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6. THERMAL TREATMENT 81
7. WELD IMPERFECTION 91
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Welding is the best process to join metals. It is the only way to join permanently
two or more pieces of metal to make them act as one piece. Historical
development of welding can be traced back to ancient times, but the modern
welding process used today began just before the end of last century. Sir
Humphrey Davies of England is credited with providing a foundation for modern
welding with two of his discoveries. One was the discovery of acetylene and the
second was the production of an arc between two carbon electrodes. These two
discoveries lead to development of method for generating local high temperatures.
Although, today it is possible to make welds between metals without increase in
temperature by some special techniques but most of the process call for an
increase in temperature locally so that metal melts, bridges the gap and on
solidification becomes united. Therefore welding is a heat dominated technology.
There are well over 35 different processes in use today and many new ones are
being developed. The classification of these processes or the broad grouping can
be done taking into consideration
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pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler
material.
The different welding processes are broadly grouped under following heads:
Thermo Chemical:
In this type of process heat required to fuse the joint is provided by an exothermic
reaction. The example of this type is the common gas welding in which heat is
generated by combustion of acetylene gas.
Electric Resistance :
Resistance welding processes bring the fusion of two metallic parts with the heat
obtained from the resistance of the metal to the flow of electric current through
them. After the two surfaces are heated they are pressed together to make the
joint. Various welding processes using this method of heat generation are spot
welding, seam welding using welding of sheet metals. Another important process
making use of electrical resistances is the electric slag welding. This process
employs the electric resistance heating of a bath of molten slag carried over the
weld pool.
Arc Welding:
These are the most widely used processes for day to day welding. The arc welding
group includes eight specific popular processes each different from other in some
respect of other. In these processes the coalescence of metals is brought about by
heating them with an arc formed between the positive and negative electrode and
with or without application pressure or filler metal. All the arc welding processes
can further be subdivided into two sub groups (A) Flux shielding arc welding
processes and (B) Gas shielded arc welding processes.
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Solid Phase Welding;
These are the processes in which the two sides of a joint are brought into intimate
atomic contact either by mechanical deformation of by atomic diffusion or by a
combination of cold pressure welding applicable only to ductile metals such as
aluminum and copper uses mechanical deformation at room temperature. Hot
pressure welding is similar, but uses heat to render the metal ductile. Explosive
welding impacts the parts coverings local deformation and possibly heat at the
interface. Friction welding employs rubbing at the interface to generate heat cause
deformation. Various forms of pressure butt welding, so called because they can
join bars, tubes, sections end to end, use heat generated by flame, electric
induction, electric resistance across the joint.
In arc welding an arc is generated between anode and cathode and the heat
generated by this arc is used for welding. In the arc processes there are two basic
types of welding arcs. One uses the non- consumable electrodes and the other
consumable electrodes. The non- consumable electrodes does not melt in the arc
and the filler metal is not carried across the arc stream. Example of this type of
process is the Gas Tungsten arc welding. In the consumable electrode welding
process the electrode melts in the arc and is carried across the arc gets deposited
by filler metal.
Arc action can best be considering the DC tungsten electrode arc is connected as
shown in the figure .on the left the tungsten arc is connected for direct current
electrode negative. When the arc is started the electrode becomes hot and emits
electrons. The emitted electrons attracted Towards the positive pole, travel through
the arc gap and raise the temperature of the argon Shielding gas atoms by
colliding with them. The collisions of electron and atoms. Produce thermal ion is
action of some of the atoms of the shielding gas. The positively charged gaseous
atoms arc attracted to the negative electrode where their kinetic ( Motion ) energy
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is converted to heat. This heat keeps the tungsten hot enough for electron
emission of electrons from The surface of the tungsten electrode ( cathode ) is
known as thermonic emission. Positive ions Also cross the arc. They travel from
positive pole ( the work in this case ) to the negative pole (electrode tungsten in
this case.) The largest portion of current flow approximately is via electron flow
rather than the flow of positive ions. The continuous feeding of electrons into the
welding circuit from the power source account for the continuing balance between
electrons and the ions in the arc. The electrons colliding with the work creates
intense localized heat which produces melting and deep penetration of the base
mental. When the polarity of the tungsten electrode is changes and made positive
reverse process takes place as show on the right side of the figure. Heat in this
case is concentrated at the tungsten electrode, and wide melted area with shallow
penetration.
ARC REGIONS
The arc length between the electrodes and the work piece divided in three regions.
There are three area which are basically identified in an arc column. These are
cathode area, plasma area anode area.
The anode area is the area adjacent to the anode. The temperature in this region
is the highest among the three regions. The very high temperature is a result of the
electron impingement upon anode. The collision of the fast moving electrons with
the gas atoms account for the heat in the plasma region as the central region. The
area adjacent to the cathode is called the cathode region. The heat generated in
this area is due to the ionic bombardment on the cathode. The cathode. The
cathode region, is generally area of medium heat. It is anode area and roughly one
third is available in the cathode region.
In the consumable electrons welding- arc, the electrode is melted and molten metal
is carried accress the arc. A uniform arc length is maintained between the
electrode and the base metal by feeding the electrode into the arc as fast as it
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melts. The arc atmosphere has a great effect on the polarity of maximum heat. In
the shielded metal arc welding the arc atmosphere depends on the types and
composition of the coating of the electrode.
The forces that cause metal to transfer across the arc are similar for all
consumable electrode arc welding process. The type of metal transfer dictates the
usefulness of welding process. It effects the welding position that can be used,
depth of the weld penetration, stability of the welding pool, weld contour etc. the
type of transfer depends upon current density polarity of electrode, electrode size
etc. the other important factors affecting the metal transfer are the surface tension
of the metal droplets and the weld pool, gravitational forces acting electro magnetic
forces in the plasma stream.
Three types of metal transfer occur in metal arc welding depending upon the
factors mentioned above. These are spray transfer, dip transfer and globular
transfer in spray type transfer the metal is transferred from the electrode to the
weld paddle in axial stream of fine droplets. the sizes
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Of the droplets vary but are of smaller diameter than that of the electrode. This
type of spray occurs at high current density. Maximum deposition rates, and high
heat inputs are obtained using this mode of metal transfer. This type of metal
transfer is generally limited to down hand or flat position welding.
In dip transfer at the start of the cycle, the end of the electrode melts into a small
globule of liquid metal. Next the molten globule advances towards the work piece
creating short circuits. At this stage the metal transfer is by gravity and surface
tension, and arc is extinguished. Then the current rises up and by nature of
magnetic pinch force common to high current densities the electric contact is
broken and the arc is reignited. With the arc renewed, the cycle begins again.
Frequency of arc extincted and resignation varies from 20 to 200 times per second.
This type of transfer usually occurs at low current densities. During short circuiting
the current rises up rapidly which causes expulsion of wire from the puddle,
resulting in weld spatler. In order to reduce this effect, an inductor is added in the
secondary circuit of the power supply.
Globular transfer occurs at voltage and current densities intermediate between the
conditions for spray and shot circuit. In this type of transfer a relatively large droplet
increases till gravity forces overcome the surface tension.
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TERMS AND DEFINATIONS
1. All- weld – metal test specimen: A test specimen wherein the portion
being testing is composed wholly of weld metal.
2. As- welded: the condition of weld metal, welded joints and weldments
after welding prior to any subsequent aging , thermal, mechanical and
chemical treatments.
6. Backing: material, weld (metal, asbestos, carbon, granular flux, gas etc.)
backing up the joint during weldings.
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11. Backstep sequence: a longitudinal sequence wherein the weld bead
increments are deposited is the direction opposite to the progress of
welding the joint.
15. Build up sequence: The order in which the weld beads of a multiples-
pass well are deposited with respect to the cross- section of the
joint.
17. Concavity: The maximum distance from the face of the a concave fillet
weld perpendicular to a line joining the toes.
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19. Convexity: The maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld
perpendicular to a line joining the toes.
28. Full Fillet Weld: A fillet weld whose size is equal to the thickness of
the thinner member joined .
29. Fusion Zone: The area of base metal melted as determined on the
cross-section of a weld.
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31. Groove weld: a weld made in the groove between two member to be
joined. The standard types of groove welds are as follows:
32. Heat Affected Zone: That portion of the base metal which has not
been melted, but whose mechanical properties of microstructure have
been altered by the heat of welding, brazing, soldering or or cutting.
33. Pipe Welding: The position of a pipe joint wherein the exis of the the
pipe is approximately horizontal and the pipe is not rotated during
welding.
35. Groove Weld: The position of welding wherein the axis of the weld
lies in an approximately vertical plane.
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36. Horizontal Rolled Position:
40. Lead Angle: The angle that the electrode makes in advance of a line
propendicular to the weld axis at the point of welding, taken in a
longitudnal plane.
41. Leg of a Fillet Weld: The distance from the root of the joint to the tee
of the fillet weld.
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46. Progressive Block Sequence: A block sequence wherein successive
blocks are complete are completed progressively along the joint, either
from one end to other or from the center of the joint toward either
end.
49. Root Penetration: The depth groove weld extends into the root of a
joined measured on the centerline of the root -section.
50. Root Reinforcement: Reinforcement of weld at the side other than that
from which welding was done.
52. Slag Inclusion: Non- metallic solid material entrapped is weld metal or
between weld metal and base metal.
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54. Stringer Bead: A type of weld bead made without appreciable transverse
oscillation.
55. Theoretical: The distance from the beginning of the root of the joint
perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the largest right- triangle that can be
inscribed within one fillet- weld cross- section.
56. The shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld to its.
57. Tee Crack: A crack in the heat- affected zone generally not extending to
the base metal.
58. Undercut: A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe the toe
or root of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal.
59. Vertical Position: The position of welding wherein the axis of the weld is
approximately vertical.
60. Pipe Welding: The position of a pipe joint wherein welding is performed in
the horizontal position and the pipe may or may not be rotated.
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approximately the same as the base metals or has a melting point
below that of the base metals but above 8000F (4270C).
64. Weld Metal: That portion or a weld which has been melted during
welding.
66. Work Angle : The angle that the electrode makes with a line perpendicular
to the weld axis at the point of welding taken in a transverse.
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2. Power Source for Arc Welding
GENERAL
The arc welding process requires current sufficient in amount to produce melting of
base metal and filler metal a proper voltage to maintain an arc. The voltage
requirement is from 17 to 45 volts and currents requirement is from 10 to 500
ampr AC or DC normally.
The voltage supplied for industrial purpose is too high to use directly. Therefore
means are incorporated on an arc welding power supply to reduce the high
input voltage down to a suitable range(20 to 80 volts). Transformer, generator, as
transformer rectifier provide the facility of reducing 230/440 volts power to the
voltage required for arc welding process.
Welding Generators
The welding generators are mainly used for high quality welding which require
direct current. They are mostly driven by induction motor which are connected
to 400v, 3 phase, 50 cycles main. Some times they are coupled to diesel
engines so that they can be used in places where there is no power. In both
cases the primer movers are made to run at constant speed.
Welding generator have three primary viz; field coils, armature and Commutator.
An electromagnetic force is induced is a coils, moving inside a magnetic field.
The field is produced by passing a direct current through the field coil. The
armature is rotated by a prime mover at constant speed inside this field. As a
result an alternating current is produced and this is fed to the commutator. The
a.c. power is packed up by the carbon brushes which ride on the surface of the
commutator and convert the a. c. power to direct current.
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The transformer consist essentially of two magnetically coupled electrical circuits.
The first circuits to which energy is supplied from an AC supply system is
called primary winding and the second, from which the energy of same form
and frequency but of a different voltage is delivered to the load, is called
secondary winding. It is obvious that the transformer is a alternating
current power supply.
Rectifiers are used to change the A.C. supply obtained from transformer into
D.C. supply. A suitable circuits of semi conductors made of selenium or silicon is
incorporated after the transformer to give a D.C. output.
One of the important criteria for selection of the power source is ‘duty cycle, A
welding power supply is called upon to deliver output during limited periods only for
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manual welding. The welder after consuming one electrode this time the
welding power supply is allowed to idle. So it is not essential the power
supply should given rated current all the time is on. The amount of time is
expressed as a percentage. This percentage is called duty cycle.
Thus a 60% duty means that the power supply can deliver rated load output
for 6 minutes out every 10 minutes. A 100% duty cycle power supply can
produce rated output continuously without exceeding the established temperature
limit. For manual welding the power sources are rated generally at 60% duty
cycle and for semiautomatic and automatic processes the rating is usually 100%.
In the above paragraphs various welding power sources have been described
taking into consideration their constructional features and the type of current
output they give. One more important point which will have to be taken in to
consideration while selecting a power source is its volt-ampre characteristics of
a power source is obtained by measuring and plotting the output voltage of the
machine. The obtained by measuring and plotting the output voltage of the
machine. The voltage & current output measuring circuits consist of a pure
resistance load which is varied from minimum or no load to maximum or short
circuits. Readings are taken which when plotted on a graph give a volt-ampre
characteristic of a power source.
There are two basic types of power sources expressed by their volt-ampre
output characteristics. One is the constant current in which the volt – ampre
characteristics curve is drooping type. The other type is know as the constant
voltage type and has a relatively flat voltage ampere curve. Both of these terms are
slightly misleading since neither power source produces a absolute
constant current nor constant current nor constant voltage output. The fig.
Shows both the types of curves (fig.2)
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The constant voltage curve is essentially flat but with a slight drop. This may be
adjusted slightly up or down to change the voltage, however it will never rise to as
high as open circuit voltage of the constant current power source. This is one
reasons that the constant voltage power source is not used for manual shielded
metal are welding with covered electrodes. It is mostly used for automatic & semi-
automatic welding.
It is know that short arc has lower voltage and long arc has higher voltage. With a
short arc, the power source produces more current and with longer arc the power
arc the power source produces less current. This is true in both the case constant
voltage and constant current power sources. The figure shows the arc curves
super imposed on the power source curve. The inter section of arc gives the curve
and source curve operating point of the welding machine. It can be noted from the
figure that in a C.C. power source when the arc length changed the corresponding
change in current value is not much. In manual welding the arc length changes
depending on the welder and it is not possible to keep the arc length constant. So
in manual welding it is not desirable that the corresponding change in the current
value should not change drastically. This is the reason that constant power
sources are more popular for all type of manual welding processes.
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The C.V. power source produces substantially the same voltage at no load and at
rated or full load. If the load in the same voltage at no load and at rated or full
load. If the load in the circuit changes, the power source automatically adjusts its
current output to satisfy the requirements. This power source assures a self
regulating arc based on the fixed rate of feed wire. A small change in arc voltage
(arc length ) results in a relatively large change in welding current. Therefore any
decrease in arc length greatly increase the melt off rate of the wire and this brings
back the arc length to normal. (Ref. Fig.3)
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3. The Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process
(SMAW)
GENERAL
The shielded metal arc welding is a process where-in-coalscence is produced by
heating with an electric arc between a covered metal electrode and the work.
Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode covering. Pressure is not
used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode.
Prinicipal of operation:
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Shielded metal arc welding process is one of the most popular arc welding
processes. It has maximum flexibility and can weld many metal in all positions from
near minimum thickness. The investment for equipment is very small and most
welders have the necessary skill to use the process. It is used in manufacturing
operations and widely used in the field work for construction and maintenance. The
manual method of applying shielded metal arc welding process is most common
and represents 99% of all the use of the process. The automatic method is used
and is called gravity welding but has limited application. The manual shielded arc
welding process has all position capabilities as shown in fig. 5. Welding in the
horizontal, vertical and overhead positions depends on the type and size of the
electrode and welding current and the welders skill.
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Figure 6 shows the circuit diagram for
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). It shows
the welding cable used to conduct welding
current from the power source to arc. The
electrode lead forms the other side. They are
attached to the respective ‘ work’ and
‘electrode’ terminals of the welding machine.
Welding can be accomplished with either
alternating current (AC) or direct current with
electrode negative (this is also refered as straight polarity) or electrode positive
(reverse polarity).
They are two equipments i.e. the power source and the electrode in the above
circuit which are very imported and a little detail study regarding these equipment
is essential. The power source is the heart of the shielded metal arc welding
system. Its primary is to provide electric power of proper current and voltage to
maintain a controllable and stable welding arc. The normal current range is form 25
amps. To 500 amps. Using conventional size electrodes. The arc voltage varies
from 15 to 35 volts. For manual SMAW the output characteristics of the power
source must be of a constant current type.
Detailed description of the various types of power sources and their uses is given
in the chapter on ‘Power Sources’.
Next important item is the consumable electrode. The consumable electrode for
SMAW consist of a bare wire of suitable composition covered with a coating called
‘flux’. The selection of covered electrode for specific work is based on the electrode
useability and the composition and properly of deposited weld metal. In order to
properly select an electrode it is better to understand the basic function of coating,
the basic of specifying a particular electrode and the deposited weld metal
properties.
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Electrode Coating:
Flux coating for the shielded metal are welding electrode is to provide one or more
of the following characteristics:
3. Slag formers to protects the deposited weld metal with slag from
atmospheric oxidation.
4. Ionizing elements to make the arc more stable and to operate with
alternating current.
To import the above mentioned properties to the flux certain organic and
inorganic materials in appropriate mesh size are mixed together. A paste is
formed out of this mix by adding suitable binders. This paste with good green
strength is applied to the bare metallic wire. These covered electrodes are then
dried and baked at suitable temperatures. Electrodes with three types of
coating are normally used & manufactured in India. They are :
This material is used in the flux under various brand names. It is produced by
digesting hard or soft wood or similar material, bleaching the pulp so formed
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and finally washing, drying and grading it into the required mesh sizes. This
graded celluslosic material is mixed with selicate binders and coated on the
bare wire to give cellulose coated electrode. While welding, the cellulose
decomposes in the arc forming carbon monoxide and hydrogen in larger
quantities. These gases rush outwards from the arc and push the atmosphere
away from the molten puddle. The gas produced, raise the arc voltage and
thereby increase. The amount of heat produced from the electricity in the arc.
The cellulose electrode has therefore, very very hot arc even at lower current
value and this together with the ases evolved from the coating at high pressure
give rise to a digging arc and deep penetration. There is very little slag formed
and this makes welding in all positions possible. This type of electrode is
extremely good for pipe welding.
These type of electrodes are also called low electrodes. Larger quantities of
hydrogen are generated from the cellulose coated electrodes. Hydrogen has
been found to be harmful in welding of medium carbon, low carbon, alloy and
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stainless steels. To avoids this hydrogen problem basic coated electrodes were
developed , which give negligible quantities of hydrogen. The flux of these
electrodes have calcium and other carbonates and fluorides. The CO2
generated from the carbonate given effective shielding to the weld metal. The
electrodes are baked at very high temperatures to remove traces of moisture
from them. The arc of low hydrogen electrodes is not harsh but the penetration
obtained is sufficient. For most welding jobs. A thick slag is formed over the
weld metal which does not peel off easily. But due to this hard, sticking slag the
weld metal is cooled slowly and exhibits good mechanical properties. Weld
metal susceptibility to cracking is reduced by these electrodes.
To the above three type of coatings various other ingredients are also added to
the flux to improve their properties. Iron powder imparts a number of desirable
operating characteristics to the electrode. It improves the stability for one. Iron
powder in the coating melts and remains unoxidised and joins the wield pool .
This increases the deposition of efficiency of 300% have been developed.
These electodes need higher currents to operate .Small quantities of alloying
elements are also added to the flux coating which melt and go into the weld
metal to enhance its properties . The alloying elements added to the coating
are Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, v, Co etc.Ther are so many different types of coatings
which can be given to different types of bare wires with different operating
positions and currents specified for each type. So to specify a particular type of
electrode there has to be some established system. The American welding
Society has established such a system for identifying and specifying different
types of electrodes. The system is the most popular and in use currently.
In setting up its classification for welding electrodes and AWS has adopted a
series of four or five digit numbers prefixed with letter E.
The first two (or three in case of five digit numbers) indicate the tensile strength
of weld metal in thousands of pounds per square inch.
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The third digit indicates the position in which the electrode can be
used.Numbers 1,2,3 are used in the third digit.
The fourth digit indicates the type of coating and welding current used for the
electrode . Numbers 1 to 8 are used in fourth digit and indicate as given below :
0. : Cellulose – Sodium DC +
1. : Cellulose – Potassium AC/DC +
2. : Rutile sodium AC/DC –
3. : Rutile Pottassium AC/DC –
4. : Rutile Iron powder AC/DC –
5. : Low hydrogen Sodium DC +
6. : Low hydrogen Pottassium AC/DC +
7. : Iron Powder Iron Oxide AC/DC
8. : Iron Powder Low Hydrogen AC/DC +
Example:
E7018 indicates electrode having 70,000 pounds per square inch tensile strength
which can be used in all position weding and having iron powder low hydrogen
type of coating to be use with AC or DC + power source.
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Manufacture of covered Electrodes:
Core wire, the chemicals and minerals that comprise of the coating and the liquid
blinders that hardens and holds it all together. The steps required to manufacture
the electrodes are given in the flow chart.
The core wire for mild steel and low alloy steel electrodes is normally a low carbon
steel having carbon content of about 0.10% low magenese and silicon content, and
minimum of phosphrus and sulpher. Wires drown of above composition are cut to
size and used as core wire for the electrodes. Additional Alloy content of Mn,
Cr, Ni etc. wherever required are added to the flux.
Electrodes after manufacture are to be stored properly,if not they pick up moisture
from atmosphere and the coating gets damaged .They are generally packed in
cellphone packets which are air tight . These packets are to be sorted in room with
temperature and humidity control. Before use the electrodes are placed in baking
ovens three to four hours before use.Recommend storage conditions are kept is
given in the chart below:
E-XX10 Dry @ room temp. Dry @ room temp. Not recommend Not done
E-XX11 Dry @ room temp. Dry @ room temp. Not recommnd Not done
E-XX12 Dry @ room temp. Dry @ room temp. Not recommnd Not done
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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
E-XX13 Dry @ room temp. Dry @ room temp. Not recommnd Not done
E-XX14 Dry @ room temp. 150-2000 F 150-2000 F 250-3000F
E-XX20 Dry @ room temp. 150-2000 F 150-2000 F 1 Hour
E-XX24 Dry @ room temp. 150-2000 F 150-2000 F
E-XX27 Dry @ room temp. 150-2000 F 150-2000 F
E-60 or Dry @ room temp. 250-450o F 150-200o F 500-600 F
7015
E-60 or Dry @ room temp. 250-450o F 150-200o F 1 Hour
7016
E-7018 Dry @ room temp. 250-450o F 150-200o F
E-7028 Dry @ room temp. 250-450o F 150-200o F
E-80&9015 Dry @ room temp. 250-450oF 200-250o F 600-700o F
E-80&9016 Dry @ room temp. 250-450o F 200-250o F 1 Hour
E-80&9018 Dry @ room temp. 250-450o F 200-250o F
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© PMI, NTPC 29
TIG AND MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING CONSUMABLES
(Section chart for tubes (0 3”, thickness ½” maximum)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SL. Tube Process Tube material
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Carbon Carbon Mo Icr1/2 Mo 21/2 Cr Imo Cr Mov 9Cr Imo 18/8 Stainless Steel
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Carbon TIC RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo RT-309/ER NI/Cr
ARC E-7018 E-7018 E-7018 E-7018 E-7018 E-7018 E-309/E NI Cr3 Fe2
2. Carbon MoTIG RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo RT-1/2 Mo. RT-309/er Ni Cr3
ARC E-7018 AL E-7018 AL E-7018 AL E-7018 AL E-7018 AL E-309/E Ni Cr Fe3
3. Icr ½ mo TIG RT-Icr-1/2 Mo. RT
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Welding Electrode
Mild Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrode used in various NTPC Projects.
© PMI, NTPC 31
© PMI, NTPC 32
4. Gas Shielded Arc Welding Processes
GENERAL
The two most commonly used GSAW processes are Tungsten Inert gas welding
(TIG) and the metal shielded Arc welding process (MIG). TIG welding has become
more popular manual GSAW process and is welding used in shop and site for pipe
welding. TIG welding, of ten called Gas Tungsten Arc welding, is an arc welding
process which produces coalescence of metal by heating them with an arc
between a tungsten electrode (non-consumable) and the work. Shielding of the arc
is obtained from insert gas or gas mixtures.
The TIG welding process is show by fig. 7. The arc is initiated various ways which
will be explained later. The arc develops intense heat which melts the surface of
the base metal to form a molten pool. Filler metal is not added when thinner
materials edges joints are welded. For all but thinner materials and externally fed
or ‘cold’ filler wire is generally used. The filler metal is not transferred across the
arc as SMAW, but is malted by it. The arc area is protected from the atmosphere
by the insert shielding gas which flows from the nozzle of the torch. The shielding
gas displaces the air so that the oxygen and nitrogen of the air does not come in
contact with the molten metal or the hot tungsten electrode. There is little or not
spatter and no smoke. The resulting weld is smooth and uniform and requires
minimum finish.
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The outstanding features of TIG welding are:
1. It will make high quality welds in almost all metal and alloys.
2. Very little, if any, post cleaning is required.
3. The arc and the weld pool are clearly visible to the welder.
4. There is no filler metal carried across the arc and so there is little or no
spatter.
5. Welding can be performed in all positions.
6. There is no slag produced that mights be trapped into the weld.
The nature of arc for welding, the electron flow and the effect of polarity is
explained in the chapter ‘Arc Characteristics’. The power source used for manual
TIG welding is constant current types as the arc length varies from time to time
depending on the welder. For starting an arc some times a high frequency unit is
incorporated in the power supply. The base circuit of HF oscillator consist of step
up transformer. The secondary windings of the air cored transformer is connected
in series with the welding circuits.
The transformer supplies 3 to 5 kilo volts to the capacitor C and electric charges
set up in the capacitor discharges across the spark gap. the transfer of electric
energy between the electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of the
output transformer create high frequency oscillatory currents in the circuit which
are introduced into the welding line and superimposed on the welding current. In
this manner high voltage pluses or spark trains, sufficiently intense to break down
the arc gap, are made available.
Superimposed high frequency currents are available with DC TIG equipment for
arc starting only and then it is switch. For AC work the HP spark train must be
phased correctly with the arc voltage so that are reignition occurs immediately
following a negative half cycle .A.C. and D.C. currents both are used for TIG
welding. Recommended types of currents for various TIG process for various
metal are given below :
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METAL WELDED AC DSCP DCRP
Magnesium Alloys
Up to 3mm thick E NR G
Over 3mm thick E Nr NR
Castings E NR NR
Silver G E NR
Titanium NR E NR
The electrode material for TIG welding should have following properties:
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High melting point, low electrical resistance, good heat conductivities and ability to
emit electron easily or good electron emmisitivity. Tungsten has the above
properties and is mostly used either 100% pure or with little thorium or zirconium.
EWP 99.5 - -
EWTH-1 98.5 1 -
EWTH-2 97.5 2 -
EWTH 99.1 - 0.4
The electrodes are obtained in ground finish form or clean finish forms, the latter
referring to chemical cleaning of surface impurities. Tungsten electrodes of 99.5%
purity are used for comparatively lesser critical operations. Thoriated tungsten
electrodes with 1 to 2 % thorium have higher electron emissivity, better current
carrying capacity, longer life and greater resistance to contamination. With these
electrodes arc starting is easier and also the arc is more stable. Pure tungsten
electrodes are usually preferred for AC welding of aluminium and magnesium.
They can also be used with direct current . the current carrying capacity it lower
than alloyed electrodes. Pure tungsten electrodes are generally identified by a
green colour band.
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works well on ‘ac’ application such as welding of aluminium and magnesium. The
stripped tungsten is identified by blue colour band in most of the cases.
Zirconium alloyed tungsten used in ‘ac’ applications because of its high resistance
to contamination as well as good arc starting characteristics. These electrodes
also form a ‘balled’ end. Zirconium alloyed electrodes are recommended. These
electrodes are identified by a brown colour band.
The current carrying capacity depends upon the type of shielding gas, the length of
electrode, striking out of the collect, the cooling of the holder, the position of
welding, type and polarity of current used. Larger the electrode for a specified
current the arc will become erratic and welding will be very difficult. Vice-verse,
selection of smaller diameter rods for a particular current would increase the
chances of electrodes melting.
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Electrode Preparation for welding
The electrodes are to be ground to the required vertex angles for getting the
desired results using different types of currents. Generally for A.C. Welding a
zirconiated rod with large vertex angle of about 900 is preferred. (Please see Fig.8).
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3. The grinding should be done parallel to the axis of the rod. No concentric
serrations should be appearing at the ground cone tip.
4. Reserve one grinding wheel exclusively for electrode grinding to avoid
contamination.
5. The inert gas flow is to be stopped only after the rod is sufficiently cooled.
This is to avoid the possibility of oxidation of the tungsten electrode.
6. The frequent touching of the base metal by the tungsten is to be very much
avoided.
Shielding Cases
The shielding has provides the suitable ionizing atmosphere for the arc and
protects the weld pool from air contamination. Inert gases argon and helium are
used for TIG welding. Nitrogen is tried along with argon for joining copper and
copper alloys.
Argon is a heavy, inert, monoatomic gas with an atomic weight of 40. It is obtained
from the atmosphere by liquification of air, refined and transported as a liquid.
Argon can be obtained at 99.99% purity.
Helium is a light ,inert, monoatomic gas with an atomic weight of 4. All commercial
helium is extracted from natural gas. It is shipped as a gas in cylinders. Helium
may not be pure upto 99.99%.
Argon: Low arc voltage: This results in less heat. Hence suitable for manual
welding of thickness less than 1.5mm.
Good cleaning action : Preferred for metals with refractory oxide skins or ferrous
alloys containing high % of aluminium.
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Low Gas Volume: Being heavier than air, provides better shielding with less flow
rates and affected by air drafts.
Automatic welding: May cause porosity and under cutting, with welding speeds
greater than 60cm per minute. This varies from metal to metal and can be
overcome by using helium or argon-helium mixture.
Vertical & overhead welding: Preferred because of greater weld puddle control
but, provides less coverage than helium.
HELLIUM
High arc voltage: This result in hotter arc. Favourable for welding thick metals
and metals with high heat conductivity.
Small heat affected zone: with high heat input and greater welding speeds HAZ
can be kept narrow.
High gas volume: Being lighter than air gas flow is 11/2 to 3 times more than
argon. Sensitive to air drafts but gives better coverage for overhead position
welding.
Automatic Welding: With welding speeds higher than 60cm per minutes better
weld quality is obtained depending upon the metal and thickness. Ionization
potential is 24.5 volts. Lower arc density but arc volume is more flared up and the
heat is at the centre of the arc. Deeper penetration is possible.
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Gas mixtures used in Tungsten arc welding: In Tungsten arc welding the
physical characteristics of the gases are conductivity, ionization and dissociation
fluence the arc geometry and heating efficiency. The composition of the gases
which determines these physical characteristics will be arrived after a close study
is made on their behaviour with the parent material (fig. 9).
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Apart from its effect on element losses, the shielding, gas has to be chosen to
aviod porosity in the weld metal and the formation of harmful compounds by
reaction with the present metal. To quote and example, a gas shield containing
hydrogen would be unsuitable for welding aluminium because a high percentage of
hydrogen would be dissolved in the molten aluminium. Towards the freezing point,
as the mental solidifies copious quantitie of the same hydrogen may be evolved
due to its inability to sustain in -solubility, and thus gets trapped, giving rise to
porosity
TIG welding of stainless steels, Nickel and high nickel alloys may be done with
Argon and 5% Hydrogen, in same instances even upto 15% Hydrogen. The
Hydrogen helps increasing the arc heating efficiency and also reducing the amount
of oxides formed with stainless steels. The hydrogen can be tolerated in case of
stainless steels because of the relativity high solid solubility of hydrogen in the
austenite.
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welding can be done in almost all positions. TIG is popular for its marked
performance on thin plates.
Metals that are welded using this process mainly include carbon and alloy steels,
stainless steels. Refractory metals, heat resisting alloys and alloys of copper,
nickel aluminium, magnesium, titanium and zirconium.
Metal thickness ranging from 1to 6 mm is generally joined by TIG process. The
clean and accurate weldment produced by TIG welding has promoted the process
to be used for root passes in pressure components and other crucial applications.
In aerospace work welds are made totally be multiple pass TIG welding owing to
the high quality demand there. Thin foils, where process is now making more and
better use of plasma arc welding.
MIG WELDING
INTRODUCTION
Metal insert gas welding process popularly known as MIG welding process is one
of the many Versatile, processes grouped under heading “Gas metal arc welding
processes. (GMAW). Among this group, MIG welding process was the first to be
discovered. This was the result of the attempt made during 1940’s to develop a
suitable welding process for aluminium and also to mechanise the same. Thus
MIG welding was introduced in 1948, primarily for welding of aluminium. With the
rapid technological advance in the years that followed, the scope of the process
enveloped many other nonferrous and ferrous materials. Today it is a weld
established semi-automatic process which can be easily mechanised or automated
with a wide range of application spanning from simple sheet metal fabrication to
sophisticated space vehicle component manufacture (figure 11).
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Advantages
Disadvantages
Although MIG welding has many important advantages over other processes it has
it’s own limitations too.
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Principle of operation (MIG)
The filler metal is supplied in the form of continuous thin (up to 2.4mm diameter)
extruded wires. These are available in coiled spools.
The filler wire is generally connected to the positive polarity of a DC power source.
The work or job is connected to the negative polarity. Thus the filler metal forms
one of the electrodes and the arc is stuck between the electrodes tip and the work
piece.
An inert gas (non reactive) or gas mixture is supplied around the filler metal
electrode in a smooth and non-turbulent manner. The dynamic gas column
prevents the atmospheric air from contacting the hot molten drop lets from the
wire, the molten weld pool and a reasonable amount of heat affected zone.
(heated to intense oxidizing temperatures). The core of the gas column ionised by
the arc heat temperatures).
The heat generated by the arc depends upon the welding current voltage,
electrode stick out, inductance of the base metal melts apportion of the base
metal. The amount of metal melted depends upon the heat input per unit length of
the weld, base metal characteristics and the preheat. The molten droplet from the
wire and the melted base metal mix together to form the molten pool. This
solidifies subsequently to form the weld metal. The amount of dilution depends
upon the radio of weld metal added to the base metal melted.
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Metal Transfer
The formation of the molten droplet at the tip of the consumable electrode and its
transfer the arc column to the weld pool is governed by certain force acting on the
wire tip.
They are:
The heat generated by the melts the electrodes tip. The molten metal is acted
uipon predominantly by one or more of the forces mentioned above, and
depending upon the welding current and voltages set the metal is transferred
across the arc.
The metal transfer can be accomplished in one of the three, distinct modes
indicated below:
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TABLE
Equipment
The schematic view of the equipment used for the Gas metal are welding is shown
in fig 12. The equipment for GMAW consists of
Power source employed for MIG welding should meet the following requirements.
1. MIG welding process employs high current densities while using small
diameter wires. Depending upon the design the power source should deliver
upto 600A.
3. Provision for including different inductance values in series with the welding
circuit modes.
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4. Water pressure switch, a protective devices for ensuring postive water
cooling of the welding torch must be available wherever applicable.
5. Provision in the system for automatically switching off the shielding gas
supply, when the welding supply is switched off should be incorporated.
For MIG Welding constant voltage power sources are very popular. This is
because of the self adjusting characteristic of the welding arc associated with
these power sources. However all these types of power sources are employed
depending upon the application.
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Principle of Operation
The volt ampere characteristic of the constant potential power source is shown in
Figure 13.
Constant potential power sources may have a slightly droping ( as shown in fig.
13), flat or slightly raising characteristics ( fig. 14). But the one shown in fig.14 is
widely used.
As seen from figure 15 the inter section of the arc and power source
characteristics the point x, determines the stable operating condition. The voltage
across the arc is V volts and correspondingly ‘A’ amperes of current w2ill be draw.
These are the conditions under which depending upon the arc length (arc voltage)
suitable amount of current is drawn to melt the filler wire at the rate at which it is
supplied. In short the melting rate and wire feed rate will be the same.
When the arc length varies the current is also varied automatically and to certain
extent instantaneously. Imagine increase arc voltage a corresponding decrease in
current takes place which in turn reduces the burn off rate. Hence the electrode tip
advances reducing the arc length and arc voltage. Similarly the arc voltage and
current are adjusted when the arc length is reduced.
This the power source characteristic is such that it maintains the set arc length and
melt off rate. This is called “ SELF ADJUSTING CHARACTERISTIC”. Thus the
manual skill is taken off in maintaining arc length.
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Wires Used in MIG:
MIG welding process makes use of smaller diameter continuous wires. Smaller
diameter wires are used so that high current densities can be used. Because of
this high deposition rates are achieved, The wires used in MIG welding have
diameters 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2 and 2.4 mm. The popular sizes are 0.8, 1, 1.2 and
1.6, diameters.
The wire feed system can be differentiated by their control system as:
The classification of wire feed system based on their function can be:
1. Push systems
2. Pull systems
3. Push pull systems
Push Systems:
This is normally employed. The wire from the coiled spool is unwound and after
straightens if any is pushed through the wire conduit against the frictional forces to
the tip of the torch, Fig.16 gives a schematic view the system.
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Pull System:
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Torch:
In the gas cooled type the heat conducted into the torch from the arc zone is
removed considerably by the flow the shielding gas itself. Nevertheless the torch
will be heated considerably if the issued continuously. Gas cooled torches are
normally desined for current ratings upto 300 amps.
Above 350 amperes the arc is of water cooled design. The cooling water removes
the heat from the contact tube area. The heat is continuously removed and hence
are sutiable for 100% duty cycle (fig.18).
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Cases
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TABLE-II
Welding Parameters
The end result of MIG welding is influenced by many variables. These variables
can be grouped in three categories:
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1. Pre-selected variables
2. Primary adjustable variables.
3. Secondary adjustable variables.
Pre- selected variable depend on the type of material being welded, the thickness
of the material, the welding position deposition rate, mechanical properties and
welding environment.
1. Arc Voltage
2. Welding current (wire feed speed)
3. Speed of welding (travel speed)
These variable cause changes in primary adjustable variables which in turn cause
desired change in the end result. They are:
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Adjustments in welding parameters techniques and their effects on the weld
characteristics are indicated in Table-III.
Welding para-
Meters & END RESULTS
Techniques.
Table IV indicates the defects that occur in MIC welding, their causes and
remedies.
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TABLE IV
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Welding cables Cables too small/Cable Check current
requirements;
Overheating connections loose. replace.Check tighten.
Check
Cables too long. current carrying capacity.
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(1) (2) (3)
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Porosity Dirty electrode wire
Dirty base metal See above Dirty welds
Inadequate gas shiel-
ding.
Improper technique. Change angle of gun to improve
Shielding.
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5. Weldability of Carbon-Manganese , Low
Alloy Steels and Stainless Steels
INTRODUCTION
Generally, the term ‘Weldability’ is used to signify the influence of welding on the
base material properties .Hence, the metallurgical effect of welding would have to
be studied in detail.
STRUCTURES IN WELDS
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changes depends on the composition of the steel and the rate of cooling in the
heat affected zone.
Which have been superimposed the cooling rate curves encountered during
welding.This diagram predicts that below the nose of the curve, the cooling rate
assosciated with welding would from a Martensitic structure which is the most
emenable structure for cracking in welds. The CCT curves would vary with
different compositions of steels depending on their hardenability.However, in most
steels the nose of the curve lies in the range of temperatures between 500 and
8000C and hence the cooling time in this temperature range is vital in determining
the hardenability of the steel. In recent times ,the use of conventional methods of
plotting CCT diagrams have been replaced by moderm methods which simulate
the actual cooling time in the HAZ of the welds is plotted against temperature and
the transformation zones are indicated .A typical curve obtained by these methods
is shown in Fig . 20. The line to in in this diagram indicates the critical cooling time
at which magnesitic transformation would occur.
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Transformation and cold cracking
Properties of Martensite
It is well known that the formation of Martensite increases the tensile strength of
the material with a loss in the ductility .The hardening effect of Martensite is again
dependent on the composition of the steel and the carbon content has the
maximum influence .Hardness of Martensite is the function of the carbon content .
While low carbon Martensite is relatively soft and ductile and hence can be
permitted, high carbon Martensite is hard and brittle and is prone to cracking .Apart
from carbon, alloying elements such as Mn, Cr, Mo, V, Ni etc. also have a
tendency to harden Martensite but with lesser severity. The effect of the alloying
elements are summarized by a factor known as carbon equivalent (CE). IIW
suggest the following expression for the calculation of CE :
CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
6 5 15
Residual stresses arise in welding due to the presence of the permanent plastic
strain in the material caused due to the shrinkage of the welo metal. The residual
stresses may be formed also due to the formation of martensite in the HAZ since
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Martensite is associated with volume ,expansion. The volume expansion is found
to be greater with increase in carbon and /or alloy contents .Residual may also be
developed due to external restraints provided during welding . The magnitude of
the residual stresses may reach the yield point of the material unless it is
modified by subsequent stress relief treatment.
Preheating reduces the rate of cooling in the HAZ as could be understood very
well. In some cases, this may even avoid the Martensite .It has also been noted
that the reduced rate of cooling results in lesser stresses due to structural changes
and hence , cracking can be avoided . Another major role of pre-heating is the
increase in diffusion rate of Hydrogen and thereby avoiding cold cracking .In high
alloyed steels , the maintenance of preheat above the Martensitic start
temperature would prevent the formation of Martensite.
Post weld heat treatment is normally carried out in welded structures for the relief
of resudual stresses. In the case of highly hardenable steels , the post weld heat
treatment results in the tempering of the Martensite formed in the heat affected
zone.
Carbon Steels
Alloying elements such as Cr ,Ni, Mo etc. are not added intentionally in these
steels and may be present only as tracer elements. Carbon steels are further
classified into four sub-groups as follows:
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a) Low carbon steel upto 0.15% C
b) Mild Carbon steel 0.15 to 0.29% C
c) Medium carbon steels 0.30 to 0.59% C
d) High Carbon steels 0.60 to 1.70% Central warehousing corporation
A large amount of steel use today is of the low carbon variety particularly in the
sheet form .As discussed earlier , such low carbon contents do not pose any
problems during welding as these steels do not harden during welding .These
steels are supplied either as rimmed , semi killed or killed steel .Rimmed steels
may pose a problem during welding due to the evolution of the gases consequent
formation of porosity. This problem can be overcome by selecting consumables
with the sufficient dioxiders (mainly silicon). A different problem may arise in the
welding of the killed variety .During welding, the oxides of Aluminum which is
present in the steel may form a refractory oxide layer at the surface causing
improper fusion ,This can be altered by selecting filler material containing
adequate Manganese and Silicon which oxides interact with the refractory oxides
and increase their fluidity.
These class of steel is one of the most widely used variety and these steels are
normally specified by their C, Mn and Si contents and by their tensile strength.
Varying degrees of weldability are experienced when changing from low strength
to the high strength group and with varying section thickness .The requisite
strength of the steel is obtained by either increasing the Manganese contents
.From the point of view of welding it is significant o note that higher section
thickness are also associated with the higher carbon content and thus the
hardenability is increased .The use of preheat and low hydrogen technique are to
be adopted in higher thickness ranges. As a corollary, steels with lower carbon
© PMI, NTPC 70
content and lower tensile values do not require any special precautions during
welding.
The carbon content in this class of steel particularly if the carbon is on the higher
side and section thicknesses are heavy which ranges from 0.30 to 0.60% have a
pronounced influence on their weldability .Welding without precautions would
produce hardened (Martensitic) structure in the HAZ. The level of the carbon
present in this steel not only helps in the hardenability but also increases the
hardness of the HAZ to about 63 HRC which is almost the maximum that can be
reached in steels .Such a structure ,therefore ,has a strong propensity to develop
cracks .These steels require extreme precautions during welding , particularly if the
carbon is on the higher side and section thicknesses are heavy.
Steels of this type containing more than 0.60% C are not normally produced as a
weldable quality steel. More often, welding is applied is applied in these steels as a
method of repair and maintenance, However, a great amount of welding is being
performed in these steels than could be imagined due to a greater awareness of
economical salvage that could offer.
There are two schools of thought on the welding procedure for these steels.
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1) The procedures obtained by extrapolation from the medium carbon steels
viz., . preheat, low hydrogen process, maintance of interpass temperature
and post weld heat treatment.
Welding procedures for these steels should includes the following steps:
Although, joints using the above procedures have been produced without post
weld heat treatment, a safer approach would be to adopt post weld heat treatment,
a safer approach would be to adopt post heat treatment to improve the toughness
and ductility of the weldment.
The addition of alloying elements to Iron and steels have been developed to
a) increase strength
b) improve toughness; and
c) to impart corrosion resistance.
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Alloy steels may be differentiated from carbon and carbon maganese steels when
the Manganese content exceeds 1.65%, Soma exceeds 0.60% or when other
elements such as Cr, Mo, Ni., etc. are added as desirable elements.
From the stand-points of welding, the alloy steels can be grouped into the following
categories:
These Steels are commonly referred to as high strength structural steels since
they were developed from structural carbon steels with small additions of alloying
element to produce a fine grained Generally the limits of other elements lie as
follows:
Mn-1.35 max; Ni-9% max: Cr-1% max: V-0.10% max.
The presence of these elements promote hardenability of these steels, one of the
basic considerations in the welding of these is the prevention of cold cracking and
precautions to avoid this cracking and precautions to avoid this cracking must be
taken. These steels can be welded by most of the commonly available processes.
Provided low Hydrogen electrodes, these steels normally do not require pre-
heating except in highly restrained joints.
The steels considered in this group are quenched and tempered to yield strengths
ranging from 50 psi to 180 psi depending on their chemical composition, thickness
© PMI, NTPC 73
and heat treatment. These steels combine high tensile and yield strength with
good notch toughness, ductility and weldability. The carbon content in these steels
generally do not exceed 0.22%. Specific alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mo, V,
B, Co etc., are added to improve the properties. The transformation behavior of
these steels have several significant features. One is that considerable time
elapses before transformation starts in the temperature range 500-800oC. This
assures that the quenching would produce Martensitic formation for subsequent
factor in the freedom from quench cracking characteristics. Another feature is that
at temperatures between 600 and 500oC, a relatively short period of time is
required to produce a bainitic structure which is essentially homogeneous and has
excellent toughness. Thus a self tempering effect is present in the steel after
welding.
The presence of alloying elements in this steel makes it prone to cold cracking and
suitable precautions have to be taken. As such, these steels are weldable by most
of the commonly used processes. High heat input is permitted in the case of heavy
section thicknesses because of the faster cooling whereas for thinner sections, the
heat input must be controlled as otherwise a complete reheat treatment of the
joints would be required to restore the properties. As discussed earlier, the normal
arc welding processes would produce sufficiently faster rate of cooling to obtain
mechanical properties of the HAZ in the as welded condition equivalent to the base
material in the quenched and tempered condition, Post weld tempering is,
therefore, unnecessary in this class of steels. In cases where stress relief
treatment is considered essential due to service requirements, the same must be
carried out at a temperatures about 50o below the tempering temperature used
during the manufacture of the steel.
This group of steel is similar to that of the previous class except that the carbon
content is higher and lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.40%. Because of the higher
carbon content, very high strengths of the order of 200 psi can be obtained after
© PMI, NTPC 74
heat treatment. However the hardenability of these steels is high carbon Martersite
formed during welding is hard and brittle. The cracking tendency in these steels is
high and maintenance of preheat, interpass temperature and post heat is a must
for these steels.
The high carbon and alloying elements present in these steels tend to increase the
solidification range and hence hot cracking tendencies are high. Control of
combined sulphur and phosphorus contents to levels lower than 0.02% is
advocated for these steels.
Since Martensitic formation cannot be avoided in these steels after welding, post
weld tempering treatment is mandatory for this class of steels.
d) Chromium-Molybdenum Steels:
The most important materials used in the petroleum refineries and thermal power
plant equipment fall in this category. The main characteristics of these steels are
their oxidation resistance and high temperature creep strength. While Chromium
contributes more to the oxidation resistance, Molybdenum contributes to the high
temperature creep strength. The Chromium contents in these steels vary from
0.5% to 12% while Molybdenum is present between 0.5% and 1.0% . The
Chromium-Molybdenum steels possess over-hardening characteristics and hence
preheat, post heat etc . are to be controlled during the welding of these steels. In
most cases , preheat and post heat temperatures below the Ms temperature would
prevent cold cracking problems. The selection of preheat and post heat
temperature also depend on the process employed for welding. When several
grades of Chromium-Molybdenum steels are to be joined at a time, fewest possible
different filler metal would case material control. Filler metal of some of slightly
higher alloy content can be used. Thus 1 ½ Cr- ½ Mo electrodes can be used for
joining Chromo-Moly steel containing ½ to 1 ¼ Cr and ½ % Mo.
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The temperature of preheating and the extend of post heated depend on the
chemical on the chemical composition and the level of restraints in the joints.
Whereas steels. Containing upto to 2 % Cr can be safely brought to room
temperature after preheat, higher Cr Content steels require preheat and post heat
to be of a higher order to prevent cracking; the weldment should not be allowed to
cool to room temperature before subsequent post weld heat treatment.
Stainless steels are basically alloys of chromium & Nickel with additions of other
element like molybdenum, cobalt, titnium, boron and columbium to suit specific
requirements.
Nickel is added t6o certain varieties of steels in percentages ranging from 8-22%
or some times even higher to increase corrosion resistance, reduce thermal
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conductivity and to improve impact values, ductility, fatigue resistance, electrical
resistance and weldability.
Carbon may be restricted to as low a level as 0.03% and can go even upto 0.3%
depending upon the specific properties required.
While the above four are the main alloying elements in stainless steels, additions
of Titanium and Niobium(columbium) provide intergranular corrosion resistance.
Sometimes even elements like nitrogen, sulphur and tungsten, which are normally
considers as impurities, high temperatures corrosion etc.
The American iron and Steel Institute has classified stainless steels into the
popularly know 200, 300 & 400 series. The 200 series consists of stainless steels
with specific amounts of chromium and its applications are restricted to the
cryogenic field.
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added to the iron, ranging from 11.5% to 29%. The 400 series are highly magnetic.
In the 400 series itself we have the martensite varieties containing 11.5% to 16%
chromium. Some of the varieties are AISI 410, 414, 416 and 420. Stainless steels
having below 17% chromium may be either martensitic or feritic; therefore, these
should be preheated. (type 440a, because and c are considered non weldable).
The ferritic stainless steels containing 18% to 27% chromium are non-
hardenable, and are usually soft and ductile, although they may become brittle
when welded. They are called “ferritic” because they have the same atomic
structure as iron at room temperature. AISI types 430, 442 and 446 are4 ferritic
stainless steels.
The addition of Nickel to the basic Fe-Cr alloy results in the 300 series stainless
steels often referred to as the “Chrome-Nickel” types. Originally it was restricted to
18% Ni with the commonly used terminology18/8 stainless steels. Modification of
the original 18/8 (308) are designated as 18/8 Cb (347), 18/8 Mo (316) and 18/8 Ti
(321). Other compositions near-about the range are also being used. (AISI 301,
302, 302B, 304, 305, 307, 309, 310, 316, 321, 347, 304L). Some of the steels in
the 300 series, contain very low amount of carbon and they are designated by the
letter L or ELC meaning extra low carbon. They include type 309 and 310 “ base
metals” as well as type 312 which is found primarily as castings. The maximum
amount of carbon allowable in ELC stainless steel base metal and wire is 0.03%.
The low carbon improves corrosion resistance considerably. Some applications
require high carbon contents between 0.25% & 0.45% and are called the high-
carbon varieties. They are designated by letters He followings the AISI
numbers,(eg. 309 he and 310 He) used for very high temperature mechanical
properties ( nuclear piping, furnace components etc.)
The filler metal mostly matches the4 number of the steel to be welded (Same AISI
Grade with of course type 309, 310 used in a few applications).
© PMI, NTPC 78
Joints made of filter material number equal to that of the base metal require pre
and post-heat treatments to avoid cracks and impart ductility to otherwise hard and
brittle nugget and heat affected zones. Austenitic electrodes are advantageous in
that the weld metal remains soft and ductile, requiring only a token preheat except
for conditions of very high restraints. Then too, with austenitic electrodes, the post
weld treatment is usually undesirable.
Traditionally, lime coverings are preferred for higher quality and better crack
resistance. Recently not much difference is found between titania type and basic
types. However, lime electrodes penetrates deeper and their slag covering freezes
behind the weld puddle, making it easy for the operator to see the molten and
control it arc weld metal usually binds to both legs of the fillet as soon as arc
strikes against it. For titania covered electrodes it binds firs tone leg and the
other and this is particularly true for small diameter electrodes with low amperage;
so under such circumstance lime electrodes are preferred. Other than the
possibility to operate in A.C. titania electrodes give a smooth evenly rippled flat or
bead with good finish requiring minimum grinding and polishing. It also gives a
smooth arc with little spatter and shallow penetration coupled with easy slag
removal.
© PMI, NTPC 79
accepted theory of intergranular corrosion in welded austenitic steels involve the
formation of a Cr depleted zone at the grain boundary due to chromium
precipitation. The precipitated carbides are not normally attacked. However since
they contain more chromium than the matrix and their formation requires diffusion
of chromium from surrounding areas, these areas are lowered in Cr and become
less resistant to attack to certain media.
© PMI, NTPC 80
6. Thermal Treatment
GENERAL
For improvement of performance during fabrication and for better service condition
we consider in this chapter the following factors only for discussion.
- Distortion
- Pre- heating
- Post weld heat treatment
Distortion
Distortion control
- Stretch the metal preferably while still hot by a series of hammer blows or
peening.
- Distribute and balance the forces and stresses produced by welding
shrinkage by special welding techniques and sequences.
- Foricible restraint of parts by suitable jigs and fixtures during welding.
All the three methods given above attempt to increase the plastic flow of the weld
metal on cooling . This means that all are subject to the same limitation of cracking
of the weld metal if carried too far . Peening exerts a compressive force upon the
weld metal normal to the plane of maximum tensile stress and aids plastic flow.
© PMI, NTPC 82
Pre Heating
This is the process by which the raising the temperature of the base metal or the
section of the base metal above the temperature of the surroundings before
welding.
Reasons of pre-heating
− Regular furnaces .
− Use of Natural or manufactured gas.
− Acetylene and bottled petroleum gas.
− Electrical strip heaters.
− Induction heating.
− Use of oxidation resistant wire of the Nichrome or chromel type insulated
with ceramic beads.
The difference in the above operations are the temperature employed or method of
cooling. The basic difference is that while stress relief treatment is carried out
below the critical range of steel , annealing, normalizing and hardening are always
done above the critical range .Here in this chapter only stress relief heat treatment
is discussed.
Stress-Relief Treatment
© PMI, NTPC 84
Reason for Stress Relief and its Significance
The welding process in away , similar to foundry technique, in as much that a pool
of molten metal is formed . This pool quickly solidifies and contracts . The parent
metal opposes this contraction with the result that both the plate and weld are
stressed. Because the shrinkage stresses are internal stresses which remain in the
section after welding , they are called residual stresses. Residual stresses do not
decrease with intensity of time . Some times these stresses rise to values as high
as the yield strength of the material . When combined with normal load stresses
these may exceed design stresses.
Residual stresses resulting from welding are reduced by the post weld thermal
stress relief heat treatment .The residual stresses remaining in a material after
thermal stress relief will depend upon the rate of cooling. Uneven cooling from
stress relief to ambient temperature may under much of the value of the heat
treatment and result in the additional stresses within the weldment.
The temperature reached during stress-relief treatment has a far greater effect in
relieving stresses than the length of time the specimen is held at hat temperature
.The closer the temperature is to the critical or recrystallization temperature, the
most effective it is in the removal of residual stresses provided proper heating and
cooling cycles are employed. When a thermal stress relief treatment is employed
to reduce residual stresses other important properties must be taken into
consideration. The microstructure , tensile and impact strength are among
properties affected by the stress relief treatment .
The heat affected zone, in the vicinity of welded joints are aided considerably by
post-weld thermal treatments. The properties of these zones are improved by the
reduction of residual stresses together metallurgical changes brought about by the
heat treatment . If any dissolved hydrogen is present , it will also escape during
stress relief . The necessity for post heating increases with higher carbon content,
increase in alloy content and the cross sectional thickness of the part.
© PMI, NTPC 85
Heat Treatment of Welds
But generally the field completed joints shall be post weld heat treated by heating a
circumferential band which includes the weld area using either resistance heating
or induction heating methods.
The temperature for heat treatment , rate of rise of temperature , holding time and
rate of cooling shall depend upon the material classification and shall be followed
as per different international codes applicable for this purpose ,considering its
service requirements.
© PMI, NTPC 86
‘ X ‘ –ray Diffraction Inspection
HEAT TREATING
This procedure provides for the method of final post weld heat treatment/stresses
reliving method in accordance with the requirement of ASME section 1.
Procedure
The method used shall be locally heating of the circumferential band including
entire weld and adjacent areas of the base metal.
In cases where the vessel is post weld heat treated in sections, the heat treatment
of the final firth joint shall be performed by heating uniformly a circumferential band
having a minimum width of three times the plates thickness on each side of the
weld joint in such a manner that the entire band is brought up to the temperature
and held for the time specified on welding procedure specification.
In cases of welded joints in pipes, tubes and headers, the width of the heated
circumferential band shall be at least 3 times the width of the widest part of the
welding groove but in case less than twice the width of weld reinforcement. Prior to
any heat treatment the weldment shall be made free of grease, oil, chloride and
sulphor bearing compounds.
© PMI, NTPC 87
Temperature Measuring Equipments
Thermocouples shall be used to give the temperature of the heated band at the
anticipated hottest and coldest locations as follows:
Temperature changes
At temperature above 600oF the maximum rate at which the temperature of the
weldment may be raised or lowered shall be the lesser of 800oF per hour or 800
divided by the maximum wall thickness in inches but need not be less than 200oF
per hour.
During heating and soaking temperature difference between any two
thermocouples on the part of the weldment shall not exceed 150oF.
Holding Time
The holding time at temperature for final post weld heat treatment shall be one
hour per inch or as specified in welding schedule.
Heating Source
© PMI, NTPC 88
The source band width shall be minimum of 3 times the wall thickness on each
side of center line of weld.
The source band shall be insulated with a minimum of one inch thickness of
mineral wool.
STRUCTURAL WELDING
PRE HEATING
© PMI, NTPC 89
HIGH TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
AND PRESSURE VESSELS
© PMI, NTPC 90
7. Weld- Imperfection
INTRODUCTION
2. Those associated with properties of weld metal or welded joint like- weld
metal, Base metal.
© PMI, NTPC 91
Only third type of defects are dealt here.
1. This discussion specifically applies to Manual metal arc welding and TIG
welding processes.
2. Only those materials known to readily permit the production of a satisfactory
welded joint will be considered.
3. Only joint designs that will produce satisfactory welded joints will be
considered.
4. Only filler metals that are capable of producing sound deposits of proper
contour properly fused to the base metal in the required position of welding
will be considered.
For each defects probable causes, correction, prevention and detection and
detection is given. In correction , it has been assumed that the defect is to be
removed . However significance of defect depend on service requirement. In
detection of the defect it has been assumed that only two methods are available
radiography and Dye penetrant test as at most of power stations site .
ARC STRIKE
A disturbance left on the surface of the base metal where a careless welder has
momentarily touched on arc welding electrode to start the arc is called an arc
strike. A number of failures by cracking initiate at abnormal structural conditions or
unsoundness produced in an arc strike .
Duration of arc strike is only about 0.2 Sec , so the base metal gets heated up and
cools down very fast . Base metal gats heated up above the lower critical
temperature (AC1), because is very short so homogenization of austenite does
not Iron carbide does not dissolve.
© PMI, NTPC 92
Due to fast cooling we get higher carbon marten site than would be indicated by
average content of base metal . Also these small areas lack in deoxiding agent
and arc was not protected . For these reason , arc strike of ten harber minute
cracks, porosity , hard zones and chemical heterogeneity .
Causes
Correction
Arc strike areas can be light grinded so that any incipient cracking is removed .
A smooth weld bead can be deposited over an earlier accidental arc strike .
Prevention
Only insulated electrode holder should be used and should be inspected at regular
intervals .
Welders should be made aware that arc strike can lead to dangerous cracking.
If possible scrap of metal as a starting tab should be used, high frequency arc
starter can be used for arc starting purpose.
© PMI, NTPC 93
Detection
Magnetic test of dye penetrate testing may also reveal crack formation at the
places of arc strike . Generally Radiography is not employed for detection of arc
strike cracking .
POROSITY
‘porosity ‘ is used to descried the gas pockets or voids , free of any solid material,
found in welds . Gas trapped internally forms smooth wall, bright, rounded cavities
porosity occurs internally because the gas could not rise and escape through the
surface owing to lack of time and to the viscosity of the weld melt. Porosity arise
from three affects. Gases are less scluble in liquid steel at low temperature than at
high temperature. Hydrogen is a gas with which liquid steel. May become
saturated in fusion joining. During cooling form a high temperature after saturation,
the gas comes out of the solution in the form of bubbles. If the bubbles are trapped
in the growing crystals, instead of rising to the surface of the liquid melt, porosity is
formed.
Mild steel weld metal contains and oxygen. When crystallization commences, the
first crystal to freeze are low in carbon. The remaining liquid is enriched in carbon
reacts with oxygen and forms carbon monoxide may cause porosity.
− Restart Porosity
− Wormholes
© PMI, NTPC 94
− Uniform porosity
− Surface porosity
Restart Porosity
Certain class of electrodes may appear prone to deposit weld metal which contains
internal porosity only at the starting portion of the weld bead.
Causes
This may be due to delay in the establishment of fluxing and shielding react at the
start of a weld run because of non-equilibrium temperature condition.
Core of electrodes is made from rimmed steel, to secure a sound weld deposit
from this core, wire, the metal must be deoxidized. Electrodes of the high. Strength
alloy steel contain limited amount of silicon, because silicon at high level adversely
affect the toughness transition temperature. Electrode of the E100, E110, E120
series frequently contain limited ferrosilicon addition in coverings. Amount of silicon
is not adequate to properly deoxidize the first increment of to core wire melted from
electrode.
Faulty arc starting technique on the part of operator may also cause this porosity
e.g. electrodes with a lime coating is used.
Correction
The corrective area should be cut out and repaired using the original weld
procedure but attention should be paid to restart manipulative techniques.
© PMI, NTPC 95
Prevention
The welder can use a scrap tab of metal to ‘warm up’ the electrode and not include
this portion in the actual weld joint.
Back step technique can be used to avoid this type of porosity completely. Arc is
struck about 1 inch ahead of real starting point. Immediately upon initiation of the
arc, the electrode is moved back ward toward the real starting position taking care
to deposit the initial metal as a narrow, thin bead. Upon reaching the real starting
point the electrode travel is reversed and with a momentarily slower travel speed,
the arc is used to remelt initially deposited weld metal.
Detection
If these defects arc at the surface then with the help of magnifying glass it can be
easily detect. This type of defect appears on the radiograph as ‘ sharply defined
dark shadows of rounded counter’. These defects will be at the beginning of weld
or where electrodes have been changed.
Worm holes
Worm holed can be defined as elongated blow holes that result from progressive
evolution of gas during freezing (fig. 21).
© PMI, NTPC 96
Causes
High viscosity of weld metal favors worm holes by discarding the rise of bubbles.
The gas may come from gross surface contamination or from crevices formed by
the joint geometry such as the gap beneath. The vertical member of a
horizontal/vertical T joint which has been fillet welded on both sides. Worm holes
can also originate from plate laminations, if these terminate in the weld metal.
Correction
The defective area should be cut out and repaired, using the original welding
procedure after a contamination check has been made.
If worm holes have been caused by lamination it must be cut back and sealed off
with a weld.
© PMI, NTPC 97
Prevention
The location of laminations should be established and the work prepared so that
welds do not pass through the laminated zone. If laminations are exposed on a
prepared joint face, they should be sealed first by local welding.
Detection
If worm holes are at the surface of the weld then they can be detected by visual
examination. Some magnifying glass may be needed if these worm holes are very
small.
These are small diameter cavities, extending a very larger distance through the
thickness. These gas cavities does not have any metal so x-ray or –ray will not be
absorbed and on radiography film we will see ‘ sharply defined dark shadows of
rounded or elongated contour’ depending upon the orientation of the defects. The
distance, which the cavities extend through the thickness, can be judged either by
experience or by measuring the density of the image compared with the
background density. This method is only feasible if the technique and film density
are accurately controlled. Qualitative determination of the nature of these defects
can be easily done without knowing exact depth of these defects.
© PMI, NTPC 98
All the coating, contaminants at the surface should be removed from the surface
before welding.
Detection
Internal uniform porosity on radiograph appears as dark spot with diffuse edges.
These are uniformly distributed through out the weld run. Radiograph will show
pores at different distance through the metal and will give an impression that the
pores are more frequent and closer together than they really are. Spherical nature
of the pores gives information on their dimension on measured through the
thickness.
Surface Porosity
This type of defect is caused when gas pores breaks the surface of the weld
(fig.22)
© PMI, NTPC 99
Causes
The evolution of larger quantities of gas which have been able to reach able to
reach the surface defect. The origins of surface porosity are similar to those for
uniform porosity but the degree of contamination required is much greater.
Excessive sulphur in the parent metal e.g. free cutting steel or in the consumables
can produce surface porosity.
Correction
Prevention
Sealing air leak and excessive shielding gas flow should be avoided.
Electrode should be free from moisture. For this before use electrodes should be
rebaked and used within specified time after taking out from over.
All the coating, contamination should be removed from the welding surface before
actual welding.
Detection
Surface porosity can be detected visual examination. Some times if pores are
small then a low magnifying glass may he helpful.
Slag Inclusion
Any particle, oxide and nonmetallic solids that are entrapped in weld metal or
between weld metal and base metal and base metal, except graphite which is a
micro structural constituent, may be regarded as a slag inclusion. During
deposition of filler metal and subsequent solidification of weld metal, many
chemical reactions occurs among the weld metal; the electrode covering material
and with the slag produced. Some of the products of these reactions are non
metallic compounds soluble only to slight degree in the molten metal. Due to their
lower specific gravity, they rise to the surface of the molten metal unless they are
restrained ( fig. 23)
Causes
In MMAW, both metal and flux coverings are churned into the weld Puddle of
crater. If globules are trapped among the growing crystals inclusions will be found
in the solid weld.
In overhead position, very short time is allowed for metal to freeze. So these weld,
tend to have more slag inclusion.
When manganese, silicon , Aluminum and other deoxiders are present, they form
complex oxides are insoluble in metal and which may be solid or molten at the melt
temperature. This may be cause for slag inclusion.
Electrode covering may chip off and drop into solidifying weld and cause inclusion.
Slag on proceeding beads through which the electrodes has failer to fuse,
particularly in undercuts and in deep furrows on each side of a weld bead saving a
pronounced convex shape.
Presence of heavy mill scale and/or rust may also cause slag inclusion.
The only corrective action can be applied is to cut the defective portion and reweld
it.
Prevention
The faster the rate of cooling, the greater is the chances of trapping slag inclusion.
So rate of cooling should be controlled.
The greater the agitation of the bath, the greater the chances of trapping slag. Slag
should be worked to the surface by controlled manipulation.
Proper preparation of the groove before each bead is deposited, using care to
correct contours that are difficult to penetrate fully with the arc, can prevent slag
inclusion.
Inter run slag removal should be improved and if the weld metal surface is likely to
causes slag traps, the irregularities should be dressed smooth.
Detection
The gas tungsten – arc welding process uses a non- consumable tungsten to
create an arc between the tungsten electrode and the work piece, and the work
piece, and filler metal may or may not be used. These tungsten inclusions
generally are undesirable, and for cortical work a limit on the size and numbers of
these inclusive is specified.
Causes
These inclusions are found due to occasional touching of electrode to the wrack
piece. molten weld metal ,may take tungsten particle from electrode to weld metal.
Correction
Prevention
Detection
Tungsten inclusion can be seen by naked eye under certain circumstances. During
radiographic examination, high absorpitc characteristic of tungsten makes the
inclusion appear whiter, in contrast to the image of slag inclusions or porosity.
This term is used to describe the failure to fuse together adjacent layers of weld
metal and base metal. This failure to obtain fusion may occur at any point in the
welding groove.
Courses
Base metal or previously deposited weld metal temperature is not raised to the
melting point. Insufficient current may cause this.
Travel speed too fast and/or electrode angle incorrect may also provide low arc
energy hence result incomplete fusion.
Oxide film and scale may also prevent base metal to melt and fuse completely.
Correction
In case of incomplete fusion of root in back gauged butt welds, additional back.
Gauging may have to be used.
Prevention
The welding procedure for complete fusion should be verified by test welding.
Proper current shouls be used, to melt the base metal or adjacent layer of weld
metal, approved by tests. Weld surface should be free from any foreigner
material i.e. weld surface electrode angle and work position should be corrected
so that molten metal does not flow ahead of electrode. If possible reverse polarity
Detection
Incomplete fusion may occur in three forms (a) lack of side will fusion (b) lack of
interim fusion (c) lack of root fusion (fig. 24)
If root is not fused properly then on radiography a dark line appears which is
precisely straight. If there is root gap this line will be broad. Commonly lack of roof
fusion occurs in conjunction with occasional isolated larges gas cuities. Lack side
well fusion may be oblique to radiographic beam. This is imaged on the radiograph
as a crack like image bat very straight
INCOMPLETE PENETRATION.
The failure of the filler metal and base metal, or the base alone if on filler metal is
used , to fuse integrally at the root of the weld (fig.25).
The failure of the root face of a groove weld to reach fusion temperature for its
ensure of the weld metal to reach the weld metal to reach the root of a fillet weld
this would leave a void that was caused by bridging of the weld metal from one
member to the other. This may be due to excessive thick root face or insufficient
root gap.
Incorrect welding condition e.g. are power input too low, incorrect electrode
diameter, Slag flooding may cause this defect. Very high speed of welding may
give rise to lack of root penetration. Use of vertical down welding when vertical up
has been specified to achieve root penetration.
Correction
Cut out from the most accessible side and reweld. In back gauged butt welds,
addition back gauging may have to be used.
Prevention
Detection
UNDERCUT
This term is used to describe either (1) the molting away of the side wall of a
welding groove at the edge of a layer or bead , thus forming a sharp
recess in the side wall in the area to which the next layer or bead must fuse,
or (2) the reduction in base metal thickness at the line where the last bead
is fused to the surface ( e. g . at the toe of the weld ) ( fig .26 ) .
Excessive speed of welding is most common cause for under cut . Filler metal
being deposited does not have sufficient time to flow to the toe and form a
proper junction .
With a specific electrode too high a current or too long an are may increase
the tendency to undercut.
Correction
Prevention
CRACKS
Cracking of welding joints results from localized stress that at some point exceeds
the ultimate strength of the material. When cracks occur during or as a result of
welding, little of deformation is usually apparent. Materials having considerable
ductility under uniaxial stresses may fail when subjected to biaxial or triaxial
stresses without appreciable deformation. It, because of such stresses a joint or
any portion of it, is unable to take appreciable deformation without failure additional
stresses set up in deposition of subsequent layers or in the welding of other joints
may force that pat to deform and fail.
After a welded joint has cooled, cracking is more likely to occur if the metal is
either hard or brittle. A ductile material, by localized yielding may withstand
stresses concentrations that might cause a hard or brittle material to fail. Cracks
can be classified in three ways. First, depending on the location of crack. Second,
depending on temperature of cracking as hot cracks and cold cracks. Thirdly, weld
metal cracking and base metal cracking. Following are four most pronounced
types of cracking found in weldments.
Solidification or centerline cracking
Hydrogen- Induces (HAZ) Cracking
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracking
Causes
The imposition of excessive transverse strains in restrained welds. This may result
from welds having a depth to width ratio in excess of 2:1. The parent metal
composition Carbon, sulphur and phosphorous contents, has a controlling
influence on the incidence of this defect. The higher the content of carbon, sulphur
and phosphorous the greater will be the risk of cracking. High dilution from the
parent and plate and preheat May also be contributory factors.
Contaminations remaining on the parent metal, such as cutting oils may enhance
of cracking. Fillet welds having gross concavity; such welds may not be strong
enough to withstand normal contraction stresses. Large gaps between the
component parts in fillet welded joints. Inadequate filling of crackers at the end of
weld run may develop cracks because the cractor solidifies more rapidly than rest
of the bead.
Correction
Cut out defective weld length plus 5 mm beyond visible end of crack and reweld.
Prevention
Detection
If this crack is at the surface then it can detected by visual examination perhaps
with the help of a low magnifying glass. Dye penetrant test can also be used. The
radiographic image of a crack is dark line characteristically varying in width
blackness and wandering.
This type of cracking usually longitudinal in nature, occurs with in the heat affected
zone of the metal being welded, and is almost always associated with hardenable
materials. Hardness and brittleness in the heat affected zone is welded joints are
metallurgical effects that result form the thermal cycle of welding, and are among
the principal factors that tend to cause cracking.
Causes
Hardening in heat affected areas: Any microstructure that possesses low ductility
is prone to cold cracking. Martensite formation in HAZ can promote cold cracking.
If equivalent carbon content of steel is high and cooling rate is fast enough after
base metal reaches above critical temperature then formation of martensite is
favored. It has got high hardness and low ductility and causes cracking in heat
affected zone. Development of residual and reaction stresses: if multi axial
stresses are applied to a metal having limited ductility and toughness then cracking
can occur. thick section develop high triaxial stresses and relatively this section
develop high biaxial stresses. Hence thick section of base metal will be more
Correction
Short isolated lengths of crack, where accessible form the surface can be cut out
and repaired by welding. But during repair welds should be given the correct
preheat and heat conditions to minimize the risk of further cracking. Extensive
and/or sub surface cracking may require the replacement of the affected.
Prevention
Use the correct procedures for welding steels which exhibit heat, affected zone
hardening. Welding consumables must be of hydrogen controlled type and used
under controlled conditions. Electrodes must be dried before used according to
instructions. Preheat, where applicable must be such that the full section of the
joint is raised to the required temperature. Heat input requirements must be
carefully maintained even for erection tack welds. Parent metal composition must
be with in the limits which are consistent with the welding procedure used.
Detection
This defect is contained with in the heat affected zone although they may also
extend in to the weld metal. If this defect is at the surface then visual examination
either direct or by help of low power magnification can defect it. Dye penetration
Lamellar tearing
Crack in steel plates parallel to the plate surface which originate adjacent to welds.
They are not in general associated with the heat affected zone and display a
characteristic step formation.
Causes
Poor ductility in the through thickness direction of the rolled plate. The low ductility
is caused by thin zones of non metallic illusions lying beneath and parallel to the
plate surface. Thermally induced strain in restrained joints resulting in high
stresses through the thickness of the plate.
Corrections
Small areas which have experienced lamellar tearing can be completely cut out
and replaced with weld metal. When extensive lamellar is discovered complete
substitution of all defective is often only safe solution,
Prevention
Joint should be designed so that contraction imposes the minimum of strain in the
trough thickness direction. Techniques which place high ductility weld metal in the
direction of the strain are used.
Lamellar tears which break the surface may sometimes be distinguished form
cracks arising form other causes by the characteristic stepped appearance.
On radiograph it will appear as dark line wandering in direction.
Reheat cracking
Causes
Correction
The weld area should be heat treated to restore heat affected zone ductility before
the defect is removed. The cut out should be carried past the ends of crack by at
Prevention
Any notch like defects should be prevented or removed before post weld heat
treatment. Grinding the weld toes before the well cools can be beneficial. Inter
pass stress relieving may assist in the control of the incidence of this defect.
Heat treatment may need to incorporate a low temperature soak and a carefully
controlled heating rate.
Detection
GENERAL
In destructive testing, the weldment or weld joint is destroyed in making the test
specimen. They are also expensive since they involve the preparation of the
material, making of the welds, the cutting and often machining of the weld test
specimens, and finally the destructive testing of the specimens. Welds and weld
metal are probably subjected to more different types of tests than any other metal
produced. Destructive tests may be chemical tests, metallorgaphic tests,
mechanical tests, or any combination thereof. This chapter will briefly describe the
various ropes of destructive test soused in the evaluation of weldments.
Chemical Analysis
Chemical examination of a metal by analyzing the chips taken out of the same will
reveal the presence of elements present and their quality.
Normally, this is being either by wet analysis or Dry analysis (special examination).
Metallographical Examination
a) Macroscopic Examination
- Tensile Testing,
- Compression Testing
- Shear Testing.
- Bend tests.
- Nick-break Test.
- Impact Testing.
A great many of the machines used for tensile testing are universal testing
machines which can be employed for compression and shear testing as well as
tensile testing. Special jigs are provided as part of the equipment to carry out shear
testing of bolts and rods of different diameters. Through the compression test
ranks low on the list of routine acceptance tests for metals, there are fields in
which it can be used in order to obtain useful data, such as in plastics and
ceramics, specially designed machines for compression testing are commercially
available for carrying out the testing of concrete. The tensile testing machine
consists of a mechanism for exerting a pull on a test piece coupled to a device,
which measure the load or stress. Now a days, the self indicating type of machine
in which the load is applied to the test piece by a hydraulic force and the pressure
Bend Tests
This is one method for evaluating ductility but cannot be considered quantitative
means for predicting service performance in bending operations. Normally the
following types of bend tests are carried out.
In root bend test the root of the butt weld is kept under tension while bending, and
in the face bend test is more severe than the face bend test.
When welding is done from both sides on thicker plates (normally more than
20mm), a side bend test is made where the whole weld metal section will under
tension during bending
The specimens having any such open defects exceeding 3 mm measured in any
direction shall be considered having failed. Cracks occurring on the corners of the
specimen during bending shall be discarded.
Nick-Break Teat
The nick-break test is designed to show if interior inclusion, such as gas pockets
and slag inclusions, exist and to show the degree of porosity in the weld bead. This
is a simple test in which the force may be applied by a press or the sharp blow of a
hammer on a test specimen where the weld bead is slotted at the top and bottom
Impact Testing
The commonly used impact tests can be classified under two categories.
a) The Charpy impact test.
b) The Izod impact that.
The principal difference that exists between these two tests is in the positioning of
the test specimen. In Charpy impact test the specimen is in the form of a simply
supported beam while in Izod test it is a cantilever. An impact test is a dynamic test
in which a selected specimen machined or surface ground and usually notched is
struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine and the
energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is measured. The energy that is
required to fracture the test piece is recorded in Kg-M force on the scale. The
tougher the material, the higher the energy absorbed by the test piece.
Copper, Nickel, Iron, Magnesium, Zinc, Aluminum, Lead, Tin Cobalt, Biamuth.
Biamuth can absorb a small amount of energy before plastic deformation and
fracture, while copper is highly ductile and can withstand a great deal of plastic
deformation.
GENERAL
Major type of non-destructive testing that are being widely employed is dealt in this
chapter.
Normally inspection for welding shall be carried out in three stages as given
below:-
(a) Weld defects occurring at the surface such as blow holes, pipes, exposed
porosity, exposed inclusions, unfilled crate, infused welds etc.
(c) Damages to parent metal such as under cut, burning, over heating etc.
(e) Incorrect finish like ripple marks, uneven welds, peening marks and
excessive grinding etc.
(a) Distortion due to welding i.e. local shrinkage, camber, bowing, twisting &
buckling etc.
(e) Inspection for correct dimensions in case of fillet welds, spot welds etc.
where the size is specified using suitable gauges.
General
(a) Static indentation tests, in which a ball, cone or pyramid is forced into the
surface of the metal being tested. The relationship of load to the area or the
depth of indentation is the measure of hardness.
It is not necessary, however to make the calculation for each test, as readymade
Brinell hardness testers are available which gives the HB reading on the dial
gauge mounted in the machine.
A tester used for routine testing is acceptable if the error does not exceed + 2.
Brinell hardness testers may be checked by periodic calibration using a proven
ring.
Indentation should not be made on a curved surface having a radius of less than 1
inch and also indentations should not be made too close to the edge of the work
piece.
Limitations
This test is simple to perform and does not require highly skilled operators and
also used for determining hardness of most metals and alloys from softest bearing
materials to hardest steels.
Rockwell hardness testing differs from Brinell hardness testing in that the hardness
is determined by the depth of indentation by the indentor.
In regular Rockwell hardness testing the minor load is always 10 kg. The major
load however can be 60, 100 or 150 kg and there are two scales called B and C
scale.
When the diamond indenter is used readings are taken from the black divisions of
dial and for ball indenters red divisions are noted.
Limitations
Use of the diamond indenter when readings fall below 20 is not recommended
since there will be loss of sensitivity down the conical section of indenter. The ‘C’
scale should not be used on tungsten carbide as the diamond life will be
considerably reduced. ‘A’ scale is the accepted scale for carbide industry.
This test follows the method of Brinell Principle for arriving at the hardness number
calculated by dividing the load by the surface area of indentation. The indenter is
made of diamond and is in the form of square based pyramid having an angle of
The Vickers hardness number HV is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter to
the surface area of the indentation.
This was first invented by Albert F. Shore in 1907 and commercially first used in
USA.
Its limitations are that it must be in a vertical position for testing and sclerscope
hardness tests are more sensitive to variations in surface conditions than other
hardness tests.
This is also termed as liquid penetrant testing (LPT) or dye penetration test. The
principle in this simple test is that the dye applied penetrate due to its low surface
(b) Penetration
Next excess penetrant should be removed from the surface. The cleaning
method is determined by the type of penetrant used. Uniform removal of
excess penetrant is necessary for effective inspection, but over cleaning
must be avoided.
(d) Development
A developing agent is applied so that it forms a film over the surface. The
developer acts as a blotter to assist the natural seepage of the penetrant
(e) Inspection
The inspection can be done with either a normal light, with visual type dyes,
or with a black light, with fluorescent dye penetrant. With either method two
types of indications are revealed true indications or false indications. True
indications are caused by penetrant bleeding out from actual discontinuities
in the metal. The standard true flaws are cracks, cold shut cracks, fatigue
cracks which resemble to a great extent the cold shut cracks, pits; and
porosities. The large crack is represented by a line of some width. The
large crack, after the developer is applied, becomes apparent quickly. The
cold- shut crack, which is an under surface crack that is bleeding through
the surface, is represented by a line of dots and requires a few minutes after
the developer has been added to come to the surface. Porosity is
noticeable quickly in that an indication of porosity comes to the surface
almost immediately, as do indications in which the length is equal or more
than three times the width. Rounded indications are normally circular in
shape or elliptical with length less than three times the width, while linear
indications are not generally accepted, rounded indication to certain extent
will be accepted.
The false or non-relevant indications are not caused by flaws at the surface
of the metal. The major reasons for false indications are failure to follow the
correct liquid penetrant application or rought, irregular surfaces of the test
metal.
After identifying and making the flaws if any the tested surface shall be
cleaned thoroughly.
Limitations
The major limitations of liquid penetrant inspection is that it can detect only
imperfections that are open to surface; some other method must be used for
detecting sub surface defects or discontinuities. Another factor is the surface
roughness of the object being inspected. Extremely rough or porous surfaces are
likely to produce false indications.
Principle
(a) Magnetization
(b) Power Sources for Magnetization
(c) Media of Inspection
(d) Location and inter-pretation of flaws
(e) Demagnetization
The strength direction and distribution of magnetic fields are greatly affected by the
type of current that is used for magnetization.
The different types of testing are required depending on the properties such as
magnetic, geometric mobility and visibility. The application of power or ink shall be
sufficient enough to give indication. If should not be applied in excess.
Dry powders of different colors suiting to the background contrast such as grey,
brown, red and black are used. Dry powder is applied using powder blower or
sprinkler. Dry powder testing is not as sensitive as the wet method for shallow and
surface defects and slower than wet method.
Magnetic ink in block, brown and fluorescent are used and sprayed on the jobs.
Wet method cannot be used on hot objects.
− Nontoxic
− Finely divided
− Ferro magnetic
− Free of contaminants
− High permeability
− Low retentiviy
− High colour contrast
− Correct size and mobility
© PMI, NTPC 134
Inspection & Interpretation of flaws
In magnetic particle inspection there are many variations in procedure that critically
affect the results obtained. Points that are to be considered in establishing a set of
procedures for magnetic-particle inspection of a specific part must include.
− type of current
− type of magnetic particles
− method of magnetization
− direction of magnetization
− amount of applied current
− equipment used.
Normally as welded, as cost, and as forged surfaces are suitable for magnetic
particle testing. If the surface is rough or loose scale interferences are present,
surface is to be dressed. The surface must be free from grease, rust and thick
paint. Sand blasting, wire brushing, grinding and filling are normally used to
prepare the surface (fig. 28).
CLASSIFICATION OF FLAWS
Seams, lamination, cooling cracks, forging bursts, casting & welding defect,
machining tears & grinding cracks.
Service
(b) Non-relevant indications occur due to flux leakage and because of change
in permeability.
(c) False indications are due to improper surface.
TEST SPECIMENTS
All ferromagnetic materials, after having been magnetized, will retain a residual
magnetic field to some degree. This field may be negligible in magnetically soft
metals, but in harder metals it may be comparable to the intense fields associated
with the special alloys used for permanent magnets.
1) The part will be used in an area where a residual magnetic field will interfere
with the operation of instruments that are sensitive to magnetic fields or may
affect the accuracy of instrumentation incorporated in an assembly that
contains the magnetized part.
1) Parts are made of magnetically soft steel having low retentivity; such parts
usually will become demagnetized as soon as they are removed from the
magnetizing source.
2) The parts are subsequently heated above their Curie point and
consequently lose their magnetic properties.
3) The magnetic field is such that it will not affect the function of the part in
service.
The last reason may appear to conflict with item 6 in the list under “Reasons for
Demagnetizing”. The establishment of a longitudinal field after circular
magnetization negates the circular field, because two fields in different directions
cannot exist in the same part at the same time. If the magnetizing force is not of
sufficient strength to establish the longitudinal field it should be increased, or other
steps taken to ensure that the longitudinal field actually has been established. The
same is true in changing from longitudinal and circular are applied simultaneously,
a field will be established that is a vector combination of the two in both strength
and direction. However, if the fields are impressed successively, the last field
applied, if strong enough to establish itself in the part, will destroy the remanent
field from the magnetization. If the magnetizing force last applied does not equal
or exceed the preceding one, the latter may remain as the dominant field.
The magnetic- particle method is a sensitive means of locating small and shallow
surface cracks in ferromagnetic materials. Indications may be produced at cracks
that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye, but exceedingly wide cracks
will not produce a particle pattern if the surface opening is too wide for the particles
to bridge.
Discontinuities that do not actually brack through the surface also are indicated
in many instances by this method, although certain limitations must be recognized
and understood. If a discontinuity is fine and sharp and close to the surface,
should as a long stringer of non-metallic inclusion, a sharp indication can be
produced. If the discontinuity lies deeper, the indications is less distinct. The
deeper the discontinuity lies below the surface, the larger it must be to yield a
readable indication, and the more difficult the discontinuity is to find by the method.
Magnetic-particle indications are produced directly on the surface of the part, and
constitute magnetic pictures of actual discontinuities. There is no electrical
circuitry or electronic readout to be calibrated or kept in proper operating condition.
Skilled operators can sometimes make a reasonable estimate of crack depth with
suitable powders and proper technique. Occasional monitoring of field intensity in
the part is needed to assure adequacy of field strength.
There is little or no limitation because of size or shape of the party being inspected.
Ordinarily, no elaborate preclaning is necessary and cracks filled with foreign
material can be detected.
Limitations
There are certain limitations to magnetic-partical inspection that the operator must
be aware; for instance, thin coating of paint and other non-magnetic coverings,
such as plating, adversely affect sensitivity of magnetic-particle inspection. Other
limitations are:
Principle
Applications
The advantage is that the method can be applied to many inspection problems
provided that the physical requirements of the material are compatible with the
inspection method. However the sensitivity of the method to the many properties
and characteristics inherent with a material can be a disadvantage.
The eddy current method of inspection and the induction heating technique that is
used for metal heating, induction hardening and tempering have several
similarities. Both are dependent on the principles of electromagnetic induction for
inducting eddy currents within a part placed within or adjacent to one or more
induction coils. The heating is a result of I2R losses caused by the flow of eddy
currents in the part. Changes in coupling between the induction coils and the part
being inspected and changes in the electrical characteristics of the part cause
variations in the loading and tuning of the generator.
Principle
UT inspection is the method by which beams of high frequency sound waves are
used to detect surface and sub-surface flaws. The sound waves travel through the
material with some attendant loss of energy (attenuation) and are reflected at
interfaces. The deflected beam is detected and analysed to define the presence
and location of flaws. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies between 1
and 25 MHZ. Ultrasonic waves are mechanical vibrations; medium and velocity of
propagation depends on the elasticity of the medium.
Equipment Details
Advantages
(a) Superior penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the
part.
(b) High sensitivity ; extremely small can be detected.
(c) Greater accuracy in determining the position of internal flaws, size
estimation, shape and orientation.
(d) Only one surface need be accessible.
(e) Fast inspection and results known instantaneously.
(f) Continuous control during the process of fabrication or production.
(g) No health hazards.
(h) Portability.
(i) Can be used for small as well as large components.
General
Ultrasonic waves behave essentially the same as audible sound waves. They can
propagate in an elastic medium, which can be solid, liquid or graseous but not in a
vacuum.
On the basis of mode of particle displacement, ultrasonic waves are classified as
longitudinal waves, transverse waves, surface waves and lamb waves.
Longitudinal Waves
Surface Waves
These waves travel along the flat or curved surface of relatively thick solid parts.
Lamb Wave
Lamb waves are propagated in metal that is only a few lengths thick. A lamb wave
consists of a complex vibration that course throughout the material. Its
propagation depends on the density, elastic properties and structure of the metal,
and also influenced by the thickness of the metal test piece and the cyclic
frequency.
Inspection Methods
Inspection Standards
Many of the standards and specifications for ultrasonic inspection require the use
of standard reference blocks, which may be prepared from various alloys, may
contain holes, slots or matches of several sizes, and may be of different sizes or
shapes. The following variables are to be considered which will affect the
characteristics of an ultrasonic beam.
Three types of standard reference blocks are ordinarily used for calibration or
reference.
(a) Area amplitude blocks provide artificial flaws of different sizes at the same
depth. Eight blocks of same dia and height and each block will have a ¾”
deep flat bottom hole of different diameters 1/64” to 8/64”. The amplitude of
the echo from a flat bottom hole in the far field of a straight beam search
unit is proportional to the area of the bottom of the hole. These blocks are
used to check linearity of a pulse-echo inspection system and to relate
signal amplitude to the are of a flaw.
(b) Distance
ASIM block can be combined into various sets of area amplitude and
distance amplitude blocks. The recommended practice for fabrication and
control of steel standard reference blocks is found in ASTM-E428.
Applications
Contact inspection is more widely used than immersion inspection ; not only
because it involves equipment that is portable ( allowing field inspection ) but
also because it is versatile and applicable to a wide range of situations.
In contact inspection, oil, grease or paste is spread on the surface of the part to
act as a couplant, where as in immersion inspection water is used as a couplant
which provides for good acoustic even to irregular and rough surfaces (fig. 32).
Principle
This is one of the NDT methods which shows the presence and nature of
macroscopic defects or other discontinuities in the interior of welds. This method
makes use of the ability of short wave length radiations such as ‘X’ rays or gamma
rays to penetrate objects opaque to ordinary light. In general the shorter the wave
length, the greater the penetrating power.
Not all of the radiation penetrates the weld, some being absorbed. The amount of
this absorption is a function of the density and the thickness of the weld. Should
there be a cavity such as a blow hole in the weld interior, the beam of radiation will
have metal to pass through those in the sound weld. Consequently there will be a
variation in the absorption of the rays by the weld in the region, which produces an
image that will indicate the presence of the defect. Such an image picture is called
a radiograph.
Radiographs making use of X-ray radiation are usually called xerographs; and
radiographs made using a gamma ray are called gamma graphs.
A successful radiograph will be one which has so faithfully recorded the image that
the presence or absence of a defect in a weld is established and if present, its
size, shape and location are clearly defined.
There are two types of sources which are used generally for industrial radiography.
X- rays
These are electromagnetic radiations or waves which travel at very high speed and
have properties which are associated with their different wave lengths. The
shorter the wave length, the greater is the energy and penetrating power of the
radiation. With X-rays, the wave length is related to the voltage applied to the
tube, the higher the voltage shorter the wave length and the wore penetrating rays.
The X-ray tube consists of a glass bulb under vacuum, enclosing a positive
electrode or ‘anode and a negative electrode or ‘cathode’ (Ref. Fig.33). The
cathode has filament which when heated electrically emits electrons. These
electrons are directed at a very high velocity towards anode or target. The target
is generally made of tungsten. The sudden arrest of electrons when they strike the
target gives size to the emission of X-rays. Only a part of kinetic energy of the
electrons (1% at 200 KV) is converted in to X- radiation and the remaining is
transformed into heat.
X-ray units are available in numerous kilo voltage ratings ranging from 300KV for
normal installation to as high as several million volts for special works involving
heavy thick materials.
Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic waves of relatively short wave
length that are emitted during the radioactive decay of both naturally occurring and
artificially produced unstable isotopes. In all respects other than their origin,
gamma rays and X-rays identical.
Many of the elements in the periodic table either have naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes, or isotopes that can be made radioactive by irradiation with a
stream of neutrons in the core of a nuclear reactor.
100 1/3”
150 ¾”
200 1”
250 2”
400 3”
1000 5”
2000 10”
15 to 24 million 20”
SL.
SOURCE SYMBOL HALF LINE ENERGIES PENETRATION
NO.
MOV IN STEEL MM
1. Radium 226 Ra-226 Years 0.2 to 2.2 75-200
2. Cesium 137 Cs-137 33 Years 0.66 10-75
3. Cobalt 60 Co -60 5.3 Years 1.17 to 1.3 50-200
4. Iridium 192 IR –192 74 Days 0.31 to 0.60 8-60
5. Thurlium Tm-170 127 Days 0.084 0.25
170
Advantage
Disadvantages
The principal advantage of radiography over other NDT method is that is provides
permanent records (films).
The greater the exposure to radiation any point, the greater is the
blackening of the film. The blackness of the film is termed as its density and
this is measured by a densitometry or by comparison with film strips of
known density. Optimum density for an industrial radiograph is 2.5 to 3.5.
− Water
− Developer
− Stop bath
− Fixer
− Rinsing in flowing water
The main chemical action occurs in the developer and the fixer solution and
the rest play secondary role. The temperature of the processing room
should be maintained at 200C (680F).
(d) Penetrameters
Penetrameters or image-quality indicators are of known size and shape, and have
the same attenuation characteristics as the material in test piece. They are placed
on the test piece or on a block of identical material during set up and are radio
graphed at the same time as the test piece. The image of the penetrameter that
appears on the finished radiograph is evaluated during interpretation to assure that
the desired sensitivity, definition and contrast have been achieved in the
developed image. Sensitivity is expressed numerically) as % Sensitivity = S/T x
100.
Where S = Smallest detectable change in specimen thickness.
T = Thickness of the specimen.
In the plaque type penetrameters 3 holes are there representating T,2T & 4 T
where T is the thickness of the plaque. For general requirement of 2% sensitivity,
2T hole should be visible in the radiograph. In contrast to the ASTM system, the
DIN system does not provide constant sensitivity; the sensitivity varies with test
piece thickness within each thickness range.
Gamma RT inspection is normally done in either unidirectional i.e. using the lead
shielded camera or panoramic method i.e. source pencil is taken out of the
camera. The inspection of tubular sections involves three major techniques which
are given below (Ref. Fig.34)
RT UT MPT DPT
Lack of
Excellent Excellent Poor 1 Unsuitable 2
penetration
Note
PERRITIC STEELS
2 ½% CR 1 Mo & ½% Cr ½ Mo
¼% V Steels 150 ° C.
For thermal cutting , the preheat should be applied with an oxyacetylene or oxy-
propane torch, the relevant preheating temperature being obtained for a distance
of three times the pipe wall thickness either side of the cut. No thermal cutting is to
be carried out unless the temperature of the parent metal within 150mm of the cut
Where are air or flame gouging are fleed for metal removal of weld repairs, then
the preheating thermo coupling, dressing and subsequent NDT arrangements
should be decided on an individual basis.
Where tube ends need to be matched to facilitate butt welding, this should be
carried out by machining.
Where applicable, the preheat temperature and method of application are specified
on the welding procedure, interruptions in the welding process should be
minimized, and preheat should be maintained throughout the welding process. If
the preheat cannot be maintained or is lost due to equipment failure, the weld
should be lagged with insulating blankets to ensure slow cooling. Before welding
recommences the relevant preheat temperature must be re-applied.
Welding Operations
2.5 mm 8 mm
3.15 mm 10 mm
4.0 mm 12 mm
5.0 mm 15 mm
It is also important the electrode baking, airing and storage requirements on the
welding procedures are strictly adhered to, and where manual metal arc welding is
employed, the wells are thoroughly destaggered and wire brushed after each run.
All welds must be visually examined on completion, and should meet the following
conditions
The toes shall blend smoothly into the parent metal, and depth of local under cut
shall not exceed 10% of the pipe wall thickness or 0.4mm whither is smaller.
The toes shall be free from undercut and other depressions, the depth of blending
not exceeding 10% of the pipe wall thickness or 0.8mm whichever is smaller.
V) External weld re-enforcement shall not exceed the given in Table 5 and
shall be essentially symmetrical about the center line of the joint, The shape
of the weld re-enforcement may vary according to the type of electrode, the
welding technique and position, but it should be essentially smooth in
contour.
TABLE – 4
VI ) The Stop and start of each weld run shall merge smoothly and shall not
produce crater in the weld surface.
VII ) The weld shall fuse the pipe on the root without protruding excessively into
the bore of the pipe. The maximum permissible penetration of the root bead
into the bore shall be as shown in Table 6, occasional slight excess
penetration is allowable.
TABLE- 6
VIII ) If there is complete root fusion, root concavity or sinkage at the bore is
acceptable providable that :
ix) The root bead of any concavity shall merge smoothly into adjacent surfaces.
i) Gas preheating should only be used for pipes up to 100 mm OD 12mm wall.
Heating should be carried out using oxyacetylene or oxypropane
equipment, it is imperative that the relevant preheat temperature is
maintained throughout the welding operation and the welder must always
be equipped with temperature indicating crayons when gas preheating is
being carried out.
iv) Instrumentation
Instrument s used for measuring and recording pre and post weld heat
treatment temperature should be calibrated at monthly intervals. Recordes
of the calibration tests for sub-contractors equipment should always be
checked.
Vi) Where butt welds have to be made within 5 RT of a branch weld to a header
(where R is the pipe bore radius and I the wall thickness of the pipe), it will
be necessary to apply background heat to the header body.
The NDI records must be available to the personnel carrying out the repair and the
welding Engineer must consult where there are areas of doubt on the repair
procedure. The NDI requirements of the previous section are applicable to
repaired welds.
Cold Pull
Where the effects of thermal expansion in service are counteracted by cold pull on
pipe work runs, then advice should be sought from appropriate authority on the
pre-cautions to be taken during welding and associated operations.
A welding procedure is the detailed methods and practices including all joint
welding procedures involved in production of weldment. The joint weld procedure
is the “Materials, detailed methods and practices employed in the welding of a
particular joint”. The written welding procedures is a manner of doing or the
detailed elements (with prescribed values or range of values) of a process or
method used to produce a specific result. In other words a welding procedure is
the step by step directions for making a specific weld.
The majority of the welders working on structural work, piping and pressure
vessels must follow qualified welding procedures. There are two most popular
codes used internationally. Both of these require written and qualified welding
procedures. These are the ASME “Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code” the AWS
“Structural Welding Code”. Out of all ASME is widely used for piping and pressure
vessels.
ASME “Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code” Section IX especially deals with welding
and Brazing Procedures, Welders, Brazers and Welding and Brazing Operators
Qualification.
Welding procedure Specification (WPS) shall describe all of the essential, non-
essential and supplementary essential (when required ) for each welding process
used. The WPS shall reference the supporting procedure qualification record.
The recorded data normally fall within the range of actual data that will be used in
production welds. As per ASME the procedure qualification test coupon shall be
tested for tensile and bend tests. ASME assigned P- number to base metal to
reduce to the No. of welding procedure qualification required , dependent of
characteristics such as composition mech properties and weldability
Similarly filter metals (electrodes and welding rods) are grouped into F-
numbers based on their usability characteristics (i.e. ability of welders to
make satisfactory welds).
There are other codes that relate directly to some of the above. In these
cases requirements of these codes must be followed BS 4870 part-1
(approval testing for welding procedures part 1 (The fusion welding of steel )
and in India IS7307 are also used. The welding procedure specification (WPS),
must be signed by the person making the tests on the welds and by the
person responsible for the qualified procedures.
Welder’s Qualification
Before a welder can work on products such as pr. Vessels, piping structures
and so on the welder must be qualified. Requirement for qualification is dictated
by the specification that governess the product being welded.
In addition to specific product specification, there are legal requirements like IBR
that require all welding to be done by qualified welder.
For qualifying the welders IS7310 (Approval tests for welder working to
approved welding procedures ) part-I (Fusion welding of steel ) BS 4873 and
IBR are also used.
Scope
This standard covers manual welding and inspection practices for the
fabrication. Of austenitic stainless steel tubes and attachments used on
Reheaters and superheaters.
Sizes
The standard relates to the welding of stainless steel tubes up to 100 mm.
(4”) 0D and mm (3/4” ) wall thickness.
Materials
The following group of stainless steels, is covered by this standard :
(a) 18% chromium, 12%nickel,3% molybdenum stainless steels.
(b) Niobium or titanium stabilized steel of the 18Cr. 12Ni type.
Welding processes
(b) Argon are welding is not recommended for welding attachments, as the
geometry of tube bundles often makes adequate gas shielding difficult.
However for thin tubes ( less than 4mm thick ) it is sometimes necessary to
use T.I.G. welding to avoid burning through the tube wall. When this
situation occurs , advice should be sought from Welding Engineer.
(c) Welding procedures which use fusible inserts or blanking rings are not
suitable for tube butt welds.
Tungsten Electrode
TT Wire Dia Current
This is not required for butt welds in austenitic steel tubes up to 9mm thick.
However, this interpose temperature during welding should not be greater than
2500c. Ferritio/austenitic butt welds may require stress relief where this is required
it is shown on the appropriate procedure.
For butt welding tubes up to 100mm diameter, the bores of the tubes should be
sized and aligned so that the maximum difference in bore diameter is less than
0.8mm.
The ends of the tubes shall be prepared by machining, grinding, or plasma arc
cutting and grinding. Iron free grinding wheels should be used.
Records
Welding stainless steel tubes and attachments in boilers, details of the welding
procedure must be retained for history and Boiler inspector purposes. This
procedure should specify :
Inspection
All butts and attachment welds should be subject to visual examination and where
possible dye penetrant crack detection. The weld and parent material should be
free from cracks , craters, scale, sharp notches and stray arc strikes. The weld
toes shall blend smoothly into the parent material. Weld reinforcement, concavity
and root bead dimensions shall be in accordance with BS 4677.
All butt welds should be radiographed. The radiographic technique, the type of
image quality indicator and the required sensitivity of the radiograph should be
properly prepared.
Joint Preparation
Welding Procedure
Root Run: 2.5 DIA 2% Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1.6 CR 2.5 mm Dia filter wire to BS 2901 part
1 (1970) A17 or A18 High Purity Argon Shielding
8 – 10 Liters/Min Flow Rate Welding Currents 60-90 AMPS
VORDIAN
Weld Bead
Weld Under bead To be in Accordance with BS 2633 (1973)
Tube or Pipe Alignment
Radiographic or ultrasonic
Assessment
Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.5 M Dia Rutile coated Electrode I.E. Overcors or
Medio or Vordian to E6013
Filler Runs: Up to 12 MM Rutile Coated Electrode as above or Low
Hydrogen Electrode as below
Over 12 MM Wall Low Hydrogen Electrode I.E. Supertherme
(SPL) As Per E7018
2.5 MM, 3.15 MM, 4 MM and 5 MM Dia Electrodes to be
used.
Post Weld Heat Treatment: For Pipes over 25MM Wall Thickness
580-6200 For 1 Hr/25 MM Wall Thickness Heating Rate: 220 * 250C/
HR Max.
Cooling Rate : 275 * 250C/HR Max To 4000C Cool in
Still Air.
T = Pipe Wall Thickness (MM)
Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.5 Diameter 2% Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1.6 or 2.5 MM DIA Filler to BS 2901 (Part 1) 1970
Type A16. i.e. BOC Saffire Medium Carbon Steel Wire
High Purity Argon Shielding Gas 8-10 Litres /Min.
Flow Rate Welding Current : 60-90 AMPS.
Filler Runs: Use Low Hydrogen Electrode Conforming To E7016 & E7018
Supertherme, Gricon Green Philips 36H, Supertherme
(SPL) Supercitor, Tenacito.
Welding Currents to be in accordance with the Electrode
Manufacturers Recommendation
2.5, 3.15, 4 and 5 MM dia Electrode to be used.
Filler Runs: Use Low Hydrogen Electrode Conforming To E7016 & E7018,
Superatherme, Gircon Green, Philips 36H, Super-
Therme (SPL) Supercitor , Tencito.
Welding Currents to be in Accordance with the Electrode
Manufacturers Recommendation
2.5, 3.15, 4 and SMM dia Electrodes to be used.
Joint Preparation :
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Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.4 2% Thoriated Tungsten Electrode 1.6MM
Or 2.4MM Dia filler to BS 2901 ( Part 1 ) 1970 Type A 32
I.E. Philips PZ6042 or BOC Saffire 1% Cr ½% Mo
Joint Preparation:
250C/hr.
Over 25 MM Wall : 275 T max.
Joint Preparation:
T
0
Down To 400 C then cool in still Air.
Weld Bead
Weld Underbead To be in Accordance with
Tube or pipe Alignment BS 2633 (1973)
Radiographic/ultrasonic Assessment
Root run:
Gas Preheat Checked with Manual TIC (Electrode
Temperature indication Crayon Negative)
For 3T either side of weld
Preparation Fill MMA (Electrode Positive)
Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.4 MM Dia 2% Thoriated Tungsten Electrode 1.6 or 2.4mm
© PMI, NTPC 198
Dia filler to BS 2901 ( Part 1 ) A 33 i.e. Philips
High Purity Argon Shielding: 8-10 litres/Min.
Welding Current 60-95 AMP
Filler Runs: Rutile Electrode to B9013 B3, Cromocord -Tig Welding
Current to be in Accordance with Electrode Manufacturers
Recommendation 2.5 and 3.15MM Dia only.
Weld Bead
Weld Underbead To be in Accordance with
Tube or pipe Alignment BS 2633 (1973)
Radiographic/ultrasonic Assessment
Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.5 MM DIA Rutile Coated Electrode E9013-B, Cromocord-Ti
Filler Runs: Basic Coated Electrode Conforming to E9018-B3,
Cromocord-C, Cromotherme-2
2.5, 3.15 and 4 mm DIA only
Width of Deposited Weld Beads not to Exceed three times the Electrode
Core Wire Diameter.
250C/hr
500C/Hr or 100 x T Max Down to
4000C
Weld Bead
Weld Underbead To be in Accordance with
Tube or pipe Alignment BS 2633 (1973)
Radiographic/ultrasonic Assessment
Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.5 MM DIA, 2% Thoriated Tungsten Electrode 1.6 or
2.4 MM DIA. Filler to BS 2901 1970 Type A33 i.e.
Philips PZ6043 or BOC Saffire 2 ¼ Cr 1 Mo Welding
Current 60-90 AMPS, High Purity Argon Shielding
8-10 Litres/Min. Flow.
Width of Deposited Weld Bead not to Exceed three times the Electrode
Core of Diameter
Post Weld Heat Treatment: 680-7200C for 2Hrs/25mm Wall (Min. 3 Hrs.)
Welding Procedure:
Relevant Preheat to be Obtained to 2 Hrs Prior to Welding
Post Weld Heat Treatment: 7050C, 150C for 2Hrs/25mm Wall (Min. 3 Hrs.)
T
Whichever is Lower
Cooling Rate: 500C/Hr or 62500C/Hr Down to 3500 C &
Welding Procedure:
Root Run: 2.5 MM DIA Ruttle Coated Electrode to E9013 B3,
Cromocord-C or E9013 B5 Molycord-10 Ti.
Filler Runs: Basic Coated Electrode Conforming to E9018 B3,
Cromocord-C, or E9013 B5 Molycord-10 i.e. Philips
KV3 Electrodes 2.5, 3.25 & 4mm DIA only
Welding Currents to be in Accordance with the electrode Manufacturers
Recommendation.
Width of Deposited Weld Beads not to Exceed Three Times the Electrode
Core Wire Diameter.
© PMI, NTPC 206
Post Weld Heat Treatment: 7050C, 150C for 2Hrs/25mm Wall (Min. 3 Hrs.)
T Whichever is Lower
Cooling Rate: 500C/Hr or 62500C/Hr to 3500C &
T
then Cool in Still Air whichever is Lower.
. Thermocoupling Arrangements:
Welding Procedure:
Relevant preheat Temperature to be obtained for 2 hours Prior to welding.
Root Run: 1.6-2.4mm DIA Filler Wire to 2901 Part 1, 1970 A33 i.e 6043 or BOC
Saffire 2 ½ Cr 1 Mo
2. 4mm DIA 2% thoriated tungsten Electrode Welding Current 60-
95 AMPS< High Purity Argon Shielding 8-10 Litres/Min. Flow
© PMI, NTPC 208
Filler Runs: Basic Coated Electrode Conforming E9018,
Cromocord-C, or E9013 B5 Mol cord –10.
Welding Current to be in Accordance with the electrode Manufacturers
Recommendation .
Width of deposited weld Beats not to Exceed three Times the Electrode Core Wire
Diameter.
Run Sequence: (Please see Diagram Below) After Root Run. Well preparation
on Casting Side Should Be Buttered with Overlapping Stringer
Bead Welds using A 2.5 mm Dia Electrode. Runs marked (1).
The Groove Walls on casting site should then be buttered with
a second Layer of Overlapping Stringer Beads Using A
3.25mm DIA Electrode(This is to ensure Maximum
Refinement of the Weld HAZ on the Casting Side.
T
Before Lagging is removed cool in still Air.
1. Post weld Grinding should be Carried out Prior to Stress Relief with Preheat
Maintained.
2. Weld to be Polished after stress Relief.
3. Ultrasonic and Magnetic Practice Examination to be Carried Out
The ‘CUTTING ‘ operations refers to the removal of the metal due to the chemical
reaction of the metal at elevated temperatures.
Both these operations have one thing in common, i.e. the operations are carried
out at elevated temperatures and require generation of large amounts of heat
energy for melting or fusing of metals.
1. Gas Welding
Welding gases are compounds of carbon and hydrogen i.e. hydro carbons. Heat
Energy is released form welding gases by burning these gases with oxygen. The
important characteristics of a welding gas are heat content, flame temperature,
combustion ration and combustion products. In gas welding oxygen or air and a
fuel gas are fed to a torch, in which they are mixed prior to combustion. The heat
of he flame melts the metal parts to be joined and they flow together. A filler metal
or alloy is also used some times.
Welding gases are oxygen, Acetylene, Hydrogen and other fuel gases. Acetylene
burned with Oxygen can produce flame temperature upto 6000°F which is higher
then any flame produced by other gases. Range of commability of acetylene (2.5
to 81% acetylene in air) is greater than that of other commonly used gas and
consequently greater hazards. The acetylene cylinder should not be allowed to
discharge at a rate exceeding 20% of its capacity. For requirements in excess,
additional cylinder should be coupled. The acetylene cylinders should not be
coupled with copper connectors and more than 3 cylinders should not be coupled
Acetylene may form a dangerously explosive compound ‘copper acetylide' with
copper. Hydrogen – air mixtures are flammable in the range of 4.1 to 74.2%
hydrogen.
The cutting of steel is based on its property or oxidizing rapidly at about 1000° C if
pure oxygen is added to it. In mental cutting the metal is heated by flame and a jet
of pure oxygen is directed on the point of cut and moved along the line of cut.
3. Handling of Cylinders
Serious accidents may result if the cylinders containing compressed gases are not
handled properly, The following precautions, if observed, may prevent a number of
accidents.
1) Ensure that the cylinders are stored properly. Store room should be dry well
ventilated and away from oil, or other flammable substances.
2) Store empty and full cylinders separately.
3) Store rooms should be fire proof and lighting and electrical switches should
be of flame-proof type.
4) Oxygen cylinders should be stored away from the cylinders containing
combustible gases, preferably in separate rooms. If stored in the same
room, they should be kept for apart (say 20ft) or have a non combustible
barrier in between of at least 5 ft.
5) Acetylene cylinders should always be stored upright.
6) Cylinders are not designed for temperatures in excess of 130° F.
Accordingly, they should not be stored near the sources of heat, such as
radiators, furnaces, etc
7) Cylinders should be stored away from elevators, stairs,or other such places
where they can be knocked down or damaged by passing of falling object.
Care should be taken in choosing the correct regulator for different gas cylinders.
Regulators should be handled very carefully and not dropped. Leaky regulators
should be withdrawn from service. Hoses are used for connection regulators to
welding torches. Red is generally used for fuel gas and green or black is used for
oxygen. Before using the torch all the connection and the hose pipes should be
checked for leaks. Connections on cylinders and torches should be checked by
scap water and in no case oil should be used.
b) The light has been applied before the free flow of fuel gas. If the
flame shaps or back fires during use, it may be due to:
Completely shut both blow pipe valves, oxygen, first check regulator setting,
cylinder pressures and relight as mentioned earlier. In case the nozzle has
become heated , plunge the blow pipe head in cold water.
ARC WELDING
In the arc welding process, an arc is struct in between an electrode and the work
pieces, which are connected to an AC or DC supply when an arc is struck, a temp
of about 4000° C is obtained and work pieces are fused together when they are in
fluid stage, either by melting the electrode or by melting a filler rod. Flux issued to
shield the weld form oxidation .
The operation also include chipping of slag etc. from the weld.
a) A.C. Machines
i) Manual arc Welding – 80 volts.
ii) Automatic or mechanised welding – 100volts.
b) D.C. Machines
i) Manual arc welding - 100 volts.
ii) Automatic or mechanised welding – 100 volts
The supply of current for electric welding would require a generator or transformer
of suitable voltage. The transformer use for giving supply of current for welding
should be double would to ensure complete isolation of welding circuit from main
supply.
The current used with small diameter electrodes on this sheets for manual arc
welding varies between 10-15 amps. For larger die-electrodes it is more. Since the
welder has to with stand the heat generated, the current valve should never
exceed 500-600 amps.
Electrode holders used for electrodes should be fully insulated and capable of
handling the maximum current requirement by electrode. Electrode holders can get
hot during welding if proper size holder is not used or if there is a loose connection.
Dipping of hot electrode holders in work should be prohibited, as it may expose the
worker to electric shock.
The chances of electric shock are there if worker is not careful while changing
electrodes, changing work position or in humid conditions. Risk of shock can be
reduced by providing an insulated barrier between worker and ground, while
The cables used for welding work should be of food quality which can resist hard
wear and should be inspected regularly for insulation defects. Joints between
cables should be insulated connectors of equivalent capacity.
Welding equipment must be safely earthed. There should be two district and
different earthling circuits so that, in case if one fails the other will afford protection
and earth connection cable should be short in length as possible.
HAZARDS
In welding and cutting operations hazards are mainly of high temp. which can
always be sources of fire of exposition . Some physical and chemical reaction are
caused which include various types of radiations, toxic gases, vapours, fumes
which may affect health or the workers engaged in process.
PHYSICAL HAZARDS
i. Flying metallic sparks and molten metal. Some of these sparks consist of
tiny shreds of extremely hot metal, sometimes molten, which may be hotter
then 1000° F and may cause painful burns on exposed skin.
ii. These sparks are also source of fire, or explosion hazards, in case
flammable materials are near by.
iii. Pressure of hot temperatures.
iv. Hot surfaces of the work pieces after welding or cutting this may cause
burns to unsuspecting persons.
v. Flying material while chipping the weld.
vi. Enrichment of oxygen ( due to leakage from oxygen bottles) radically
changes flammability.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
During welding and cutting operation, may toxic fumes are released in the
environment. These fumes or vapours affect the worker directly as oxygen content
in the environment cause oxygen deficiency and may effect the workers.
Carbon Di-Oxide
In dump atmosphere CO2 can combine with water vapor and from carbonic acid,
which may be irritating the eyes, skin, etc.
Carbon Monoxide
This gas may formed due to incomplete brining of acetylene. It unit with the
hemoglobin in the blood and blocks oxygen reaching the tissues of the body.
(recommended TLV – 50 PPM)
Acetylene
This gas can find its way in he environment from the oxyacetylene torch, leakage
from hoses and connections. In low concentration it acts like a mild intoxicant, but
if allowed to build in higher concentration may cause oxygen deficiency.
Nitrogen Dioxide
Oxone
Present in all arc welding, irritates nose and throat and damages lungs, as a levels
arc generally exceeded. It has a sweet smell. If you can smell it, you are getting
too much . (Recommended TLV-0.1 PPM).
Hydrogen Fluoride
Some of the electrodes are coated with fluxes containing flouride. During welding,
the gas is produced whenever such electrodes are used. This cusses skin irritation
when the gas comes in contact with the water of the skin, hydrofluoric acid is also
formed (Recommended TLV –2.5 mg. /CU.m)
Zinc Oxide
This is produced while working on galvanised steel and can cause fume fever
(Recommended TLV-5.0 mg/CU.m).
Lead Poisoning
Lead fumes may be released while working on painted metal work pieces. Lead
affects the nervous system. (Recommended TLV-0.15 mg/cu.m).
Beryllium Poisoning
Special precautions are required to be taken when works carried out at hazardous
locations or in closed environment. In confined spaces the toxic gases may
accumulate and cause deficiency of oxygen in working environment.
Exhaust systems for removing fumes and gases should be used an sufficient air
changeable made. The worker should have a life line so that he can be removed
from the area at earliest.
In case of fire and explosion hazards, these should be eliminated before start of
work. The area should be thoroughly ventilated and frequently tested, fire fighting
equipment such as sand extinguishers should be kept handy.
While working on heights the platform should have necessary fencing to prevent
fall of persons. When electric welding is done in confined spaces, measures
should be taking to protect the worker against electric shock.
PERSONAL PROTECTION
For the safety & health of worker precautions should be taken to protect against
various physical & chemical hazards. Leather hand gloves, leather apron. Fire
spats & safety shoes should be used for protection of body against heat, sparks
etc. Welder’s goggles or face shield should be used for protections of the eyes and
face against heat and light rays. Bare areas of the skin may get affected by UV
and IR radiations e.g. neck portion, these can be protected by of barrier creams.
As far as possible welding operations should be isolated and screened from other
employees so that nearby workers are not affected. To protect employees from
toxic fumes, vapours suitable respiratory protection be provided or exhaust system
be employed. Where hazard of falling object is present the welders must use hand