l:¡,,f,,
,.,¡ TNMOUI" e,,..,. 11 IMdw• f411<}, cd. 20011 [hcmn •Íl<f Farky r¡. ~ .1••,.,.,
fo• 5.1/c f,..,..,.,, llnWl"l ,..,,,,,.,.,_ . .J "°""'X'~ 10.....- ""'tlt ond Rdi<ca
\\'bísmm • .J. 200-I• (hcmnaltes \ot h,. IÑ)
f-·-( J. !hit ....i- .. M)lU<d '" üdwme .... ·'""'"""- ºSol • .\loro! bor ...
.-.1,µ.¡ l~• 119871 c......1..., ..........~ l.ow r-•Ja a ponwl «epi•
cnautWuina tbr •un&Ju.: oploí1at•111 (,f t n or tlf .a anJ an, onr: « more ci U..-
fNJc,..,.,. subittt•. 1>.11nch <1111K' h<>rrOf midn ..d ,.,.-.,ce.•
Cnmmal C..oclc R <; C
19o;), ch. C-40 S lbl ~I iC...1 Tha P"""'°" h• bttn t111erpttt<d ce a ~ed
lwa rbc<iry '.>Ce Buclcr' Rq;n• 1199211 'e; R. ~'2
~ In .dJnJOn to thc orhtt º""''• "' chio -i,.,., ene <umplc i> die :!O<n cul
ficbtA ttseluur"' Ü'f1'C'J b\ .&he l 'nuN ~.ttl'"'' <...t'" 1nt•'aon c,n thc ~11JU1 oi Wetnc'ft
Eltm1uM1 °"'1•.J fo<- Tl'tllfi,krJ Wo""" ,.J ';,,- ~~ .4U f.,.,,,
o{ &Pin"'"'
E5 C Re< ~9 2. UN E<.c: OR í'Anma<""'"" che 'wu• at W<>mm ~9th .,._, 'urp
No 7," U. U.N Doc.!:.. CN 6!.?0C" 11 120""
'· ·nx i\tinnapuli.a lic:.ann¡,.. •u /111111,,,.,·, \ti), ~"C' nOlt 2 111 M taumQrt}'
of LmdJ f\l.at't--hlilnn)
t''
o. For- .in l"Arh· atll.lr-... llw l•tJ:th un•uccn,tul ..1tnn1"1' r1f •'t'mm U1 ~xual
m1.irrills io l"'"ca Uicr pri•oc:y n~h" . ..e< Rud1 í.olkes. 'Pom<>~raphv and Pnwq:
Towards che Do:vdopm<:nt ol • Grour B.s«I Th<orv for Srx·B1<e<l lmrusi""s oí Po-
•aC\'." J L...ot• ••d fo"9"JÚf\' l~ I O~M) Set •l>O Dworkin 1 Musder M.1¡\Ullle. lnc.,
867 P.ltl 1ltui (9th (ar. 1~8~1 (d1.J.11\1tJ1n1111.U liltorl 1.1.nJ ptl\·Ac.)' \1ol111on c-latm• miadc
lf:iWlM .. P"'rnntcr•ph1< 1hlll(11'1nt th1u hati ule"J º"'"(1rktn'1 n1une 1n 1c-xu1Hy e>;phcit
ainOt'lrn anc:I Mdui11 th.u •ht haJ nn l""""'"'·nuy int<"r(Ct ~ne efluid prot«d. For a
dts<usSlOo ol 1 hum~ ol si11ul.. U ' e~. <uch a.• on• In whoch • 100.cul remedv
was. (.krucJ u.n 11ctml m• \\"1$0; 8re.iJ .J íor lb un;1ulhorucd moJ1hauon IJl por-
oog,raphy, ••:C L&w R l'ru111. · 11., (lwn (.¡,_,J N•m<. 1 wo Cen1uno al T.Jlc Abour
Ch.u111v; 61 ,\f11rr:O,,,,J IJIA' R1"1·u-u• 40 1. -'7' C2fKl-U Cdc,-,,;nhlntc \inu') \1, GolJ..tem,
Sll r Supp. U9 IS. 0 N Y l'Wl 11
7. n... JX"110lltllrhY h.b ul'\..J '"" lor 1...,U o dt focto ~al ••=f"l"" lrom die
t.w ol hbcL ..-lu.cb 10 thc Uru1cJ \cJI., ,. n<>< thar rob"" 10 bcl!!Jl Wlth. os de1t 1rom
che rulings m O..vtlútl v lluatkr M.1¡t.U.ln<. lnc, 167 I· lJ 118S c'lth Gr 1%'91,
L<iJholJ1 • l f P, ln< ~/.() 1.2•1 S'lll ('lih 1" 1'1881, .M nuny <>1hes emes.
8 Prdunu"1ry raWt. of • sttkfy ol ~).& rroa11ru1cJ wonwn In ntne coa:runcs reval
that - "''"''"'""""' whr> t...d "'"""""rhr ma.k of 1han '° r""'""'""'
bad
~ DK'tt le'\~ \"l'ffipUHm ol p.-.1 -ll;&Wftllttc .,,rn,-s JisorJct tb.a did WQl1ICD
U\ P''*""""" ...bo Jod nol ttport that pomug11phy wu ....,,x oi 1hcm. \ldJ.u fuk.,
37• • NOlts IO P•in ?ca 249
"'Rmuna.,, <h¡r•n lor IO \11nu1a \\1'•• Tr,.b Tell Us Aboot Prosuruoon Pomog-
N('hy, •nJ ¡ ,Jíidunjl • Jdl\acJ Jt •fl,"'11)f'r•pby. Om111g 1hc D=.wJ 111 lru.mo
tiorwJ ~ 1'r.tlh11.~1n~: COIJ1'11f\llátC'J b)' ( .•pU!o'C' 0.111~tcn anJ tht- lntdl1.ttNm.I
llum.011 R1""" l .1w ln-crnUI" oi l),-1>11011 n1vn.1t" C.h"""' lll1""'• M.11<h 14, lOll'I
[li<1n11.im 1 orkv 111 rmcn11n1 """' arul>.., ot dm lmm <h< "'"'Pk rrpon.J 11
f•rq 1 •""'• "'*2
'I F1nJ Rrporl iUprl no« 1 ~l-.?'17 '1n..c t.lur umc l - 1 < corpormom
hJ1'< '"ª~ p>n• lnto craffidung r«noS••J>hy ,., oh< Jwnhut""' cnd. prom.
ncndyC"oennJ \I"'º" 1hrou¡:hH,.uhtáloan O.rtcn1 AT&Tl1hro<1,lutsbr...!Nnd
uhl< ninti-rl anJ r '""~"' <:-mlDU<a1-- í """"'"""" •(,aclt<d b, medio ..,,.
~ \lunlothl, okq ,.,.h C-.om<a>t T""<llló'arner ond Cm ÚllDIDUlllCllnnm. Gal
Ome> •from fan,.., 10 l\ealttr. Un....kin~ die Po""""""' ln.!u.uy."onwm-1
l• f,,,..n J 12 Rol>1n \l.,._..,.
cJ. ~1!) (<111ng T-'1) ~m • úceKa. lnc~A
}r«w ~ T<tboo&o¡y ~ 1r.u '""' ""º ,1 ..u.1~, ""'-11'"1." '"" 1-,,w
T1-~ \1 Ort. z• iooo anJ ímik Ro.h "1".&.J Cap1ufun," :-¡..,.. }",ri TL.....
M•t'<'" 11 \"'' 20 20011 O..... ha oonml>«I to uock ..,.!"< "'"'"""'""' totpo-
"'"''" 1111...!1- 111 rh< r<>mcwar'iv a>du•u' .,.,. G.ul Oto... ·n.. BJ,< Busma.
o1 l'omoorroph> ,.,,J \<1 1roJndun¡t.• .i.i.,.,,,.¡ •I l.•pu•.. D.ou¡¡b1<t> aod lmcm..,.,..J
liuman ~ts L•"' lnt.u1u1e N OcPeul Ln1\Tt'l1t (L.(fcgc of Law Canferenct', '"Pcw
rkl~•J,.h\ Dn\lnR cht Onn.nJ íc~ lntc-rnAlltllf\11 \(ox Traffid_¡n~; Ouc..-o. m :\4.ar
14, 20(1'11.
10 ·n.. \1mnaf'<'l1< H<IM¡l'S. U\ 1. H.,..,·, w... mrranoie 2,at 114 ll<SUD\OOV
ol T ~I
l l Joh.o f\\illc::t' lll thc .;urrent hc..J t1t 1hc ()th~ to Morntor anJ Combat Tral·
6tlinJ4 m PtrK'lf11 1n che l ' S O..·í1'runcn1 .,( Statt "'""' .>t1ur JC<"-''A up
12 fn'1 C\M •lrlll·ul~tC" t1ClllmJ'lt IS f 1nd,.1 8of('miln. wha hac.l tb1s lO S6f in f"Cfi(IOOIC
10 • c;1UC'1t1N1 ahou1 l\tt ~o-c31lc:J st11:u11 pa~r tn the porn industrr ·11 "'oasn't $C:xual_ J
nC\~ O(kl'tt'nf..'Cd 1.1'1)' icxuJI plea\Uf't'. not OM orjtasm, nothmg. 1 Jeamed how to fakc
plcuur.: 50 1 \loVUl(ln't tct't runbhc..l lur Jo1ng 11 b.tJ jl)b. Quoto..I In Glorui !;1oncm.
Thr Rr.11 t1ntl.a Lnvrl•c:1: • in (1"1ro1 1'('"' A.11 "'"' fl'1"f'rd<11 1Vh,U1,,,u 27' (198)),
vi: .1)V1 l 1nd11 LA)\C"!Jt.'t' 1n1oJ ~"hiel ~tcC1 iidv, OrJr11/ 1191COJ clil'Klot & rcm.1n 5 11\J
1
rtJbtcil(flJ>hY)
tj f-<.'r 1n,1Jc Jo...--umcn1at1fln oí thc tpf(e tnvolved In malo.ng Pll'Úxrl SC'C thc
te:stunoov ot ~1.W ( 1i1ct1 tu tht Attomei; ~nttál ~ t:ommlJiSton on Pomognaphv
º"
l,1,M1( J{t.;rt1't,, lJ \ llr-¡• I o/ }111111.r. , \//Ol'"t"'Y (,ntrtJ/ 1 Co1•111nu1u .. Pot,,oir.Jph}
1...., An•dn· CA. O.t. l I, l98' J 11nt•rv""' wuh ~h Gama•, "'!'l'Ullcd 1n C..1lu...,.
\ \Jo,Konru>n. 5n f.p.tblY, l'l~l'H (.2001)
14 'ítt t rutcd ~"'" v f!1cr<m< AMOCS- In<. 112 F ~uw. 2d 5'~ •W.D. l'I.
<""''"'"se<:
20051. tora do<npUOll 10 /..tean t hlrn ~h>nn<>n .\kúilil~ ·Pros«Uto<>
'l·iunc \u•k ,_.,, AJul1 F\1111 M.uk«." \!1J"' /lmLI L\pr 4 20!>11 1.3clcnbmg
• .;.ko tu!nl f-.,.,/ /Mir¡ lh.. "obow. llJD<1(. ...,.,, C11 "'1111Cf1 b<-uic '!'Jl Oll npnl ..,.¡
m.,,.ktt.J • nn. wsp<e" 1ha1 at b.r thc """''"' ond rr<Whl, thc "I'<'· tnJ •-bo
lnon ..-h.. .,¡,., .,.. n<~ umW..1td
1) Tlx 1Ju. apoubzcJ hcR' ar• .rjtU<d nillr ui c.:.tiw- A. Mx~ •p...,..
 Hole< IO Pat~S 249-251 • 375
muuon ond Cavd Ri¡¡lus." U) Wm"<ll • l.it4'J, Mm'• l..Ju1 Jjl-161 120<»1, .nd Catb
,,;,,., /'i. M:oci(mnon, •Pomogr-•phy l.cft and Right." 1J." l27-H4
16. Afu::r 1 J,11id thtS, f found chis 1n 1he mnuth oí a 1rick-- "Gu)'ll llct off on con·
c:rolling: wome:n. rhcy use pb}'Slcnl poW'tt to control ''-"OOlCO, ttally. U \'OU look <lt n, 11's
paJ.d rape. Vc>U'rc n1ak1ng thém $Ubservient dun.ng tha1 tunt': so you're thc donunant
pet>Oo SJ.., ba. to do wlm ¡·ou ..,..,L hrloy LI, abovc note 8, at 9
17 Scc Pcople v. Fr....,1on. ns 1'.2J 1118, 1134 !Col 1988) (oflinnlng ronvicttoo
o f • pomC1trri.p~r for pil)'mf' womcn Í<tr xx IKt!i, but find1ng that thc film of thnr nctJ
was ""' "obsce>e." rhe Califomi• Supreme Coun eKpl<Uned. "\'17heo oonsiJettd •side
from ihe p¡oymem oi ihe actíng foeo. irself fully L!wful otherwisc, <be saual am depteted
"' tbe m()UOn pictlJro he"' w°"' <nmplerely lawful"l, People v. fodct, 128 Cal Rpu.
!6). 366 (Cal Ct App. 2d 1976) (uphold1ng • p.>mOj!rapJ..,,-. c:oovknon íor "pon
denng• ~' pn,,ng u founecn·year old glrl to comnlil seox 11cta, 1hc coun 11lw nored.
"\Thile f'im Amcndmcnt c(lns:idCTutionJ may proccct thc: di ..'icminaoon Qf prin11:d or
pbcxognpluc marerial regatdless o( tbe manner "' wbic:h tbe m•teri21 ...., originally
obtai.ncd, "'·hcre 11 c:runc is comrruued m obtauúng thc material, thc protccrioo affordcd
tlS Jt.$SOnln~Uon would nol be a lhidd .gi.tintt pr~uuoil (or Ü\e crunc eanu1uttttl
m obuuntn~ lt "l.
18. Farley ll, •uprt no<c 8, "' 5
19. Sec Ü<J<lna M. HuW>a. •Prostituuon Onlinc; in P""tilU/io•, Tr4fi&mg, a•IÍ
TT4um111r S1reu 11' !Mehua Farley, al., 200Jl.
20. Tht 5,,..,.,.,,.c.,,.,.,, º" lhe Qurui... o/Scu1b Afri,,,, drbueml lo IM ,~ s.....
Un11t·d NatNJ11• Cmrgrm on rbt Prc.·11t11l1°" o/ Cn111~ 1111J 1h~ TJTiJtmt111 o/ Off~11dm.
Rrporl t1/ 1J.e $«-rt'lary-Gt:Yr~ral. Vñ:1ims of Cn.,,1t' 17K S1tuntton c{ \V01nt'11 Ai \:'rcti"'v
o/Crm... U.N. Doc. A/CONFIZl/16'1 51CMa117. 1985).
21. Onc Wustntivc cLsc.,..ton can be found m Ann D. Jordan. • Hwnan Rigbu,
Violen~ Agaum \\7omen, ruxl E<ono1nk O.Vdopmem (Thc Peoplú R<:pubhc of
China Expcricmcl." 5 úÑ•mbm ]CJJ,..,,/ of C."'dcr a•IÍ Lrw 216. 228 (19%).
22. On my reading, 'he fin-1 Unlc: the rclluvdy rcdundrun ccrm •enfon:eJ pro1u
rutíon" enrtred thc ddibenii;iorH; of thc Couunittcc oo che V:in\."():Otlon oí thc Elimi·
naáon of Ali For«S oi Discrunina<ion Apins< Womeo <CEDAW) was m 1991. in a
J''°""°" of Burluna Faso. the CEf)AW, U.N. Commiltcc oo tbe Eluninatlon of [)¡¡.
cdmlnation J\g.aitm \17omcn, Rcport of 1 109 UN.Doe. A/46. J8 !April J, 19911. TI.,
Jim cimc 1he rtlottivel)· <.lx)1nnrunte '"volunh1ry pr0$C1!u11an" iappc.¡1ml thcre wiu In ~
199J di.s<USSion of Kenyo'• complionce with artícle S. CEDA W Commicttt R.pon, UN
GAOR 48tb Ses.s .. Supp. No. J8, f 10'), U.N Oot. A/481>8 (Fcb. 25, 19941
ll. For docummraion. see Mir}• Luólle Sullivan. "ún Pmsnmoon Be Sai..? Ap-
pl)'U1g O.:cupauoiul H..llh anJ S.fe1y Co<lc:o to AU><Taltú Lq¡>lj>cJ Brolhd Prom·
ru1tcm,· in Not Fot St1ft. •upra norr 2. nt 2'2
24 Funher díKunion of <hí• """'"'Jl"l<e can b< found in "S.. and Vinlcncc: On
lmro<lucilljt tbe Anriporn0ttraphy Civil Riidns l;aw ín SW«len." 1bo-i: •< No. 10.
25. Unned Swes • X·Citemem \11deo. Jnc., 513 U.S. 64 (19941 lintetpredni! in a
scíenttt requÚ'<men< U> uphold feJeN) duld pomogntph~ lc¡¡lSl•non).
26 Sec~ i;o jl., N<>il M"1.unu1h, •R.1pr Fant1s1e.1s • PuncuC'ln oí Ex¡><Murc to Y1iJlc:nt
376 • No1 .. 10 P1au 251-252
~xu.tl Sumuli, LOi l•d>t"" o/ s,,,,,,,¡ Be""""" JJ 09811, Ndl Mabmutb mdJamo
U=k, 111< Uft!et> oí M,,,,, M..!10 Exp<»ur< oo A<eep1..w:o ol Vioknc:r Ag•un>t
W('lru"ll A fidJ Expcnnitt11, L5 }o•,,,al o/ Rm.uth m Prl'fOl1Jh1> 4J(, ( 1981), No!
M•!.muth, "F•ctl'>R AhCIC1.ll"1 •i<h Rape .. Pted•:mn <>Í uhomory J\jtjtUSSIOCl
AR"""" Womm." ~5 }"""''/ of Pmr,.,•ldV •nii S...,/ Pr,d>ol"lr 432 <1981); Doli
Z1llmann ami )<n•"'I!• Brym~ "'Eltec<s oí Mauive Üpo<ure m Pornography, • in PIX·
••gtJpM .,,,¡ .k>:UAI Aumsto• lCJ !Nctl Mllamutb ond E.dward Oonocm<ID, ed..,
191141; lJrry 11-.t.ron •nd Murr•y A S<ruU>, "Sc:xu.J Stnmfitmtion, PornogrAphy, •ncl
R.1pt 1n thc Un1tc-d Suu-r~ ... í.n Par11oar.1ph.\ 1n:J Sr:u1al A,i:,¡N'.nton 186 (Nnl MJ.l.amuth
-.nd Ellward O..nnertton, eds. 1984): Noil M21amuth arul James Clittk, "Thoo Efferu
ol A¡i~ressive Pomography oo Belie& in Riipe Mytlis: Individual Oilfucnccs." 19
}oumJ/ of R,,s..,Tth m Pmonallly 299 ( 198'); Neil Malamuth, Jarn<$ Ch<>:k, and John
Briere, ·suwJ Arouslll m Réspook ro Aggrcssaon.: fdrologie:al. Aggmsh1e aod Scxw.I
Corrd•1n." 50 }o•rnal o/ Pm0nJ11y ••i SMJJ/ Prycholoo HO u 986>: Du1m1 E. 11.
Ru...,U, <J>om"llllJ.phy .and Rapt-: A C.uul Modcl." 9 Pol11t01l Psycho«Jo 41 ll988l:
O Demarc. Hiluy M Llpo. and John Bricrt "Scxually Vtokn1 P<l<nO¡trapby. Anb·
Woman Amtudes, and Sexual AggreS>1on: A Strucmml Equanon Model• 27 }°"m•I
o/ &u..ch in Pmonahty 28' (1993); Ned .Malamuth. T Addisoo, md Muy Kou,
Pomogr•phy .,,d Se•u.tl Agg,...1011. Acc Th<rc 8"1Uhle Eff<(ls •nd C.n We Undtr
srnnd Thcm?" 11 Anm..,/ &v1e1" o/ St>1 R<Smr:h 16 (2000).
17. 1'bc /\11nn~voli.s Heannp." m l1r H11rm·s 'f'líl')'. ubo••C note 2. •l 116 (tesn~
mooy oiT.S.J
28. Id
19. ~litru H Sdb.rt ood Ayal.i M. Ptn.s. "Pomogr•phy ..d liu.W AbuM: of
Womeo.• 10 rrx Ro/., 11 Joumal o/ Rriw.:h 817 864 11?8'41
30. Farl<y l. •bove no<e 8, •• -46.
31. Id
}2. See Mary Luolk Sull"- "Making S.x Work, Tbe Expcrionce o( Legalised
PrOfitltuuon m Vicroru, Au,<tral11" 279 !Nov. 200!) lunpubL.hcd l'bD dli>cn•<lOn,
U"'""""Y of Mclbourne) Ion file •11h •utbor) (quoting an •n•cle wrmen by• woman
• ..,rltin~ in or\c of Mclboumc'• kgal broihcl•. "STD Po1cntial Vidcoo.' ., 1ht Pro011
tui..• CoUc:cti\'c of Vietoriú mogazin•, Work1•g Gtr/ 1991. •• 6, '"vio¡¡ thlt tbe bnxhd
wbett sbe ..,rktd ""' ·pM>o vid.os . . c:ooanually" llOd thJir sh< bdie<..d tbe videos
·gl\"C cbrn!J. a fJ1sc PTlpreu:1on of "''hat servied are pro\...Jed anJ madc :safe s.o dii~
6cuJ1 10 cnfottrl.
Jl. Comp•MR pomo(lf•pby ""'of m<n "~º ilid 1hey ....,. <ritks ""'h men who
..id th<V "'"'º
not, pomogrn['hy use was found 10 bo sunisocally 1i¡míliandy bigber
amon¡t ihe tritio;. Forley Il. above note 8.
l4. For.,, ...tysis focused on gat male porM8f1phy. •~ Chnstopber N. Kendall
J.nd R1.&J ETYrn Funlc, ·Gay ~Wt Pornogfllphy'• ·AC(or¡'· \X'hcn • r3n1~· [~n't.,"' 1n
P10J/1/utton Tr11/fi<"l:111t,,, J,urJ T1.i11ff1Jt1c 5th'Jt .1bovc note 2, at 9)
35 N.,1 Mal.1mu1h. J Hetm, ond <w:vmo11r Fcthboch. "Sexual Responsl\'f:MH of
Collei;e Sruderns 10 Rope Deptcrioos· Inlul>nory md Disinhihimry Effecq.~ Ja So<ral
HolH to Paaes 2S2-2Sd 377
P;ycho/agy J99 (1~801. Jolm Brierc wiJ Neil M. Mnl.unudi, 'Self Reponed Likdili-i
ol Scx.uodl) Agsr~t\'C Bch.iv.ur. ALuruc.hn.iJ \·C-JliU.S Sc.xi.W E.xplim.iuom 17 Jt1ut1111/ o/
kf-1•,11,h llf Prrft111alu., 11'5 t191t))¡ Ttt11mfli'ly oí Cdwanl Ocmnc111tcín 111 In l/Jt'l•t'1
\\7"'" .oo... "º" 2. .. 44-lill
36_ Thr lJnlt~ 'itatcs dkl, hou.TYer. racify thc ln1ernarional Agrttmeru fer die
SuppresSJOD of tbe Wbite ~111Ve Traffic, Ma118. 1904. 35 St.L 1979, 1 L.N.T.S. 8l
)7 Conv.ntion for Lhe Suppn;,....,n ol tbc TruftK "'Pmons :llld ol tbe Exploua
uon of ~te Pros1lru1i011 ti Olhcrs, M.r. 21, 195Q, art 1, 96 U.N T.S 27 1, 272.
j8 As ont 1nck "-l'l;uncd. ~1·Cttd11.uion iJ an 1u:r tif forceo. nru of lo\'C- She llÍ\-e:ti
up che ri~t to sav- no." Anochc-r saíd. "I paid íor this. You have oo n~hu. You'rc "'ith
m,,. º°"'·· Farley D, above noce 8. Thesc cxpr.,. thc: rcalirv. ~,,u WldCf'Stood bv tbe
meo who use: thc 'G.'Omen. o( what 1s cupber.ru.zed as ronitfll tor wo1nen tn prosutu1.on.
39 U.N. f<:(llt & Soc t:Oun<:tl !ECOSOC.l. No" by 1b< S<'<retJr¡ Central V../1
CJ)llf>t-11110 .. /,,,- ,,.,. S"pprrrruv1 o/ the ·r,.!fic '" Ptrs<HtJ 1iu1J t1/ 1h~ l:).·p/m11111Q11 of thc·
P"'111101w• n{Orhm. U~. E.~C.OR. U.N Doc. F./1072 !19-19l •t li (}211 19. 1949J,
40. Uruted Naaons Econoouc and Social Couocil [ECOSóCJ, U.N. Doc E.ICN.5/
115/AJ<l.5. (1949) at 4 (comm<nuog on •n. 17. whteh addrcsses ·mcasum ltorl
thc prevt:nrion oí pro1tl1unon"I.
41 Id 01 1,
42 Thi• ,..,.. "'""'tifully nprcssed br &1w,1rd M M1>rJl30, \.<1mentioo on rhc Sup·
pression of tbe Traffic in Peoon• and .,¡ 1he Exploit•tion of 1hc Proouruuon of Otbcts.
p1<pat«l 0<1 bch~ ol thekgal 0.vwon, Commoowe.ttb S«:reuriai. UJ:.. at31 1%'9)
(•(Ej,..., when both prOStltule and dlénl are log;~ culpob)~. enlorttnlttll oi peo.il
pf\)\'l'-tttn• 11 typie;all> dlra:1cd aolcJy 11~1'1.lil thc prosrlrutc, [hll$ leaving e.he dc:mtt.nJ
fQr rht- prostUUl.e·1 tervac:a unt1uenched 11nd cn,.uriJt« lhc connnued cxi!iritc:ncc of th~
sex trade. Prohibíban c:m thcrcforc be nor aoly ineffecl.Í\,,, bue may also b< romid....,cJ
<o be díscnnuruuory 11nd mequlrable"t
4}. Commcnrmg on lhc cl.UrunilllOn of •for g"111• lrom lhe ddiruoon ol tb" of-
Ícru('._ camr:u.r<>d. wítb thr 1937 Dr.tft Ü)n~nlK>n, thc ScttcU1.ry·G<:nc:.r1,I ttnurkol:
"'{Allthough this convcndl1rl 1~ m.tinly dirn::tc.-d uwaínJt tl~e 11.·ha <'njtJ,:te: m Ule riíft-''"'
mcoriOJ1cd for rhe- purposc oí ~ain. lts C\.-entual 11.iJn •~ to pratcct the '-Ktimi; of ltU(h
pmom, re¡iaidless ni rhc purposc ol die offender; 'fhe purpose o( gam is <hetefote
1rte1C\•aru. MoreCX->cr, che ga.inful l.ruenrs may be diffu:ult ro pWl-'e. aod ns mcluswn m
tht: Jcfu1uon of the offtnc\" m;ay thett:íott pttvtnl cffcctt\!'C pro~cu:oon of otf~ders...
Stt Dr-.aft C..oovC"nrion for the Supprt:S!'ion c,f 1hc Tr~f-fir 1n Pmons and i1f 1hit Eic·
ploiration oí tbe ProstiruDOn of O!hcr>. Note by <he Sccm•tY·Gcnonl. ""°'"
note )9,
•r 17 The pamgpanis lll the drafun~ discusslOM \\- also ~·orncd aboot proof prob·
lcms.
44 The Con\'Clltlon ao thc Righrs o( W thtld a.nd t.he C".onvtntlon to Ellmin.tt
thc WorSJ re>rms of Child Labor both 01nu.~h rt'W¡;tnilc th:u clulJJTn Slft' Kxu..JJr
cxrloueJ when cMy ... -.i m p<>nlO~ntphy Aniol.. l~ and n of <he 1989 \.onVttl
don on tbc Raghu of che Child requue sture part1t:s 10 Glkc app:ropna1-c mou~urt:$ to
P""'""' ·me •bducuoo of• ..te ot, º'
trJflic in cluld= for any porpose or in any
 371 • Hott! 1• P11u 211 ?SS
~ tts to'ª'" 2~1--256 • 319
310 • No:n to P11n 256 2SI
'""" • •tbe 11ldui. tmcnl or ,.,tt'fC'lnn tW • ch1ld lo tnoiR~ In .mv un1."1ul ~ual ac 1
" Coonal l·r•n1Cwork llw...,o 20!12 1.i'iéUlA ol luh 19, 20!•2, "" Comh•tr"tt
0
tMIV "thc: a¡,j,,;<Mn1' °"' ol cluldtte m pro1m11ooe 01 1'tlxr unl•~ful saual puc TrAJh~'" l!um;n llnn,:• 1n t tel. 2<111.! O J f. 201 412 tke l'lt'1Jtfl4/10n o/ .~giintll U:'c u1t11 (; A 4~h Sest. "-upp Nr> )K.
D1Krtl'if1ntl/101;
u..-n • lloJ •rfk. C'XJiii\tt.&tl\C uc- nt dulJrC"G ln pomop.1¡-bt, pert..,,,na11ca md nutc- ,2 Id •n 1 1 ,f • mtph..,. .W.kdl A• J- •feb !'
199oll.12th a..DAW '><». l~J 1 ').4 tl!ni1cd Niigdom rq:olyll!J
,...¡, • f..,,..,.,,,.,'"'
1b.. ~ho ni thc Ch1l,I l"ov. 20. 19~'<. wru. H l', 1m U.N J' ~ B US Ec.'llOrruc i111d """" Coun<i! IEC()'>()( J, Rro,.•otMJ.J Pn• tfkt so • ~uotaon t.llllkt •tt1dc b f fk, m "' me hAJ hc-rn .:om.1i..tc:J lor .k:\.''o&ung
) "' l"l'ltt"f'f'd lrllit fnrtt 5c-r1 2 1m1 1b<o J9?9 C:oo\("f!UClft l...nD(c-rntn., dw Proh1 J11J (,,,,d,:lm~ º"
l /11 ..1.arr Ri¡ht• '"'J Hum11.'1 Trott:.lf1•i.. •1áJ~nd:.'N IO the Rr/11.Jt'I ""1""-ºf1 on thro 11crn1 .-nJ \lh11 1hc1r kfll n(ln •-.:rt'•) San« th11t IU1h:, tnquif\' uHn
¡,,,_ and lamwJ1.1<r " " - ¡,., l.Lmímt- ré da.\\ ""1 Focms ol iluld Lobo< '" ~f Uw IJ.,,,.J ,.,,.,., Hr~A Coro"tllll<Mtr fer ¡¡,,.,,. PJ:btJ U~ Doce E 2rt02/ l'"""'~uphy h. nltrn l>..n ••' lnl "« ~ low .,,.... ,8. 1'hank• ro Al< F.,..., fot hot
l. pn•hobu• "thc: u..- !'"''"'""" "' offcnnr ol • clulJ for P"""""""' lor thc: pro.Ju< f>' A.~ 1 ,.a.,., '" S.. !lkl! A,,.. la haa 1• r •• 1 t;M .,¡ OR ~t.v 20, ttSC>t<h ........_..
ll()n \lf pomo-'r1ph, or to.r pornograph1c 1>1:rk1~ • • .alJ toaru ot J¡..'Ct). or prac .?OOJ> ' ' E~ Oí tb.. Loncd '-'•~. Ul>AIX' Committa: ~ aolr.tJ •hnh<r
U(.N a.1nll.loir 10 .Li\'C'f'\', •Uch .t.11 thc ulC' ;s.nJ tralhd.ull!: ''' <h1ldrt'fl. J<"ht httnd..p:e anJ .,~ U.N Hi~h ~cnmls~t0ntt frir Hu1n•n RiJU11.s, Sub·CommH'4t00 00 l lumM1 tht' ttO\rrnmC":nl i.:<•1.idcreJ 11• currciu J..a,. 1.1Jo.¡wu.· • 11h rcg.1rd tu r'pc .anJ pc1m191
ocrldom ~d lorttd '"'"pul>."' Lohor. mdu.!111g f««d"' rompubory l«rWlm<DI of Ri,.bt< T~t• V.o._. ..JG1rl l!a..!Otl211atS. Ll'I Doc. E.2m22'•Arr 2l r>irh, Tllc Co''"rn1n<'nl conc<°'-lrod thJt thr J,·~l¡¡onn 'll.-11 an.kk.q&Wlt' huc li.ud rh•t 1he
dnldttn h>r U'<' •n onned a>0ilic.1 • c..,,..,..,., /~ Prohihtt""' •"" /w•...!iatt E """ 1002}
ronnnucJ """""' "' ,¡ ~"""" m lb. -1.. h,· ....,., nf ..,..,.Jly n¡iLOt poaum
""''º• <>/ JM \Vow fo,.,,1 o( 01/J Labor, Junc l , 1~'H. on J. )8 l11ttm•1Jo..t L..i•! 11 Cmvt'1lCh"'I oo thc l1tm1n.lloo o( .'\IJ 1 urms ot Dl~r1.tn.1nMuin Ai.unw. \\"on1m . "'"' • JUV1' rorc..c ..,.j -.In! m be rcm<dini Thc l lo: lt<"=mmt nmd WI U
•11.,,.,,,,,, 1207. 120.:I fu11< 17, 19~0. e; ,\ R.. l4 IHO. J4 UN C,AOR Supp !No 461 "' 1~}. Dcc 13, was t:t1mmmtd 10 <'l'll(lf'CID- '"""' m .a nunoa t.hac ~xc.:luJcd impr~r public1norn,
~· '"'""".,¡ to l'ra'Cnt
~"l'rtt» ond l'urwJi TroJhd.Jn¡: tn l'mom. Eapm.Dy 1979, li !\ O.X \U 4b. 1249 l NTS ti 'Cm....d intn lon:e ~ l l'Xl} can1r~1UcJ pr~r atitnJ¡j!~ anJ upbdJ dc'-C"Hcy. ~/>Ot"I fJ/ tlv CD1n•1tl.t:t' 011 1~
Won m 1r1J O 1..lrm, ~rs>i<--mm1 thc l:nntJ ~.,.,,,. C.-..,,u., ~ Tun• ~ 'itt S-.ltn1 • Fífth Pmodtc: Rqv.r to CEDA\\ R<fO" o{ tJ.e '"""""'"'""" Eh.,,_ o/ o.. • .. ""' ... '""''' 11'.'- rhh ..,.., , 'n u ~ Doc: \ .r'!!.18
••11...,¡J
O~n,..,d Crtmc, G ~ R... nn,,
ll N GAOR. Nnv. n, ;¡o(l(I. UN Onc th, l: "''"""U# ~ Ducrunnwltn Agdt#J/ WOMt',Jlf, 25th Ses:!.. .lt l.•.
UN Ot.1< Su r · ll)QI)~ In ¡QqJ \AJmnuntt rnnnhrrt ..1.... .a«at tfw J'l1'\rmnw-nt •ti Fra.nn- h_lf
AIH l~I. Appcnd" 11 CWAWtt..iSWI 11 CO.c 18. 21100) il" S""'ll1on <ln pomitJ)tt!1phy f'nL"'-'.C sa1d th;,tf f'l"'m~r11phv Wllli puru,hcd by amrf'M.+
• \'ICIDn> el Tr.!liclunit Ukl \ iolcncr P""""'°" Aa ol 1000. H R. 11+1 tOócb 17 l1>C' CfD..\W t:omnuUl't" ttu.'.mbcn 1n 1u~ oul1 k'lllnnl ~tm ;l)l,c-J t.pn:th,&U.,. onnwnr or monet.,11 lmes. ld 1 ll6. U,.. 1\<thtti.n<ls, 1•kcd in 19'14 ro <xpt.Jn an
üini. S LO}<• Pub. L !\o. l•ló-)86 lrnJ1titJ • omcnJcJ .. n
1C 'C. SS 710!- noc unl1 •-herhrr prcw«rut.on "'A• cJUC.La-.-n.I 111 • &n't'fl "\l ..lt" hot d rr ,...._ wf.c:dw.r lb mcrc... 111 ....... m-......i "'"' " .... ,,.. mJluen.:.J by thc: tict rh.. pomocntphy
;11111Z<MJ1I ~uCW11 abo ¡rplw:d against th.- •dierJ1 .. f'nr 0:1mrJr The Ptul1rruia Wll.i .. ,11"' ,., "'" rr..rubucd lt '°"""'"'cJ u... tb.- •-1.tbtluy of P<-('hy luf """"' h.d
,7 IJ S 7102 about rhe "cl1cn1 "llo b<nchtcd lrom thc u.de rn ~hhe sl""'l' •nJ "-ht>th.r h• hJJ .t ratrasnm~ tnfludlce nn tht- tnodcn..:(' 1-t \llttf<'nc.:~ .-,J1n 1 ·•rt'ln"IC'ft ll.t'ftc.11'/ e{ t~
•o \lodd U.w tn C..omho• Tnffidina 1n P<""N "" 1 S 100. U<; ~al< O,.. ·~·ll~cJ ª""Y •irh unpWUI)' •l1tk th< rW '1ctlm> ~"de tat:tdy !'<"'111.tJ.• Rq..rt of Co"lt+tlflt•t "" t'1t• Fh'!ltffdtu;n o/ 01Jm,11111t11l"1n ..·l.fi1111frt \\'.'e 111~• 1lth 'k-5s , 21-'
pattm<DI ¡-;.,,., Rdo&.c M.M 12. 200} ~ cDll~IN ,_,, ,¡., EJ.r..,,,.,.J., " o/°' y,, """'""" 1 ,,, . \r: ...,. lJ ~ , .., U ~ Onc. A. 49/l~ OW.I In ¡qo¡j rh< ttpr<><n""'" ,,¡ N.,,..·•y ••f'lamod th.t
4~ IJ. S 111.! 41~, 'k't' iWo R.. ri·Jri r/ tJ.~ C""""'rtt~t ·>lf : ~. FJ,,.,:,,1111 ,,, . f Ducn.,,,,,.,11 ""A .11 ,, ,.... b._.,,. b. b.cn ~ "' be aimr-u-..i.- limucd thctt. b..t • "'°"" re
'º J~rn~ Rdt·a~. \\'hite 1rtJU.\e-C)ffu:c ~ t.ltt Pra• Sc-\.ttt.an. TrJlh&:kl.ng in Ptnc'n• Wontt,. .. th Set$ , 139 •19R1) l~\ltt':ll e-~f"'rl~ ;1;~k(\~ P.tn11m11 •whtthC"r prosórur:ioo Jcnc.'V l~'al'J ltlOf\" h.uJ .rore pomogr.lpby -.., U ~'f\ic..J fl Wltl. .W:11tncJ tb.u rru
~ ..1<111.J '>ttuney l~J D11tt0,.. ll<h 1' !OOll, ,..,.,. "iit1<bc•1a< ""'"°""' rdstit'<I t1nlv to t.ht proscrm:cc Clf .alw 10 C'bC'n1s 1nJ protwcr"' Rqon o/ 16" (.o'1Plftlt l lltilli\I) mlV be lllt.K'll~11J bc~l .. !lit.,¡ th~ UUttnill 1C1n.J11~1 .. ,n ot tht X'(. lt.i.J c. ll m.11 ltT
~200l 02 20020225 html A<1lall1 •I•-. c1trn ?'den ro ,¡,. diffiruh . lJll tJK f.111!1111UllOl1' '1f f),,¡,cn11W14l1t1Jlt .-tgfl,l"IJ: U ·~t'll, 6th ~' 61 19NJJ 1.dma reprdcd IU fC'llf•1u t>) tbt l"'Tmmcrn r\o,..•y s Íocut in comb..11r11 c:hdd pornt
ltt\'tftle u moch .-.~ rir mort' than thc mean1 ot muy. "'f.em.úe aexuaJ tl.a\'ay ts prffi!'nt <he R.¡..oblic al l:or<a undcf \nicle I> -wil<thcr not only rlt< cbcot ""' ,,¡,... th< P'"' nphy ..,.¡ - · thcr rralit '""" I""""' "' "' n:sult<J "' ~ '"" fl'O\_,.
m ALL •itw.tloiu •hcrc \\'Ollltn or girls c.1nncit chan~c che 1m.mcJi41t condru<'N e;
tbru e>.blcncr, •Mtt rq;:arJleu of ho. thc-o. ,: .c. meo thoic CCJlkboonr. tlte\ clft.Boi 1 ,.
OUI .00 wfw-h- •hr. .uc- ruh;«~ h\ tell.u.al \Jolcnc..'C ;and C-.l.plnttAtJOQ. ~athlccn &rn
Fr""•'" \ .,,.,.¡ 5, 11•, rv o4fl l ICJ7'} Talen r~thC'f, l'nnN St.ues, ,., Ko1m1nt.ki -'87 U\
9'1 uq"8l. and lJnncJ Star«' Musssy, il~ 1'2d 144~ ,q,h CiT 19'4>. •urpon rhc
c,,_,_,llrt' nn 1h,.
l"'St ....ro.na loron. oslwoa º•hahet ch.. Low -q
tuu1t- •~r-t pun11h.1bl<"•): •« "' 1• 1~4. 220 ·~~~ui1n~ Sri l..1nlt.a>. Rrrr''' o/,,.,,
r¡,,,,,,,.,,fltf tJ/ 01J<n"''""''"" Aoruru u-~"'"''""· lth ~e. H 2~~
prt'<tn:uoon <••<11.m.d pum
'"" rn<a>u<e> - · Olea•): iJ , r.7: ,.,. 11><> 1J. , MI •noon~ th., lll HU!lf<.,.,
pr01r1tu!1m \\'~ a crune n-g11tJk·u oi scx, bu1 •1hc oth<'f pany ws tkH li.:1blt 10 pmJ
m th r<nal dock ('lllhibtuon• ni pomographv 0nd punptn~ Reporr ,.¡ti,. (..{Jmwl/I r
on thr El1wn1MllO# vf D1sa1111u1atHJn Ag411ur \\.'o"JCJI', 1-lth Sitfi.l.., • -170, L.N_ Do..:.
.IJ50/} (199') Jn 1~ dk (_.1mn'Httcc nc.~1cJ Lhc ad.lf'U'"" ot a Un.bu n. ~ t!áJt1"1
tr&kin¡ 1ll penons pn:.uruoun. and ~·rhf with ~xtt:.&h rn1 "ft-1 .-rpba
Plm• 1n Bd,:uum • • deas1\'C' •icp ro .-.1.-lrc,.~ die i:stUC" rit Kl{uaJ r'rlou11uoo d
"'"" rh• a per<nn ', bdocf ~ o{ ph\'•t<ll <'I ie¡tal thrat thit ~><\' t..... DO oltet C'CU'fl\iñ ); R.l'ptlrfl u/ 1J.~ Ctt11tl'fllllrt' QIJ //.t l'lt"llPl.l/lort t.I o,,(,'111111'1'1{/f • A1o111111 womc:n Kepott CJ/ 1be ÚJlfl"llltf't' '"' t~ EJ11,11n.1lt0't ,,¡ Dtk """'"ªJt()n 1l ft•Ul1Jf \\~'º'''f'._
"'""' bur io peri nn th<! "'°"' dnam.icJ 10 pom.tlly ..,._..,.< e~ 1 Thutccntb
Aml"11dmt:n1 1fd\Tf\ tloum. fdr ...liJ1ti&:m.J Úl.k:U •ut:wn. )C'.'C' :\\.¡~ t\mnon, • rrt1111tu111,ln •ncf
W"" ,..,¡ 4 ~.~ ~ , , ~2 lqj¡<¡} ..king !rcl.nd lar Jnado el i...i ,.....,,....,
WMkt "'" <l dJCTUs Jn rromnohOOl Rbort o{ I}., C,,..,,.,trtt on 1/J, f/,.._-. o{
l}th ICM. t 178. U~ Doc A >11 ;8 O'l'l!o! In s.n,,..pore. )>om"ltr•phy ,... ,._
pon b.nn....l .. J . . t . - coJe. cractal pcohib.u"• rhc P"'U• ..to! ...,.... .,
Civil Ri;;.ht"; alx)v(' 11(.l(C: 11. 41\ 111 .. 16 1 ~IOtc\l\.""Cr, Cnn1trl"tf 11pcc:ifk.1lh rtpuJa.at("J Du..;-'f't'"'"•llOh Ag.11u1 Wo"1'teot. 1.-h !)esi;., 'I .Zot. {199l) (m¡mco), rcprinrcd m ()/ftnJ/ \Cll. 1h rt R,mc,,f of &he C.on\mnccc oo lh<" f lamuuc1 in ot Ot,.-;rarn1n.i1 1un ~.i1mc
• narr°" rndtn,: ol A.ot>'#111.1lt1 that v.'f'lltllJ C1'fdint- 1t ft\ \1oltn1 C'Ot"l'Oon m LM Vtctunt R;o,rJr e,/ tbe Guml As.e.,;./, l'ony .,.,h S....on, ~"PI' l"o. 18 IA 4bd8• IThc Wumt·• 2~th "'' ••n 111 l111111at\'-J FOhniary .lf>Ol) ...r 25th ...,,¡,.,
12-20 fouy
el TWbc!....,. •••!\ iolmtt Pf'Oltth<'ll Act ol 2000 114 '' • 14<-: S \01 bKUI Tcll- PhilaJ~nn rcp,.,nm, undr-r Mt11.k b oonct'nllnl' •tanetlOl'tS .,,,,~ on cuuomcn ot :!O! 1 1 '> l. \1 Doc: A -><v 1S 120.11 J Th.,,f.., to ~"'"" úickson fnr bci: mnn;h
in,il tloc Appc.tls Lh-lx-r lor th< lntcm.11100.J Cnmm.J lnbun.J l"r th• focni<T pro1t1flltn, "uch • ' " 1c-.u1.u·; P.f'f'v"'rt of ,. r '1tfff/JIN • 1~ f. '"1,Yttolf o/ Dn
º'
\'u~O!jl•\lol M k'CO nurJ th:u \t. hm ngh1. 0\\1'Crdtip .. r(' rrO\C'R ().('Jt,;íscd t>\('J. ª'"''""''"" A1.11n1.1 \l'nt~tn. l l1h seu., , l ... l e1'1'92) fm untol, rtpnnlC'll in Ollirul ,., <arnrnu1r1. •n thc [.houn.ttn.10 <,t Ou".runui...oua \1C*f1A \\ ornm, l J1h Kll.
pcTIOft "'J<h 1h · ,,...~ re Cf"l~nl thttr latl of cnn.-nt ft>r C'X.IQlrlr 10 rape d.--. RtrorJ1 o/ tbe Gro«•/ Aiurmb/io, 47rh Se<- \upp "le> lR CA ~7 38• 1Chm1 r<pomn11 Gl,1t1 ~I R4."l'.1.llnrnt-u..l.t11..1n N1.-'I l9,, 12, UN. ()ol A 47ftH (j,1n 3(). JW2) túi.11~1nl'í1og
- nea! rob< P" ., '><'< i'n.cutvr • Kun•u< C.-~ IT ~2l and IT-%-lJ tb.t !""'IJluta "cu.tomen•• b. rottnJ.J up - i pn>\id.J ••rh f<pl mJ monl •rttdct 211 1 '"'! to t <>HTOAW)
t-A. Jud,irnau.1 120 (June 12. 2uo21 educauon • t'tf • rniturrd 10 cnc;tt."f: ll'l proJuctnT J..hciur• IVport u/ dN 0-.,,,rUN °" 60 Protncal r th.. ,\Íncan O..rm on lfoman and """rlc<' R.p.u onda.~
 ~otes to Pagu 257-2S8 • 381
of Woroen m Mn<", urt, ll(inl July ll. ?OOl. O.A.u Doc. CA&l..EG/61> b {en1<rcJ
in10 fnr<c Nuv 26. l0ll5J
ól , l'ourih W~rld Ct'níermcc on W001on. xpl 4- 1', 19'1~. lln11n1 Dn·l•Ntu,.
ami P~t/o,.,, tr.. ilrMw ••, 118, U.N l)oc;. AICONF 177/20/Rcv 1
62. Id., 119.
ol. Id. , IJ-0.
64. w, 215.
M Id , 24-l(bl
66. For • samplm~ of apmsly ses discriminarorr la-... dm have remllined in for~
,¡,.,, lld)ing• ..., Equaluy Now. Wor.h a.•J fkrás Holdrng Goum""'"" Aaou•tab~
m th< lk1Jm~ ~ JO R<'Llelt /'rocen (2(ll>'!, 1v.oifablc ot ""'"'·C<tllolu)1l<>W.Otg On por-
nogr;¡phy, Ammc.... llookocllers Am>aad0<1' fluJnu1, nt L2d )2) (7th ur 19851,
•ff'J. 4~1 U.S 1001 C1q861. >1.md. for prtci•dy the <>ppooue of ih" wmmirm•nt 11n<l
hu ttm.unctl. 1n eff'tt1. ru11.6t'd hy th<" lnf{hr&1 mure oí th~ nat.tun
67. Tu. U.S. Sena1e müied die lCCPR on Febnwv 2~. 1978. Stt S. Res. 9)-20.
9'tb C,ong, S. Exec. Rcport 102-23 C19761.
68. Human Ri¡tlus Commutcc. 68tb S...., 18l4Lb.mtg., GrncrJ! e,,,,,,,,.•, No 2~
, 22. UN DI'< CCPR!C·ll!R.:vl/ AJJIO 120()(\1
69. !CCPR Dcc. 16, l'IU. 991 UNT.S l, •n 20: {)$ RCR"'""" 111, S Res.
95-lO. '15th Con~ .. S. Ex<'< R.pón W2-2l (19781 ( "That mrdc 20 dncs 001 authnrb:c
or r<qwre kg1shrioo or othet .ctlon by the Uniced Sta•es th:n ~'OUld restrlct the nght
of írt<e -tpc:cch .and '.t.:lSiOCiiuoo prtKCCltJ by thc Consricution t.1.nJ. hlv.-s of t~ UnncJ
Sto.M·
70. Far fulkr di.'iC\i:$!!-icm oí 1h1s tht-mc-, Jtt AncTre01 O\l:orkin, Porn01,fi1Db\• :\1 "
Ponm1•~ \Vo.,.n 'l (19801 ("Thc quesdoo . . is noc whether the Flm t\mcndmcnt
protecl> pom.,,.raphy ~r should, but whaber pomo¡!rapby keeps womm lrom <xer·
ctSUlj! the ngb1> prorect.d by the hNil i\mendmeitl "I: Arulr.. O...orlm>. "A¡;1in>1 tbe
M•k fkiod Ccn><>nh1p, l'ori>O¡!r.ph)·, ••J Equaluy, • lo Lmm /ro111 • lt'•r Zone 25J,
2611-170 (19881, (:.di•nnc 1\. M11<Kinn<>n "Fnmt" S.Júk's Sis"'1': 1n fo,,,.,,. [ 1r.
·~,.¡,¡¡,,¡ 192-197 119871
71. The ordmanee de6nes poroo~raphy as "the g.nph1c ,.xuall)• cxplic11 subordi-
M1J()n ol \loOnldl, v.·hc:thcr u1 pu.-w:rcs or w '4'0rdt, lh:n a1so 1odudes OM or mote ot'
ihe lollowing¡ HI \Vomen .ie pt...,noed u ,au.il ob,tclll who CDl'l)' p:un or humlU.
tion. ()f (2• W~ntn '11t p~RtC<J ._, jéxuiJ obJC(U \lo'hl1 ictpef'l~C MiXu.J pJc.uutC In
~in1t rapcd, or ~), \\'1omm are pre.senrcJ a~ texual objecu oed up or cut up or mu
rilaml or bruised or pby!noill¡ hun, or"" dl<mcmbcrcd <>r mmcatcd or tn¡¡ment<d or
,.,..rtd mio body p•ns; or (41 Womm att presemed bang peneuareJ by objectS or
.uumJ.b. cir ('l \\;lomeo urc pre;enic:.d to tieen.llriQf. u! dqrudadon, lnJUI'} ab.iscmc:nt.
ronurc JhCWt" .&\ hlrh\· ttr u\Írtior. blttdtna. br1~J. ar hurt m .t. contt:xl 1hi1t nukt".'1
ch~ ronclition' ~ual, or 16) Wt>men gire pre:stnteJ ai. liMit•I nl)fect1 (or d""'in•rsoo,
conqu~ \ioJt.t1on. explOlt1tion. poc;scssion, or 1.DC, Qí through pos:nircJ e>r po¡;niom
of "'"..hty or <nb1I11Soon 0< di.spby. Thc use ol me1L cbildttn, or LmlS5el<u.ls m the
pfacc ul ''"'""''"' pnr>¡;"Ph• e 111hrwgb í61 oJx,.c shJll 11><> """""'"" pomugnph}
382 • Hom to Paies 258- 2$9
undcr l1us =1"''"• lndwupolb ..,.¡ M.lrt<>n lounty, lnJima, Codc <h. 16. S 1~)(41,
w /,. JJ...on '1 \\'.ry, JbO\'C ni.ict 2, ~ -1-&-L \~lu.h lunttill!Olh, *thr production, s.J.c. e~
h1h1111111. or Jii.tnbuuon uf 1.umo~r.tph\" 11 .i Cllt.1"4: oí a..uon ÍnT da:t.t('t.m1n.11icm ag.ainl-1
W<lmm Id •l 441.
-2. Hudmtt. 771 F.2d 1r l29 Choldm~ 1h•1 "~.., a~ep< llic P""n""' of ibis ~is­
l.tt.ioo Dep1crioos ol $Ubord1n:111on terni to petp~ru.i.re subordmauon. Tht: subordmatr
1r.111u ol '''nmen 111 ru.m lotds w affronl aod k>\\.c:r p.y •t \l.'Ork.. in5uf1 •nd tn)1,U')' tt
lwmt!, .and baue" 11nJ r.1JX' oJt cbc stte<=h· In 1~ lan~u.1gr of rhr lrg.1sl11utt.
(ph.TilOfitllphy d t:~lral iJt crt".J;dna Wld m;;iiniiurnng teX :u 11 ba\.tJ <'I ducrlrnin.t.non.
Pomo~raphy is .t mtemJtic- prac;1ict of cxplo1raüon -and s:ubordmaoon t>a:ed oo sc:x
which dilI~l'(:nuaU)' harms wo1nen. The blporry md conrcmpt lt prodl.K'CS. wnh tht acu
oJ ~ros100 n fost:ers. h1tm l.1:omen's opponuo1tles for equalll)' anJ nghrs lof .U
kinds).' lndwn1pom CoJe '"" 16- l{aJt2) y.,._ chis ••mpli• Jcmonm•l<S tho po»et of
poroo¡.tr.1J'>h)· tlJ tpe«h"')
7). /luJnu/. 475 U.S. 1001 (1986)
25. Women's September l lth: Rerhinking rhe Últeroational
L.iw of Contlicr
1 1ñ1i uh\.,U~ ob.ervadon 11bou1 iolt"rmuon11I b"· sin~ at lcat 1hc Trr11fy <>Í
w.,1phalt•. Peace Treity Beiwttn me Holy Roman Empero,- and u~ Klllg o( Fronce
and Tho,- RespccU\'C Allics. OcL 24, 16'!8. 1 Coosol. T.~. 198. IS illummatcd ID 1hc
pre:;ent ~tung by. :uuung orhe:ts, Anloruo Casscsc. •'fmomm Is A~ Oisrupttng So1nc
Cruc11J leg..J útcgorlo ot lntcrn.-uioo11I L111w," J2 f:.u~JJt 'º"'"ª1 o/ ltttvn11.t1<111o1/
úu· 11'1l. 'l'IJ-98 120011; Roben K. GolJman. "Ccnain l..«pl Qu.,.dm,. "'"' 1'111CS
Rai.<ed by 1hc Scp1emlxr ll1h An.1ck>.' 9 Hum"" Ritfats Bne/ 2 !20011; llld Noab
Fddman, "Chmc0$ of L•w. O>oices ol \\'•r." 2S H•11J<ml }wrn•I o/ Lnw tmd Pub/x
Po/1cv 457 !10021.
2. Ot thb list. anttm;utun1tl humru11tt1tlilJl L.w h.lS thc bcst (aciJ.I hur,ory, long pro-
hihn1ng. wnle \'1olenc:c agaUl.$1 wo1nrn m w.1run1e 1n vt'ry cl~r term' Sce. e.g. FrJ-ncU
Llcbtr. lnsn\lt:úonl f~r 1h< C""'ornmen1 af Anni., o( the Uni1ed Stat<> in 1ho Ficld
ffhe U.bel- C.odel. U S W1r Depanmmt, General Ordcr> No. 100. S 2 an. l1
IApr 24. 18631 ("Tbc Unncd Srare> •cknO\>.Jtdg• anJ protect, in h06rile counuics
occupl..J ~y thar1 . • ihc JI<"'°°' ol th< mh.bi1.in1S, especially rhooc: oí womco. ""J
the )Jt:rct.lnn~ ol Jon\ClliJc tl4...doo11."), .nd th~ Ge"ev11 Q_,nvent1un ftd.ttt\·c to tht-
pf('l(~CUOll f)Í f..avib'n PerM>n• 10 Tin'k" cif W•r. art, lll, Au,; 12, 1949, 75 U.NTS
287
J. Aucmpt:S to JCtl rhe drahers oi the Umversal .Ded.uation of Hum:an Righ1s ro
collilder woo1cn's hwmnil) an: .,..J)'Ztd m Mary Ann Glendon. A World M•de .'•le..
F./rJHbl' l<Wtf/l't'(t .,,,J tlu· Lfu11-.ers.1/ fXc-ldNlto" uf l luJJU1n R11.htJ 111- lZ. IM (2()()11
.\ po1nicul11rly 1cllina ('Xumplc is 1hc 11bsd\t:t' af ci<J)f'tS• n1cnoon of violcntt" QJ:aüuc
womt'n ur texw.I •#uV~ioo 1n che Con,'Clltion on 1ht Elimin"tion oí Ali Fonns of
Discnmmaoon :i¡¡runs1 Womeo. G A Res 180. a1 19l U.N. GAOR, 34ch S..... ~pp.
Holn lo Paaes 25~260 • 383
No. 4S." 19), UN Doc ,<\,}.J/46 l!Jtttmber 18. 19791 th<rcsn.1í1c< CEDA\\:') 1lw!
C'.ommn1ee on 1h.c Elimfniarion oi- l)i..,cnmin¡1ti(lfl ARñinsc Wornc:n rcmcditd diii. ln
C'..eneral &.éQmrnenduion No. 19 b" imcrpreting tbc de6nnioo of díscrinunatioo ID
CEDAW Amcle 1 to "rndude [] ga11:kr-lmeJ \'lolencc-Thar i• v1olencr ,..¡u<h,.
tbreetal .,;:úmt " wom.tn beutuse .shr i!t " \\'OmllD 01 whKh .ÚÍC"Cts '<WOl'Dcn Jispropot
llo1utdy.• CCOAW, Geneflll R.:<ommcoJ.1110!1 No. 19,, 7, U.N Do<, A/47/ )8 fFeb
ru.a.ry 1 JIJ'92). ~ arn of traffiddnp, in womco prm.'ides '" cxamplC" on anc>thcr 1c:\•d
Ahhou,-b 1raffitkmE1 in 1,1,--omcn has looj.: bem cnmin:a) under the l•\\1 oí natiom. not
unul 1hc Palenno Prororol '""e sorne ot lrs real power dyn'lmJCS diccaly tddmscd.
Sec PrtHO<OÍ /Q PmJent, Supp1'SS .,,,J
Pumsh 1'rolftchng m Pm<>NS. Espmally Womm
anJ Ch1ltl~n. SuppÍ~/'llJentmg r.ha Utt11dÍ NatNHl1 Coni.~'11/0ll 1lg.1nH 1'r#lf11Jtll1<JnJ/ Qr.
go•1'<d Crime. G A. RcJ. 25 (111 •• 54 CJ.N. Do< N55/}8) !Novembcr 2. 2000)
(includin~ • rbe obuse of power or of 1 poaition of vulncr11bility , for die l"''lJOSC oí
explo1tarion" a.<; onc dcmen1 m 1hc dcfin11.1on <->Í uafbclong).
4. S.e below "°"' 9, 12. lllld ll and dtsrusSlOtl rn 1'11rs 11 AOd llL
5. Tiu1 Ln1c:rn;i11on.i.I moblli:z111on has btcn J'eld by ,;on1e .aJ .umply uurchLOg ICJ thc
1unc ol 1be Un1tcd StatC$. Set-, c.g., SLt''OJ Zi:ick~ ·'lhc ~n1ell Qf Lfi,-c,'" m W~lmmr ,,,
,¡,,. Drrrrt of th< Rrol 1)5 (20()21. Thi• U.S.-cenrric reiulin- ot p0$1-~tembet 1lth
e"enrs. cl>e "'" oí ihe wodJ us l1<keys. does no• explrun cbangcs on che in1ml2tional
lcvd 1lutl thc Un1tcd Statd dtM:S not cnurely control, nor d~ Jl .tcfdreb t:hc questton
uf wh) 11M!- rcst oí rhc: \\·01JJ Joes next tu nothing ubuw \;joJcnL"C" ~g.unsi: 'ili'Omdl,
n111Qnilly or 1ntc:tn11luJn;1lly, wuh ur ••tthuut U. S. inVCll\·c1ncn1
6 See. e~ ln·deprh Study on Ali F<>rms of \'lolcnc:e t\¡tainst Wc>men, (A/581508/
rld.d.21. G A- Ros 18>. U.N. Gt\OR. 'iSch Ses.<.. U.N. Doc• •VRES/:;S/185 IMarch 18,
200.CJ: Tbe Secreuey-~ral Adum:•ut•nl of Women-Vr'ok11u Ag¡imrl \t'omeo, Re-
fl<J'l of tl>t U )1 !i.cm•ry•C•nc"/, U.N. Doc:, A/~912111 IAugu" 20, 2()().1), CCDAW,
Gent!J.il Rcc:onunmJ.auon 19. above nc.>k 3. Qrg..u\Wlllon oí Amtnc11n StArrt. lntcr·
American Con\'t'Otit'1n on thr P~tit>n, Punishrne:n1 and Entdica1ion of VK'llc:nte
t\µínsrWomm !Con,..,nnon of Belém do Paril, OEA/Ser.l/V/l4 rcv. 8. 22 i\fay2001.
J} lntcma1ioMI ugal Mmri.il> 153-l [hen:inafter Coovcntion of Beltm do Pata): Pro-
corol to r.be J\1rican Chaner m JlWlUll and Peopl"'' lllghu on the Rigbcs ol Womcn
in Alnc•. July 11, 2003. •n> l(jl. IH), 412J, 5(d). l H.l), llfb). 21(bl, ""'/,,ble •I
h"p~//www.llfriCJ1·u 1tion.or~ (h.s1 visi1cJ Nov.,., 200,J (in10 fortc Nm.·c:mhcr 26, 2001)
[hcttin•f1cr Afrlean Protowl]; M.C. v. Bulgarfa, 6-16 European Cou11 of Human RiW.rs
,, IM. 18' C2!JO.ll Cronduding ihar thc European Com'Cnnon for die l'roteroon of
Hurum R.¡;h" W>d Fundaroemal F,...JOlT1$ re4wres Mdnbcr Sutes elt<C01..Jy pros<o
c.·tnc nonronsc.nsu.d sex acts, mdud&ng ID ihc abl!oC:Oce oí phyuc.a.I rt'iüUH\c.:t' by thé
v1t111n, (lnJ hnldmg th1u Bul,-.in• dtU noc l'ulfiU ns po1iíHi\'e <Jt,hg;u1un tu ~fícctl,-.:ly
mmin.:af1ze r~pe). The U.N Human Rights Comro1rtc:<:•i conc:lud1nfll ob,en.-atlon~ are
olso at limes u itical of suces panies for lntde:quate m~res against key abuses o(
won1en..$tt. .eg.. Hwnan Ri,gh1$ C<>mrruU:ec. Últtclw11ng Ob.Jen•alJon> o/ th~ Hurn4"
Rlz/¡11 Co•u1111ru rtmco, • ll U.N. Doc. CU'RIC0/841\'EM (Aug. 9, 2005!:
t-luman Rstl,hts Cornm1noe, Wrl"J;r;g OhSM'<lllQilJ e>/ tht' fiumi111 Riglob (A1t1,,,,lflt:<'.'

i;.,,,,, U 10, 11 , t., ~ Du.: tCPIV<.:0 83 l;L~ CAp1 2~. lOC»I; llunun Ri~hlll C.,m
m111tt, <.untl.1tJt,,,t. (V.1, "-'-'lltHI u} 1hr ll11,.;J11t IVi/.1~ Ú1•mt1t« U:./,~lrnt.111. 11• 21.
24. lJ.N Doc CCPR/1'"0/RJ L'ZB 1Ap< ll>. 20.m
7 "\'ki)cne(' .iptDst \l..'Omcn· has optt..moruJ mcani"' m intcmatiorul tm"t'sttga·
wn.. S.., cg .• Ülomlr:ISW"Jmy. bd<w. ""'" 14; th• Repcrt of 1he U,, Stm'l4..,·
G-~11.-1.1/, Jbi..wc nutC' 6. Luernllllon..tl dcfirutlClDS can be iounJ lo tbc C"nvcnuon t>l
Brlcrn do P•r.. P'\'1u)l"'ftcc •Atm.t.l womc:n ,h;aJI be: W'ldcnt~ to 1ncJudc ph}"\1t:.i1
R1'U.J tttJ p•vcht,Jo)Ctc-llrl \•it'llmn:. J d~c (l('CUn v;"ithin th4:' fum1lv ar ~lle unu ur
'ét1tbin my mher interpersonal rcla1lor1J,ir. "·hc!thtt or n(ll[ che perpeuator shares or
lus sb•rcd thc "'m" r<!Skleoce W1th the wom•n. mdudm¡¡, atnOOJI. othm. rape. banen-
.md fexwl tbU)ot: b. th¡111 occurs an thc conunun1t~ !lnd ~ perpemted b)· Mt)' pe:tton.
ID(ludlng, iimong uthc:r.. rllpc. ~x-u.J ubusc. torture, tr.Jfick1rtjt lD ~r:Mtn:•. (ora:J pn:-.
tuuu~m. ludn11ppuip lnd f.<"Xuul hsn'21$rncJ1t tn thc wvrtcpltcc, a v.cll a 1n edur:uuonal
irKUturion!í, hcahh í:w:ihtces or any other place: 1nd c. that is pcrpemncd or QtJOdcmcd
by thc: si.ate or us aprents ceprdkss of v.iJcrc i1 O<.:C\1S$. • -abc:we no1t 6 at J,-)5t and the
Afru:.an Protocol f"'V1olen.c'C ~~ \vorncn· meaos aU acu perpetratcd 3#ffiSl \\'omcn
v.-b11;h nuSc ur ooulJ u.use thcm pbysac111J scxu.d. ps)·ch<'k>giu.I, and .:conorruc lunn,
m<:luJioJ: 1hc Lhrt".nT 10 ti.1kc- auc.h .et~ or 10 undc:n.alce 1hc ~mpo:o111aon of •rb1rnu·11
IUtnc'IJOO" on ~ dcpri\.at1C'IC1 e-( fundilmCnta.l frttdom1 ui privare or pub1ic Híc IJl Pf'IC'e
nmc md dunn¡? s.1nuuoos of armed <:onlhttS ~ ot war " abo\oe oote 6, a¡ arriclc l(jU
This ttrm lu.o; thc \'l.rtUe ot be:tog: concrete but the nce ot not iddres$1.Jlg woldla-
"iJatllit oomp•rauvel} powcrlcss groups who, «J<'ially rathcr t:h-n bioJo.¡;tull, ftm.tlr.
ate Íc:m&n.J1A."J IH Wrstt.t. for m11Jc Vlolcncc, Ul(luJ1n~ llttUaJ \.i~ucc Bo).'1 .and gJ)" IUc."n
are thc. l.irgest ('li 1uch JlffiUP"'· Thr tC'nn .. grnJcr-b.L11cJ ,,.olenrt'~ taha dU1 problcm
Sn:, O.M CF.DAW Gen<rol Rttommerulanon I~. abo<c nore J •Hmv"'"'· this rtc·
ro1mcndaúon. bemg an mrerpmat>On <>l CEO.~ W. upplie> onlv "' wamen.)
8. :>« l.:oh Anoan'> spccch to thc Ufl< Gcnoral "'5ombl) on 20 ~ptanbcr l m.
·r~·o Concrpi; ol s.,,~reignt) LN Pttu Rcl"""' SGIS:Vl/iU6 GN95%, 20 Scp-
trm~r 1'199. rrprlntnl in Kufl Ann..t.n, Thr Q11 •tflOll '>/ lnten"1'lllO'I. StJtMr1'tr ¡;,, llv
Sm·•m·Groli'rol ;; ;q (199'11
q Tbe 1'81"'poru1>18 wo•m:n ond
2.17} nt"'1 •'Cre killed >t che Wodd Tmlc
ú:ntcr"" Scpi=bct U, 200L Federal Bureau ol lowsug;¡IJ<ln, m 1h< U•1tcJe,,,.,
.SU1t:1 jpn:i.J &port 1bt> Tct.(t,;.'1.fl AllJL"ks o/ Scpt~111bc>r 11, 1001 · ..t C0111p1/JJ/OJ'i of
lJJtiJ 10? 12001t. >ll'-'l/d/.!" 111 http://~·w\&1.fbt_govlua/C1U1_0l/OlcttmcJ.pdt f1a.t Vl).1tcJ
Nm· ll 2001> íl1ncinaftcr l J111fon11 e,.,,,,,,.
R.tportt] At iiLlJ loations 1~bc-r, 739
""'"""' ~J 2,lllJ meo died of the >eroótie< tha1 dav Id
10. Stt \ew l'"'k 11mtJ, Ponr.ur.- 9/11101 The Collttttd Ponraus o( Gneí C2J
cd.1UOll, ., .ul.ble Jl •"\A.>u nytll'no.com/p:lfl,CS.'nauoru.llpdrtr.uts. Ulcirx.hrml 1last \'b
1ted J11.nu.111o l,, 200')
11 A. fh~· f"iilllt lena found in rhr luJUt.all'C' oí \1oh.1mmnl An.a. dile ol 1he Ser·
<embrr 1lrh hijockc... lcft ai Lo~ ln«rn•uonol Auron in Baston. st1tcd m pan:
You w.U ~ <ntenng pamhse. You •·ill ~ cow:m• the hlpp1..1 bfc. ""-.rlaitlllR
We. "Lm:tpts ftom L<ttc:r lbough1 10 lle !n.tructtom,* :-;..,. l'Mk S.,,t r,,,,,,,
Notes to Pa¡e 261 • 38$
18, 2001, ll'4 Anothcr dorumcnt U>cd by thc hl¡.ick.,. thc IUHht bcfo1c th. m<•<k>
~:t.itnl •whco che oonfronution be,i1u, ltrikc likC' .;hamp1oni who do noc '"'11n1 to po
bod: 10 this world. . Know 1hot . thc ,.'Ornen oí p~ iU'C wamng. . ·"Notes
Found After thc Hijacking>." Neuc l'ork Tunes, S.pL 29, 2001, fl}. Sec abo Joscph
Ld)"Vcld. •Ali Suiode Bonibers "'° not Abke: Ncw l'ork l"UJ<t< M•gawre, OCL 20.
2001, 49. Auú will spaiÍ><J that only 'good Muslims" moulJ prepare hi.< boJy •nJ
th~11 h¡s fuDchJ •htxald eicdu,,lr womcn; ... don'c Wl\JlC iany \\-'001~ to gQ to rny JU•''C
11 .U dunng my func:...l or ony occa>ion thl.'ttaftor • Plulip Shcnon •nd O.wd Jobmon.
"Suspc:ct'< Will SIJUtifi a Longtime Plan to Dte.' Ncw York Times. 0cL 4, 2001. B~
Cquoang Alllll •
12. In re(ient )'ttl'S, tht number of womt':n murdt.rtd lo tbc Unltcd S tJléS \\'IH )21.5
ui 2003. J2}1 ln 2002, )214 in 2001, 2076 m l()()I), •nd l08'"' 1999 Federal Bure•u
of 1.n~lt'Ation. \.ntne in 1he Unu~d St4tt:s, O\'lilabk 11t '1i"Vr'\\' fbi.jlo\•1ucrlucr hrm
tfoUow ·200¡• hyperUnk: thcn follow •Table 2.}' hYJ>"rlink; and follow ·2002;" then
fullow "Tubl• ZA¡" and follow "2001;" chen follow "Table 2.~:· and follow "2000:
t:hen follow "Toble 2.4;" and follow" 1999;" thcn follow "T•bld-4 "I 1lm vl"1ted Nov.
S, 200,}. For somc )'ti.ID. thie Ja n1utdcr ...,ctinu "'U not ltnQ\lo-n 10 rhr d.1ta nuthonu"'
oo •h< numbc"' could O. largtr Scc id Cfollow •2004• h)'J'Ct!mk: thcn follow "Repon
Sumn••<Y" hyrerlink). The numb.. of women known 1<> be murdcn:d by mcn ...,,;..
ea.ch year. but mcn tcnd to out.nwnber \lr"On'lcn as women's killeis b)' about 10 to J
Fodttal Buttau ol lnvestlgaúon, Fedentl Jlurt'111 ol ln..,.ugaaon, Cnme in t1N U#tttd
St#l<J, hup://•>wW.lbi.Bovl ucrluC1'.htm Cfotlo~· "200J • h)'(l"rhnk: th•11 íollnw "T,.blo
2.7" hypcrlank: •nd follow "2002;' 1hen foil.,..- "Tablo 2 8;" and follow "2001;" thc:n
follow 'Table 2.S."I ([.,. visitcd Nov. ;, 20051
B. One-thoosand two-hundred fony-seven "''Omen "~• kille<l bv aulc intimares
UJ 2000. Bure:.i:u of Jusa:1ce St11us[1c;::s, lnm:ate Panncr ViQle.ncé, 1993~2001, ~1'\VW.ojp
usdo¡.govlb¡s/tb1tract/ipvOLpdf·I ilast vi1ued Ocrobrr U, 2005) For somc !W!>, 1hc
scx CIÍ murdtr \ictim<c ,..,.s not kncrMn 10 1M d1u¡;a •u<horiric;. to 1he nu.n1bcrl could be
lar¡:c<. Stt id. At 1...1 one·thir4 of murnen:d vromrn uc cstim.ied 10 h.-,, be<n killcd
by mtlmatc male partners. with Lhe victi1n-off'enJer ~Uooship unknown 1n 1n adJa.
oooal t.lutd. Bureau o( Jusoce Smusúcs. Honuade Tccnds in the U.S.: lnwruuc Hom·
1<1tlc, www.ojp.usd0j.gov/bp/bocrnodttullunatt:0.htm c1... vw1t:d Oaobcr "· 21xm.
S1.ud1cs diat look mort clQ!('I>· 0 1 thc: ancidence of mtn rnurJmng lt\um.1te \votncn
p-'.nners Ln the. Unn.cd Staies find 1h1u thit correa numbc.r is; clote.r to fifty per«n1
Seo. e,g., Thc Ncw Maioo lminmc Porroer Violen« 0..1h RCV1cw Tcam "Gttti"l!
Away wuh Muroer IIL lnum.aie Paru1er V>0lenre De.uhs 1999-2000,• J9; !.inda Lang·
ford. N111cy E. .lssac, ~taae Kabat. l-lom1mles Rel3tc•J to lnl1ffull~ P11r111n Vmlcnu m
•\l1u111chu~·c1t1, 1991-199,, O'tatc •t l lonl:(:. 1999) (6nding_ dut fony thrtt pucmt ot
aJJ fcmtJc h<1middC' v-infnu in thc: statc v.·ctt ki]cJ by c:11rrcn1 or íonner 1ntim.uc poan·
n<n. ami dur che "curm11 U.S syS<em of d.11 collectioo, thc Suppkmrntary lfomlCidc
Reports !SHR) compU.J by ~ FBI, rlocs not ... fully docwnesu ali of thc Parmcr
Vicwru • and ihat tn M.ssacbu..,tu &om J99J to 1995, thc ~HR w.. luund to havc
nii!lseJ lWCht)'-hlUC pch;Cnl uf i.M 1'.l!Ulef \'l(lll1lS MJ h> lu\tC: ÍoukJ lO ÜOC:umcnt
386 • NOles Jo Page 261
"'Olher Vicum$ ~ hon'liades related 'º wnmate pmntt vwlencet ln odd1uon. cl)t:
~i IR 11#1 no CltCgoriCl for vaaun-offcndcr rd.1tt.ont.h1ps suc:.h :u tx·bo)'frit:nd or ex·
8•rlínmJ :>te id Al (, ThuJ. 1nun11uc in.ale au fcnltalé ~·1ultnct tcnds to be. undcr
cnuntcd c:vcn whcu dcath rui.Ju:.
14. Lon HO$c, Mary E.11$00~. and M-n Gom:mocllcr, Popu'4troR RrporU &dmi
V1okna l\g•mst Wom..,., 1l19991 c6ndingby WorlJ Heahh Otgllllizauonmultlcounu:y
uuJy that approxlm,tdy "'" to füty ~<cnt o{ womi:n lll'C phy1lcally ,..,.ult..J by t:h..,
m.Jc parutcn- at s.om~ poln1 m 1M1r laves); R...dhik-a \...oon1.1rMw1uny. Rl•f«I o//~
Spro,1t RJ.,p('<Jrlr11r un \ i'oln1« Ag111n.tl \V<>,,1en, 1r1 C.111rs ilnJ Contequr,,l'~J. bi:I' '11
120-21, U.N Doc E/CN 4/1995 42 rNov 22 , 1995) lbcremofirr Prrl1"1in•ry VAW
Reportl;esp., 62, U.N Doc. E/CN.4 1996/SJ U' <bruory7. t996l lhereioalttrStronJ
I'A W Repon); Radlúlui Coouur11swomy. Rrporl o/ tb• Sf><d.J fl..ppurr•ut qn VIDl<nn
A¡¡.m11 Wo"'"'' /11 Cau1t'> ;nJ C""'''I'""ª" op ,, 22-2.1, lJ.N Doc. E. CN 4/t9971
47 ffunc 17. 1'197) íhcrcinaficr Tlmd VAW R•ponl.
15. S.e 1 The ChorttT of 1hr Uttittá N41tO•r A r.,,.,,.,,.n,.ry
~70 (Bruno
Simma ct al., cds.. Oxford 2002) ldis<ussing scopc of "mued arruclr:"). Howevcr, in-
teoudoo.ál Law has incrtasnglr 1ncorp<>rated non~tare aas and actots uno tU framc--
work. for 0:11mplc. unJer Protooo.I U 10 Lhc: Gcnl:'\·..i Convent«>nJ_ Prorocel Addi
uon.al to thr Gt..-nn.a Ccn\."t'.ntions of 12 Augw.t J<N9, 11nd Reluting to thc Prt>ltttion
of Vicrim• of Non-lntcrnatiooal Anncd Conllicu. Juoc 8. 1977, 11-25 U.N T.S. 60'!,
(hercinaftet Pmtocol m. Ccn>in jus oo¡:= ll0rnt$, such as a~ainsr ,..,oocidc. b"'·e al-
"'ª>'' applicd 10 pnv3lc •S wdl as public mois. But as t:hc Repon of thc H1gb-I""°'
Pwcl on Thr..u, Chall'"W" and Chmgc conceded. •n.e oorms govemin¡t thr ....,
o( fortt b) nonStillC <lC'lonl h:ave noc kcpt p.u:~e \\1th chusc pcttAlning 10 SloUtS "
HiJth·l<>·cl Puncl "" n,,...,., C!mll""l'cs ond Ch•n1«, A Mort SmiTf \Vor/J º'"
fh11ttd Respon11biútv, 1 159, U.N Doc. A/59/'>65 tDecemh<t 2. 20041 [hcreinaftcr
Hrxh-level Repcrt 1
16. lote1nauooal standards .reprd.in& the rcsort 10 fortt ha:vc ID\'1Sion oí on<:-Jl•tc
by anothcr pnncip.i.lly in m1nd. f'or exu.rnpl~. "use or thrc::at of fo rce" "'1tlun A.rtidc
2(41 of thc UN Clurtrr ¡, gen.rally undattood to be: hroO<lrr than "•nncd 11tt•ck."
memi.n1t ii cnc:ompa.$ttt nitte ÍtQoÜer incideou or skinnishcs including ones. by irre~
ul•rs at the borden of smcs. Scc Milnary and Paranulnacy Aruvín<s tNiara~a v.
Unued ~mC<). 1986 l.C.J- 14, . i ! 195 Uun• 27) [i><:rcianaJm N1eanrgual. The Rome.
Sc~tulc oí thc l11tem11Dooal Ctlrrunal Coun llCC> ,. sull broil<ler. r<cognlilng 1h.i
11trncd roJúlt<:1 a nl tllkc- pbc~ bcc.wcm two non1t1J.t.r aa.on hui lf nQ ,.ovcnuncnt-al
a\1thonncfi trc i:n~,..ed. it w:anl5 to Kc •prorr.cteJ armtd con8.ict'"'betwtc11 •(lr11:an1z~
armcd ~oups. • Thc Rome Statuie. an. 8. , 24f) .
17 See Cathanne A. M.acKmooo.Jex Equ.J11T 7 1~7~'' 711-78? 120011 lpnmding
CXtmll\'C sour-ccs J1$CU$Stng .ind Jocumcnung che ltM:.fficl.lC)' of st1ucs m thc Unual
51.uc' tn adJl'b!ling VKl:lcntt .ig.u1u1 w1.11nen, 1ndud1ng dó1ne.\lic vlolcnce 111d texu&I
au.-k.Jf \Vith ctahunJ ViU'Wtton, 11nubr ~lllt"rni holJ •mun<1 1h~ world.. Sec StwnJ
VAW Rrport, •hove note 14. ,1 5-HM 117-12l. UO.

NOlt> I• Pace 162 • 311
IK. 8u1 OOf(' th•• d.c UN ( hou1cr hcglni, •\Ve th~ Pt-ot>lt..• no1 · ~/e tlli: \ 1.11n:.·
11" rt..n« ~rumhlc
I~ Mn<X ~I <~""'UN Ch.antt l'fO'id« thot ·rn'oth111~ oh.O •mrairth<uih<m><
rÍ¡lhl ni indmJual ond colkctrn- ~k-JdCOK • Thn f"O',,_ "''""' b. ....! 10 atcnd
W Jlfl\illl': actON tn • J?CflUOJ.I ¡;u,iJ W11 but, ln the di5JK furmoJauon. thc n~ lO
k'll 1lt·fcn,c .1.ppll~• co \tlitC'I. 1-rRcly bct:t\i.M'.' u IJ. thc exc.t:pit.•n tu 1hc UN e.hane1 ,
\rttcle!' 2i4 l b,.n. "h1ch f.at lt"• e uncil ¡aftcr ~1cmhcr 1 hhl h.1• hn:T> rt".t'I to •pph
anh ", M.at" Foc 1hc lntem_.n ...lf'al C...c:mn ot Jwtkc·s 1fq •ntttf"tt'8ICll.l t'11 coll«tiw:
otll Jd"""' l!Ul<'•llv. rndudml unJ.r ihi> "'"""'° K'C \rc;••f;lll ab<.... no!• 16, • ,,
19)-20Q Por sc..ua. thc nght ut i.elr·ddentC" Ji ohm sten as cu~roourv u wdl. racher
rh•n bong dlllKIV •upp!.nt<J bv rh< C.blllm Seo rd \ 1~;
211 Scc c.g 8 C\huun BvtJ, ··rill 0..-..ith Oo u. Pilrt.: A ( Axnp;1ntr.C" 1..-w Ap-
1""' h "'J...,,1¡,.,, Lcdi.1 c;..1r Odm<e b¡ 0.n<rcd w.........• 1 r,,i, ¡,,,.,. • .((,,.,,
,,,.,'"''" t ami lnh'rn~lu"""'/ l..t11 ló~. 172- 176 1 IY'Jl l. Saodra K l\'OOJ md lñ\"ld
Mc<..ord. "Moral Kt-asoorng 4nd 111< Cnmm•I L•w Thc Ex•mplc ot !>clt-0.icn<c." }O
AnJll"l'l'4l" Cn•11t,,J/ Llw Rnu•u ~7 107-110 (1992•; ~«olfJ \ '.rl \\ R~tt. ~buw nort
1-4, !1 & 10 1\Q tc;11tm.un,: th<- Ut111nl Arab 1 nur.dc:t t<Jr l.ut.m. t • •«crt :<lt Jd'rn~
cLum' tuch -. 1h.at ,,f •• Jt, 'ª' ,ilJ Fil'f"I"' ntlJTllll ,"'C'fkn \.,wah ~m. ,,.-oo,
••• R"pon«I to hl\'" ...hh<d hc:r <m~ 10 d<1rh m >df.J.1...,.., altor M\10~ bec:n
r.1,eJ at knde~po1n1 b) hun"> (Je5(.:ribl!lg the lrequeru nuuga11on of meo·s t;nmes tor
ktllrng womar, ""' ,.,..,.Jcd to women who kill ihc:ir abU>Cn ui :.clt-ddcn.:cJ l'em•po
lc~.J .. ~.¡, rh•t p.-.cluJ,, """""' from -~ !orce tn ,..11 Jdcn>< mi.In t~ found
in \"I0\11rr thr ln1c-rmt1onal \..<ft.'tlUIU CJn (n 1) and Pobuc.tl Ri,hb• ..,,. "' !ti. G A
Reo 220A IXXll, "'52, 1)."I 0oc A/6}16 ll>tt 19.19%1, 9'19 U.NT~ 1'1 lbero-
1nahcr ICCPRJ
! l An fntttn•rwrul Ctuwn.tl TnbwW I"' rk fonncr \'u¡,""1•"" t 11.. f\'I T rw
(,h.,nb.. lw hc:IJ 1h., pai•,r•ph lll kl ol ~ru.:k )1 .~ 1hc: ~awrc ,J die ICC.
rn"' Mime tb..t ~ lf &-fC'OIC nc"'1.J~ cnmuuJ fr\Jl"""Slbt.11h· 1f 1hc "1 • U\ f("'\J'Ofttot' to
·,.n lmm1nt:n1 1ni.l unla..1'1.J Uk" of Ít'rtt in 1.1 maon('r prof'<'nu"lnaté' ta thc 1.kHrtt oí
~n,re:r· 10 the p<:NiOn •pra1c1:ttJ,• codifies cusromary m1cm•1ionallaw. P~urorY
Kord><. Ca<c !'o IT-'»-14 1-1 1 451 tfcb ló. 2001>. Thc Appt:.U.Clwnbcr oppcittd
to 'PI'""" rhi. """' Stt i'n»«uror' KorJ" ~ Nu IT 95 14 l A , !J7. O..
mnhrr 17. ZC'l<WI
l2, fo r ont Jlldrcial f t'('(lflnlCif'ln of ch1s cnuasm tn 1hr l S ..ctMf!. 1re Si•u~ v
Wanro... 5A8 P 2d B20 <WaJ, 1978i whc~ 1r.. ilO-<allcJ Sormed Women's S¡n
.¡,_ • 1111 •ll«nP< 10 .~, rh<s problan Stt Pbdli. L Ltocka " !lio \lcamni
ol L:qwbt~ lor S.utt<:d Woa,.,, ~Kili Mcn 1n !)di Dck•• • ~ ¡¡,.,.pJ a,,,.,.,
l,.Jr. Jo11n;r,1/ l2l 121, 126 1')1;1> t•Thc lr.J11 ic.1111.t Jocume (,¡ l<"lf dcfc-ntC' "llllK"J oo
che" f'Xprtimll"I a l n1en; h nc1ther con1emrl1.11e1a nor ac;:k.nMvktl1~ tho~ 111t 11. f'Í sclf
.JrftMe bv WOIT'M"n th-aa are tt.nonablc bul daUermc tmm mt'ft S
1
Tbe malt ttpe
. , . _ p<m>eal<> boch rh< ..._,,., Q( rh< dd<N< - i ÚI< sundard. "' - •oabk-
..... ·1
311 • H m to raae 2i2
21. "'=• Lyon< .,,J Md.~rJ. Jb.1vc 001< 20, •• 108. S.. .J.o Byrd, abovt: nOk 20,
•• 172
l4 '-«: ''"""""' .O
by Chrunn< C.<n, I - 1
I". , "' 117 :\n ncdlmt mww u proritl<J
"'••J rht Uu o( fo.,. I~ 1 ' 111 (2000 'i«
,1,., '"" Ddhn«k "Prol"'fl'"'""'Y." 1n l &<'lro•,.,,U. o/ P•/.1# l•tff'<41"'".i ¡_,,,,.
1Wl t Rudolph llemhud1. cd l'1'171
2-S · tn ore a 1nt"°. · ~r ~amplll! ~\lftefl tb~ho..u the clJIWlttY uc ~
ltniihr prnon .... " ¡.,. lullir>ll rhar .i.u.n. .. odf ddcmc Ccn<cndy - wbo
kili thar auumh" p.Anntn ;tt t1'trn C''l<llM" • tMtt ti.: n1mcn rrunpn-d .tlttt t.br
r1\1'ilCWO..D Jclt'O<t:' Of' tM ~•tnít! rrf bonN h •J htx_n r-.uM'tf anJ i&C:ttplnl by dw:
"""n_• 5<CO'<d VA 11' Rrporl ah<"~ n0<0 1~ "' , 130
1b ,\ goo<I O\cni<W OD tba tub,.a. a"'"' .. ol r:hc Ji.:l.><otm b<twcm ur and
!'U« e.o be loun-~ "' :-;.,h.. d 'fl..mwl "Pn"lri!ml e ., •.,., > c:.iatcmponry c..r..
'º
tla1 Jf\d ÜlC' 1..c-J•I ( nnunKlH'fl nt ~u.~ -4) c;o¡.,,.,¡,,., r11 t r Tr11tf.11Ut1<11fW/ út4 1
tl<Xl4t Non: 1lut rro1er:tion• fnr C•v1li•n~ 11' armtd C(tnília llfC not ltnbn111cJ C:avdi.AM
un¡,,.,. rhcit rn>1< .11ons d U..V uk• pan ro h«mbD<S or un<.ltr 1h< docmnt o< ,..
,.,.,.bit oollacnl ~- d lhcu 11111111mdcJ b...s ...., i"'~ "' a milit"'t
..J,;mu.ec lhc:rcb, ~noi \:1.'1~ d .d proca.--oona lor mLL..n.. .n mncd C'UOlli...t •re noL
llOhmucJ C1\1h.in• (10 low tht h prCJC~C:tlofU J they tólk.r r•rt 1n hc.wthun (Ir, undcr
1hc J\>eerin~ of ttRtt:1n:1hlc: coll-'1t'ral JJmll,e. 1/ rh('tt urun1mtkal lcwun 11~ prftPOruona.I
"' • mrlJwy .J.,.,. theteb- ,.....d. 'fbm, Jocuincs havt echan"""'"'" rh< wxca.
lor .,....,p&. tbcn '""meo .,., l"'",,j,cd d thcy light bo<:!t or att dl«U\..!v in-ac.1 .,
n>;1JluD in meo 1 confucb .am~ eM.:h othc-r. • m unprot«utcd -w-ar rapa
27 ~C'! fha,~lor ~1cron, · R~pc IS • (.nmr UnJC'r lncirn111nonal J lum.inutn.an
L11• " 17 ~tm.-n.11,,r /ut.1rnJ! of /,,1 f'tt.1IJ011JI Llt1 424 f199, ), f:hnltUl<' \l (lunkin.
• tt «.id<;,. u•I ~huoc in lntc.,..""'1.J Ln." 1 &.,.... ,_...J of /.il"Ullo...J
•J !t- 1 1Qll1.4
) hur ar<h•~ cnn ,..,.,2002;~0R1.D """P<f-•h 02/01 binr...ln>tnmcnr-t inJn
!~ - Pro.cc:uror v. AJr..¡,.,,u. ~ l'o Jt.;11\-'ltH-T , 1 ~ 1xp1 l, 199~)
lhcr.·llWtcf AJ.o1\ tu•I. Cath11u11c .Ai. ,_LacKl.nntlll. "Ddin.ulfJ R.ipc lntt"rn.1llo11ally. A
1
( 01 ~t.tl'1' u 1lJ..rvnu'" 44 <'nb·,,J,u '"""""/ o { r,..,,, .,, ,,
J L..u· tort"'-:nnung
214
2'l Ali rh< ~ln-ana feorum ot thít prroJ.m are dis¡uyed in rh< dcNt< "'"' rh<
&r:p:alny of che rnllnary comm•''il'mt. th11 thc Unitc:J ~lakS u .iJ, ..nong 10 ~· lnJ1,1Juab-
•1,;tuieJ o{ .u.:uYlfla .&.\.SOo.•uN w11h anJ toUowmg ~ptcmbc:r· 11th. Sce, e,_ }OID
trurJrnck. ' J111.W.•- ol Milnary C.oo""'''"" • ..,.¡ th< \mb.~"" \\'aron Ta
l'OrtM!ft • % A'W"rK_.,,, jot.11U/ t..,1 r".ir JU' l.- ,... , l.&,_ '"" t."'002 tJ.Ja.mins tbr
c~'lftU.ad:action1 rrl~ In cunu.htn«tU~ •rrlK.Jflm ot v.:ar • t cnme: ~l•l. lU.rold
Hon~1u K<>h. 'lh• Case A~.un>t \Wuary Tnbun.JJ, • 96 Ammtll• ,,,..,,.,/o¡ /1t1,,._
'"'""' i...w 1}7 llOtJ.2 ), Ruth \\'~.,.,.) •AJ Q..:J• Tcmarbm. unJ Mtlawy Com
t:nlmura..· 96 .4.ifrntrJll /oti.""" r•I ~·UtTJt.tll ~ U.16. l1:~ ll~I Tbc Urp:r k,.J u.uo
r.üwd m dm ci t t a:tt ~..-u ,. •• ftttdk:.trnl 1n "rimanal a k " um••h.,,... ~ druinea
~ ~P. R.i..:ha· ll \ Sttrano. DttAiOtt Cli.1lk-nft"S *Comhat.11u· '-t1rus. l,¡,1'11:"" fcrr a
\1.,. J !cid a1 a \1rlaran fati in ~"'nh Corolrn• J>bn to Tl'S1 rhe Presuleni'o Aurhonn
Notts lt Plft 263 • Jst
fo llt·1.:1-.tc the Lc¡A ~1.andmg oj 'IC"rtofl:lm Su pn.11'-: LI 7,,,,,,, Scp1 IM, ll>l,,, 11
\22. ~111,h f ril...n~ • rerror C\ia t"IJI 1 n.al .... r,,.,,,
\f11iiw1t.t'. ~1...r 7, lf')(), ..1 '4 lcrr'l
~Wb<>n. ·U S C.. t oolin< Caimll 1X"uhou1 lllup. C.owt Rule.• W•tl:ml/IJ!l Pwt
~pi 10 = \01
JO t.ommon Anci1c W ol rhc ~a l:onvcnuon Rd•n-< to rh< Prordl""' o1
Ovth11n PerK>nt ln r1m< bl \\: "" pr\J\ldct •tn 1hc ca.e oí arnu:J l-onfh~t ""t ot \ID
ln1nn.1t111vt..t ch.r•ctc·r orcurn.ni Ul th~ ''mton: ,,t onl" ,,¡ dtc ~lttith {.4:'Cllrxt1n,: Pan1ts..
- " Pam "' rhc ...,n.c, .ball I'< hounJ to arrl1 .. • D11ntt11um th< ful<>wina rro-
'""'"' ! " " - ' ' ukina no ocnvc pan in rh< boAUrD<S. índuJ,,.. m<mbas ol anned
lom:O "hn ba\T l•aJ OOwn thar •m1' and ,¡,.,,., rl•c-cd t.o.. Je combot by >adtncU.
\\JounW. J t'lc-nUon, ur my o&hcr c1u>e. •h.Jl lo itU c1rcumsu.nce• be t.rcatcd bw11Aftch .
•·h}!.-ut •n~ .a<h l'.'t'K' ~t1 mncut)n tnunJn.I on nct' 01lt'1Uf l"'httion ,,, i.ath Kx. b1rth cv
wnah >< ,,.... "'"" "'111Ur cmm• To rhís ...1 rhc: follmrin, "'" 11\" .id .hall . . _
proluhu<d • ll1T ..,... and ~" am r(acc ,.¡,.,..,....., .,,b tt<p«t 10 th< ,.¡,.,,.., mcnuoned
P'"""' (al •iolon~ 10 Uf.< and ¡><f)M, m pamcular murder of ali lunds. mu11br1on,
crud u•c:itmc:nt .ind 1onurc. tb• 1.ilon~ ol boiU¡<., lcl outr.a¡ro upon 1'<'rt0nol Ji~[.,.,
ID 1""1CUl.u humdutU> ,nJ Jq¡1..i.n, '""'"""'" J thc - t>Í ""'"""'"' •od 1hr
.&ff 10. OOil o( OC'<. IO"lf'll' Wllh...,t r""'"lt1UI .~l r"""1'Unced by• rqubrlVCl1n
rut• 11·d coun, atil'ic:dant ..U the 1uilici.i gu¡rancttt \\·tuch are rf«Jf:nlzed ü atJt"rtn
5'lbl< hv <wiluoo rcot•lcs.. abovc note 2.
)1 IJ.
•l TbiJ 11ppan ""'" wdl ...t.hluhcJ. bUI ali rh< toWta ;re p.- ~ t,,,..?./.n
'ft1r \hok ~•int" \ 'íJr•uUflit fn-. °"'"""' ,,,. La.J, "= C~ cc,k:\UinrT broaJOl\I Clt1obeT
JO, ~I l"On rh< rape, bm Lukn odmrtKJ for th< fu<t umr thal h< ordcr<d th<
Sept<mbor 11 111acb.' 1 S« aJ.o "'ttttnJ EJJ110• Ntw Ot•""' ~,. LIJe>r T•rr Rran
lh L¡/r H,.d. :-ll'R racho broodc..r. Oa. }0 lOOll; fo1oscnp1 el Jnrcn,... by r.,·.
'°'' :\louru of Al J.u«:u Tela,....,,..,¡, 0..- btn LtJm tO.t !Ull • ,..Jable at
hrml
ll. S« W.Jr<r Prn<U• .,.J O.na Milbank, ·n.,, lrwq f.ooncroon AJ Qo.da-
H.-n Lmk u ~" F•.J.••itu• Po>t )un< r;. 20!\I 111 Al (rtpOfUO~ tba
\'ta l._1Jcn1 Dtcl (loeocy rcnn<>J "'1dcncc ot ... • """"'"'clnun~ anJ .., Apnl ·
2nl'M l luru poll J,.."'-cJ .a t!Wl' "" lort) niM prratn (lf Ank'f1caru bd1t'W',J tb.t
•c-lcar "'dente.. t',f .1 <''t\rK-t1J,,tl haJ bren Ít"undl Thc S<.'r1rn1hcr t l C:urn,n1t....1cm
roncl"d<d thar • lrholllllt 1nqi ofh. W. ma• hove - bin l.1<l<n or bis ud.r> •• "'°"'
rouu. ·To .btc.... """' 5C<Jl DO nidcna: rhar e-
Ct'ntxb bnw.:cn i - Lodc1> and
ira.¡) ....,.. Jr:.dopcJ llllO A cailobora<!\T open.tionaJ td.oon.hi¡>. Naf ¡,..., 1' < >ttll
naJrote t.ndtt.•llll' th•t Iraq tl.ll)IJIC'í1Un.I 'ill'1th .J <.)..&eJ.¡¡ an dnTlt'fllng Qr 1.:.. rryU\14 uut
anv .a1111dci ·-•int1 thC' Unittd Sta1t"I " Nauonal <;ornmmiUI\ t.'lft J"rrronst ~tt.l~ k.I upon
th< l ruuJ Smo. Th< '1-11 ír'""°"""" ll<pan 61- 12\104
:!4 -..,., U... C.lppaibam lc1<••11wo.,./ Llw: ~ 1-•
1'!0 o~th cd 19'SI ox·
"'"ª""~ rha di< ukimatt _,,, .. - .. ""' •• hcthtt r:hc tn.i.. tJwils roD<.cnxJ .. ""'
t.ufh(~rntl)• dutitly 1:D<)l;111cJ ~·uh 1hc Rife fn1 thnr KU 1u l1C h."iArJcJ a at"I~ crf tJ¡c

390 • Notes 10 P11e 26~
sute m.t..r than aa. ol pri•.i• 10JwlJ ll<lh l. 1'mm<ritb Je Vaud, I/J< u" of.'ldt1om
102 ((.):.unt 1()()1) 118}-4• (w.1111ng thAt .xt1- uf pr1vate acl:tcn) t:lll\ be ilttnhuteJ io dtc
.u1c ti 11 '"otppttweldT" ur "r;:utficlJ]" rh.- .act. d1ua bccumaug "lhc re.al 1u1hnr ni 1he
knjurv"l. t\ lUTiilar n1I'° pcrr.ain" In 1.1ttnbudon cif civíl darci:apn. ~ C:orrw.ionh and
Powdl IGrcat Bn101n v C<>lombiul ( 1875). rcpnn1<d m John B.i.<sen MQOtt. 2 Hwo..,
••d D1ppt o/ tl'< lt11<"1,.11oo•I Arb1tr¡¡t1om to \11bJtlJ th< UIU/edSt•m Hpd &... a Parh
2050 (L8'181 ldung de \'J11d far tbc prop01iuon that "(0]11< ""'"" i> not re;póllilblc
h> 11no1her i\)r the .act~ uJ 1u in<l1\·hhW t-1t1:1.mt, uttpt V.'hm it "'PJlfO\"d or tau6~
them lt thcn l~nmt11 • puPl1c ('('lnct'm, 11nd thc- injurcJ puty nlll\' romldcr thc owon
11:<df th< i'C:ll •lllhor of tho uiiurv. "J.
\Tieq.:~ vary oo Sil•lncbrds foc :mributioo of nons\'¡ile Ktor behawn ro su.tes. See
N1oor.1gw, .oo,.. na1e 16. 11 n 11~-116. E•poundmg. !<St oí •clfocuYC oomrol" bJ
thtlo. thc J(.j thtitt Íound tluu UclS by Lhe Contra u..kcn with U~. 1Uf>por1 Uu".l.flt't'
ttiJ.irun,., t-qwpmé11tl \vtte 001 imputable 10 thr UnncJ Suate•. whilc ¡he Unitrd Swt-a
•u hcld r~pom:ihlt Ít'r am th•u 'tire-re a JJren resuh of thc U.S. militan-º' us pn1d
«¡¡cnts Id. at 1 1U. The rore concept is dcvtlopcd m Urured Smes D1plomaric and
Consular Suif m Tdmm (l.ini1cd Si>res "- lnnl, 19ail J.CJ. J. 27-3'. 42 IMsy 2~1. in
wh1ch the ••kCO\<'r of the U.S. cmb.ssy by ilfln<J srucknt>, >ubsequenúy m>b.. oed b¡
1ht l\\)\'cn'ltnent. \\fU artributtd t<> lri.n In PJ"Ol'eC\lU.)r v. Tadic. ~ Na. IT 94 1 T
Jud~mon1, . . rn,..L44 Uulr 15, 19991, 1ht ICTY ApP<>lb Chomhcr, •·ei¡ihin~ thr
'"'pon8ibíl11)' oí Yugmla,1• for aa. <JÍ 8Q.nJ:1n Serb forc<s, relaxcd the r<qtun:ment
toe annDuang dtcsr unla:v.1ul IKtS to che Stlite lO ·ovc:raU conu:or O\i'Cf the ocgan1zcd
p-.tra.nulthll) g roups.. l'bJl roun bdd dt~u rbc e-xtc:t1t ol n'i.JlUStte SlllC ronrroJ \"3nQ
s:ul-h 1Jut cbr qucsuon ·1~ whctlu:r u J111g/~ pri\';;ttr mJ1,1JuiJ or " '"'"~P 1/..1.1 11 11o1
,rt1/11"rtl'J o~nr:t',J h.;u¡ 4.;1ed itt " J~ /cJc/Q t.C.tft' 01'... il .,,hen )"ltfÍorming i "Poofic lilCI ..
IJ. • 1H S.. olw P,..,..,cutor v, T•Jic. C.Se No. íf-~+I T, 'icpor«tc ""d Dusenalll'
()pUll<>n of Judi¡e McDonald Re~ardin¡¡ 1bc Apphcalxllty ol Arude 2 or dtc Smo1e,
n 18-J4 IMa~ 7, 19971. The Ullemauon.d cummuwty appean 10 be movmg toward
1cccpdng thr T..Jlr; motority'.s undcnt..ndlng oí ;iLtnbuuon post·t\lgh.arw.un: "1ñe-c6n
tn,11 ~í.Juircd l)) in1cnwdun.1J liaw n 111)' be J.l."Cfl)td to c>.&Jl ''•hm t1 "liltt (or. 1n che
Ct'llHC'xt nf .ut aml nl conflict, 1he party co thc: ronffictJ har 11 mir 111 or1111is11J~. rom
J,n11b'1f. or p/an,,1n11re r111/r1n,.., ncrwn1 of m~ milu1111• groop. in -addlrion co fuiancing.
mUrun¡¡ :wd equippmg or p"""'1ing operutoo.il s.uppon to th1t group. • Tadtc, Judg-
mont. U)7 S.. :llio &sptm1bi//1"¡ uf StJW /or lnt,,,.arm1'41/\,.\['m•g/.1 Acu, C.A
Ro Sl, •n S, \; N O<>C. At RE.S/,6/SJ iOc<. 12, 20011 (.111nburion tp '''' " op11ropti•1e
11 non\l~tc 1K1or "in fact íisl .aln~ on 1hc: imrnKiims el, or un,lcr the Ju"tttion Ctf
conrml of, rh•1 Sta1c in <•IT)'m¡I our hbe wr""lefull aonduct."I. In ooe rwiooal coun.
sorne ptoJ.?ress ,.,.as madc tow;1rd in~m.ltlon.~J 11ec:ounrahtluy for tbc actioos uf :l rogue
cnmy 1.,,.<1cr. So: K.iJic v. Kar.Jhc. 70 1 .JJ 232 Ud <.:ir. 1996), <ni dent<d '¡g U.5
100' [19961 !lme1n..útor K.t•.bcl
lS ~tt Tre.oy ol \\"..:ttph-.lli.1, .aho\>r note t. The 1q45 UN Ch:iner rqi:imc $1,W116
Cill1dv funb<r<d lhi< ikvdopmen1 Bofo... iM Cluncr, soot<> r«pc>nded to nonsrnu:
\;olencc throu!_:h thc Usti of torce. for examplc Ul rtudirii:t the Emu ot Tnpoh-aftcr t.bc
Noles lo Page 264
S.trh.1ry l)lf:.il l~ 1n1cricttd whh ~h~da.c:~~.m •h1pp1ng, •nd U\ run.u1ng
P1n<l\f)
Ull() M <"~t.."O
J6. P~1dent Bus.h ttf'(l11edlv roJd 1111 .u<.ks, ..We're al \\'llr." whcn he hcard of thc
semnd plone hnnng rhc i;coond rowcr. Dm B.1!.. "A Bond Cememed br Chemiscrv:
Crbi.:i J-!4;bLg:ht.lf Lmb and DiffcrcltCCS &t\1.-'CCSl Blbh AJ1ruru:;.tnll10n.s,. w~ash11rg~1
l'tm, Scp1 "· .!001, Al. On Scptcm~or 1llh, Pre,.dént Jlusb uo1cJ ... ,..< sunJ 1o¡:ethu
co \l1n the war awa1nl't lc.•rrartJm ... "AJJra, 10 thc N1111on on 1he Tcrroris1 Au..ack•"
2 Puhlir P•rm 1100 fS.p1 11, 20011 On Scprembcr 16th, he ,.;d. " h ¡, nme for us
ro win the 6rs1 war of r.be 2lst c:eocurv dttísi"eJy. so tb.at ou.r t:hddrm and ()Ur grand·
cluldrc:n <ID llt'c peacctully inro rhc 21st ccntwy." "&mnk. on Arriwl . i the Whue
!loo.e ollld •• Exchang• .,¡,Ji Reporl0n1: 2 Pub/u P<pm 1116 ISc:pt. 16. 20011. O.,
Stpwnbcr l01h, h4' ...ued. "On Stptemhci l lth. rncmlCI of frttdoo• cnmmintd an
ª"' €lÍ w11r agllin$1 our counuv" • Address Bcfore " Join1 Smil'\Cl o( thc ~J¡m.t oo
the Umtcd Sta..,. llcsP<>n~ m the Ttrro.ris< Auom of Septcmber U: 2 PuNrc P•I""
ll~O (Sept.20. 2001). And on Seprember 25th. Presldendlu.<h swcd thst, "Twoweeks
'.J&O lhete U.\l$ ID anal war JC'CLinxl oo Ameno.i .•• (W]t'tt- at "''llJ'. J: wa.r 'l~'rt golng
to ~in " "RcJn;irki 10 FcJ~ral Buteau oí ln\'CShgi111on Esnployoes," 2 Puhl1t P11p,11
1160-1162 (Sept. 25, 20011. Bu<h ""'"d of 1ho P•rn<>t Ac1 rho1 "[r]hi• Covcmment
wíll cnforre dlis J.., u•th ali thc ur¡¡ency of a nation ot war • -R.:marl<• on SíJ111in~ d.o
U~A PATR.LOT ACT o( 2001: 2 Pub/te P•pers l307 10a. 26. 2001!. Seo Donakl
Rumsfdd. Echtonal. "A New Kind ol War." lhe Ntw York Tun<">. Stpt. .?7, 2001 J\21
Crdrrrlnl! ¡v1s1111 10 U.S. cííon ü~.lunst cCTtOrum .u •thU1 \\'at..). la hL-s 2004 Stiatl! al
thr Urnon Addrcss. p,,,.idcm Bu1h 1>pp.._red "' .eknowtc:..J¡¡i: 1bc J"lf'I) "'"e whcn be
1;ud:: "I know th"' tome pcopk qucstion if Amenc3 i1. really in a wa.r at .U. They view
rcrronsm more as • cnmc. é problein to be sol~ msinly "\l-,th law cnforceoieot md
O'di<,men1$. • Aftcr thc cbacs and caroage oí Septembtt the Uth. lt IS""' enou¡;b
to it'.r'\'C c,>ur CM-nuts Wlth I~ pa~n. Thc termn$11' iancl chc1r suppont1'1 cla:l.1ro.I
\\'ilr on. thr Un1rc:-d S1.itcs1 iand wiar is .,,.,,Juac tbcy go1 • •pr(l1Jcnt'• Si.ne oí the Union
Mc:ss1t~c to Corl1~.re11s and 1hc Nat1Qn," rerrirued in T'" Nni• )~url- T1111rr ]lll1 21.
2004, Al8 Alumu¡¡h • d«:lo'1rtion of war is oor <Ssential-<re•ting • ~are of mned
conflict is the issue-htn L!clen's far." ol 1998. bdow note 5J. could be «ad ,. •
Jcd;1.riall()D o í W!I r
l7 Actu•Dy. S C, Rc1. 1368, Prcatnble, U N Oúc. S llES/IJ68 iS..1>' 12, 20011.
~°"' 1no~ ~h~ rht~ T1 n<"ttt 1h1:u 1hc Sr:Ct1ñty Counc;il b .. Irlct'Oflni.&inJt rh' inhc.ran
n¡¡ht of mdividunl or coUecfr•'< sdf-dclenre in ocxordance ""h rhc Chnncr • Se< ulw
S.C:.. Res. L.l7>, P.-nblc. U.N. Doc. S/RES/U7J (5.p1. 28. lOOU. V1ll)'Ulj( .,.,... oa
thr :l<Opc ll!ld comours of thc nglu of seU .Jcferue undcr Ú>c U.N Ch•n<~ •« venubtcJ
rn .uudcr on thr lrg.duy ol 1hc U.S. "'"' •g•insr lro~ Stt, c.g., \X'illfom ll T.U1 IV
1a.n~ ToJJ f _ Buchwidd, "Prttmpcie>n. lnq . .md In1l"t'n11.UQllll Uw 10 Fu1ure lmrli·
c::inon:s of the lraq Cooflia.. • '17 Alftl'Tti'a11 Jo11mal of lwtet'"lfat1mu1l Lau.• 55-J, 557 {200-31
CvteWing m., a!lllck "' lawful as rollc<ti"" self-de!en~. especially in ijAht of 1990 and
2003 Sc:';'nry Council ~oluiJonst. Hidt•nl N. G'ndnc;r, "Ne11h"1' 811sh Nor thc 'J ur-
u.ptudcs, m Pucure lJnpliou1M.1 of Lhc li·i\q Coolbér.""' 1J. at ~5}, )81 c2001• ttlisCU$Si~
391 39i • Notes Paces 26J-26~
lt
Vill.l
U.., tblu ol m aúarg<d <df-Oci<Jtst: seopc 111 Lpi1 o[ the Cub.tn Mímlc c.ru..i: J•nc
1::.Str..:>~~. "L.:t\11 ~nd Focct: Aftrr 1ra4 A Tr-nlb1uonitl Mosnent. m f!uturc lmplt
"'""'" ol thc lm¡ Conllict · id •r S5), 628 f200)1 lcauhOnln~ ~lru1 1 hro.1d prc-
o:mpu<>n J.>nrinel; Jür~m H.bcm>... "ln1ctpre1Jn~ 1he FaD of a Mnnum•m." 4 C""Jlr-
tut<'• L.t• ¡.,.,,.,,1101 120031 l.rr@UJD¡l thi1t .lthou¡;b U.., war in Iraq is 1n<ómpanble
wnh the U•._ Lh.net. the wor reprcscms n<>• th• dcfoat oí 1nt"'1Wional J.¡~ bw the
p.t.;Slll¡¡ ol the nornud\ e •uthon<y ol tbc Uruu.l Sutes•
31t ~ LurJ Robert.U>n. "Nonh AmcncolD Tre:iu)· Qrxotn.u¡1ril>n ~NATO) ~ 1c
m•m b1· NATO S«rrtacy Coenernl, LorJ Robmsoo." 40 1.1,,.~atrm1al Lrral M•tmalr
126812001)
}q Tbi.s ts nor ro takc .my pOStcion oo the "unlawful combaiam · dcbare, but "
should be nt'tc:d thJt J.nned forces of RO.tes ne nor always automaucall•• enuLlrd to
pnMJf"lt"t l'lf •J.r st11ru~ if tht ShUc ,s,.,.1cm.aucall\• v1ol.ato tht- lslil.- of iarmcd .ro1ú11ct.
40. For u..tul l'('Vl<Wl<, <ee Rooalyn 1lr•Him. 'The G'11er.J lntcmmono.I T.." of
Terrori~m... 1n Ttrrfff'1-S"laftd ltrlern.iJf01111/ Lw l3 rRosalyo Hippru and Í\Úuncc: Flory
cds.. 19'171: 1 i.te,.,.,11/J.oal Cnnn•al !.dw, 776-J!O IM. 0.cnl Bassioun1 •d.. 2d ed
19871; W. Midtoel Re,sman_ "lntc:mational Lc¡¡al Responses 10 Terromm, 22 Hou.llOrl
Joum;1/ ol /lf/t+r,,.11w,,td Lau l 11999). Tbe U..1'1 General A!scmbl:y tws 001 )el ron
cluJcJ :i C''lnprt:ht'11flvr ctmvc:nuon to 611 any 8111"" be1wcen 1he u1sung rwclvc: c;oun
tcrte-rrorism agreemmts 4'c:c Gtrho.ni Hafocr. •Cenit.in b.sucs oí 'hr Wcirk of thc S1xth
C<>mmJnee '1 tb~ Ftfcy.Sooh Gmeral Asscmbly.' 'fl Amenm• fQ11T11al o/Jstm11tt1Dt1iÚ
Llw 147 1201Hl.
41 Sce, c.g .. S.L R.s. H6b and S.L Res. IJ7l, ai>ovc note }7.
41 For dJll"U:\!QQlls oí clclin1uoa...l 1bucs. $CC Jordan .f. Pa~t. •A Oc:finn~n..J
f<l<UI." in Tmvnr"' t.1erd11npli••? Penprrtfl'rr I~. 13-25 IYon,h Alcx•nder •nd
Seymour M.u-U Finger eds .. L977f; Elizabtth Ch.dwick, Se/f.(),ormnmu11on Tt"·
Ltnt· ot Amtf'.I Conjl:a 2- 3 119961; Susan
mrr¡m. .,,¿ 1he lnt.nxtJ.JrOn-lll H11111J11tt.1Tt.1t11
T1elcnbruu. ·A ScmlotJ< Approoch to 1 Lc¡¡al Oefuutlon of Tcrrorwn • HUlAJow11al
r>f l1trt:r1t"lt'•'fiJI ""d Cr;,,,p4rJtn-.. l..6:4J )'7 t200}). The Ll1ttr drmcn1 mcnnoncJ m the
l<l!I .,~•ulJ udud<: •late 1crrorum, whid> mony r""Ple 1induJing mol rhlnk ihoulJ ~
e<wcn:d For 1n .Uuminnlin~ disac1sion, ltt U.N. Economi< 11r1d Soci•I Counól
[ECOSOCJ. Sub-Commmeo on Promoóon and Pnxocuoo of Hunuo Rigbrs, Tmvris"'
•11d Hu"''" Rlghis, '1.1 J7-67, U.N. Ooc. EiCN.4/Sub.2/2001/H tjllD(; 27. 2001) ,prc-
pJrcJ b) K.Jhupi f... Koufol The / //ih-J~~I &/>"'/ J.Ü.<;J ;n 111tqll'l1U\'C! •J>p«>•ch !O
th.la qúc.1ion. Rderr1n~ to t:iu..cuig_ ddin1t,..11u, thr repon d~cribcf trnor1t.m u. lo
aJdu1nn 1() IC'lt cO\·ettd hv c~1srin1e coo,·muom on thr 11ubJM. "'any-ac:tioo tbat is
m1cnded to CilUSC de.nh or ..enous bocWy hllttt'I to civtlta.m ot noo·rombataol$, when
the purpOse oi sucb Wl •CL by lts n:uure oc contcn, "5 co rnumid.ne a populauon. oc
ro compd • Govemrocnl or ao intcm:ltlon:al or~i?:auoo co Jo or to abs1.un from
dt>1111.i.ny i.tct " lltgb In.el Rt-po,1, 11bo\r note 15, • 164Cdl.
4J C111h;irinc A J\t;1cKannon, TouwrJ ~ f~t'llrt Thton' af tlv S1<11~ tl9SC)); K.iau.•
~l 1Uott. s.,,..,¡ Poútrn 09701.
-H Lomparc •lntemauonal Con~uon lar the ~uppres~oo ot r.ht .Financ-1.ng of
 Ho!U ID hge ZG~ • 39!
T"""""' G A Ra ~~ 109 ~"""" U 'I: Dcx A "RF' '1-1 109 Fd> 25. lOüO ~
qtntUlf! 1h.r ti.. ducat be du«t<d _..,,. • m'11Mn <>< no<1<ornbatao1.1, .,... MU ' 1
~ 11112 •llJllB <1u •U• jlOOj) f,o;ki,i¡: thi. clcm"1r>. Un.kr die: Coovcnt1un 1111 "'',.
1crn1rl'm ool .. d u c.s mrmd._J to 1.:tllC'r'(' ~ by• ª'""rnmcn1 or lntt:m..llorwl Uf
R•nu.luon. undcr U~ l.n1., u1rrnr ln ootnpcl .:1cuoo hy anv 1hlrJ P•lrt)' it ~noouh J1i.c
rnrcrn1111ro.t Com-en1xl1l A~a1n11o1 thc TWng .,,r HtK1..,¡.it"I VSNl'f, •nlJ acu ..-ií tilnnJ' ,,(
hMA~ as nuniÍc:itaoons raf llltttn•tKm.al tttrorum • G A Res \J/146, Prtitm!,k/
U,'\¡ ll<>c:.A C.bl~'Ln O.. li, 1'179. 1t .Jcnaha. die: roL1ial obJCCD'~ oh hos
'""' ,....,, 1,, ddimag 1oi.b •n <•llmJcr • • P<f'J<lll "wbo l<iMI or JcuinunJ lhr<•t<lll
CtJ l1U "-' at11uft orto Ctll'U..,UC' " ' Jd.an • hoR.agr m orJcr to compd, thUJ p.erty,
n.ank"1f .t ~l..tlt< to do or 11h.1;1;rn Írotn Joini anv illCI '"
ol thc hOII•g<,. Id .. •n 1 , 1 Stt Chmropher L 81.Jto.ky.
• c<Wkf¡_,..,.n fur d~ ttl,......
r,,,.,,.,,,,,.
DrYt•·
lntrrn•l1tm•I Law, anJ IM 1'nJtn110• o/ Hu"lan Libm-. 17 ·20 (1992) fdehnlng in
rurbrn 111 ,·1olen~ aunt<l ._, iMOl."t':nu 01 non-romb•can1.1 10 gutn un cdgc oi.·cr u1 1u
«'<to«• lhlrJ P•R)i; /11Q-/n,/ Rrp..•t. .,oo..., note 1',, l(>llJI
~1 Pctha¡>1 h ••u for 1h< lJnn<d s,.,.. 'ºla>< rlu· rh,... 11'>1v plun Stt IX'.J«r
Pmcu<. "Ben Lodcn F. .1,..,.. (,_,, ., ~cw Tapo," W• ·. ,..,.. p,.,,, Dec 2A 2001
A 1 Ur thM Amencans sboulJ lcel <be lear <be p.¡.,,,,....._, tttl. On bod> """'" ""
e.a <.-n '"""'°" ·t;.~ fcan ~hre An.:ks." ª"'"·º Trtbi.n<. M.1' ¡~ W.11 . .\6 ·1
svoc.;ir io t;,J dt11t Amcrt'' \\111 l\ntt Jreanl of ta:un'y or '«' 1t bdori: _,~ Lvt' u ianJ
Atr u in P.t.lt'11tmc, .o.nJ not Urf1' J'f' !lle' 106Jd"1 ~nniC'• ft'a\-e ihc l.Jnd oí \1uh.1mm.ul "
lq1•111na O.mna bin Weil.
46 Alihou¡¡h, usumina an ormc:d ronllia. u oould be. <;.,. Gene.1 Conven 11...,
rd.rt\c 10 &he Pnxccoott ot Ln.ihan Pcl"SIOftS m Tun~ CIJ \\'•r .;ilx"·e nott 2.. <tt 1n lJ,
Pn-......c.t 11 ahove l'Klk IS, 411 an ... Prococol A.Jdttion.1 fl..\ thc- GCDl?\a C.OOvmHclfti
ol IJ Au-1 19-19, anJ R<L.1"'8 to 1hc Pn>iro- oi V'1<11rm e~ lnrcnaoonal ~ml<\I
Cantl1,~s...,, 51, Jun< ~. 1m 1121 UN T S l. 16 1.,..,..,1 "·"U,.,/ A'61m,/1 1191
[hm:1n.f1<T Protorol IJ, For P'"''"'' ducus.ion of 1lu• 1ntcrt>«. «< G~ M
TraivJJao, "Terronsm. tn1cm11uonal La"" and the Ust> ot >-IUU:.tC'\' Force:l8 U'1Jronun
l111r:1n11tuJ1tJl l..Jw Juum.tl 14' (.2000).
"7 er;<T \frut.:d N1111lon" Diplvm.11tc Con!trcni.:t' <lf l'kn1)..111Hl-ntu1nC$ on th.: 1:.A1 11h
li•hrnmt 1i •n lntrm.;oo.I C:nm.nlll c.....,, Tune I~ '" Jul\ 17, 199S fou/ .la o/ dH<
u.,,,¡ ""'°"' °"*""'"' r-fmr•a ni Ph:potmrWT?n "" tlv EsuNuh-·t
lnt,..,1t>wul (n..,,.,,¡ ei-t. An11<>1 l•E), U.'\. 0...C. .VCO'\F ISI 10 tJu/y 17, 1'19 J
"'I•
il<w~ "dut • Rc-1"'° (.,..f.,_., l'unu.iot IQ •rtick 12} ol ti.. ~Urut< oi
th, lnttrn•Oun.ü Cn.rrun.tl Coun coolkkr thc cnmn oí 1crron•m anJ Jnlg. ami ... 1 "uh
11 V..,.\li. ro u n\'lng ¡1 .,, tc.:«"rt•hk dcfin111on t1nJ rhnr U1tlu•1on in thc IQ1 oí 1;r11na
whhin the tlir-i.sdiniora (1f '~ C~un"l t.;ce ~lso Co.,1r>t.,.n1o1"' "" 1Ji~ R11111r 'itt11ult' t>f 1J.t
ln1~r114t11>n11/ Cn'Nt1141 Ctn.rl; Ohrm•en /\~otn. Art1rlr h\' 1lrtu1~ <>~99 fOno Tntttmr
.J 1'1'1'11
--'~ l..,, ao upd.artJ lt•I ttt U..N Tro11 Colla..-uoa hnp UDO'T•i uu.c.lf¡/
f.nclísh- Tnnw.m ..P
H Thai ibis wvulcl hatt bttn n U<; Pr.sid.enr e;¡,,,,,..,·, ~ .......,. m 1m
)9~ • Notes lt P11e 26~
....&uN bnW) r,,, • ...,..,...,,. but """""""' ,..,_J.Oon '""' roo• conll.;1 T rum
1111J Rr<ooaluuon ( .(!llfttntS..'\l•X'ls • prncntly 1tnx1urc.oJ 1m-a14.1tC' Lnton i.t¡cunll'
.,,,mc-n :M't" f.I .-l1t1h Rc·hn -..nJ ílkn Jtlhn.t.tlft ,,,fco11f. l nucJ N.artnm flt-Vt"lnrnt~t
Fun<i for """"""' rlJNU L\11, W1>..•n. \\,. ••J "'"" J1.t l•Jrp.-nlrn1 F.'~"' A1-
u·1ttfle,,1 011 th1 J,~1Nrl n/ lrnreJ OJ,1fl1rt "" \t omett 1111d Wd,.,rw 1 RtM· '" Ptace-
¡,,.,1Jv1g l!h lo7, 14•• 1.?00.?1. 1V.ul..bk •• ""w.rdodwcb '"""' lof. nll ,AJIOocs
8,l.,:-./ID 11; IOl>lll •~lvHdd~-'ll.l!ll 1 7rk~
1*J In 1be konM: 'tZ'tJl(' cnmct .J~~.- hum.uury b1 me;, fomxtl, rC'qu1rtJ ninm
&O•""" ni...., ahhou11h an .a lO qualllv >t11l mua ' - htto cununmrd., ·~re
C!t • "'·Kfesr4'ead fJf "~~tte anar.k d1r("(ln! .,.nst ao\· cn.··dUn rc•p-,¡f,,uJUO. with.
kno--ledge ,._ W aa1uc.k " ~ Thc. R.t.m1c ~11tutc, att. 11. 1 } Ncxc tn th1t c.oonccuoo
th1u Ul thc: f\I;~) ...1h.-.; Uibunal~ cbc H r' .anJ 1hc lnttrn.iiori;ll (.r1m1n.J Tnbun~ for
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'52 Tht Rorn,• "t111utt, an. 7 lf J(g1. df'hnn 11c:f4, ('(sexual violen« rflrnt"' a~htu
hum.4n.ny "~" cómn1utcJ as parrof a wideti1'1n:.1d or svs1ana11c attttck dirrt1cJ agil11'.W
• o•ilim p.¡pul•rl<"1 \lllh kn()V.k:dgc ol 1hc 4!Utl
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9, ll49, 78 u~ r' 277 •n 2 Alrhoul!h """id.'"" ~<mhrr lhh •• ,.._..&
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m ,,..,oad<s ,..¡,¡ch are Jdtn<d br m1en• "<'<id Po<dWlll exampb el ,.nocidal mi:em
ropon.J m <<>M«.UQIJ "''"' i.ho Sqxember 11 lh at...O.. mdud< Un l d>ruarv 23, 19%
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1.roup ot: van)ttuttl \1u 11~. tht fonfrnr11 nt hl 1m. '" dCflTOV AJTl('n\J • ""Btn L..den't
S1a1emen1; TI1r S•~rol 1di.'" The Nn. l orA- l 1mer, OcL 8, 2001 ll7 ¡\) .l•=r1 • lso
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by sexual \1iolentt W'kler CC"ln"ttUut1ooal .tnd 1nt'1"0auonal bw
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11 15 1nstnM..L.•'e tanJ mr.c..um thr pc:-.aUd' 10 C1blt·rw d.1, Jintt C\rpumbcr l lth ..ro--
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2'101'
áb. Anlun~ moemoaon.J m<truments th.t prorubu f.ul.um to •et.,,,,
ICC.PR. 1h<w•
note 20, 1U •rt. ''·, 2 laru. lll), 2, anJ l impo~ alflrm.ariw dueles to Jet, 11.nJ 11cc
..t I dac.:"""'" tht" c.:om~e•let: of tht Comm.J1 l<"C to t"«ci\"C' 1.:ur11rllln11 tqc.ilt !inr thc
f.Uu"' ol • coumn· to fuJfiD tt• 1J-.Lpnom1 CTOA\\.. ~(" not1: l at J'l4 lnlrt'fl.I
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Flmllieo. G A R.. 4)1148." 161. U.1' G.~OR. 4,th S.S..., UN Doc. A 45 49 \J.v
2, 1991.
67 lhii pnnciplc hü h«1i J("\doped In tht lrucr-Amcn"ª" 1·qiorW t)'ilmt 111
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th.o Chanrr <>i ohe Uru1<d N''"""'· G.A. Rt>. 262,, 111 lll vN: CJAOR. 2,rh S...,
\upp. No l~. UN 0..... A '217 10ct 24, 197111
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70 n.,,,., ,.¡,., have U><J th,. oumber lnduJc U.\. Sccrtu" u/ Oeknso D..naJJ
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tbc pro.iJeno" """"" to pn>0«.1 out rountr1 "), Wollwn \\.olkrr, "WmdounR 11.,
Noln tt Pise• 26t-171 • 391
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by t.1x1v ,,~u111n<."I 01.nd 1r.unc.-J 1.11 c;,1mp~1n ~•"\lt'r.aJ ()t rhnn, 1nrl11tl1n,11 Snm11l1~ 1 :i,uJ..n,
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no lc.-c;r ih.m MI is:l.ilQ
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orafttp0n1/ilol>.V2002'tn'rdflcomplnc l"IÍ, Mary RohutMm, "Maki.,, 11 0 ,.,,11
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ranar...,nal l ...w 1\!™.'Cit1unn. (:00,míutt on 1hr Form•t;('lifl '11 f:uacom;iry fCC"nct11U
lmenudonal Law, London C,,n(crt'Q(t, 2000>. •••ilahlo ar h111' '/www.ib-hq "'R rJf/
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0pocrW l'roloc:ol oo thc ICCPR. Doc. 19, 19i>b. 1'I'> U.... T ~ .lll2, •·oult!lidp •MMm
wch • m.- oí ~•p<cml..-r 11 oh
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rhc mv•>1on, -ce S.C. Ra. 1076. 1 ll . U.N Doc. S/RESll07~ r0.-1. 12, 19%1; se.
!la. 119J. UN 0oc S/Rf-\ llql IAug 28 199~); ~.C. Rn. 1214 1 12. U.1' Ooc.
S.~ lll410c<c. 8.19"!11; \(..Na l.?ó7. U.1' Doc. S/RJ:;.\ 12bi !Oct. U. 19'!91,
L.... &onuouc .onJ S.1<>11 <•••n<J (EC~. ~ Comtntlltt .., ~..., .,J
Pmc«cim ol 1luman Ri,hr•. Thc SMfrfíltY (l"C»crll.1. Rl'/Mrt o/ ti·.- ~""l'f"/>11'1'.C,.,,1.,¡ fJtJ
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7'. Anide 41 of thc IU-l'R """""''"" ohc IUrisdirnon.J rompeucncc .~ ,¡,,,
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fuond •O llR f'AJN<· R,r.,, MW,S Ocd 11 1111 11qq21. Thc UllllcJ Storcs moj<ho ,1,0
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'H9 L.N. T S lOl. would hdp voctims .such • rlwe o{ Stpt•mbtt t I tb.
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Rrnn.J o/ B°"'r 10, Dec 20. 19'!0, 61, l>é>.
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•poodtd d .U 6-lb "'"""""'"'oh< Warld T.-.Jc Cmttt bod bttn ••r<J
l.,. iattt~ . - .
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womm .,,TrT NS"ft) thtrt' h)' moe1~ AmC'ru:an rnm oo • ~ngk el.y
391 • Notes 10 Pa1n 271-211
7o.J Seto, "·A ,,'UrCt'S abovf' n('ltc 6
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r ' " 71' ,.,.. 121"111 ~ ,¡.., o...,, [. H R•....U ..J ~ca M Rolen Ttt
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e 'IAJcts or thr('.&t~ ot VJOlence, ..·hetbcr oc:rurnng &n pn\•atf! or In pt1bh(' lúe. los.ull Íclf
.md uuccunry m \llomcn'¡ li~ an..f art obst~I~ 10 the k..l~cmcnl o( iequabty, Je
\Tloprncnl .nJ pe-..., tt1:ulun,; 1n h1,;.h iocul hc-.Ub anJ C'COllOm!~ n ...u t<l tbC' LDdi
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dfro .as lroru·lluc: miU.c:uJUX' .Jaucl.. 1rt.ups.. tcrrurttt ~uenllas lO thc Ion~' sustatnN
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utkd her finr 'l'<""ch uduoivdv m rom<'IU•phv, · Pom""'1'rhv' The 'I;.,. Trrmrcsm •
Owt'rion, a1'm"l' noco 81, al 197-2111. For ""me le,r.11ly focu<ed .uuiy>1> m mrular •••n
,.. Anl\ E. Ra¡, 'lbe Shame ol h GmJer.Ba,eJ l'cm,rwnin tb. l otnlcr \"ugoda\'U
~1J tht J'.J.ur(' ~1 ln1ctn1oonal (fuman Ragbt.t t ...w lo C.omprchcnJ tht: ln1uncs.. -44
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hnr 11.-.-u un.flrll .appels~ 5~¡111 .up#ftid•517) lrt"h.-rnn~ ro ~rccmhe.r 1lth .n
h11v~ bro~hc thc m1ernauonaJ !l)')rcm to -a ·Jork 111 the road"):
8, Thr 1111:1' lr1"'/ R~rt. J.btWl;e nol.t 11. 'l l4''b) wbJth mmuOM ~dcr..,
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•tt mor ...,1hC1U1 reonin1 to t('frtK1un), Lack ot IOC"t.al and pol11...:11l nlfhn 1aJthou;.:•·
wnmco ll!t mc>tt dcpt1"-ed of 1.hrnt dun mct •re). itnd P'hocal gr1evil0cu, organauJ
\:rl.ll'llC. aod .:olLp~ of suucs e.ti ot ..·h1cb aJ:t""n ho1h M:XCI v. u:b..)ut n1.k1ng 1,1,..·omcn
vi<>kno "' ohc Jcar.., mcn or<l
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1umfy •IUITT'"11R Anide' 1 o! tho U:\ Chamr lus all\\enuonally bren n:oJ 10 «qwro
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Do.: S RlVb>t1 \1M 2 1'1911 \.C R.. 1>87. U 1' O.>. 'RL' bS7 lAI" 1 19911,
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J' ltun1an R.ijitl1D W1111h Rt·¡!l(lrt •t ~ july. 200\, hnrl'hr" '''lt/tl"J'"'"Li.ZOCH
COO • Notu ID PltU 272 173
ir>ql)70\ 11 oq070} p..il tu. rua.d lan 20 2~l Thn anfomuum olan •ms 10 un·
&rlmf' W pc..c 1hat war rftcn h:as iCX'·~pcah( nc:pU\'C cm~~ lor •unen.
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ri t1h " l"''u""" • 11.t.t«u Grot1us. 2 Of t.he IL1,l:i11 o/ \t."'' .,,.J
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ht-imhini \tt. ._.p. lndcpcncknt lnccm;arion.J \.('mm1•11inn on KMavo. Tlit' Kou.,1,>0
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thr irllmc:nuon wm. nor ceimr~aublc \l.'Uh C.h.1ncr norm1 bu1 v.a wll 'k(:Ulm1tc.·1 . .8,,
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1ht u " ("hi"C't ~t U"lftmational attinn tin rrn-ml 1n:10 •nJ IU).tamed vfoW:ions o(
hu""" na)lU • tb.tt rusalled m1emmoiW KtlOl'I <... Tocn ) hr«, "Thc Pr<JSP<Ct
for lot<'llUltioo.I Ln· and Orda ID dx ~ uc ot Iraq.• <f1 ,........,,. p,..,..,,¡ ,,¡ i,,,,..
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m.uw>. •nd ""' cnmesl, CbllllOpbcr l.. Joyn<r anJ \n1ho,.,. l.l.ark Arond. "Anua-
1"'1"') 1h11n•nlt.1r""1 lnttl'\""""" An Emcrg1ng kgAl N"rm. • 10 t '\, lf 1 ,,..,,..,¡o{
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lntc:nrcnuon end S11tc ~Vttt.i~ty. Tk RNjX)lf·
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'icr..-rr1i•1> 12 12001), .,,..,...icw.aipdl/Comm1Swon Rcpc•ri .pJf <1.,,1 vwroJ Oct. 17.
:?<JO" lh<rd•uhcr Ropam1hol11y to Prot«.1 R.,.,nl (¡,.uh in~ m1h,.n tn1<rvmdon lor
human ('"1'1rcuon pur'J'04C'll U\ Qrc:kr "10 h.ah Clf °'''·11 LuJr k11Jt k•-.1 ,\J hfc• .KCwl or
ar1·r<hm.t.J. •irh (l'n<'Cidal cntem "' º'" •-hich .. 1ht pro.Ju«""""' ni cltlíhcut<
Al:IC' tmr•n •'.Ir s.tatc nqlea- or mabiluv 10 act, <'f • íailrd IUJC' <1lwuon; or largC' SC:lk
nhnic ~.' octual 0< •pprdicndod. wh<th<T um..! OUI t,, ~ tor«d ei:
pul1ion, "'" ot 1cmx or rlp<. "k D.niah lnmrut< ot ln1rmatl<lllAI Att.un, 11•-•,,,,_
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vun..! J.,, 14
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nf ttuf'rt"IC t•r pr~dltuig ~de or ochrr fo\~lent.alM: al.tutthi~r can tomttUDCS Jtaat)
1h.,.. Y•t' of m1J11.1ry lorc.~ ., Ano:iruo Lnanr, Ex 1nn1r1.a no. ontu1 .\ré ~·e ~10VlnJ:
T\'tv.'Atd• lnta:rn.. ut'ln.il lc.,i1tam.1uon ()( Forcthl• f lutnMut•n.11n C{1'Jt1tcrn1c.uurn 1n cht:
Notes lo Pace 213 • •Ot
ll"<>rlJ l.<•HmtJJUty~" 10 f•"'/><V• ¡...,.,../o/ /nl<r"4t/-/ Ú• 21 17 1"""1 ltubmit
IGll •undc-J ttnain i.tnn t\'ll'kl11.lt'nt fnl"r1 lo imncJ (or, f:' mtV ,raJui!I)' b«om~ 9U"'
. - l ..... .b.m1 ..y ..tbocizaooa by lht S«uniy \..o<iocil" Bui - o;¡.,,.., a....
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wuhoui ~w11) Counal autl>artz.Dxt b un],.foJ :-WCe 1lm U.. Ropon.. bi""'to
Ptoftt1 ff.qxwt ~opuza rape a pocentt.all-; jUitafytne tnQrl co f0fc1blt unowuw.
h..1 only wh<n pon ol ., •cdmrc damma." di.e .. ""' wh<n ~ mlv are: m<
•1'11nw rl tho oo<lqln Raf""'t1fa,J,ry 1n Pmttrl 11.rf'O't au 12, H Thc H;¡h./nd
11..-pon cn<k>r<c:d 1ho 're>p<>o51bíluy 10 pcottct" •Prro.<h, ••ulhorwnJ milnllT "'""
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ck.an1oLnff or t<rltJUt \Kllac1an1 oí mettnauonal hutn.an114n.an l,1,. \lolulh KA·c:tt:agn Gov-
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1,,,
t.'iricy Cc".uu1I 11uth()fi111110n H1~h../n.y/ Rt'pqrt, al')(Y\~ no1" 2(13
q5 Anide J of me Geoocaclt Con""'"ºº nbh,.1e1 rh< "ftr19lori« "'ad agaín<t
''"'""1de "llt.: Con•r•cung P•mcs conbnn th., genociJt, ,.bC'lhcr tOID.llllm!d ID ame
c.-.. pe'*.~ or 10 Unw oi 'Arar, " 1 mme un.Jcr Jntm1.i1on.l l• ., \l-hu:h 1hq undaukc 10
¡11m·cru a.nJ "' run1t.h " Ü'JnvcnrJon on tht> PrC\'ftlt"-'" .;..nd PunJ.bmc:ot ol th< CrunC'
ci ('...,....,.,. 1rt. 1, O.. 11, 194~ 78 UN T S in, '""111* "' .,..,.. unlxhrch
hunl mrnullh rJ<!OOO.htm Tlus pfO\-.iro-.-hidt foru10on1<11bd<>re1wbm d>ey
an ~ pm-a>1cdl and alttt twbm thr,· att pun..bcJ1 ~ ulcó pl.co-q !""lcralJY
tlaoup1 .., rda k> /ICtlOlll ahon al far« h do<1 au1 prcciadv ~y •hlt •to ti.pp<n
""••l • ,.,_,Jt h OO.. - ... lh.1 me p.>run undm.t.c to llCp S<"<ici.lc •iuch
mgrullv mal """'"' ra<>n IO ÍO!tt .Jlhouch P<''""'°
U.11 • wlt11 P"'""'""' ' - 10
mun.
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ll•ry Police Jlop.lc lprepattd b¡ i\L¡or Gen. An1onio M T•¡¡uba 1rdcaocd Octobcx
19, .?i)<).11, hnp """'' 6ndl•w.com1hdon/Jou l<ll.¡/loll:\ll>Upl hnnl il..1 muc:J Jm
16, 200" [h<mruof1cr T•tuh.t /Vportl
<n Se:.:, e~. Frank !Uch. "S.ovin¡¡ Privaie (n~l•nd" T~1· 'lc·r; l'lJl'k T1mrs, May
lb, 2004 Bl t4uotlllj! Rush Limbau,.h ºThe photC'!• of lh< ah11..,. 11 Ahu GbraJh 'look
likc 1unJ.rJ g"'1<.I old Amcncan pomogrnphy, ll..tmb1ughJ "1d •!he SIOJ')' spmid,
., 1f he m1¡tht ~r1nJí<1thcr v..m.unc atrootie. 11110 in C"nt'"n..u.nmrt11 mdutlf) t.lw, ho\\·
rwr ~k·J'l.'t ..bk to IJa1n. hu 1001t í.ans m our l~hruu.an cotmu,, than ~tq-ir ~
Ra.<boJI º1
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J.akn lur l lunulw.UJt! Him., Ali<- oc U.S Tonu"' Att lm~• rluoeutd
""'' \t., 2. 200f fquo<lllg Oh;. .i~~~~
99 ~. C.jl lw Ton.... p~ n. RD.J 'ºti... GbNth 1"'"1> J G~
.00 Jolhu. l. Dr.ud cdt. ,l()()jf, Mm D.nnrr Tom." ,.,¿ T..,.,~ l..,._ .Ai..
C~..,¡, ,.,.J thr W" no T,.,,,, 12004 Stt aloo, - . , Hcnh ºTo~ 11. Abu
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Jr1.~Uk;'t'I htui& 1onurN .anJ ochcr n-h.kn~ ul t!.'lnurr f)h,.,1dc:J tn t~ lnrrm.Jlhln.al

Hol•• to P•i" 213 ?1S
Red l..ro<s Repon!: •AlJ Thmg:¡ CAosidcrcd: Ammcan Torcurc of lr;iq1 O<Ul.ll<tS•
tl\l'R roJio broaJ<.,.,., ~by l, ZOIJ.l• \\"hile thc T•guÑ &port UldudeJ oruy •single
Q:pllcit hndmg ~m,.: lhc word "rorcure, ... h .;.0;mc co thc ~omil ronclu.Aon thQt
•[tJ<"-""CnJ lJ 'S. Aml)· Suld1m have C()mmlncd c~rc¡i•ou• ac11 and ~ta\'C brcJChcs oí
mremAnon.J Lrw" Ab11 Gh111ih 'BCrF •nd C'amp Buce•, f,.q" r •.,,¡.,, /l,¡oort ahovc
note%. »f l5, 50.
100. !itt "Globe üuj1ht wuh Pallt$ Down' l'apcr Oupcd "''º Runomg Pom
l'bu10J," Bouon Hm/J, M•) 1), 2004. A6
101 "(Ah no cune JJd thc phomgtoph mce1 Gloho sund.irdL lmoga cooL.Unt'd
in 1J11: rhtu"Mr¡1ph Y.~rt' O\•ctl)' .iraphic a.nd 1k J'IUrS"JOrrc:J obuae p<lnfit\t'd had not
l><en authenuca1«i. Tbe Globe apolo{lizes for publishing thc pl1C110 · "For thc Record.•
BortlNf G/,,br. M.y l l, .100!. Al. Thc Huu/J dcs<:OO.,d che p1cwres •• 'l!fll1lhic pbo<0s
ol llllq¡cd "'"'"" •i;>""' ol lr;qi wOttl<!ll by U.S. soJJJer< [tlur.) rum<d out 10 be rugcd
ihuu lrom 1 h11Nc:«e pc"11:n Web 11.uc. • Abovc nuce 100. TI1e photnt. u1 Abu C1u.aib
\\Ttc oln t<ltl'IV •uJ~J; 4!1 well. hut WCft' nonetht'lni> fil'Cn !is documentin,r rcaJ r.1huSr
102. ~me pcrccpti\~ ("lbkon'tn ha\"<" s«n a t."(:mnt"C11<1n. Sc.-c, e.J.. Susan J Bruon.
"Tonu...,, or 'Good Old American Pomography,'" '(112} l'bromck al H:P,er EJu<1·
no11." tjune 4. 2004J lllO. t"Asroinmcrcial poro wos lxmg mis&lken for phot0> of rc.J
1orturc, che phottW of ict:u.J 1on1,1rc= 11t Ahu Ghr.ub \\:Ctt bdn_g e4u•urd w11h pom ")_
This cou1J h.:ap1)ef) h«11usc C~l'l" Lll to1nmnnl)' lutle orno si~ruñatnt differmcebc:tuttn
the twn. Th" pff"!umed Ji5t1nruon that CM\•cruionaJ poNW'~r•ph). unlike tOrt\Jtt. i1
máde under ronditioos of consem or freedom o.- d.si,.. is ¡ust dm presumcd
103. S<:c ~eptcmber 11 th Vl(tlm C..mpi:nsaoon Fund ol 2001, 67 Fed. Reg. L1233.
11.238 CM.it. l l. 2002) 1S1a1emem by the ~pecw Master),
Jt)4 ~lahfouJ Bt:nnounl' OOC.C$ 11narhtr igoor'('(I crisit ar nonnnlny: · 1n Algcru1
C\-ery ,..., sine• l?'ll, 1>e h.d ihe e.¡uivalcm oi iM \ictim• of Scp1crnbcr l l th•I
;.._ victillt' oí thc fundarocntolis1> " mtcmew by Karirna s.,.noone wi1h Mahrv.1d Ben
nou111:, ··A Dlseasc Masquerading as a Cure: Women and Fundameotalism ID Algcna,
tn Nolh1•i MCT(J. wo .....n R.espo11J lo R.eltg10"1 F~nd<lmtn/J,,.,, onJ Tmor 7'. 86
(l!c:1•1 R.,.,~ cJ .. 200.?I.
l0'5 \'(1.o.ft"r 8c:n1.amm. •11i.nc5 on thc P!i1IQSOphy of lliltQJ')'•'" 1n /Uu1111r1t1f10,,,. .z,5,
2;~ 'H.um.h Arcndt, t-d., Hm\ Zohn, ira.u Hartt'ul't. Br.C<' &'.World, t%8t 119''1
106 Unned Smes v Morrison, S29 U.S. 598 120001. bdd die dvú rcmcdi<s pro-
,,.Jon ol ihc federal Vmkna: Agaimt IX'omcn Act. which prond&l a teckr.J cause al
iKUon for 11ex tbsc.rurunauon m t.rullné'n uf ¡:enJc.r- mouv.utd vioJmce, unconiU(Uuonal
lor cxrecJ1111( f...ongrc....!>tonu.I ~·er u; an •re.a t~1tbuC'ln.t.ll\: reiuLutd by 1r.it.e1 NJ.bcr
<han beiP« a rem..Jv pennin..J unoo S.C.ion ' pf tho Equal Pro1wioo Oou>< nr thc
Cnt:nmC"rtt ClauSJt.
J07 Busb v. Gorc. '31 U.S 9812000), lourul an Equal Protcl'OOo Claus<: ,10J.1uon
m tlic ~unJ¡rJ• W>CJ fur n:-counu11g \'OtO m t.hi:- U.S. pres1Jenual elo.::tiM of 2000 in
ch~ il.1lt" ,,, nonJ.1
Jt\'I Fnr 1 ran~ of \'ÍL-v..'\, 1tt Vf'ra Gowll1nd·Otbh$1'. "Thc Ll1ni~ (t( UnihucraJ
Eof<'f\'eroc:m of CoanmunÍI)' Objecuvn in th• Fromewm nf U "1. Pe.ce M.illttfllllltt."
Hotos lo Pa¡es 27S-216 • •DJ
11 E"tt>~t11t }t>11m,1l o/ l,,lerttJtwnal !.Mu '61 (2000) lc:nrlcuing thr ,.¡C"A. th;u mcmber
..u1cs ha\'t' in1plicd aurh<trlr}' lt> unilaicrali)• dcfenc.I t"OHectlvc Jt~t 1lt.1 Sttun1y Co1mcil
resoltruoos affinn u,'heo 1hc •ero paralyzcs the Council i1sdfl; Anoc-Marie Slaughier,
"Good R.:<$n• lar Go"'ll Atound the U.N.." Th• Ncw YoTk 1/mts, Mar. 18. 20()3,
AH 1~"'18 thJt most in1omadl..,."11tW)'<IS prob.lbly 6nJ use l•I force t¡<nin>1 lliy
iUC"~.J unti<r U.N Ch.u,_tr, 001 contcnding rules in.ay ne!CÜ "'to C\'olvc. so th1,11 wh•t i~
lcp:ilimJtc i,; .Jso lt.:Jt,11"}~ \VI /'.·l ich1ll"I Rcisllllln, .. r\«e:!itn'lft Cl:úms to Rcviw- thc:: í ~w~
OÍ War." 97 An1main Jo•mal of [,,,,,.,,,,,on1/ uw 82 120031 (IJl!WDA tha1 preempuve
sdt·dc:tense IS noc nove! becausc 11 can contnb1;11c to order,. P~ekcepcrs prt'\"CCIU\"'CI}'
Jeploved, depe.nJuig on thClr Jl\andore. can converge with ptt<mpti,,. deleMe. Seo
RK-h•rd A. r.alk, 'Wh-at fu1urc for che U,N Chian('.r Syr.1ro1 o( w.._r Ptc\•ct1dont· 97
A1flt'1tilll/011rnol of ltttmtalt0>111/ 1...iw '90 t200J) (discus5Íng tbc raunon bet\l·ccn the
invl"10n of lrnq ,¡nd the U.N. Cham:i· rul~). Onc could •lro ••llU< 1hat Scpt<mb<;r
lltb was ooe ac:t in the m1ddle of a w:u dtat began w1tb the ana<k on die Khobar
Towcn, conunucd ,.,.b thc bombmg• ol thc U.S. Afncan cmbus1.., thc U S.S. Cole.
and tbc SalJ n1gf1tcluh, .and proc~e.Jcd tu m~ bumbh\8$ m f\1oroct(l. Saw.JJ Aeahi.i,
Spain, 11nd fc-rv.•-a,J, l l uf. poi.-,lblc "-hrt1nC1IOR)' ~ nul purp<>n tQ a(ldras che nm1~ óÍ
the conflia. Of rourse, there: is a 1cnsioo bctween aeeing September 1lth .AS a uniqot
<m~-otf ~ni ~nd SCQJlg it u pan ot a 111;1r-.
JO'>. Lind;i Jloreman oftm descnbed tlu1 t:alJ tbJs w•y. Ooe publi.bed Jcooun1 1s:
•¡ kuncd tha Chuck ""- """'"hmg formo w11h boch hls pu1ol .tnd hJ1 ontomatk nlle
by hi> ,¡Je 1 called thc polino. They knew who 1 w•• ancl 1hcy l1Stcncd 1n my "º'Y
aboo1 nty huJb:lnd cnmina after me with n ¡un. f R•vc vp fpr~r ro J'('ii« h~p u-hc,-n
1 was told, '.L:idy. we can'r ger inroh...d 111 domesác affiúrs. •• Linda Lcwelace and Mike
McGNdy, OrJetJ/ 22}-226 (1980). °"'ntstic indccd. Thc Gcrm>n Coosatu"oo.i
f.oun·~ .,..clJ.JC\doped (011ccpt of "rttJuclbarc Dcirtwu1tut1g• of bASu.. substanttvt
r1,gf,1s-lncrally me.anang 1ndircn. du.td pan)· cíftn-6uch chtu th<- h1A]-.01 v•lut:' nf 1hc
l.oolillturian h<n"e' 1:t •rudiaring rffca'"' ihroughout aJ1 "-r"e-'5 ()f l1w, includlng in privJtc
1nt govemi~ horizontal rdariQflships beN·c:cn indi,iidual'C.-Cam•t:r~cs in~mu;m't'ly
h<:re with the eDlttJllll8 intemarionlll noooos on oonsta~ aaors. s~ Liilh Ca.se (J 958)
7 B""rfGE 198; Sa;1I S. Marlt:c>'lmS, 2 Alwa)'f OK tb. Sa/11e P•th. &Rys on Foreign '-""'
anJ Comparollvr Mr1/JQ<loloQ 26-7), 1}2-218 !20011; Rtilf Brink1nn•, Tbe HwrtlHIJ,1/
E//ttt (Jf HUlfltlJI Rit.htJ. lit C.1!'rfl11u1 Contlitutio'IRI Úl1t1: lh1• 8rsflrh Dt'Ñtt· 011 llon~On·
l•liJy a111I t1'e Porriblr Rt>lemodti of tbr Ct'f'Tll•• Doctn•e o( •M11te/b.J,. Dntt•...rkunt
br Grunrlrechte, 4 Europea" Haman R1gb1J l..aw 11.evmo 421 !2001).
llO. S.. Noclle Queruvet, 'Thc World Alm September u, Hos ll fü:.tlly
Ouuigt'd_;." lfl &n.>Jk'''" j()umal o/ l11.tt'nt.i1/uJnal l.Aw .56l (200,J (1rgu1ng sh1u I~• fuq
dt.iln¡tt:J th:1n SQ~ think>.
11l. See Anomey e;.,...,..¡ <>Í lsnel v Eichm•nn (Isr Sup. C1. 1%21 }6 (J...,</ Lt11
Rrl!ICW 217; Agrccmeol &iv,...,o ihe Govornmem oi die: Kingdom ol ihe Nctherland$
and the Govunmeni oí che Urui«l Kingclam ol Greai Bruain and Nonhcro ltebnd
Couccmmg a Sconl•h Tnol m ~,. N«hcrland•. S<r•· t~. 19')8, l8 1•11"1/df/OnJI Ut.•I
ft.111/t"wf, 926 hrcat)' undcr -.1lkh Lackcrb1c bo1nb1n8 "':~$ •J1udica1~J). Sor aOO Lc:ilá
•04 Notes 10 P•ces Z76-Z78
l\•dy• :..da<. "Tcrronsmund 1be Ruleol Law." l \Vash111gron Unn't1's111Glcb./Su.Jm
Úlw R.,..,...,U} (20011 (arg111ng thai tbe Urured Su= •hould ""'" aJJrcsscd 1he
TJliban .nJ AJ Q¡acJ~ llJ a polKc m.i11cr, r•thrr tlun golng 10 w11rJ
112. Sce, e~, Pr<:<1Jcn1 Ccorpc W Buoh, •Addrcu in 1h• N•ucm {Scp1 7 200)!"
R'J'nnlCd in "In The S1n1¡q¡lc fQr 1,.q· ln llusb's Words: ·wc \\"ill Do \\"ho1 Is '<ce:·
cssa"'' m <he Fi¡¡h1 Against Terror." ·r¡,,, Nri" York T1"<rs, Sept. S. 2003. A 1O.
IU. S.. li1ib-/,..,/ Repvrt, abo.e ru>tc U. Wbcther ttoy •pprouth IS suc:cttcling IS
•m1thcr ~uotion. In n\JUly 1cspctu. thc approo1cb 10 Scpu:mber l l 1Ji by tl>c: Unncd
~1111n In p.ictH:uLtr c:.tn be oMm·cJ to be llh•J~. t\"t'n ccunu:rproduCU\'C,
114 ~·1e1n11mc. lnlefl~ified convenrional ctloru 1ha1 n:quirc litdr íf any chanftC
shoulcl 001 be m:1tlmed Efforu oí the CEDAW Commiuee and the Human Ri~ts
ComnullC< shouW conunue. joined by the Tonurc Commintt and 01h<:n pu>lung fur
1L111on..J onforcemeru oí cxuting obli¡¡111000 imJ lc&i•lst"" n:lorm wbere ne.Jed. ln-
duding unpleme111jng <he many p1opo..1l• [rom tbc llci¡uig PLufor01 for Aeuon Ú1•1
a\ld~ violcnc:c npinst "'ornm ro wlUch n.1Mn1 lltt .a.ll't".tdy comminc:d Stt World
Confrrt'TIC< on Women. lle1jing. Sqit 4-15. 1995. Report qf IM Fwnh u•,.,f¡f en.¡,...
"'"'ºn Wooren. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/23/Add l lOct 27, 199'). Vinlcnreagain"
wornco wiLh iropuoity might be txpressly rttogn11.td in some orcumstancesu "a ron·
sntent pauem of groü .md rcUab1y AtrC!llC'd violadons of hwniln ri.glus md fund.uncn1aJ
frttdoms" under ECOSOC Rctoluuon 150} 1 ftlV&ng rae 10 complain~ to thc Humnn
Righci Comrruntt's communicauons: procedure U.N Econ & Scx:. Council
lECOSOC]. Procedure for Dca'111g u:uh Com1J111n1citJ1()nJ RelaJtRf, 10 \ 'io/4t1011J o!
Hum•t1 11.ighll atr/Í Fumúmtnial FTredoms. U.N. Doc. l:JCN.4/RESl)(XXVU (M:o¡ 27
1970>. 1'he S«mary Gmeral could cxm fun.ber lcodcmup, 01><11hc rcosuw:t1mng ideas
c:ould be 1ntce1«i '""' Hted·ol St11< Summh rcforrn propoi..J., Thc m•ndo1< oi Se-
curuv Rc:soluuoo ll2,, U.N Doc. S/RES/1)25 CO.. ll, ZOOll, e""ld be 1trongth..,cd
ood cxt<7ldcd Goin~ ÍUrv.'llrd, thc G<nocid.e Convention and the delinitioo of J!OOOC:tdc
m thc Rome ~1a11J1e rould be ameOOed to add ºscxº as• grourul. and ""'"'¡ atrooues
c:x.pltSSiy as acts, or ot.hc:r,1;1se rcconsi<:kK<I 1n light oJ .i.cts lfut sum ar. tbe destrucuoo
of v.·u111er• as $ucb and oí 1nfomuuu:ut on th<' pl.tcc- o( .tCX1ud 1uoc:1tics In gcnoc:idc iu
turr~ntl)' ddined A Ot"W 1tp«iiaJ r"pportcur on ,·iolt.fl« A¡pinR \\'<'mcn could be givcn
• n1a0da1c to inves~at:c nod rcc('fllmeod cQmprcbcmivc O\.'Ct'haul Ami oon,;olidat1n11
1nd rtSUUctUfinlf, el ln1cm11t:iooal cffons 3"ainsl \'lOlencc ;¡gaJJl$t -...'Utnen lO the post·
Sep1ember l lth ....
11'. Fot J.n .argumen1 th~H womt:n urc °'º uncrn;tuorW group, arul i.t.11tel ia mai
cuhnc mutl 11ee lntmduc:ann, •\X't'fll.en'i ~1;uw, ~tcn's S1.itcs.." abo'~ in ~h11 voh1mt>
lt 1
116. For u 6no rollection OI these nl'llregies, sec Post.CO,,flkt /tmi<e tChcrif s...
siouru cd., 20021
l 17. S... Muy [fü:n O'Conncll. 't.....1..i Sclf.Ocf...,.., 10 T<rcoo•m, • 6l Un"'"""
of P1111b11tgh l.JtM.• &111m• 389 f2002) (1rgu1n1t thiu [he Umtt:d S1•1~1 wN dupropor
tac.nace f~rcc in Afg.h.tni~t'i1n. n1herwftf .arAUili,ly" üwful ex-erro~ of sdf·dd'cnsc. kdlin~
f¡¡r coo rruinr Ci\.;Jians)
 Not.. to Page 278 • ~os
118 Stt Rchn unJ S1rlc:at, •bow UIJl'c ~,. IH ) ,1ttaUntl th.u whlk avill..an Í•t.thna
atCl14JJJted Íc;w fñoe JXf:CCOl Pi" alJ wnr daths. :it tht' Jtllll c1f che r;.•cnt1«1h etrnun. rhe\
now ..C<Otlllt for °'"' 8'Venly·lm perrent oí .U l•wLu.. ' e;.., olio Th• S<trtiary-
Gcncr.J, Reporr o/~ Se=t•rr-Cen•nl to I~ Seomf'I CouJ10/ "" the prot<'<11M o}
<ml1unnn aruied con_H1ro, i J, U.N. Doc. l>'ZOOl!)Jl t.11:1.u JO, 20lll I "(AJ,.n1<:fl'•I
•t1mcd t.:Pnil1ca prohfc:rarc, C'Jvihiklli- h"'-c ~me 1hc- pnilc:ap11I ,·lmms h t1 nll'IN ron
\"Cf\OPnnJ to MY th1u, 1n ruen1 d«ades, thc propornon of "'ªt vectbru: "-i.C'I .uc c1,·ílun'I
has leapcd dramaric:ally, 10 an C5f1mated 75 pcrccr11 and in sorne ascs cvm more-).
!Lbonlftl'l; dcnW of ngbt to, l61, 18) fom.-d,
t,0, .Z l'4-IS, Z2J, )}Jn42. urpo!lll*On 10 in
Qucbcc. l lOnJ2; re¡;rficrion1' f'tl, l7 188,
l 1l. J 1 ln22. unC'Ol"lmwrionaluy d m lrc·
l,1nd. 2j
Abu Ghnüb, •busa ar. c:o1n~.utJ to pomoA
r.phy, ZIJ,<Olmt97, 'I')
i.f,.~ St"t' wxu.1 abu'M'
amckmv, ria.et: in womrn'• m~ml (![ 62
Ad Hoc Cammtntt on Gmoc1de. 22-1
Adter. ~ll'd'tllnct , 1) 1
iaffimuc1vt' 11nwm. n:~1.11rcmml el, ?S. 121-24
Alit:hamstm: condJuon uf \\"GmCO in. 270: fC"
J¡iuon ol 10 AJ (J~. 268
Afri('al'I Amcrk-.an trc'll'H:tl cml•\·cmcrn o/, ,,.
L}4. 188. 226-27; as v1mms of raasm..
J61ol ID
A!ti<:an Un1ioo PtUeocol Pn lht .Ri~l1tJ. of
Wo.nen. 8. 9, 2)6-5J 285n44 21l6nSI
144.t)~U tkdsion \)CTIU, lll, .214--2).1J7-
.J6. 147nl }¡ d~fÍ.nrUQn c.if r<1pt i.n, 2l$, 2:4'5,
2.46: focus on rQlitic& in. 246~ rupe fil
g<n<.dolc ln, ZJ9
A~n1. vin.Um oí funcLuneru.1IHU kn
40ln l0ol
Atit'n Ton Clauu.l A\;t tU,.S J. 198, 20.2, 205,
~06. 2Sln 1 J5~M
A'"'"°'" &o/m/lnr u //.,/nu1. 2S8, 292n22.
J2)Al4, }2%7
/\mnttty lnu:-m.a.11~W1.11I ttlJOff• oi 111ftutt 1n
Bom:ia·Hcn.qtCl'\ina b-,·, ZI, l.f)
A#Jr~~ t• t."" Sba~f'f tJf 8n1uh ColumL11i1
•Can.adal 27 u11tiprct.111on ol cqtu.ln'.11'
ñf1ht1 rmvi-.in in, ~
amulu!.tuoa.. :a> tinal S<Judon undc:.r Thud
RcKh, 1iQ
Anthonv. ~san B 76
anuarbLU'UUlt$1 :n.anJ.ud, l.?b
Index
.ulliessau1i1!1vn, XI.,,_,.?
i1nupornogn1phy orduuna;, 48.. 87 1M 11 t.
118, 211, 2'18, J22-2Jnl2; ""'"""'bk "'"'
tkes m, Jl.8; m ti'Vll 11P1.21üw, 1Lg...19;
Íua..:Uof!W Jdin:itlf:lln O( (H\llktt'r ..phJ u1, ~
i.n¡ury locas:~ m cqun.luy 1... in. 99; lc~­
IJVC iusu)ry <>~ )23n3). oppoocru:s ti, 87:
por~r:1pl1y t i se• du1c.rinun11U.-)n 1n. 1111
an1rrr"f6ckina lm, ('nm1n:1I. .anti potftOR·
t'l'h)', 152-'S
apllrthcki. cnd oí. ! ISn 10
.ol'J"f/tlf,. Rquf.ht' A1"'1'.rd. 1-lro Shppllf~
c,.,p. 1USJ, :ISJllZ<
"r1.>u·1tlr-. cqu...iJ1C) f11Wc:.lplc uf lb)-tCJ7, JOS,
120. 12 1, 149
Armando. A,,., 161, 16l
• armcd c®fbc:t. m lntC'm.•tlMil.1 1.aw, .?(1 I
Stt ,,tw wu
as~O$ luiprion. ZOJ, ~: wlWDC." of. }48n6
Atwmcy GCl'lcnJ' s ü_,rnm.issm nn J>on'I~
taphy 1tJS 1, 90
11T v flu•t.•"Y· J()6-H);n)0
Aui..;hWHJ\, Hl, 171, 17~0. l l t..11~
hn>tlu::I• itt. J'\MS7 ind1.1\.1twl rnurdtr u1.
176
lu.1&1r1tllll. lqi.llt.cJ IWD.'tlttlJllUD ffi. 1.5J
AOM.rl+1, M:);. ('il;l lal,ty UI, JM
S..l. Pbuln...,, U•>
8;1Jlun, J;1ck 49
Batl>ary pumo. l8%1~
battcclng. 17. 1J-3"2 . .U. 109'. 27, md ·oo.
1c:1tJ WOO')('n't 11.ynJromr:," 24+ <rd~ r1l J.?;
fearurc of R'X cf"útercu~. IZZ: 1epl 11r·
11S
pro.di.. (U, 26, 27. l?, 118. ¡><)'<hok>~)"'
n• lllnl of. l 'ib 11':" •• ~ex ,li"1'1nun.uiun,
;s, md tluill oí dooumn~ JJ-32 s,,.¡,.
~u..t.i$Wuh, VioJ.tti«.Ag.ams' Wom(iftAct
401
~08 • lndu 410 • lndt•

cansenc .iMumrtion ni. 244. dd"eru.t-. 2.S. Deú!J¡: drt:tslOtt tlCT't'J, 139
Bcdi. A.t¡pl J 1~ Cbancr ol Rl¡ihrs ..d F-.lo"" lC....UI. t(,,nnl:, 2t tb7nl6. JdinJti(ll'I, ~\am tn, cqu11llf} '""'""""'J) íom: ar. bam fpr proir;t1ttuiC1a -and crafficklnjt,
Drmx:r.cu: ~1~1k of ( .•1n¡tn. 1Mclll¡:itl 1tJt1
ll<glin, IOrwtt oi ,\!J. Jlumi....1 h,. 20-21 24 77. 79. 101 l07-lbbol. JOS-lO'llll, ., i.ck ol lu•w<hy 108-109. 1,. lc,,I. ljO¡ 1..:k oC R'COpl&UOO ot U'!C el, 270: nor·
Bci.¡11111 Pliulwm fur .\c.1w•n 119911, 2'fi ~llnl" ~~ ª'
1nd 28 ...(, 19, SO R't
2}~. 2,.); ludin¡a: ~n 4: snhettn1 lftd1
ndwlU\ o!, !45, u-rdt\•antt el, 34ln.14,
tlC li'lnT'
Omm.rit. l'"""'''"'pby ... 26 IOt· im Wgk, lu~ C1I J()b... 1 07~ "''"' awhttJ u p.in tll .acx S.., U11C ,,.¡ b\ uaru:t,
~.rn ri«mrh. 163. 166. 176. JJ7oll'l l"°'18 lllle'n<"t'" C'f' lM; rrumnul"C'.I ti D n:meciitl J~n16
ti....nJ..rd.. k,:.tl, 141 t)dtn.o.. P•~nc...1• Oi1u: l \8 }4ft.\
Sdpdc iq¡m<. rok oi m gcnoadc. 169, duld pomogr•pby, 89. w.
2:io. J1t.-ro4
COOJtiMÍQrl', ~-le:
C'I/, R;...&11 OtT ~,,,,..,,('r, 167. 211 romponcnt . .)J.SaJ l n¡thu, smtituuombi:I· 1-ormJ bun (Y1dco>. l?4nJ~
I~) Hl6, l9', l0). )Jin80. SiY r1bo Snbiil l77o4• lo U.S llrln21 UUll of. 1, l!-tl. ftllllCt tu¡ .. "lo\'\mt:n 12 FortlaJIJ ~rt.1gn lrunu.aut~ Ana( ll/76
con1mult)"': pi of. ?01 questlC>ft ol 57 d1íferentt. 52-''· 74 ruuh.¡ ot, 112; *u.I
Bco..dl<l. lluth, )O 1n.l~ cñildn:n: buymM and sclUng oí for lilClC. l), ~' M, 10: 111-"1Cb1I 7t., .-om.t.i.nnvr, t2b. ct11d~ IFSTAt l4f.:nl 1
Con\•l,"!'IU~ ;\g.¡n'I itw1urc .tnd Ottkr Í'Onn. ('re.l.UOl"I ol 1(16...107
s..,...... W.J1er, 174 l:!<>-lln22 pto¡><>"""°n oí DCW!y dair
Oitc(1i\-e Pnntirk oM rlndi.-1 1~s Ut:'iu.I lepl ('tlClctpuon oi en S.."tdtn, 1Ol; Pouault. M<Cht:I. "· 299lü
amo. h.1t.h
S.rion W ali, B
1.n obk 21l
ChiN. f"Otttd •b<W1:it'IM in 1SO }lln4.2
C'IÍ Crud. lnhu1t111n
a.nd Oc:Mndin¡a Trtwt
....,, of Puoubtnent. 281-82o8 dis.Jv"""8"" lnd.ffl of U. Cana&. SJ
u.Jwi.1n ,}f m lnill._ llb-21 • .u \\.;01ttn, 'ÍtJf!rncfttCJ ~ • u tt1ith1pk pt:nt1n.alily, 1"
1211 froitTn.i.ulinn, of wt1men -.11b Gcnnan trorip•.
bJn Ladeo. O.-. 2oJ aod (,..q, )8'n}J di•""· ind1wloal. for lndun ....,,.,,_ U6
Convc-nclCJn un che Elun~n11111t11t1 ut AD r (\1'1'1\11
vf l>i:Knminauon Apinst Womm
d1.1-.1woc:Ut1h4. 411 JUCbJ lf'd, lZPJ
diknt1f"K:', 'ttit.ali.dnJ." dDtru~i o(, tt'lt\nJ8 "l'l•ll1'! chmt) íominl, 1.!o-Z4· °''d<q"""· rn-,..n28
b1olo~.J dd.tt:rmc'ft u riP.tM)fl.nld'or tc'.X in ChtQlOJ>hcr, Worn:n, })%)
tCEDA\l'I, b. L53, 2'j-5<>, 2Un67: di.strinlinaooi:r dass 111!CÜOOS, rn ¡¡,,./ie41;1 d.f«t o(, 71-1!. [mnnple tlt, ?MnS7; t«Qfn.WC'f tl'CC'"img ~J"'rhnent1,, (,r ~ ....cu. 357n?2
eqo.Jrry. i.Vn26 Gnann•h. Oluo, J"(lmQ~phy u·1, ll9nl4 oLIK'n OÍ 71 Frui, MJry Jo 44, 50
•nimJmtrn1 w. Jtllnl; Ankk: 18 ol, "' «. W7 ddin...t, 122-21. 21!-1n3'. «> p(,..
b1olo¡¡ial aúcnonty o/ "'°"""• oondmuwxm Ciudad Juára. Maleo. np< ..,.J ~ of
pomn~ mfllllmlmlf tn, lt»n1, Anick (, rropncv. ~25nl0 Stv J1D • " diJt'nmuu, <q0.J P"l lack of, 1!, 106, 122: 1Ubstllllll\-.. f,,,..,.,,.. dccison >1cn·1. 2;9, 240. 241.
at, 10 wococn u1, 66, .l8j11;J8. )0tr-)U7ftlQ Jl""2.l 2+l, 246
ot:. 2'6: "C".xccpoons to. }'2%8; General non
bltclr. c.'f\J nchu l'nMt1YM111 1U.S ~ 15l nvU «>de to 1Tpbc. rdii<""-" low 11~ . ..lvwn- &pu1I Prf11l"("Uc:w• 0..uoC" 11'\ Co1unn1tk•n,
Black. °''""'·
Bh• St<ll• 72
)"6obJ
r.,.s al 102-JOl, U6-J7; di..m n -
ol 117
Commcnt L2 oí, 29)n18.; Ge!kr.J Rcooru
mt'DC!ation 19 uf Z56. lnd1..1'11 rt'llrnr1nV1n
on, Ub; hmna.uom ot. J 1 64. opoonal
JU.Julullan uf ttwtlilR!o J lU; a.iuU.W1e Wnn~
~ftcr, l17MI, •1111dt1ot pc:ric..J ftw tt.i.úr)
JZ7n60
í~.121. u.> 12~. -l(J?ntllb
cqu-al prou.•(·dan mthe litws. 106.. l1"'-"1'. a~
P1 mm. 6.-mlntnutio ot 29Zn th
gend~r dtlfrtt.ntt, 74. cqu•bry. Mtubni
&mn1111. l..1nd1 ol02n1Cl' crvil n.,htt. 15'4-'>"'; •rrrcw:h. "' 1n Ca.nad.. rlkau(ln Qf ~2<1018 n.nix mc'1'lJtl oí. .ZSJnl8 fcnunm thif.ury of
ptococul to, ~1, mifiLatiDn Of. 1.)(). &CJ. •dlitlna SOOd)' cffon.'I !Ciuudiil. 76, Sl), tt.?,
Bosrúa: c1Wwt a~u.lries of CQlúli<t en. 169, J~,5. 1nm:n rws m dass amon swrs. 20J: equ•I "8hr> lllllClldman fCúl;1do1, ;¡ jt· iJcnuiy. 47 zn~ u id~ bctor.
'J!UtZ; c:.pOtiUR ol scsual atrocuie. an con
tli.:t m . .?11-12; 1• ne.· móJC'I etÍ uw flÍ
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OVll
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n 10.-.lny prnl.l'C"ci<'ln.• of. J01n8; vii.-.Li.finn oí
Nbmnceve r-ro\'JS600i of, f,6...i,7
lO'l-iOn¿
ll<>bash, R<h«ca aod Ru...U. ¡ 1 ·cd¡.., <l=•ong." ló-}7, HJ; " eupt>omlsm
h')r 11:not1dC'. 160. 16'1, Ud, 1~7, )10n1,
Jvgni,,, ineq..U11. IJ. 86; .,utr.Wi..
~1•c:irulltt11 oo hh1• oí )"'4-85nl; ....,
'°''
Con\·~don an thc Eli.mi:nauon of Att fl"omu1 l)Qt' KJroJIJt: t i ~ at'llM. 205-206;
1
sr:xua!ny tor i:mondal pwp<>sc'S 220 Stt a\.'i.l •·•u in fOfn"lel Y~•- -as munorocr. of R.ci.J OtKttm1.t1•Uon !C::EJ\O), t• pre wor!J mpt'm< rv, 170...71, on¡¡in el, ~()ni> knc. l8S.U8 169"72
•lso SosD.12· He~\!U.la 169-70, HJ.I, 11!6. 1'17-'>ll íunetion' "' dcc1n! lt'rrnC'flt111tvt:11 in, p...uds ol ..-uh Halo<aust, 174-76;., Scr-
ilJ'l)bk lO. lJ 207 i.oendcr-based at.1l.. tntermnnocuon of. 19':
&<.ni• H~~tl-0\ lna 209: fcnun i ~•uon oí, 2) 1
l2; gtr'loóde in. l6. IN$$ r.tpe. t.ni 22; Stt
cMU..n *CJ"()Qrin b)r ~datn .pin:sc, )9,
148, 161. 184. 19l; au.adc oe in Rwaodl.
CMvdU.l<iO on the Rigbll.
C".onvcn1k'1q fof
°' t.bc Cluld. ()
die ~,1rrrc~\1Cll1 o( dlr' T tilÍfic
oo.n..u, rem<Jio. ..iw ...... o( 6'-<>6
ck•n'lt'!IPC \•it<lr11a:: 11.ÍKT ,.IC'UMQI, U1'5; t....,, C1l
bl1n pulr:y 1-I <''!l.W1TI1Jn1111on, 144
¡renoatk
.~ef ,.¡,,., kr.ldn¡ VUllie for Jl"lKIC h111 llJJ
Gent"V• Cnf'\•tmic>ni. 3Mn\0; COO!mon tu
br.ian i:.ic.trcmiSI tor~ "· 1. "$llJI af ~:tlnst 2~Y;. wir ~ ooo-Sctb, J7, 1+4. 18); 1..S
~thu, l9", "·~ni• ~iupt tn. J'-16, 164 Wat vaairn1 12 202. 262'-~). }\~J
so - ond ol che Exploltiluon of ihc f<wccmmt •amst, 116-n; w.,.. a¡tam$t. [wQpcm ConYt'.noon. 281-82n8 acle:) of. 267. }6ln8; Uc:un,:1e m\.2bl; pe1u.
PxOltltuucn d: O!h~:rs. 2'.?-,J. 2,8, l9) lt'f' 41'-ó bittcnng l.uropc.an ÚJUDt:ll Ftamc:\\'nf" De:~ bunustit¡¡.ru.n pru1oi;,,l 1ct -..,¡;:e11tl."CL l7b
Sn Ji. BosJli¡¡ ~n117 12ll00). d<6n1tono uf tntlliJ.W in. 25' ruun CQ. J29Jiq>o
177nJ7 dumuu1n..:c: 1:11bficrtac:C" dlajrl.Ut<'d ~. ;-S 14,
Bw.loc• . .Rcon,,~ cbu11 p~u111an, J4%?2
Canvcnnm on T orturc, 6 ""'ªU. orpnmd, ,. ihc probkm, 108. i;, f - n l'noon 1..... 12! gc-111111ui.1..,. 9, '2. UJ. 171 2~1
br...nw..hin,:, l8 c.t.j,t ~..1JOO.a'., 202...t<t1" un ctvil nphll.. .mJ~ espultJun t1H.;«I, • jtdklCIJ.,tl, '•\ln2 ~~1 J.d \A.U, m.i,cblr!k't.criwd at <l\l! 14'••
1.'"0lltt-vp: culrurc" 111s, 168; knuru!it \.~rS!Ofl aúo uuk docrun:ltltt
Btl((llant, }tan. 61 d.nc.. fu,, 20); CO<J>OrotÍOO< ood, :ZOl; dio· Drn....1nal1flfj J:,.,.uu.f1:/i,r1 59
«WrminMl'ln: ~tl.n camr;up oí lb. J8, l+l~S.161
... l!Jli
s...."""'11tt. Sus.o. 97-'lS tcnt.Ulg mcmbco ol :?ID, l.n ttllen:JI of pc!'I'·
\nlt. Niklu, 'l(I 0-kln. /\ndrco. •8. 37 9.1, "7, 111,
'l(I,
1.µ_¡,, 160. 169. 182~); o(Jcws LO gcooeidc acuon .gams~ -10Ln\J'· dl.'SUfC m,
pnrilton. 20-I, tt:kun Íót. 2&. limuC'd íond.
Bl.k"J" npe Je.th <'11.mp, 162
Bumhom, '""",.oí by l!cdm. ZG-21 202. :ZO.. 11W1dmtrv. 20l, 2()1; K>lk ci,
aimc: group basJl) of, mtcrrtd h'Om evldence., 11a. 119, m. 19.?. 2(19. 2¡0, m. ™ World W•r Jl 14; 1'2, Ub. 2J2 21U 200-20 1, C'lllnbl.nal S)'Mc111 anJ tllndolntld•
ln. 2T.-:18 ddinod. )4ót1l. U{lr\•; d<-
19-1 9, t<llk e;1f, 11..
Buoh. C.O.ge W., 21>8, 215, oo ·..., on .?Ol: .,.. el. W-20} fad.utts ro a.et, probJbnlCln ot l96n66 ombod. llZ; ., d1St111<t ~. 2l0-
mmct~IMSI hu1nanli\. 158; dcfincd. }40- Eójllcbu...,, . Lowttna:, HOnlO
t.ctr(Jlf," J91n)6 d&.,ubc•pon, dottrine PÍ, l2..nJ6 l.urt1.hanty anmunny 191-~ .!J. impbc.1r!Ms of erltfte ol, l.S8n&,, otu
·Un!2: lé2~JnJ.?.¡: incl.ust()M ln, .)..j., o); Ebc<ts, ~b ry. 82
ll•1h 1• e,,,.. ll'S,¡, 275. 411Zo l06 Oinron, Bill. 'ij, l9}n.-9
nc-xus ul t111&.1tf f'IÍ 11r.1r, \~ra-•Ot C)ffi C1.J « luwiion. uw- ~1t )2, 7) 101 fa.mil ) n1alc Jotuinmte: U) 1J.- •*
t.1tc oc "°' mi ~.llJllfl (or, 2116: rdntJrlr»lvp" 10
&tlc-r ' Rq,,,., t C...da>. J2Qn1S """"""' OCC<plomtt ol, 117; hiddco bduod
condoruiuon fot, 2/t6; l'llpc'I itt p1irt of 24-1 Etc+.,,11,,,, CllK'. 22--1. 27, len«. lO 73 %. llf>...Jl"pbeti: ol lladiol. .-u, 222-D. 27}; rolC"" o4 upe m.. 19.2:
(Ol'J•CM, ~. irttO ~phy. l J8, 16()¡ in 110, l}t 1).2 Rw.mJ.i.JJ. 14>2 11urv1,•.ti wlllrr condiuom
J70o7J: tcitu.al !llUOOOC$ .as. J62-6}nJ24; as cmpm~ ~abty, Oll~OC$ ol 72
f ,.anada C'CIMtUunooal JtJQwKIJ fnc' mm1ml '°'
rwp< dcfinllaln. 218 244c !IOCMrl. 2•5
UIKPrt fpt ~.lf, 17J L11glah c:urnmon ~•w n.·pa11olt«l 1(). 2.. 1 fcnll~ la\\ '" -~n.. i.... rtn11;lia 120 cit. 116-Ji••, V1('1rnl pnCUC(' crf lhsrrim1
Wrt1' prosatuaon m, J10; equaht)' n:o:udc •comf011 "10IDICO. of J 1tp~ fO\"Cl"l'lrDent rn 121>-JO. tJl l lho """"""" •=dortl m. 71: macm IB. Str 11lm "ctbruc dcmq"
Cro11tia. 209-. dotumca11tion of ,ci1oodc m., Enbs,btmmcm, llO: du1inc1lm 1.11 brnrttn
ID. 109, iq¡¡J pNClk:< IR, J»·'I\; MOb World w., U, 221-:U }2~9n>: Strbtan 01rtm1st Jorccs m. l~ um\'ersal and. p¡utiruhu. 40 ~x b~. IJt), unifonn rock o(. ll,. Gtnoadrt Conw:noon. tb.o1cc oi .c.ai:wJ
.ivn1rv.: l"ql.•ahry en 7
m
~urmnc; C'.Ntt ni, • nimmerdaJ ICX acl. • dt:fuxd. 21-4
CommiS$Kln of úpc-ns. on war C't1mt$ (Vu.
wnmcn't ttruuf>111n, JJ...l(.
culturol pmorulorm-. r noáplo oí. 1"'
c..¡uah1y, !ub«loll~' ddilll.t.k.ln <ll, 'º'
107
108. 1.20, tl 1 14Q .u CO\I<' for wncnMS
f&rl~ Mrl"ll&, l'SJ
lr:dtrabsm. w U.S. I~
Nmo:1.1t1 " ',,~ 1n. l 12 JU l~S:
- i ,.,,. o1. 221. i:s2-fl: ....,r ·.,
c,,.,,,u#!df" .\11.,11.M' <Jf S.._J~ty ..__.,,, .s,,.._~,.,, goal.,1\111, 22.-1
ruhural rcbu\'tty, JOlnll" 72, dc&nult'n of 1n ~Qnh Amcnc11n ~ fct1UJO. Íon:('.J. Lf npc HS. 92., 141 <U<h" U1, ll4-2$, l60nll,M p<miblc '""
•X.u1h Afnt'JI 2RJn2t1 «immunK1111<'f'll, am6d('nual11y PÍ fil\ frmoa.k, ,¡,.final, 192 rr<011~1 for, 195 n:11l1ry 1...tcd 10tn1t lft
mcntt. JlJ. 1'7: u dl!lnO(:raul m,r1n Jor
C<nret' lor f.on•<mniorul R~"" 20'
clu.ntc" dcmcicr-111c:; p.rocu~ ol. -l'S
0..r'-'•11h. Hila11 )S, 18
conc.mtrsuon ciunps: brolhds m. 216-17,
214. "5n4". l56nJ7, "I">"-' lrorn, 216-1~
tt"W" "''" Au.chwnz
d• C".C*a, C11tnnc, 104, l 14n)4
Oallaitt, Rbmeo. 28%71
Dttp n,,..,,,, 9.2, 1{11), ?..s
1.... llri: clo\"rnnal ~n1h0n flf' l2tin)4'
h.wmat. as meaos to mamtam unc:quaf
kmuusm dc\'do~)ft!Cftt ni tht('lrr oí -M-i9;
cl'.IUCllld as cs¡muahn. )l-SZ. "p~d n.a.r
t1U~ uf'" '41. mlif"Ul:."d r• 1111 12
1'14
(1emti.lnJ; o.drunt dcftrue: Q! 'ti;
nipc b)' tt1
\t'"rld Wilt 11 222, JJ7nn ~ffn-1 .
a,.n..,.,.,.,, A«otd 1C.n..ia1 109-l()nq C"Onfutt, m1(m11uonitl bw ot, l,9
1tatu•. 12J 111o rumprudcntc 110. l l°"'~l'I
FR2pamok J""" 1~ .....- . "t>< ol by Ru!oiao """'· 221. Stt
llu. fano '" .._."" ltcd0ciW.\1: N~ Th11J Roch
 lnou • 411 lnd•• ~13
02 • lndn

Gi.lben ~d i ~ M .,¡4 hunurt n,¡hf1.:: \;M\."eertkM~ •t~I." .¡~counl.t l1her.1l1\n\ lnglu.!1 .-nd l tl'fkh, 11"1<>; rd1trV1&m Mlllct, ¡.,¡..,, ~4•. lNnl 1
mrcnutianid ltcfU 11$ --speabc: ptot*:m of Of·
bi!ny ~clrr. ?fJJ. flOillt. ff1t lt~~! ~r. TI. f.t..(,2 ~hh1itvit. Sl~f'ld.n, l-f(>il6; iPdi'limnn nf far
Cl4~hbc:l11, Jr1~h. K1
Galdtnbct~. M~TtWr. lJ ¡q l.i'f'lnn, 202, ~up.. nwht11rcem1 l.,fj':
..~ mak domJtun1..'t' l t °'
- " " " ' ' W N•"5. 2lt>-17 21'>. .-.pe
to \X'Ufld '1.' .11 11, 216, l22 ,,7n77, Lockcrbie bombcnp. 275-?6 ~-a.LI BJ><. J <7olJ, .qwne ot, 198,
~tn.ltl('f\.11 uinfC"rc111..ir1, p~1n-'Jl)' ol 11 l'l,n-17. w.. J1a ~lolcsc10~ /0011 iunJ1 r1tb HnJrn1 ll7 201. SN •lfCJ lld8f.Jit! l't"l!:lln
•ere.fer Sctbta • J.o.-11, l+l. l~i. '"'' u11c:~ttONJ, t 144, J~SI, 11,..%,
Gruu~ fh1gct, Z1~ "(':)otlS I~: ¡,,._ 'flílm" U'AÍ6~111 ln~I Coun of lus0<0 tJCJ1 14. 197 iobn. 2'l. z,9,250.211, 2j2.2S).2:14 S.. l..«tl<', A111lrr, J .. \fin.~1 rolJ11 ht111inp." ~lunony u! R~
"""'P: m ddimrion oí ...,,oo.i.. 224-J5 r.aph). l.SS-"ifk l1l¡pt.1aa. lou ot ap~
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&.ni•·l l~in• •t, 191, C01ttrl.i1N:Kc
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lnctn111tiWJ01l ~Ulilnl oo Cr.-d and PClbrical Jud..:11UY Aa oi 1789, l47ol lynchina. 21 l • .292nl7 n'll~ n f. 2b, 12 )7. 2J2: 11~ matnspnn• t14
l .! ~. hk-r-o1rdt., c!Pn\111.tlln,:, 12-4-.?.,., idro Ull--12·., ~ni.e lo .icroclh «nXJ,
Ri~i. lu;J>R b, \l'n)!, Anldc 41 ol
º" mean~ oí, U2. 22i 230: nµus. 5; l; so-a1kd gmermons..of, 'i, \..,J;anom
Z70. ~WltAntl'C' ,., rrw<J,im uf a1)('1l'(h by,
fumdlCUOlL WLCm•uonol, 6, 7, J..il\ll•
J""'"..1 t ""6
Lyou.rd, .J c.an·rr.i."~' ji) t°"'iu.lity. 107-108; lltld modcmnm. '7,
.ymbobc tuDCOon ot 2'02.101. l..."'i. 2.ltl ol. 14' 1•8. l•S. l!12; al • ...,..,_ H2. porftt1PMpb)' ¡I) 86. ~8. 114 lb 'HAt~ Ín
2.1>. smc pana to. 19707,, U.S rQtr\'1- Mc("'-•ll Mow. •4, •r ~modd.:, l.._., l12. l8)
Gü.l11;11lála M~ldiil 1u¡u;~. "'n ~i1\An J'C'll' 11'0
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bDD!iIP.1'7.2SS.27~.J.81n69
lnccrrwUttn•I C..O\'(:fl..lfll on ~<'Cto1nac, Sot W
KiJJie t Kv~. 1 19}. l~99. 2~'t. da.all
lfl, 105" .?06, IUIY ......~ IJ> 2Cl\. l_.~n12
f\1~Kmnon. C.tth11.nne. +t
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and CoJn,,.i ~" •IC~rR•. '1"7n7
ln:tem.2UDllitl Cnmm:AI Cou:n t1CC1 7, 266;
lmutcJ fw>d ¿,,,. <bco.y, rae ol m.11lo
OUlcx.ittl( ot', J99
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H<ácl. C«<i fritdridi 61 hWNUuutian b" 1n1(1'1).uonal. )6., 2.&l. 259, bl•cm•uoo.J Crlmrn"1 Tribun.ol l<>r J\wmda >CtJOO> ª""""· 2115-bl6; Jc1..... !J\o, 19) 1Jl-J2; as uanso.i nonal, .?bS . .1tt 11/ro Al1d!-r.,.,a4.;1 dcclsion. 244
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killinr'J ln. 270-71 iu:·-t·h•MJ dituncti.•nt in
jc'lli1Sb 1'wtlt"fl SUM\WS ot. :351nll; md rdlJOOftS at, 118; e.s p tomlSll'IJl s:n.e tor re-- l«. 270. Jmc.lluooa ot barnctt m. n'; ~- .kl> "/so vu~.auon.J Lt\I,· omrmon OI ID.IWO()' mH~·rptetll:i.Qo l.n, 8J; :O.adonal O~J.uuon lt}r t(1omen·¡ Shd1ers
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hiM 'C1hn1c dc.unnw"' 174 78, n"Yi· 1nW"d1,1.1I .as. h.•lc: ~ll ci•1($ ,n. l:ll.9n"4 Ci00$ fmm. 141 t:xtmn• .s1rooutt "f 189-. Hono< IThfrd Rcichl, 212-1! ~iffun., 1-1.,..,... t.29-lO ru1tion11! PQlictcs. filfOl.f wtth &<'lC l 6'S~
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Na.m1 1lutd Rodi j'4-7}. l lJ-)4 1 "~, l".'-1 2-».~.:hu b7 rnlt of, ''· 1-47, -1~-ry~ .J<-"'' «"tpcsonc n'IC'fo.&I w11u.I t:)l,pk111•1un 01. !~7 . .le culiniution of ;ubotdlil.111: 177; !&t~unl ttu N1nnoe Amenc.an.s. 81 17.?
lofondu"'•· n:-.r•ttn"1111if'" Í(1ot pmat~ Jc1uh C'\1lllllrt)' ní '" ~en~. 189-90 ~ 1n p.rompl? mactinn Z(.i-6R. di rnrc(I(, 111, 217! d !ll\ll and 1iuunm1 <ti. l. na1un.I IMr. CfS<1lUl)liM Omil•nty rl IJl ...4;2:;
sqwds m. i...-1 tnftfil\Mtr ('(lactf'CS-nf q 10. l J. 288nf.: lm· bu.cm:uion.21 .uv.. c:.on.ub.woo. 22.f \'Ottt <GennanyJ, i0b-30'1n30 suucmral prti...cy oí, 6. and social StiQU quo, ] ji; in.Ju¡on ol,
lion~ Kuaz. Ausu:alun orpn;i..ttd mmC! ui., ,wge l\I. J2-lrt-.'t0 .IOdally unpakd. ,_., ¡titc11u11~•:•l l•l'<ICT budJ1nt an. 172 7\, pnn t~-~bi·m rl'01«'• 1..-tccM (hJJn:n lft, 21-1, ~il:'rtln. Thc«I~ ll)n)M. )~ot<b J51, l.Jl, .)l~-~,Mb
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bonor ddcntt t'"Í 1$1.la15: b\\'11 U¡'\halJl,ng lt'lt.cr·AfPtfl~ C'A'll1\Tf'ITl!ftl'l (in 1hr ~· rok ºª tGltn l.fl. l97 K"Xusl condwons <.11, J:l.i-1.¡ nulua., l)CCUptiton. k.XJJil.l. condrtions undcr, OÍ. 176: eu~ies. su·Jc:cl('('J Of 21.;, ~().
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h11m.n d~""fllf<t· unrwn..J ,unJ1UJ PI 108 kni.-,; ~>l>llr'l't Wt}l'l'l"n ( on•t:tit •n ,.¡ J•J'>lll •comfort ~.. In. 211-22 rnmnir Lt1:11utt P«tt 1\ t J""(~ imt míLu1n rribun1th. c.- ••, ¡n,t. \AAl12Q i\kalr.;r,- ,1nJ pNietl« 1li loff. n1"1Jia ,...ch
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101-101
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len«" tptnSi wnmt:n, ?76
pohucal. dcl:mOO m ~ ol tute• .U
pohu1.-• .nJ law rel.uon bd.-..-ecm. 18-19
~aph'· 11b.ue tbrouach. 48; Au~CMD
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11mut.JJC!. 162.; unl...,..ful cJub11:10n ot,
ll2n"' '"''ct•muaunn 1n 90, ·- '<filt rl'Uf"9'
pud. 162--6). \\"(mCQ, dcmOO'fitrtJIQnJ
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tnn'4 ix-t lhlu1na11c •lrc:,. 22.lt
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17l-72, utd po,.~l<'$WCS~ .ai fe.X. 117. fC"
ali1y ª" 17-18, 60 J11«", '· 26.b, 270
P"l!nm<)'· 75. 122; bcs><füs m¡uired ín
c.n.da, 106, 110; p~ (ar, 31'4-
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S.rh<.111. l8, 162. 161
pmmrufcd 'l,l.'CJnM:n: crimi.nll!Wnit bU'\~rt of.
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236
prwuruUon CEt>AW on. 2881167;_., dtm.md
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all!tinnal ll4. tmk. &D NM ~C'. 211,
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af )7-}8, f~\, lijb..., <"KICttUllt.UIOCl, 14\
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•• por.enn.1 human nf!hts \'IOlauon, 1'¡ .u
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210. 272. 271, 215, 1.7~. l44n20
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W<.lmicrt 's ~an,,.,., ~mon ..b11rk:ttmtk'l. -Ot.. 1.2
"'"
vsdeos: crazie lor w &ía. 317-1&-J. )l8-
uL11 .....1 o{, l.f1. 1"1
\'.1.)C'llt1)·s erpcnenoe: dn'r:rsrry ot J5 rcitlJcy
~rcll~, \'ir¡tlñU, 'J;t.7
W'o11J T~<)e Ctor.c:r towen. ~ til!JICt.. 26l-
J9nl l. porn0Kr.1phk, u1 M(>thcb, )i6ol2: uf,4~9
pn:ifi1 Íti'lm aJnh J7lnl "-'
\\"c.,mtn't Lri.J Edl,.;>111on anil .~c:tjt1f1 l ·unJ W(.111...I \l'as- O l2i 22. J•r.aunc. tn 15 · \
Vt.etniJi:n. M(D~s- domc$t1c vio1entt ahier. lb'
Vi.1111 J>,,.ru:ba. 1'K)nlS
1lf..Al~l 1Yn.J111. ""' 1-0'J. 1to
\l."Olnetl ' bn,:11 • ...lt.'net lll 4+4'
11/vo Holocaust
vioikntc-: llt"tfi (lf ,., fltll'IO\ atttK:il-ia . .Z10-71; ~t"l'I·• Jlk'l\'~IU in C.i1n.J11, ,,,, itklb.J, Y11d1V, Akku... nmc11 oí, ~n&2
~ '4'0Melli. *S culnuW ((lntt1tnt.. 29-)0;
107-108. 152-'>8: jUll~tOOG, l.J. 11: p.utic- Yu~anií: *1 hoc cnminal uibun.1 íc-. 23$.
tNii$ c:uhur;11l 1~udllt'~ (lf, )O. IA f.undy, t.o.. lo11ecn"""'1.11..., in. 18) NATO bombín¡
lp¡ol'°" ... ",_'~
11, 1~1: multk'Ultlu··41J dc:íalle of. J.4, UO· wnn•C'l'I J ngtu. i lo!Ml1r..u.-.o '1r. I~: in l""'·111r oí ll.fJn8~ pre ........ romot1raph~ rn:ulr.ct m
lawful depcuoo ul, llln); womcn·s pava- K'Cltc, 28-lni"i l,'l, IM-64. 189
~ leu.r ot, 270
vlokntt \.l#liJIUlll W~Unl'n •b5C:11CC e>Í ID ddinl-
tiol1 a( w.u-, 261: m .armed contha.. 260-63;
Jcl11""11t1ttm.t11.t>n.lU.,,• .!%-9'n2I. }84n7;
,11Wtrnnwn1 t'1k.r.a4!c ..,r, 29l-CJ.ti\){\- in tn
tnoauoml lau.·. 200-7}; noosc,fe .aots in.
26}; .a so d&K-nnun~1t1n 29'nJ8
Vi~1wc- Apuut Womm Act {lJ";.). "7-Ul.
19}. 27), 284nl7. l4,n9
v1rgin11. iamfiec oí. '~
Vo,vodina, 184
war. 111•·.$ ol. ,,.,., 1)U.55 f".l~ as 1ool in, 1&1!
pro,u1u1.on U\. )'7n62. ac.·.p«ific nq¡A
~ ronsicqumcts-of. J99n91 ; .ttx
Stt<reotypt'd dunc.i.wooa ol. '• SpO.ik of ._.,,
h:H')' "' 182~ •• IPOI (Jf gm(l(ulc. liol¡ and
\iOlmce -aa•nn W'flmm, 2frQ-.6.}. Seo.- abo
""!lnnetl ronl1Jn•
WIU c;nmd ttlJ.h i;h.1rf;CS tll, 36b-67rü9
.......uti.mt utroéities. ~ u.-c IMl:tt, 1-18
v.·cmeo. as btOJogically deremu.ne.:1 c.a!CflOfY,
S>: and chlldt('l'I,.,,. i:at.h crop }}; a ·o~ i
uns• iand "b:umam+" 4S; o( color; role- of.
, 1; rondmon of., pi<·l<g>I, 1<3; tnfotttd
mc:qi.ulu'\ uI 149 fc11..t .,oori,g. 270. lqbGM2.
ln ftmlnl$l fheot)· 'U. -and ,iiri~. incrc11a.l
mffidci.!'11 1n. 14~ ~ o..'OOOnl.ic sllllUS
ot, ll, tcb oi lnídlomy ot, 287nbl; ilW
~raq lltnól'lft. 1QSM; JMhrt11lqin.JittJ \'Ktjm
$(JWS. of 117; .u .o i.nrrln:sacaltv wwn...
tk"•lal g11'UIJ1 t-2. $., 1'-1-1;111 n1anbcrl uf
tthnic COOUllUOJUCI, )"Q1n(t2¡ ltt nt,:tr, Ml"I
cnt~r;. 46: numbctof murdctt:d 11n-
ctcti;"
nu.illr. l8jon.12. Jl; 00-..:1..utJ """-tlOftl oL
JB<l--SI; po111uon o( unJt'r intcm111.ionid l11w.
JS; pnv.aq a,ilus of. ~73 n6; c.qnoduC'Cf\.'l'
c.:a1>101lo uf, 11-U.; ng,hi... of in mani~.
.l-%DSI; l'f'Xlu.ld·. rd
"Any "°''
horr Cathannt M.>dtlnnon i• bound to
be pawatlvt and uoimg Htrt 11 1 !<1~ • col
fearon ot -'< ~ liow di• IUtho~I id<IS
lbout ......., , ngllt> hovo ck-wlaptd owr 1->
ty JNI' Tho IJl11l>IP q - A1t wcmtn .....,.,,1
lf~ 14101tt moro cl<"Mly a~
~ ~ '"'" "'"" urvnemon. l1a> lnlrrat
rd. c1111>itd, n .... mc...qd gMd<r b.>Sfd
__ ....._No .... $ lplftO !ho -
tig ~ 1r.in1 IU!l>l l!Mmmont ID pwnog-
n¡tl¡ ..... fij)f lllcl .tclonct !:> - ....,
.,,,.., cd.n. 111.t im 11 no~'"'
m. 'ho ..nl>c< • poulDft lor ..... ~ "" .,,.
alfmal •• •nd "" CltOl'JY\tJ w.. """' u-
pq>. .... OfW 11'1"-"rs 10 ICC-Llbhty hawf
lnSpad ll\ill!V- ID ISSftl llloU r9'1> and
how bmd 1lleir _, - domH1>< r.w n inm
~ - A l l lhll. Otlllmuchmctt,~
• lruly """°"" bool •
·Ei:Jl><U> hm. " ' - Cllid ol di< Uni..i N1._
earm.- on IN !l;........, of Al! l...,. ol
~~-"""""""'­
~e--
allNU.lt -
• Cathannr MacKW'lnon has writtfn 1 series of
innova!M! and lhought·ptovolc'ng tss.-is 1n whlch
ih• conflonts tlle tealltl., of wornen's l.....s 1nd
tht law's fa1lure 10 addrfSs lhem adequattly •
- N.wrnalhtm Plltj. J...,.,
ln101nlbO<lll Cr..,lnol
Coun. .and fom1t1 Judgt Pmidtnt 1nctm1t10NI
C110'ln1I ~llunal lof p,,.oda
r-.-. ~ ~ · .
11 ~
....... ... 11~ 1
••!••
• Macl(1nnon ·, brlClng l'SSays globabze hor sqia·
ture Jdtas-tht hodden power bthltld "neutral'
iu1.., tht r1llf of male p1..1ege m tht constru<bOn
of h"'l1r<NI rulfS 1nd t.w-<11ailng proassos. dio
1....,b~.iy of thost l«bord>naled by tlle ll'Jbloc/
Pf"ª" dr..lr. t11e n.... "'~" cunc:.pt o1
fClllOI ~1th dowstabng resuhs far die hem!>-
lort ~ fitld ol im<mallONI ...... 1how
si.ngmg rebubs 10 how fl!lmiuonal 1.Jw IS
~t.._. and ptactJOd. prnduad owr btlle
- • dlatl. clK.odo. dttliOl!Stlllt 1he translof.
NI,_. po""'wl of ~t lhat sefts ID
...,. llnd chrt¡je) "" ..., - - Madtn>on's
~tfuj cnllqUOS ol manert r¡ngn¡ frcm die
hlnd~ng ol class ICllOflS ID tilo ~ clQas
rtllecttd "' tht - on teminsm ¡wtMdt todrspen-
wblt ~.ocing "" ..,,.,... - """' at.clul -
nab<>ns (mis~ 1hfy provdf ll'f 'si-ad< and
,,.,.. Ülal di• Bt.ISh AdmltltSIR1>00 promis<d bu\
""" cltlrvtn!d..
- JoM L Al>Mu, .._.., lish "'°-al i.ow iftd
l)plo<N<y. Columboo law School
•wh)i dOft the waron cenortSm •her 9111 c~er
les<>ón~ lor '1NgglfS aga ttt1 domet.ic viOlttií!c1'1
A\ C•thar•ne MMKtnnoo txpl.Jtn thf\ dfld othil"f
lnt"'"""º"•l lf'9o'l <!Uf'toons •bout genocido,
ro¡~ arel
•""'4• "'º"'"" s S1atus, U- '""" wPoly
IVldtn<r 101 ~.. i111~ as one of 1:.. rnoot
.,,g n•I and ¡xovotat,>t,ltgal "-'<n of""' •g1.
The "'"Y' 91thtred hert '"' Q<J n1ess.nua1
Mac~tnoon •nd rofl<Ct h.. JOll'""Y' IQ e..rua.
Canad4 lndl.! •rol s~ .. we l 1S ICll!5S lho
tett•im ol llll!mabonal la-~ ard ~ poli11<1
IOd lho ~ ..... lhot ¡,, beyond Úle - ol
""" l!ngle - •
- - l•nmiohSmo1'11r.- •.-d
U'tf Sdm, ...S aAhof of """'""' •'tt i J ICf d
........ - •omg Hir1:>t1•""
~.,,,
Mns..W.,iu