Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Itil 2011 Foundation Certification E-Learning Course
Itil 2011 Foundation Certification E-Learning Course
LEARNING COURSE
Ver. 2.2
ITIL® 2011 Foundation Course Objectives
2
At the end of the course, you should be able to
Discuss the ITIL 2011 qualification scheme
Explain the practice of Service Management
Describe Service Lifecycle
Identify key principles and models of ITIL 2011
Define generic concepts in ITIL 2011
Discuss the processes, roles and functions in ITIL 2011
Summarise the use of technology with ITIL 2011
Successfully clear your ITIL 2011 foundation exam.
Introduction
To Service
Management
Lifecycle
Why ITIL ?
• Focuses on descriptive guidance on IT Service Management that’s
easily adapted.
• Emphasizes Quality Management approach, standards
ITIL® goals
• Consistent, comprehensive, hygienic set of Best-Practice guidance
• Platform independent discussion of processes
• Common Language, Standardized vocabulary
• Flexible framework, adaptable to different IT environments.
1. Service Strategy
2. Service Design
3. Service Transition
4. Service Operation
5. Continual Service Improvement
Lifecycle Modules
Service Strategy
Service Design
Service Transition
Service Operation
Continual Service Improvement
Capability Modules
Operational Support and Analysis (OSA)
Planning Protection & Optimization (PPO)
Release Control and Validation (RCV)
Service Offerings & Agreements (SOA)
http://www.itil-officialsite.com/Qualifications/ITILV3QualificationScheme.asp
Type Online, Multiple choice, 40 questions. The questions are selected from
the full ITIL Foundation in IT Service Management examination
question bank.
Duration Maximum 60 minutes. Candidates sitting the examination in a language
other than their native language have a maximum of 75 minutes
Supervised Yes
Open Book No
Pass Score 65% (26 out of 40)
Where ? AEC Authorized Examination Centers
Good Practices are generally commoditized, generally accepted, proven effective ways of
doing things which were previously considered best practices of the pioneering
organizations.
Business Outcomes
Value
Customer Assets
Performance
Service Management
Services
Capabilities Resources
Service Assets A5 Management Financial Capital
A4 Organization Infrastructure
A3 Processes Applications
Capabilities Resources
A2 Knowledge Information
A1 People
Process
- A set of activities designed to accomplish a specific
objective. A process takes defined inputs and turns them
into defined outputs. A process may include roles,
responsibilities, tools and management controls required
to deliver the outputs
Data, Information
and Knowledge
Desired
Process Outcome
Suppliers
Activity 1
Activity 2 Customer
Activity 3
• It is measurable
Function
- A team or group of people and the tools they use to carry
out one or more processes or activities
CIO
Project
Operations Development Architecture
Management
Website Enterprise
Service desk Project 1
Architecture
HR
Mainframe Applications Project 2
Finance
Application Applications
Project 3
Networks
Service Owner :
The person who is accountable for the delivery of a specific IT Service. They are
responsible for continual improvement and management of change affecting Services
under their care. Example: The owner of the Payroll Service
Responsibilities:
To act as prime Customer contact for all Service related enquiries and issues
To ensure that the ongoing Service delivery and support meet agreed Customer
requirements
To identify opportunities for Service Improvements, discuss with the customer
and to initiate changes for improvements if appropriate.
To liaise with the appropriate Process Owners throughout the Service
Management lifecycle
To solicit required data, statistics and reports for analysis and to facilitate effective
Service monitoring and performance
Process Owner :
The person responsible for ensuring that the process is fit for the desired
purpose and is accountable for the outputs of that process. Example: The
owner for the Availability Management Process
Responsibilities:
Assisting with process design
Responsible – the person or people responsible for getting the job done
Accountable – only one person can be accountable for each task
Consulted – the people who are consulted and whose opinions are sought
Informed – the people who are kept up-to-date on progress.
Service Provider :
Supplier:
A Third party responsible for supplying goods or Services that are required
to deliver IT services. Examples of suppliers include commodity hardware
and software vendors, network and telecom providers, and outsourcing
Organizations.
Business
Contract:
A legally binding agreement between two or more Service Provider
parties to supply goods or services
Supplier
Resources &
Service Strategy
(SKMS) Including the Service Portfolio &
Policies Constraints
Strategy
SDP’s
Service Design Standards
Service Catalog
Architectures
Solution
Design
SKMS Updated
Service Transition Tested Solutions
Transition plans
Operational
Service Operation Services
Operations Plan
Continual Service
Improvement Improvement
Plans & Actions
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 26
Lesson 3.3: Relationship between
Governance and ITSM
27
Relationship between Governance and ITSM
Corporate Governance
Ensures the provision strategy and business Establishes IT policy, Standards and Principles,
plans. Establishes the Corporate policies and Assures alignment of IT strategy to corporate
enables strategic direction, objectives, critical business strategy
success factors and key result areas.
IT Governance
Establishes, enables and executes the IT
Corporate Compliance strategy. Establishes Operations to assure
high-quality, compliant IT service
provisioning. Ensures effective key result
Assures adherence to Legal, Industrial and regulatory Areas.
requirements.
a) Service Operation
b) Service Transition
c) Service Derivation
d) Service Strategy
d) Recommending improvements
b) 1 only
c) 2 only
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 1, 2 and 4 only
c) All of the above
d) None of the above
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 33
Module 1: Quiz
34
Sample question 6:
Which of the following is a characteristic of every process?
1. It is measurable
2. It is timely
3. It delivers a specific result
4. It responds to a specific event
5. It delivers its primary result to a customer or stakeholder
a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
b) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
c) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only
d) All of the above
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 34
35 End of Module 1
Service
Strategy
Lesson objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Understand the Goals and Objectives of Service
Strategy
KEY ROLE: To stop and think about WHY something has to be done, before
thinking HOW.
• Demand management
• Service portfolio Management, and
• Financial management
• Business Relationship Management
Performance Supported ?
Fit for Purpose ?
OR
Constraints removed ?
Utility
Value
Available enough ?
Capacity enough ?
AND Fit for Use ?
Continuous enough ?
Secure Enough ?
Warranty
Utility Warranty
Functionality offered by Promise that the product/service will meet agreed requirements
product /service as the
customer views it
What the customer gets How it is delivered
Fitness for purpose Fitness for use
Three Characteristics of warranty
>Provided in terms of availability/capacity of services
>Ensures customer assets continue to receive utility, even if
degraded, through major disruptions
> Ensures Security for value-creating potential of customer
assets
Increases performance Reduces performance variation
average
Resources Capabilities
Financial Capital Management
Infrastructure Organization
Applications Processes
Information Knowledge
People
Risk
Some of the areas where service management can benefit from automation
Design and modeling
Service catalogue
Optimization.
Remote Control: allow relevant support groups to take control of the user
desktops
Diagnostic scripts & utilities
Reporting & Dashboards
Financial Management
Demand Pattern
Service
Process Capacity
Management
Plan
Service Belt
Patterns of
Business Activity Delivery Schedule
Demand
Management
53
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011
Lesson 3.3: PBA and UP
54
User Profile
Pattern of user demand for IT services
Each user profile includes one or more PBAs
Service Portfolio
Service
Improve
-ment
Customer Plan Market
The Service Portfolio 3 Space 1
represents the
commitments and
investments made by a
service provider across Customer Service Market
all customers and market 2 Portfolio Space 2
spaces.
Continual service
Market Improvement Third
Spaces
Party
Catalog
Customers Service
Design Return on Assets
earned during Service
Operations Resources
Resources Released
Engaged
Business
Opportunities
Business
Technology
Financial
Capabilities
Management
IT
Activities
Predicting the expected future requirements for
Budgeting funds to deliver the agreed upon services and
monitoring adherence to the defined budgets.
Benefits
• Enhanced decision making.
Question 1:
Which ITIL® process is responsible for drawing up a charging
system ?
a) Availability Management
b) Capacity Management
Question 2:
A Service Level Package is best described as?
Question 3:
The utility of a service is best described as:
Question 4:
The contents of a service package include:
Question 5:
Setting policies and objectives is the primary concern of which of
the following elements of the Service Lifecycle?
a) Service Strategy
Question 6:
Which of the following questions does guidance in Service Strategy
help answer?
1: What services should we offer and to whom?
2: How do we differentiate ourselves from competing alternatives?
3: How do we truly create value for our customers?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) 3 only
d) All of the above
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 69
Module 3
70
Service
Design
Improved IT governance
• Skills • Services
• Organisation • Technology
• Experience People Products • Tools
IT Service Management
• Suppliers • Activities
• Manufacturers • RACI
• Vendor
Partners Processes • Dependencies
Processes design
Business Service Catalog Details of all the IT services delivered to the customer,
together with relationships to the business units and the
business process that rely on the IT services. This is the
customer view of the Service Catalogue.
Technical Service Catalog Contains the details of all the IT services delivered to
the customer, together with relationships to the
supporting services, shared services, components and
CIs necessary to support the provision of the service to
the business.
Conduct Service
SLA review and
Improvement Instigate Service
Improvement
Supplier Management
To ensure the UC’s are aligned with
SLR’s and SLA’s by managing
relationships with Supplier.
Service Level Supplier
Management Management
Service Level Underpinning External
Agreements (SLA) Contracts (UC’s) Suppliers
Supply
• Resources
Capacity • Components
Demand
• Performance
Cost
Capacity
performance reports Improve Current service
& data and component capacity
Forecasts
Uptime
Uptime
Downtime
Incident 2
Recovered
Incident 1
Diagnose
Repaired
Restored
Record
Detect
Mean Time
Time to Time to Time to Time to Time to Time to Between
detect Record Diagnose Repair Recover Restore Failures
(MTBF)
Mean Time to Restore Service (MTRS)
Initiation
Business Continuity
Strategy
Requirements
On Going & Strategy
Invocation Operations
Implementation
Business Continuity
Plans
101
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011
Lesson 3.24: Information Security
Management: Objectives
102
Information
Information Security Management System
Security
Strategy
Information
Security Policy Information Security Processes
Information > Communications Strategy
Security Information Management of Security Risks > Training & Awareness
Organisation Security Controls Strategy
Information
Control Managed
Security • Organize Information
Requirements & • Establish framework Security
Expectations • Allocate responsibilities
Maintain Evaluate
• Learn • Internal audit
• Improve • External audit
• Plan • Self assessments
• Implement • Security Incidents
• Maintaining Governance
• Assisting and supporting each project through all the activities and
processes
Question 1:
Which of the following is NOT one of the five individual aspects of
Service Design?
A. The design of the Service Portfolio, including the Service
Catalogue
Question 2:
Which of the following is MOST concerned with the design of new
or changed services?
A. Change Management
B. Service Transition
C. Service Strategy
D. Service Design
Question 3:
Implementation of ITIL Service Management requires preparing
and planning the effective and efficient use of:
Question 4:
What is the MAIN goal of Availability Management?
Question 5 :
The Information Security Policy should be available to which
groups of people?
Question 6 :
Which of the following are activities that would be carried out by
Supplier Management?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. All of the above
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 117
Module 4
118
Service
Transition
Lesson objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• State the Goals, Objectives and basic
concepts of Transition, Planning and Support
Lesson objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• State the Goals, Objectives and basic
concepts of Change Management
Scope
Including
Strategic, Tactical and Operational changes
Excluding
Business strategy and process
Anything documented as out of scope
Standard changes
Pre-authorized with an established procedure
Tasks are well known, documented and low risk (usually)
E.g replacement of faulty printer, upgrade PC etc.
Emergency changes
Business criticality means there is insufficient time for normal handling
Should use normal process but speeded up
Impact can be high, more prone to failure, Should be kept to minimum
Remediation planning
Backout Plans
Change Manager
Ensures that process is followed
Usually authorizes minor changes
Coordinates and runs CAB meetings
Produces change schedule
Coordinates change/built/test/implementation
Reviews/Closes Changes
Change Metrics
• Compliance
Reduction in unauthorized changes
Reduction in emergency changes
• Effectiveness
Percentage of changes which met requirements
Reduction in disruptions, defects and re-work
Reduction in changes failed/backed out
Number of incidents attributable to changes
• Efficiency
Benefits (value compared to cost)
Average time to implement (by urgency/priority/type)
Percentage accuracy in change estimates
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 137
Lesson 3.10: Change Management :
Key Challenges
138
Vendor/Contract Compliance
CI Types :
CIs typically include
•IT Services, hardware, software, buildings, people, and formal documentation such as
Process documentation and SLAs
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 141
Lesson 3.13: Service Asset and
Configuration Management: Basic Concepts
142
Basic Concepts
Configuration baseline
Configuration details captured at a specific point in time. This
captures both the structure and details of a configuration Item.
It is used as a reference point for future Builds, Releases and
Changes. (e.g. After major changes, disaster recovery etc).
Typically managed through the Change Management process.
Basic Concepts
What is a Configuration Management System (CMS) ?
Basic Concepts
What is a Definitive Media Library (DML) ?
Basic Concepts
DML and CMDB
CMS
CMDB
Release unit
- Cls that are normally released together
- Typically includes sufficient components to perform a useful
function. For example - Fully configured desktop PC, payroll
applications
Release package
- Single release or many related releases
- Can include hardware, software, utility, warranty,
documentation, training …
Minor Release:
Contains small enhancements and fixes. A Minor Upgrade or
release generally supersedes previous emergency fixes.
Emergency Release:
Normally linked to an Emergency change.
Question 1:
Which of the following statements about a standard change is
INCORECT ?
Question 2:
Which statement is the CORRECT statement about the relationship
between CMS and SKMS ?
Question 3:
Whish of the following is an activity of SACM ?
c) Only 1 and 2
d) Only 1
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 165
Module 4: Quiz
166
Question 5:
Which of the following is an INCORRECT Release and
Deployment approach?
Question 6:
Service
Operations
Alert Incident
A warning that a threshold has been An unplanned interruption to an IT
reached, something has changed, or service.
a Failure has occurred. A reduction in the quality of an IT
Alerts are often created and service.
managed by System Management Failure of an IT component that has
tools. not yet affected service, but could
Alerts are managed by the Event likely disrupt service if left
Management Process. unchecked. This can be raised by IT
Objective is to notify the concerned support teams.
Stakeholders Example: Failure of a server in a
clustered mode.
Service Request
A generic description for many varying types of demands that are placed upon the
IT Department by the users.
Many of these requests are actually small changes – low risk, frequently occurring,
low cost, etc.
Their scale and frequency, low-risk nature means that they are better handled by a
separate process, rather than being allowed to congest and obstruct the normal
Incident and Change Management processes.
Examples:
A request to change a password,
A request to install an additional software application onto a particular PC,
A request to relocate some items of desktop equipment
Problem Workaround
Process Activities
Event occurs
Event correlation.
Event Response
Definition
The process for dealing with all incidents; this can include failures, questions or
queries reported by the users (usually via a telephone call to the Service Desk),
by technical staff, or automatically detected and reported by event monitoring
tools.
Objectives
To restore normal service operation as quickly as possible and minimize the
adverse impact on business operations
To ensure that the best possible levels of service quality and availability are
maintained, i.e. restore service within SLA’s
Time Scales • Timescales must be agreed for all incident handling stages.
- Depending on Priority & SLA’s
- Documented in OLA’s & UC’s
• All support groups should be made fully aware of these
timescales.
Incident Models An Incident model is predefined steps to handle a particular
Incident.
The incident model should include:
• The steps that should be taken to handle the incident
• The order in which these steps should be taken in.
• Responsibilities; who should do what
Major Incident An Incident Model to handle Incidents of Major Impacts and great
Urgency.
Service
Level
• SLA’s, OLA’s, UC’s
Manage
ment Event • Service break/ degrading
Manage Events
• Performance ment
Capacity
incidents
Manage
• Incident ment
Workarounds
Problem • Potential problems
Incident
Manage
Management ment
• Availability Availabil
incidents ity
Manage
ment • RFC for resolving Incidents
Change
• Incidents from Failed
Manage
Changes
ment
• CI data
SACM*
• Maintain faulty CI
Status
*SACM: Service Asset & Configuration Management
Definition
The process responsible for managing the lifecycle of all problems.
Problem Management seeks to identify and remove the root-cause of Incidents
in the IT Infrastructure.
Objectives
To prevent problems and resulting incidents from happening and to
eliminate recurring incidents
To minimize the impact of incidents that cannot be prevented.
Errors from
Major Problem
Development /
Reviews
Suppliers
Availability Management
Change Management
Capacity Management
Configuration Management
Problem
Management
Release & Deployment IT Service Continuity
Management Management
Financial Management
Service Level Management
Definition
The processes of dealing with Service Requests from the users.
Objectives
To provide pre-defined pre-approved standard services to users.
To provide users with information on available services and procedures for
obtaining them.
Deliver requested standard services.
Assist IT users with general information, comments and complaints
Basic Concepts
Request models – Specific procedures for handling certain types of requests
For example; IMACS, Password resets, etc.
Definition
The process of granting authorized users the right to use a service, while
preventing access to non-authorized users.
• Also referred to as Rights Management or Identity Management.
• In practice, Access Management is the operational enforcement of the
policies defined by Information Security Management.
Objectives
To grant authorized users the right to use a Service and deny access to
unauthorized users
To Execute policies and actions defined in Security and Availability
Management
Definition
A Service Desk is a functional unit made up of a dedicated number of staff
responsible for dealing with a variety of service events, often made via
telephone calls, web interface, or automatically reported infrastructure events.
Acts as daily Single point of contact for IT users
Objectives
To restore the ‘normal service’ to the users as quickly as possible.
Operate as Level 1 for Incident Management and Request Fulfillment i.e.
Log calls, do initial diagnosis and investigation and if possible resolve and
close.
Manage Incidents throughout its lifecycle, which also includes user
communication and Technical & hierarchical escalations.
Conducting customer/user satisfaction survey.
Type Description
1. Local Located physically close to the user community it serves.
2. Centralized Service desk is deployed at one central physical location.
3. Virtual Impression of single, centralized Service desk, through the
use of technology and tools to create a virtual Service
desk.
4. Follow-The-Sun Multiple Service desks across time zones to provide 24x7
service.
5. Specialized ‘specialist groups’ within the overall Service Desk structure,
so that incidents relating to a particular IT service can be
routed directly (normally via telephony selection or IVR or
a web-based interface) to the specialist group.
Local
Aids communication and gives a
clearly visible presence
Local Users
Can often be inefficient and
expensive to resource due to low call
Service Desk volumes
(local)
Reasons for a Local service desk…
• Language and cultural or
political differences
• Different time zones
• Specialized groups of users
• VIP/criticality status of users.
Third Party Application Infrastructure
Support Support Support
202
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011
Lesson 3.4: Service Desk Function:
Organization Structures- Centralized
203
Centralized
Customer Customer Customer
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
Local Service Desks merged into one
or few locations.
Service Desk
(centralized) more efficient and cost-effective,
allowing fewer overall staff to deal
with a higher volume of calls.
Second-Line Support
‘local presence’ to handle physical
support requirements, but controlled
Third party Application Infrastructure
Support Support Support and deployed from the central desk.
Virtual
Minimum qualifications
• Interpersonal skills, Business and underlying IT understanding
• Skill sets
Customer and Technical emphasis, Expert
Typing skills
Objectives
To helping to identify functional and manageability requirements for
application software so as to support the organization’s business Processes.
Assist in design and deployment of applications.
Assist in ongoing support/maintenance/improvement of applications.
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 208
Lesson 3.10: IT Operations Management
Function
209
Objectives
Question 1:
Major Incidents require:
A. Separate procedures
B. Less urgency
C. Longer timescales
D. Less documentation
Question 2:
Which of the following should be done when closing an Incident?
1: Check the Incident categorization and correct it if necessary
2: Decide whether a Problem needs to be logged
A. 1 only
C. 2 only
Question 3:
Which of the following is NOT a valid objective of Request
Fulfillment?
Question 4:
Which Functions are included in IT Operations Management?
Question 5:
What is the BEST description of the purpose of Service
Operation?
Question 6:
Which of these activities would you expect to be performed by a
Service Desk?
1: Logging details of Incidents and service requests
2: Providing first-line investigation and diagnosis
3: Restoring service
4: Diagnosing the root-cause of problems
A. All of the above
B. 1, 2 and 3 only
C. 1, 2 and 4 only
D. 2, 3 and 4 only
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 217
218 End of Module 5
Continual
Service
Improvement
Scope of CSI:
Overall health of ITSM. It takes care of entire ITSM as well as all
dependent services.
Alignment of the service portfolio with business needs
After implementing and operating processes, CSI help Maturing the
processes.
Organization need to:
•Review management information and trends of service delivery
•Ensure outputs of enabling ITSM are achieving results
•Conduct audits to access maturity of process, compliance of
processes.
•Conduct customer satisfaction surveys.
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 4
Lesson 2.0: CSI – Key Principles and
5
Models
Steps Quotes
1 Creating Sense of • 50% of transformations fail in this stage.
urgency
• Without motivation, people won’t help and efforts goes nowhere
• 76% of company’s management should be convinced of the need
2 Forming a guiding • Understand difficulties and producing change.
coalition
• Lack of effective, Strong leadership
• Not a powerful coalition. Opposition eventually stops the change initiatives.
3 Creating a Vision • Without a sensible vision transformation effort can easily dissolve into a list
of confusing, incompatible projects.
• An explanation of 5 minutes should obtain reaction of “understanding” and
“Interest”.
4 Communicating Vision • Without credible communication, and lot of it, the hearts and minds of the
troops are never captured.
• Make use of all communication channels.
Steps Quotes
5 Empowering others to • Structures to underpin the vision.. And removal of barriers to change.
act on vision
• More people involved, the better the outcome.
• Reward initiatives.
6 Planning for and • Real transformation takes time. Without quick wins too many people give up
creating quick wins or join the ranks of those opposing change.
• Actively look for performance improvements and establish clear goals.
• Communicate success.
7 Consolidating • Until changes sink deeply into the culture new approaches are fragile and
improvements and subject to regressions.
producing more
change • In many cases worker revert to old practices.
• Use credibility of quick wins to tackle even bigger problems.
8 Institutionalize the • Show how new approaches, behavior and attitude have helped improve
change performance. Ensure selection and promotion criteria underpin the new
approach.
Plan:
Establish the objectives and
processes necessary to deliver
results in accordance with customer
requirements and the organization's
policies.
Do:
Implement the processes.
Check:
Monitor and measure processes and
P D
product against policies, objectives
and requirements for the product A C
and report the results.
Act:
Take actions to continually improve
process performance.
PROCESS THE
DATA
DO
IMPLEMENT
CORRECTIVE
ACTION
GATHER THE
DATA – WHO,
HOW, WHEN
ACT
Question 1:
Which of the following does CSI provide guidance on?
1. How to improve process efficiency and effectiveness
2. How to improve services
3. Improvement of all phases of service lifecycle
4. Measurement of processes and services
a) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 only
d) 1, 3 and 4 only
©Simplilearn Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 2011 236
Module 6: Quiz
237
Question 2:
Which is the first activity of the CSI model?
Question 3:
Which of the following is NOT a metric described in CSI?
a) Process Metric
b) Personnel Metric
c) Service Metrics
d) Technology Metrics
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
Question 5:
Learning and Improvement is the PRIMARY concern of which of
the following phases of service lifecycle?
• At this level of exam the obvious answer is often the correct answer (if you have
read the question carefully!)
• If you think there should be another choice that would be the right answer, then
you have to choose the “most right”
• Use strategies such as “What comes first?” or “What doesn’t belong?” to help
with the more difficult questions
• Where there are questions that involve multiple statements (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4), then
try to eliminate combinations that are immediately incorrect (based on something
you can remember) so that the question is broken into smaller, and more
manageable pieces.
Sample Question
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1 and 3 only