Climatology

Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth

• Early atmosphere has H
and He in abundance -
lighter gases escaped
• During early life of the
earth – extensive
volcanism- degassing.
N, S, Water Vapour,
Argon and CO2 came
out
Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth
• Water vapour
condensed – clouds
– rainfall –washed
out bulk of the CO2
into Oceans. Co2 =
0.03%
• Oxygen – from
anaerobic respiration
of bacteria like,
Cynobacteria
 Proportion of gases
Gas Proportion
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.93%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Neon 0.0018%
Helium 0.00005%
ozone 0.00006%
 Proportion of gases
N, O, H and Argon are permanent gases
Water vapour, Co2, ozone -> variable gases,
GHG
N, Argon – inert gases
Atmospheric gases- no chemical interaction
among them
They don’t lose their properties
They act as a single unified gas
Structure of atmosphere
Troposphere
• 90% of atmosphere
within 32 km
• Tropopause = Height
8 km at poles, 18 km
at equator
• At equator
cumulonimbus
clouds
Greenhouse effect in troposphere
• Temperature decrease
as height increases
• Transparent to
insolation (shortwave)
• Heated by terrestrial
radiation (long wave)
• GHGs absorbs long
wave terrestrial
radiation
 Question
Q. normally, the temperature
decreases with increase in height
from the earth’s surface, because, UPSC
1. Atmosphere can be heated
upward only from earth’s surface
2. There is more moisture in upper
atmosphere Prelims
3. The air is less dense in upper 2012
atmosphere
 Question
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 UPSC
c) 1 and 3
d) 1,2 and 3

Ans. C) Prelims
Less dense = less amount of GHGs = 2012
low temp
stratosphere
• Temperature
increases with
height
• Because of the
presence of ozone
layer
• Ozone absorbs UV
rays from isolation
 Question
Q. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and
smoothly in lower stratosphere.
Why? UPSC
1. There are no clouds or water
vapour in lower stratosphere
2. There are no vertical winds in
lower stratosphere Prelims
2011
Ans. 1 in wrong, 2 is correct
Mesosphere

• Absence of GHGs
• Temperature decreases
with height
Noctilucent clouds
Mesospheric clouds
• Clouds visible at
high latitudes
• During summer
season
• Condensation of
mixture of meteoric
dust and some
moisture
Thermosphere
• Temperature increase
with height
• Gases in ionic state –
trap insolation –
extremely hot
• But ions are highly
dispersed
• Up to 800 km from
earth
Ionosphere

• From 80km to 640

km
• Number of ionic
layers
• Useful in radio-
communication
Ionosphere
• High energy sunrays
and cosmic rays break
the atoms of air
molecules – become
ionised (+ve charged)
• Behave as free
particles
• At night time, only
cosmic rays ionization
-weak
 Layers of Ionosphere
layers height Frequency Presence formation

D 60-90km LF Day-time Solar

radiation
E 99-130km MF, HF Day-time UV with N
molecule

F 150- MF, HF Day &night

380km

G >400km MF, HF Day & night

 Question
Q. A layer in Earth’s atmosphere
called ionosphere facilitates radio
communication. Why? UPSC
1. Presence of ozone cause
reflection of radio waves to earth
2. Radio waves has long wavelength
Prelims
Both statements are wrong 2011
Exosphere
• Beyond 640 km
• Highly rarified
atmosphere
• Very high
temperature- but
different from air
temperature-
because no
existence of air-
temp can’t be felt
Aurora

• Glowing lights at
mid-nights at high
latitudes
• At height of
exosphere and
magnetosphere
Aurora
• sun emit solar
wind/storm from its
corona
• Solar wind consist of
plasma (free
electrons and +ve
ions)
• Interaction of solar
wind with earth’s
magnetosphere -
disturbance
Auroras
• Collision of charged
particles (isonization)
in magnetosphere
• Ionised particles emit
light –release energy
• charged particles
interact with
geomagnetic field lines
• Thus, visible on high
latitudes
Heat budget
• The average
temperature of the
earth 15 degree
• Earth maintains influx
and out-flux of the
energy, but out-flux is
not immediate, it has
long time gap. That is
why, the temperature is
maintained.
Heat budget - Incoming

• First 35%
absorbed by
Ozone layer
• Then 15% by
cloud cover
• Only 50% energy
reached to the
earth surface
Heat budget - outgoing
• 20% is lost in latent
heat of evaporation
10% lost in sensible
heat (temperature of
the body)
• 15% absorbed by
GHGs
• Remaining 5% was
released in the
space
Albedo
• Ratio between the total
solar radiation falling
upon a surface and the
amount reflected
• Represents as %
• Earth’s avg. Albedo =
35%
• Lowest- dark soil
• highest - snowfall
 Albedo - table
surface Albedo
Fresh snow 80%-90%
Desert 35-45%
Grasses 26%
Crops 15%
Brick - concrete 10-20%
 Question
Q. Which one of the following reflect
back more sunlight as compared to
other three? UPSC
a) sandy desert
b) Paddy crops
c) Land covered with fresh snow
d) Prairie land Prelims
2010
Ans. C)
 Movement of air
Horizontal vertical

when there is pressure when air get warm, gets

gradient expands, becomes lighter
from high pressure to low => move upwards =>
pressure => advection convection
Vertical movement of air - instability
• When air gets hotter
than surrounding air, it
rises upward
• If it has moisture -
latent heat of
condensation – more
heated – will go up -
form clouds -can bring
rainfall = instability
Vertical movement of air - stability
• When air is cooler than
surrounding –it cannot
move upward
• sinking air
• atmospheric stability
or anti-cyclonic
condition
• High pressure on
ground
Low pressure – High pressure
Adiabatic lapse rate
• The rate at which air
packet cools while
rising
• Avg adiabatic lapse
rate is 6.5 degree/km
• That is air packet gets
cool by 6.4 degree after
covering one km
upward
Wet adiabatic lapse rate
• if air packet has high
moisture content- not
get cool so fast.
• Its adiabatic lapse rate
<6.4 degree/km ~ 4
degree/km => WALR
• Wet air can reach
higher distances with
low lapse rate =>
create instability
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate

• If air packet is dry, it

does not have much
moisture, it will get
cool very fast. More
than 6.4 degree/km –
like, 10 degree/km.
• Dry air create stable
condition
 Conditions of stability and Instability
situation condition
Conditional stability when wet ALR< normal
ALR < dry ALR
Absolute stability when normal ALR< wet
ALR < Dry ALR

Absolute instability when wet ALR< Dry

ALR< normal ALR
Temperature Inversion

• Normally, with
increasing height
temperature of air
decreasing, but
reverse is
happened than it is
called temperature
inversion
 Ex. Of temperature Inversion
• 1st
• At Tropopause –
temperature
starts increasing
from here
• So air packet
reach till here,
start moving
downwards
 Ex. Of temperature Inversion
• 2nd
• A cool winter night, the
air above the cold
surface gets cool.
• But the air layer above
that cool layer is till
warmer. Then, by going
upward, air does not
get cooler but warmer
 Ex. Of temperature Inversion
• 3th
• Valley inversion
• winter – cool air
descends to valley
• Uplift the warm air
of valley
• Descending cool air-
damage crops- frost
 Implications of temperature inversion
Formation of fog Warm air cooled by cold air
below – condensation – tiny
water droplets- low visibility
Formation of frost Water moisture frozen with
contact cold surface- damage
to crops
Atmospheric stability Prevents upward or downward
movement of air- Discourage
rainfall
 Question
Q. What do you understand by
phenomenon of “temperature
inversion” in meteorology? How does UPSC
it affect weather and habitants of the
place? (5)

mains
2013
 Condensation of water droplets

Condensation of water droplet Result

At heights Clouds
At lower level Fog
on the cold surface Dew drop
Turn into ice crystal in extreme Frost
cold conditions
 Reason for formation of fog
Advection Moving of warm air over cold
Radiation Winter nights – loss of heat
due to terrestial radiation –
cold surface. Moving of warm
air over cold surface
Ocean Meeting of cold and warm
current ocean currents
 Decreasing level of visibility

Mist Haze Fog Smog

 comparison
fog smog

Water droplet condensed Water droplet condensed

around a dust particle around a particle of
It reduces the visibility, pollutant, like SO2
damage the crops Reduce visibility + health
hazard
 comparison
Smog Photochemical smog

It occurs in cool humid It occurs in warm, dry and

climate sunny climate
It is a mixture of smoke, Mixture unsaturated
fog and sulphur dioxide hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides (NO2) in presence
(SO2). of sunlight
Its components are ozone,
nitric oxide, acrolein, and
formaldehyde and
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
Q. Photochemical smog is resultant Question
of reaction among
a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate UPSC
in the presence of sunlight
b) CO2, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate
in the presence of sunlight
c) CO,CO2 and NO2 at low
temperature Prelims
d) High concentration of NO2, O3 2013
and CO in the evening
 Question
Photochemical smog:
NO2, Ozone + sunlight UPSC

Ans. A)

Prelims
2013
Structure of atmosphere
Vertical Movement of air
Adiabatic lapse rate
Temperature inversion and its effects
fog
 precipitation

evaporation Humidity condensation Precipitation

Evaporation
1) High temperature
2) LP conditions
3) Fast moving wind
• Water vapour evaporate
from the water body
• Evaporation adds
moisture in the air
 Humidity
Absolute Humidity Specific Humidity

Weight of water vapour in Weight of water vapour per

unit volume of moist air unit weight of dry air
 Precipitation
• Precipitation – when • Precipitation depends
air is saturated with upon temperature and
water vapour and any moisture content of the
extra addition result in air
precipitation
Relative Humidity: • Hot air – saturation
reach with more
• Amount of water vapour
present in air – to moisture content than
amount of water vapour cold air
required for saturation
Types of clouds
 Types of rainfall
Convectional rainfall Orographic rainfall
 Types of rainfall
Cyclonic rainfall Frontal rainfall
 Pressure system of the world
Entire earth is divided into 4 large pressure belts
In reality, belts are not continuous but pockets of
low and high pressure.
But pressure can be created through thermal or
dynamic reasons
Thermal: high temperature=> LP, low temperature
=> HP
Dynamic: air rises => LP, air descends => HP
Pressure system of the world
• 4 belts:
• equatorial low
pressure belt
• sub-tropical high
pressure belt
• sub-polar low
pressure belt
• Polar High
pressure area
 Equatorial LP belt
• Constant insolation
• Air gets warm -LP
• Air move upward ->
cloud formation ->
instability -> rain in the
evening daily
• Cumulonimbus clouds
• Convectional rainfall
 Equatorial LP belt
• Absence of advection
of air
• Belt of calm / Doldrum
• Because light, feeble
winds - calm region
 Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP)
• The air above equator
move towards pole, but
Coriolis force - their
path get deflected.
• The length of path
increases. Their energy
reduced in mid-path -
cooled. air subside near
30-40 deg latitude.
 Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP)
• As descending air – HP
• Dynamically induced
HP
• Called ‘horse latitude’
 Sub-polar LP belt (SPLP)
• From the pole, cold
winds move towards
equator
• The both warm and
cold winds collide,
the warmer winds
from STHP rise above
the cold polar winds
• This rising of warmer
wind near 50-60
degree create LP
 Polar high
• Air risen at SPLP,
descends at poles
• High pressure
conditions
• Thermally induced
Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
Planetary winds
• winds blowing at the
same direction
throughout the year
• cover large distances.
• Horizontal movement,
Pressure belt system
provide them the
pressure gradient
• Coriolis force modify
their direction
Trade winds
• The winds move
towards equatorial low
pressure = ITCZ
• ITCZ – inter tropical
convergence zone,
where wind converges
• Their direction is east
to west due to Coriolis
force
Tropical deserts and trade winds
• Tropical easterlies or
trade winds flows–
east to west
• Wind becomes dry
when they reaches
the western coast of
the continents
• Off –shore trade
winds
• Trade wind deserts
Tropical desert and cold currents

• 2nd
• Cold currents
provide
desiccating effect
to trade wind
deserts
• Cold current flow
on western
margins of
continents
 Question
Q. Major hot deserts in northern
hemisphere are located between 20-
30 degree North latitudes and on the UPSC
western side of the continents. Why?
(10)

Mains
2013
Westerlies
• From west to east
• From STHP to SPLP
Westerlies
• From west to east
• From STHP to SPLP
• Less landmass in
southern
hemisphere
• Fast flowing winds
in the open sea
• Roaring 40s,
furious 50s,
shrinking 60s and
screaming 70s
Q. Westerlies in southern hemisphere Question
are stronger and persistent than
northern hemisphere. Why? UPSC
1. Southern hemisphere has less
landmass as compared to
northern hemisphere
2. Coriolis force is higher in
southern hemisphere as Prelims
compared to northern 2011
hemisphere
Ans. 1 is correct, 2 is wrong
Polar Easterlies

• From east to
west
• From poles to
SPLP
 Apparent movement of the sun
Summer Winter
movement of the pressure system
Summer Winter
Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
 Seasonal winds
• Monsoon winds:
seasonal reversal of
winds
• Feature of tropical
latitude
• In winter – trade
wind blows north to
south, in summer –
trade wind blows
south to north [but in
limited area]
 Monson winds
• Due to apparent
northward movement of
the sun in summer.
Thus, the ITCZ (LP) also
moves upward
• Thus, the area which
was under northern
trade winds in winter,
will come under
southern trade winds in
the summer
Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
 Local winds : mountains winds
Cold wind Warm winds

country wind Mountains Wind

Greece Gragale Alps Fohn
Italy Tremonta Rockies Chinook
Adriatic bora Andes Zonda
sea
 Local winds : land
Cold wind: land Warm wind: desert

HP condition in winter desert Winds

Divergence of cold air Sahara Sirocco
Siberia – Buran
Egypt Khamsin
Canada - Blizzard
Libya Gibli
Gulf of Harmattan
Guinea
 Local winds: India
summer Pre-monsoon thunderstorm

Hot-dusty wind = ‘loo’ states Wind

Bihar, WB, Kalbaishakhi
Assam
KN Blossom
shower
KR Mango
shower
Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
Mountain breeze
• During night time:
top gets cooler than
valley = HP, valley
=LP
• Wind move hill-top to
valley => mountain
breeze
• Agriculture –frost
bite, chill in
habitation in the
valley
Valley breeze
• During day time:
top gets warmer
than valley = LP,
valley = HP
• So wind moves
from valley to
the top => valley
breeze
Wind system of the world
Permanent Planetary
wind winds
Seasonal
winds winds

Local winds
Variable
wind Mt.-valley
breeze
Land-sea
breeze
Land breezes

• Differential cooling
of land and water
• During night:
• land cooler =HP,
• water =LP
• Wind move land to
water => land breeze
Sea-breeze

• During day time:

• land gets warmer =>LP
, water =HP
• Wind move from water
to land => sea breeze
Pressure belts of the world
Planetary wind system
Variable winds
Seasonal, local winds
Mountain- valley breeze
Land-sea breeze
Upper tropospheric winds
• Around tropopause,
there is only one
gradient
• Wind accumulated
above equator and
rarified atmosphere
above poles
• HP at the equator and
LP at the poles
Geo-strophic winds
• strong coriolis force
at tropopause
• Because friction is
less - high speed -
stronger the coriolis
force
• So the deflection is
90 degree
• Such winds called
geo-strophic winds
 Westerlies winds
• The upper
tropospheric
winds / geo-
strophic winds
blow from
west to east
at the very
high speed
Rossby waves
• Westerlies at poles –
to maintain the
angular momentum-
they meander =>
Rossby waves
• Rossby waves do not
meander
consistently, but
follow a cycle = Index
cycle
Jet streams

• In westerlies, there
are strong, narrow
bands of high speed
wind => Jet stream
• Speed of Jet stream
300kmph
Jet streams location
• There are situated
at the margins of
meridional cells
• 4 permanent Jet
streams: 2 Polar Jet
and 2 Sub-Tropical
Westerly Jet STWJ
 Jet streams
Permanent jet stream Temporary jet stream
Jet streams
• Jet stream
embedded in
westerlies (Rossby
waves) at high
latitude, cause
pressure variability
• That’s why they are
called travelling
depression
Jet Stream – travelling depressions
 Weather of Mid and high latitude
Weather of higher latitude is more complex
than weather of equatorial or tropical regions
Because tropical and equatorial region are heat
surplus region– thermal reasons play the
dominant role.
But higher latitude are heat deficit region –
dynamic reasons play dominant role
These include – localised + upper-tropospheric
circulations (Rossby waves, Jet streams,
temperate cyclones)
Air mass
• Large extensive body of
air-mass (1000sqkm)
• Height upto Tropopause
• At particular height, one
air mass will have
uniform temperature and
moisture across its width
• Airmasses can be
differentiate according to
their temperature and
moisture content
Air mass
• Air mass acquired
properties from the
source regions – land,
marine, polar, arctic,
Antarctic = give them
identity. Ex. mP, cT
• Extensive
homogeneous surface
+ longer stay (HP)
Air masses
• Air masses do not stay
at their source regions
forever, they move out.
While moving they
came across other air
masses.
Front
• The relative difference
between temperature
and moisture decide
their interaction with
one another
• The border/ meeting
region of the two air-
mass => Front
Cold front
• If cold air mass move
faster than the other
than it will lift the
warmer one upward =>
cold front
• the slope will be steep
= there will be sudden
up-liftment of the warm
air = cumulonimbus
clouds =frontal rainfall
Warm front
• If warmer air mass
is more active than
cold front => warm
front
• slope will be
gentler = there
won’t be sudden up-
liftment of warm air
= uniform
prolonged rain –
drizzle
Fronts
Frontal cyclone
• Also called as
extra-tropical
cyclone,
travelling
depressions,
cold-core
cyclone, wave
cyclones
Meaning of cyclone
1) Intense LP system
2) Air converges towards
the centre
3) Closed isobars
4) In Northern
hemisphere
convergence – anti-
clockwise
 Isobar
Normal isobar Closed isobar
 Conditions for LP
Thermally induced Dynamically induced

Because of high Upliftment of warm air

temperature Ex. LP at sub-polar LP belt
Ex. LP at equator Frontal rainfall
Convectional rainfall at
equator
Development of Frontal cyclone
• Movement of
airmasses from their
source region
• The warm and cold air
mass face each other
• A front is created
between them
• Called Stationary front
 Formative stage of frontal cyclone
Location of air masses Circular movement
Development of Frontal cyclone
• Cold air mass pushed
the warm air mass
• Forced upliftment of
warm air mass at the
cold front =LP
• Two cold air mass
convergence – circular
due to coriolis force
 Mature stage
Interaction of air masses LP – closed isobars
Occluded front
• One cold air mass
climb over other cold
air mass–warm front is
destroyed
• Called occluded front
• Rapid change in
temperature and
pressure
• Unstable weather
conditions
Dissipation of frontal cyclone
• Frontolysis – no
great
temperature
difference
between two
cold air masses –
front dissipated
– LP reduced –
cyclone
dissipated
Stationary front Front
Occluded front Frontolysis
Path of the temperate cyclone

• Always west to east

direction
• Because influence of
the wetserlies
• Gradual movement-
Predictable weather
Distribution of temperate cyclones
Tropical cyclone
Hurricane –N. America
Typhoon - China
• Late summer
• Increased sea surface
temperature = LP
• Convergence of air
around LP zone
• Rising moist (wet) air
=> absolute instability
Tropical cyclone
• Cloud formation =more
and more moisture –
latent heat of
evaporation => cumulo
nimbus cloud =>
cyclone
• Coriolis force induce
spiral movement of air
Mature Tropical cyclone
• Intensification of LP
• Converging air near
water surface
• Circulating air rises
above (coriolis force)
• Diverging air at the
top of cyclone
Eye of the tropical cyclone
• At the centre of the
cyclone – ‘eye’ of the
tropical cyclone.
• It is a pressure defect.
Because, at ‘eye’ a
narrow stream of wind
descend = is HP at ‘eye’
• At the eye, there is
clear sky.
• Beyond eye wall –
extreme low pressure
Properties of tropical cyclones
• Move swiftly
• It is fuelled by
moisture – so when
cyclone is cut-off
from sea and move
towards land – it
starts weakening
Distribution of tropical cyclone
 comparison
Temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone

30-40 degree latitude 8-20 degree latitude

Dynamically induced
Due to frontal interaction
Formed over large area
Move west to east
Gradual movement –
predictable
Thermally induced
Due to increasing SST
Small area
Move east to west
Swift movement- difficult
to predict path
 comparison
Temperate cyclone Tropical cyclone

Wind speed 40-50 kmph Wind speed >120 kmph

Pressure gradient 980 mb Pressure gradient <880 mb
Powerful on land Weakens on land
Affect mainland Affect only coastal areas
More time to dissipate Quickly dissipate after
coming on land
 Question
Q. Tropical cyclones are largely
confined to South China Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? UPSC
(10)

Mains
2014
Reason for location of Tropical cyclone
1) Tropical water
2) Warm ocean
currents
3) Increase SST in
late summer
4) Tropical
cyclone move
east to west
5) Landmass on
western coast