Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Biodiesel production and performance evaluation of coconut, palm

and their combined blend with diesel in a single-cylinder diesel engine
M. Habibullah ⇑, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, A.M. Ashraful, H.M. Mobarak
Centre for Energy Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Biodiesel is a renewable and sustainable alternative fossil fuel that is derived from vegetable oils and
Received 6 March 2014 animal fats. This study investigates the production, characterization, and effect of biodiesel blends from
Accepted 1 July 2014 two prominent feedstocks, namely, palm and coconut (PB30 and CB30), on engines. To aggregate the
Available online 26 July 2014
advantages of high ignition quality of palm and high oxygen content of coconut, combined blend of this
two biodiesels (PB15CB15) is examined to evaluate its effect on engine performance and emission
Keywords: characteristics. Biodiesels are produced using the alkali catalyzed transesterification process. Various
Palm biodiesel
physicochemical properties are measured and compared with the ASTM D6751 standard. A 10 kW,
Coconut biodiesel
Palm–coconut blend
horizontal, single-cylinder, four-stroke, and direct-injection diesel engine is employed under a full load
Engine performance and varying speed conditions. Biodiesel blends produce a low brake torque and high brake-specific fuel
Engine emissions consumption (BSFC). However, all emissions, except for NOx, are significantly reduced. PB15CB15
improves brake torque and power output while reducing BSFC and NOx emissions when compared with
CB30. Meanwhile, compared with PB30, PB15CB15 reduces CO and HC emissions while improving brake
thermal efficiency. The experimental analysis reveals that the combined blend of palm and coconut oil
shows superior performance and emission over individual coconut and palm biodiesel blends.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Global energy consumption has been increasing because of
lifestyle changes and substantial population growth. The transpor-
tation sector is one of the top consumers of energy and primarily
relies on diesel engines. These engines are more efficient and cost
effective than gasoline engines because of their higher energy
density, which provides higher mileage and lower emissions. The
diesel burning that occurs in transport vehicles results in serious
ecological changes, which include the increase in global surface
temperature (global warming), as well as changes in rainfall
patterns and in the frequency of extreme weather events. In addi-
tion, the demand for sustainable alternatives for crude oil has
increased because of limited fossil fuels resources, increasing
prices of world crude oil, and environmental concerns [1]. One
solution to this problem is the partial replacement of diesel with
biodiesel. Unlike diesel fuel, biodiesel has the potential to reduce
atmospheric carbon dioxide and significantly decrease smoke, par-
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 3 79674448;
fax: +60 3 79675317.
E-mail address: habib63119@yahoo.com (M. Habibullah).
ticulate matter (PM), hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO)
emissions because it is a clean burning fuel [2,3]. However, the dis-
advantages of biodiesel use include high production cost, limited
feedstock availability, food vs. fuel concern, inferior storage stabil-
ity, low volumetric energy content, high specific fuel consumption,
and high nitrogen oxide exhaust emission [4,5].
1.1. Objectives of the study
This experimental study examines the potential of using a com-
bined blend of coconut and palm biodiesel as a partial replacement
for diesel fuel in a single-cylinder diesel engine. ASTM D7467
enables the blending of biodiesel with diesel from 6% to 20%
(B6–B20). B20 represents a good balance of cost, emission, material
compatibility, and cold weather performance [6]. Biodiesel blends
of up to 20% with diesel (B20) can be easily used in the existing die-
sel engines without the need for engine modification [7]. This
study has particular relevance to Malaysia where the potential
exists for both increased palm and coconut oil production and
the establishment of economically viable application of biodiesels
from these oils at a high percentage. Thus, this study examines
the feasibility of using 30% diesel–biodiesel blend of palm–coconut
and their combined blend in a single-cylinder engine.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.07.006
0196-8904/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Habibullah et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257
2. Literature review
This study investigates the effect of biodiesel comprising two
promising alternative feedstocks of Malaysian origin, namely, palm
and coconut, and their combined blends on engine performance
and emission characteristics. Palm oil is the highest yielding oil
crop that produces an average of 4–5 tons of oil/ha annually, which
is approximately 10 times the yield of soybean oil [8]. Palm oil is
cultivated abundantly in Malaysia. Meanwhile, the production of
coconut oil is among the highest with 2260 kg of oil/ha [9]. Previ-
ous studies have shown that coconut biodiesel offers good ignition
and combustion characteristics, low pollutant emission, and stable
operation with any diesel blend, which results in smooth operation
with longer maintenance intervals than other biodiesels [10,11].
2.1. Feedstocks
2.1.1. Palm
Among all plant families, palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the
most popular and extensively cultivated. All tropical areas with
hot and humid weather, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, are ideal
for palm cultivation [12]. This particular variety can produce 10–
35 t/ha of palm fruits. Oil is extracted from both the pulp and the
seed. Palm oil trees are commercially cultivated to produce com-
mercial edible oil [13].
2.1.2. Coconut
Coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn) or coconut palm is one of the
most important nut crops and is a member of the family Arecaceae.
Coconut is native to the tropical eastern regions. The crop is grown
throughout the Asian continent, in Central and South America, and
in some parts of Africa. Large palms grow up to 30 m tall, with pin-
nate leaves of 4–6 m long, and pinnae of 60–90 cm long. Palm has a
single trunk that is 20–30 m tall. The cultivation of coconut
requires sandy, saline soils with abundant sunlight and regular
rainfall throughout the year. A coconut palm tree can yield up to
75 fruits per year. Coconut palm is known for its versatility, as evi-
denced by the numerous domestic, commercial, and industrial uses
of its different parts.
2.2. Engine performance and emission study
Recent studies have been conducted on the production, physi-
cochemical properties, engine performance, and emission charac-
teristics of palm and coconut biodiesels and their blends as
diesel engine fuel [14–19]. Mofijur et al. [20] studied the proper-
ties, performance, and emissions of 5% and 10% palm and Moringa
oleifera biodiesel blends (PB5, PB10, MB5 and MB10) in a multi-cyl-
inder diesel engine at various engine speeds. PB5, MB5, PB10, and
MB10 produced 1.38%, 2.27%, 3.16%, and 4.22% lower brake power
and 0.69%, 2.56%, 2.02%, and 5.13% higher BSFC, respectively, than
diesel. PB5, MB5, PB10, and MB10 also showed a 1.96%, 3.99%,
3.38%, and 8.46% increase in NOx; 14.47%, 3.94%, 18.42%, and
9.21%, decrease in HC; and 13.17%, 5.37%, 17.36%, and 10.60%
decrease in CO, respectively, compared with diesel. Liaquat et al.
[21] investigated the effects of PB20 and diesel fuel during an
endurance test and found 3.88% higher BSFC, 11.71% lower HC,
11% lower CO, and 3.31% higher NOx emissions than diesel.
Ndayishimiye and Tazerout [22] studied the engine performance
and emission characteristics of a palm oil-based biodiesel in a die-
sel engine and found that a high percentage of palm biodiesel
blended with diesel fuel decreases the heating value while increas-
ing brake thermal efficiency. NOx emissions and CO emissions
were higher at a low load, but lower at a full load for a high per-
centage of palm oil methyl ester.
251
In another study, Liaquat et al. [23] employed 5% and 15%
blends of coconut biodiesel in a single-cylinder diesel engine to
study its performance and emission characteristics. A 0.69% and
2.58% torque reduction, 0.66% and 2.61% power reduction, 0.53%
and 2.11% higher BSFC were found for the 5% and 15% blends,
respectively. In the case of CO and HC emissions, a maximum of
21.51% and 27.19% reduction was observed at different throttle
positions. How et al. [24] studied the effect of 10%, 30% and 50%
blends of coconut biodiesel on performance and criterion-
regulated emissions along with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) in a multi-cylinder diesel engine. They observed a 0.4–
20% higher BSFC, 8.5–42.4% lower smoke, max. 37.6% lower HC,
and 40.1% lower PAH emission than diesel fuel at different throttle
settings.
Ozawa et al. [25] studied the application of coconut oil methyl
ester in diesel engines and found that the break mean effective
pressure was 11% lower for coconut oil methyl ester than diesel
fuel because of the lower heating value. The combustion chamber
wall temperature also rose quickly, and the ignition timing was
advanced when the blending ratio of coconut oil methyl ester
was increased, thus exhibiting superior compression ignition char-
acteristics in a cold start.
In a previous study, Sanjid et al. [26] evaluated the production,
physicochemical properties, engine performance, and exhaust
emission characteristics of palm, jatropha, and the combination
of palm–jatropha biodiesel (PBJB5 and PBJB10) in an unmodified
diesel engine at engine speeds ranging from 1400 rpm to
2200 rpm. PBJB5 and PBJB10 biodiesels showed 7.55% and 19.82%
higher BSFC, slightly lower BP, 9.53% and 20.49% lower CO, and
3.69% and 7.81% lower HC, respectively, than diesel fuel.
3. Materials and method
3.1. Biodiesel production
Both palm and coconut biodiesel were produced by using the
alkali catalyzed transesterification process with methanol and
potassium hydroxide. The alcohol reacted with the triglycerides
to form the mono-alkyl ester or biodiesel and glycerol. The simple
equation of this process is shown below.
Triglyceride þ Alcohol ! Esters þ Glycerol
In this process, crude coconut oil or crude palm oil were placed with
methanol (25 v/v% of oil) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) (1 w/w%
of oil) in a jacket reactor at 60 °C using a circulating water bath. This
mixture was stirred at 1200 rpm by using a motor stirrer for 2 h and
was then poured in a separation funnel. Separation time of 12 h was
allotted for glycerin and methyl ester to separate. The lower layer
contained glycerol and impurities, whereas the upper layer con-
tained the methyl ester of vegetable oil. The methyl ester separated
from glycerol was washed with distilled water to remove the
entrained impurities and glycerin. In this process, 50% (v/v) of dis-
tilled water at 60 °C was sprayed over ester and shaken gently.
The opaque lower layer containing water and impurities was
removed. Biodiesel was then placed in a rotary evaporator (IKA
RV10) to reduce the moisture content. Biodiesel was then subjected
to under vacuum distillation at 65 °C for 1 h using a rotary evapora-
tor to remove water and methanol. Finally, moisture was absorbed
by using anhydrous sodium sulfate, and the final product was col-
lected after filtration.
3.2. Determination of fatty acid composition
Fatty acids are of two types: saturated and unsaturated. Fatty
acids without carbon–carbon double bonds are known as
252 M. Habibullah et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257
saturated, whereas those that contain double bonds are known as
unsaturated fatty acids. Gas chromatography (GC) (Agilent 6890,
USA) was used to test the fatty acid composition of palm and
coconut biodiesel. Table 1 shows the operating conditions of the
GC analysis, whereas Table 2 shows the comparative fatty acid
composition results of palm and coconut biodiesels. Palm biodiesel
was found to contain 44.4% saturated and 55.6% unsaturated fatty
acids, whereas coconut biodiesel contains 91.3% saturated and 8.7%
unsaturated fatty acids.
3.3. Biodiesel characterization
The properties of all samples were assessed in the Tribology
Engine Laboratory and Energy Laboratory, Department of Mechan-
ical Engineering, University of Malaya. The major physicochemical
properties, including density, kinematic viscosity, higher heating
value (HHV), acid value, oxidation stability, and flash point, were
measured by using several methods. Table 3 shows the synopsis
of equipment and test methods used to determine fuel properties.
Table 4 shows the individual fuel properties along with standard
biodiesel properties.
3.4. Engine tests
The experiment was performed in the Heat Engine Laboratory
of the Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Malaya,
in a naturally aspirated single-cylinder diesel engine. The engine
details are given in Table 5. This engine is commonly used for
small-scale power generation. The test engine was directly coupled
with the SAJ SE-20 eddy current dynamometer. Fuel flow was mea-
sured by using a Kobold ZOD positive-displacement type flow
meter. Engine oil, cooling water, exhaust gas, and inlet air temper-
atures were measured by using a K-type thermocouple. A DASTEP8
Data Acquisition System collected the data. The brake torque,
brake power (BP), BSFC, and brake thermal efficiency (BTE) were
calculated according to Eqs. (1)–(3), respectively. The engine fuel
system was modified by adding separate tanks with two-way
valves, which enabled rapid fuel switching. Fig. 1 shows the test
setup. A gas analyzer (AVL DiCom4000) measured the exhaust
gas composition of CO, HC, and NOx emissions. Details of different
measuring equipment are shown in Table 6.
For the tests using biodiesel blends, the engine was run with
diesel until a steady operating condition was achieved. The fuel
was then changed to a biodiesel blend. After running the engine
for five minutes, data acquisition commenced to ensure the
removal of residual diesel in the fuel line. After each test, the
engine was again run with diesel to drain all of the remaining
blend in the fuel line. This procedure was followed for each blend.
The test fuels were diesel, 30% coconut biodiesel (CB30), 30% palm
biodiesel (PB30), and blend of 15% palm and 15% coconut biodiesel
Table 1
GC operating conditions.
Property Specifications
Carrier gas Helium
Linear velocity 24.4 cm/s
Flow rate 1.10 mL/min (column flow)
Detector temperature 260.0 °C
Column head pressure 56.9 kPa
Column dimension BPX 70, 30.0 m  0.25 lm  0.32 mm ID
Injector column oven 240.0 °C
Temperature ramp 140.0 °C (hold for 2 min)
8 °C/min 165.0 °C
8 °C/min 192.0 °C
8 °C/min 220.0 °C (hold for 5 min)
(PB15CB15) in diesel. The fuels were blended by using a homoge-
nizer device at a speed of 3000 rpm for 10 min. Table 4 shows some
important characteristics of the tested fuels. The engine was oper-
ated between 1400 and 2400 rpm with a step of 200 rpm under
100% load conditions. Statistical analysis was conducted by apply-
ing two-sided Student’s t-test for independent variables to test for
the significant differences between samples set means using
Microsoft Excel 2013. Differences between mean values at a level
of p = 0.05 (95% confidence level) were considered statistically
significant.
2pN
BP ¼ T ð1Þ
60
m_
BSFC ¼ ð2Þ
BP
3600
BTE ¼  100% ð3Þ
BSFC  HHV
where N is the engine speed in rpm, m _ is the fuel flow in g/h, and
HHV is the higher heating value of fuel in MJ/kg.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Performance analysis
4.1.1. Brake torque
The engine torque variation with respect to engine speed at full
load for all fuels is presented in Fig. 2. The torque values of the
engine were first increased and then decreased at medium engine
speeds. The maximum torque values were obtained at 1800 rpm
engine speed for all fuels. Beyond this speed, the torques of the
engine decreased mainly because of two main factors, namely,
decreased volumetric efficiency attributed to the increase in speed
and augmentations in the mechanical losses [27]. The maximum
torque generated by the engine was 31.67 Nm when diesel was
used. With the use of biodiesel blends, the brake torque slightly
dropped. The maximum torque levels of the engine using PB30,
CB30 and PB15CB15 were 30.47, 30.24, and 30.44 Nm, respectively.
These results can be attributed to the fact that diesel fuel has
higher HHV than biodiesel blends [23]. The average brake torques
for diesel, PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15 over the entire engine speed
range were 31.32, 30.08, 29.83, and 30.03 Nm, respectively. Thus,
the overall reductions in brake torque for PB30, CB30, and
PB15CB15 compared with diesel were 3.94%, 4.74%, and, 4.11%
respectively. These changes were significant at a level of p < 0.02.
Other than lower HHV, the higher density and viscosity of biodiesel
blends resulted in lower velocity of the air fuel mixtures, lack of
turbulence, and lack of mixing of the air and fuel particles in the
combustion chamber, which affect combustion efficiency when
compared with diesel [28]. These factors reduce brake torque
and brake power output. PB30 exhibits the highest brake torque
among the biodiesel blends because it has the highest HHV
(Table 3). PB15CB15 shows a slight improvement in brake torque
compared with CB30.
4.1.2. Brake power
The brake power of an engine is directly proportional to torque
and engine speed. Fig. 3 shows the variation of break power output
with engine speed for different biodiesel blends. For all the tested
fuels, break power steadily increased with engine speed until
2400 rpm. The maximum break power output values obtained for
diesel, PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15 were 7.70, 7.40, 7.35, and
7.38 kW, respectively. As previously discussed, the brake power
output for biodiesel blends was lower because of low brake torque.
The average brake power values for diesel, PB30, CB30, and
PB15CB15 over the entire engine speed range were 6.23, 5.98,
 M. Habibullah et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257 253

Table 2
Fatty acid composition results of palm biodiesel and coconut biodiesel.

FAME name Structure Molecular weight Formula PBD (wt.%) CBD (wt.%)
Methyl octanoate 8:00 158.24 CH3(CH2)6COOCH3 n.d. 8.2
Methyl decanoate 10:00 186.29 CH3(CH2)8COOCH3 n.d. 6.6
Methyl laurate 12:00 214.34 CH3(CH2)10CO2CH3 n.d. 48.3
Methyl myristate 14:00 242.4 CH3(CH2)12COOCH3 n.d. 16.4
Methyl palmitate 16:00 270.45 CH3(CH2)14CO2CH3 40.1 9.3
Methyl palmitoleate 16:01 268.43 CH3(CH2)5CH@CH(CH2)7COOCH3 n.d. n.d.
Methyl stearate 18:00 298.5 CH3(CH2)16CO2CH3 4.3 2.4
Methyl oleate 18:01 296.49 CH3(CH2)7CH@CH(CH2)7CO2CH3 43.1 7.0
Methyl linoleate 18:02 294.47 CH3(CH2)3(CH2CH@CH)2(CH2)7CO2CH3 12.5 1.7
Saturated 44.4 91.3
Monounsaturated 43.1 7.0
Polyunsaturated 12.5 1.7
Total 100 100

n.d. = not detected.

Table 3
List of equipment used for testing fuel properties.

Property Standard method Equipment Manufacturer Model Accuracy

Density ASTM D 7042 Stabinger viscometer Anton Paar SVM 3000 ±0.1 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity ASTM D445 Stabinger viscometer Anton Paar SVM 3000 ±0.1 mm2/s
Dynamic viscosity ASTM D 7042 Stabinger viscometer Anton Paar SVM 3000 ±0.35%
Higher heating value ASTM D 240 Automatic calorimeter IKA, UK C2000 ±0.1%
Flash point ASTM D 93 Pensky-martens flash point tester Normalab, France NPM440 ±0.1 °C
Oxidation stability EN ISO 4112 Biodiesel rancimat Metrohm, Switzerland 873 Rancimat ±0.01 h
Acid value ASTM D 664 Automated titration system Mettler Toledo, Switzerland G-20 Rondolino ±0.001 mg KOH/g

Table 4
Major physicochemical properties of tested fuels.

Properties Unit Diesel PB30 CB30 PB15CB15 PB100 CB100

3
Density kg/m 829.6 841.8 838.2 840.0 870.2 858.2
Kinematic viscosity mm2/s 3.0738 3.5366 3.3793 3.4580 4.6175 4.0927
Dynamic viscosity mPa s 2.5501 2.9752 2.8491 2.9123 3.9672 3.5469
Higher heating value MJ/kg 45.238 43.869 43.152 43.396 39.910 38.284
Flash point °C 68 75 75 72 140.5 118.5
Oxidation stability h 58.51 9.53 6.33 6.21 6.59 8.10
Acid value mg KOH/g 0.10 0.26 0.18 0.24 0.40 0.35

Table 5 palm biodiesel. Engine performance with fuel blend PB15CB15

Summary of engine specification. was better than that of the CB30 fuel blend under all tested engine
Specification Description speeds.
Model TF 120 M
Type 1-cylinder, horizontal, water-cooled, 4.1.3. BSFC
4-cycle diesel engine
The variation of BSFC for all tested fuels with respect to engine
Combustion system Direct injection
Aspiration Natural aspiration speed is depicted in Fig. 4. BSFC is the ratio between mass fuel con-
Cylinder bore  stroke 92 mm  96 mm sumption and brake power. For a given fuel, BSFC is inversely pro-
Displacement 638 cc portional to thermal efficiency. Biodiesel usually possesses low
Continuous rated output 2400 rpm, 10.5 Ps, 7.7 kW
HHV because of its fuel-borne oxygen. High fuel consumption
Maximum rated output 2400 rpm, 12 Ps, 8.8 kW
Dimension Length (695.5 mm)  Width
can be attributed to the volumetric effect of a constant fuel injec-
(348.5 mm)  Height (530 mm) tion rate, along with the high viscosity of biodiesel blends
Cooling system Radiator cooling system [30,31]. The average BSFCs for diesel, PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15
Lubrication system Completed enclosed forced lubricating system over the entire engine speed range were 258.35, 280.53, 281.69,
and 280.45 g/kW h, respectively. Thus, the average BSFCs were
8.58%, 9.03%, and 8.55% higher than that of diesel fuel for PB30,
5.93, and 5.97 kW, respectively. Thus, the average brake power CB30, and PB15CB15, respectively. These changes were found to
outputs were lower than that of diesel fuel by 3.92%, 4.71%, and be significant at a level of p < 0.01. The graph reveals that BSFC first
4.10% for PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15, respectively. These changes decreased and was the lowest at 1800 rpm and then increased
were significant at a level of 0.01 < p < 0.02. The reduced power along with engine speed for all test fuels. With the increase in
for biodiesel blends can be attributed to their lower energy content speed from 1400 rpm to 1800 rpm, the BSFC for all the fuels
per unit volume than diesel fuel. Moreover, the high viscosity and decreased because of the increase in atomization ratio. The fuel
density of biofuels result in uneven combustion and poor atomiza- consumption increased from 1800 rpm to 2400 rpm because of
tion, thus producing low power [29]. The brake power for PB30 the decreasing volumetric efficiency, whereas the lowest BSFC
was 0.83% higher than that of CB30 because of the higher HHV of occurred at 1800 rpm [32]. CB30 showed the highest BSFC on
254 M. Habibullah et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257

Diesel Biodiesel

Gas
analyzer

Fuel flow meter

R
a
Muffler d
i
a
Test engine Dynamometer t
o
r
Laptop

Controller

Battery

Fig. 1. Engine test setup.

Table 6
Details of different measuring instrument.

Equipment Component Measurement principle Measurement range Resolution

SAJ SE20 Dynamometer Torque Strain gauge load cell 0–80 Nm ±0.25 Nm
Kobold ZOD flow meter Engine speed Pulse pickup 0–6000 rpm ±1 rpm
Thermocouple Temperature K-Type 200 °C to +1000 °C ±1 °C
AVL DiCom 4000 CO Non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) 0–10 vol.% 0.01 vol.%
CO2 NDIR 0–20 vol.% 0.1 vol.%
HC NDIR 0–20,000 ppm vol. 1 ppm
NOx Electrochemical 0–5000 ppm vol. 1 ppm
O2 Electrochemical 0–25 vol.% 0.01 vol.%

Fig. 2. Variation of brake torque with respect to engine speed at full load. Fig. 3. Variation of brake power with respect to engine speed at full load.
 M. Habibullah et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257 255

account of its lowest HHV. PB15CB15 showed the lowest BSFC

among all the biodiesel blends because of the combined effect of
improved viscosity and HHV compared with PB30 and CB30.

4.1.4. BTE
The BTE for all the tested fuels with respect to the engine speed
is presented in Fig. 5. The BTE increased until 1800 rpm and then
decreased, with the lowest engine speed at 2400 rpm for all tested
fuels because of poor spray characteristics and air–fuel mixing at
high engine speed [33]. The highest BTE values for diesel, PB30,
CB30, and PB15CB15 at 1800 rpm were 31.97%, 30.25%, 30.65%,
and 30.61%, respectively. The average BTE values for diesel, PB30,
CB30, and PB15CB15 were 30.83%, 29.28%, 29.64%, and 29.61%,
respectively. The overall BTE reductions for PB30, CB30, and
PB15CB15 were respectively found to be 5.03%, 3.84%, and 3.97%
lower than diesel fuel. The higher viscosity, density, and HHV than
the diesel fuel was the primary cause of lower BTE. Higher viscosity
decreases atomization and fuel vaporization, which results in a
Fig. 5. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with respect to engine speed at full
more uneven combustion than that of diesel fuel [34,35]. As a
load.
result of its higher oxygen content and lower HHV, CB30 showed
the highest BTE, which was 1.23% higher than that of PB30. CN. PB15CB15 showed a 1.22% higher NOx than PB30 and 1.20%
PB15CB15 showed a 1.12% higher BTE than PB30 and a slightly NOx lower than the CB30 fuel blend.
lower BTE than CB30.
4.2.2. CO emission
4.2. Emission analysis The variation of CO emissions for different tested fuels at differ-
ent engine speeds is shown in Fig. 7. CO is formed as a result of the
4.2.1. NOx emission inadequate burning and partial oxidation of carbon atoms in the
The NOx emission from the engine for all testing fuels at fuel [38]. Changes in CO emission depend on the fuel/air ratio
constant load is illustrated in Fig. 6. The thermal mechanism and inside the cylinder. When this ratio is high, the amount of CO
prompt mechanism are the dominant mechanisms of a NOx forma- increases. However, the fuel/air equivalence ratio increases with
tion in biodiesel combustion [36]. The graph shows that NOx for- engine speed, which results in increased gas temperature in the
mation increased with the increase in speed for all tested fuels. engine cylinder. This increase in temperature likewise increases
The average NOx emissions for diesel, PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15 the conversion rates of CO to CO2, which results in low CO emission
were 643.83, 664, 680.33, and 672.16 ppm, respectively. Thus, at high engine speeds, as evident in the results. The average CO
the average NOx emissions for PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15 were emissions for PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15 were reduced by
respectively 3.13%, 5.67%, and 4.40% higher than that of diesel fuel. 13.75%, 17.97%, and 15.84%, respectively, compared with diesel
These changes were found to be significant at p < 0.02. The higher fuel. The significant decrease in CO emissions when running on
bulk modulus of biodiesel resulted in the earlier opening of the biodiesel blends compared with that when running on diesel fuel
nozzle and a more advanced injection than fossil diesel [37]. The can be attributed to the fact that the carbon content of biodiesel
biodiesel blends are expected to combust earlier with an improved was lower than that of diesel fuel [38]. The presence of oxygen
combustion efficiency because biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel that in biodiesel blends also enabled complete combustion, which
possesses short ignition delay because of high CN. Thus, biodiesels ensured the formation of less CO compared with that in diesel.
form more NOx than diesel. NOx emission of CB30 was 2.40% The average CO emission for PB30 was 5.15% higher than that of
higher than that of PB30, which can be attributed to its higher CB30 because of its higher density and viscosity. Higher density

Fig. 4. Variation of BSFC with respect to engine speed at full load. Fig. 6. Variation of NOx emissions with respect to engine speed at full load.
256 M. Habibullah et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 87 (2014) 250–257
Fig. 7. Variation of CO emissions with respect to engine speed at full load.
Fig. 8. Variation of HC emissions with respect to engine speed at full load.
and viscosity caused poor fuel atomization and spray formation,
which resulted in incomplete combustion and increased CO emis-
sion [39]. PB15CB15 produced 2.43% lower CO than PB30 and 2.60%
higher CO than CB30 fuel. Thus, the addition of CB in PB clearly
resulted in a significant improvement in CO emission reduction.
4.2.3. HC emission
Hydrocarbon emission is affected by engine operating condi-
tions, fuel properties, and fuel spray characteristics [40]. Fig. 8
shows the variation of HC emission in ppm for all the tested fuels
at various engine speeds. The average HC emissions for diesel,
PB30, CB30, and PB15CB15 in the entire engine speed range were
78.50, 64.17, 54.00, and 58.17 ppm, respectively. Thus, the average
HC emission was reduced by 18.26%, 31.21%, and 25.90% for PB30,
CB30, and PB15CB15, respectively, compared with diesel fuel. This
result can be attributed to the better conversion of HC resulting
from higher CN together and oxygen content. An earlier combus-
tion timing attributed to higher CN with advantageous conditions
(post flame oxidation, higher flame speed, etc.) during air–fuel
interactions that resulted from the fuel borne oxygen, particularly
in the fuel-rich regions, enhanced the oxidation of unburned HC,
thus reducing HC significantly [18,41]. PB30 showed 18.83% higher
HC emission than that of CB30. This variation can be attributed to
the variation of density and viscosity values among the fuels, as
explained in the case of CO emission [42]. PB15CB15 produced
9.35% lower HC than PB30 and 7.72% higher HC than CB30 fuel.
Thus, the addition of CB in PB clearly resulted in a significant
improvement in HC emission reduction.
5. Conclusion
This study was conducted in two phases. In the first phase,
biodiesel was obtained. In the second phase, the blend properties,
engine performance, and emission of palm, coconut and their com-
bined blend with diesel were investigated. The results of this work
can be summarized as follows:
 The average engine brake power values for PB30, CB30, and
PB15CB15 were respectively 3.92%, 4.71%, and 4.10% lower,
whereas BSFC values were higher (8.55–9.03%) than that of die-
sel fuel. The BTE values were much (3.84–5.03%) lower than
that of diesel fuel due to their much lower HHV. PB15CB15
showed slightly higher BTE (1.12%) than PB30 and slightly
lower BP and BTE (0.20% and 0.12%, respectively) than CB30
fuel. By contrast, BP decreased by 0.20% compared with that
of PB30 and increased by 0.63% compared with that of CB30.
 The average NOx emissions were 3.13–5.67% higher for all the
tested biodiesel blends compared with that of diesel fuel. The
NOx emission of CB30 was 2.40% higher than that of PB30,
whereas PB15CB15 showed a 1.22% higher NOx emission than
that of PB30 and 1.20% lower NOx emission than that of CB30.
 CO and HC emissions were reduced to a great extent at 13.75–
17.97%, compared with those of diesel fuel operation. PB30
showed 5.15% and 18.83% higher CO and HC emission, respec-
tively, compared with the values for CB30. Meanwhile,
PB15CB15 showed lower CO and HC emission (2.43% and
9.35%, respectively) than PB30 and slightly higher emissions
(2.60% and 7.72%, respectively) than CB30 fuel.
 Combined blend of palm and coconut biodiesel shows superior
performance and emission over individual coconut and palm
biodiesel blends depending on performance and emission
parameters.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to appreciate the University of Malaya
for financial support through High Impact Research Grant titled:
Clean Diesel Technology for Military and Civilian Transport
Vehicles having Grant Number UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/07.
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