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DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CE 6703 - WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
UNIT I
PART A
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1. What are the two important standards for irrigation water? [N/D-16]
The important standard for Irrigation
a.
b.
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Sodium and calcium dissolved in it
pH
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Texture of soil and salts
Sensitivity of crops and drainage condition of soil
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2. Define flood walls. [N/D-16]
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A floodwall (or floodwall) is a primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to temporarily contain the waters
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of a river or other waterway which may rise to unusual levels during seasonal or extreme weather
events. Flood walls are mainly used on locations where space is scarce, such as cities or where
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building levees or dikes (dykes) would interfere with other interests, such as existing buildings,
historical architecture or commercial use of embankments.
3. .List out the various zones of storage in a reservoir. [M/J 16]

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


the flood-control zone, conservation zone, buffer zone and inactive zone.
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Reservoir storage is divided into four zones, or pools. These include, from top to bottom,
The conservation and buffer pools, together, constitute the reservoir's active storage.
 WEAP will ensure that the flood-control zone is always kept vacant, i.e., the volume of
water in the reservoir cannot exceed the top of the conservation pool
4. Write short notes on Global water resources survey? [N/D 15]

The world total water resources potential are estimated to be 1.37X108 million ha-m. Of
these global water resources about 97.2% is salt water, mainly in oceans and only 2.8% is
available as fresh water at any time on planet earth
5. What are all the investigations in project planning? [M/J 16]

 Explanatory Studies

 Feasibility studies
 Final studies
6. What are all the steps involved in project formulation? [M/J 16]
Defining boundary conditions
Defining project alternatives
Timing of alternatives
7. What are all the drawbacks in project planning? [N/D 15]

Unsound preliminary report
Inappropriate design criteria
Time lag in the construction and use of the project
Neglecting economic analysis of the project
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Failure to consider all alternatives
Non-Consideration of the next best alternative
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8. Differentiate b/w single and multipurpose reservoir. [N/D 13]
A single purpose reservoir is for a single purpose. e.g conservation or flood control.
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They are constructed to store water during the period of high flow for use during periods of
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drought when the demand is more due to depletion of natural water storage.
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A multipurpose reservoir is a man-made lake which is managed for multiple purposes like
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water supply, flood control ,soil erosion, environmental ,management ,Hydroelectric power
generation, navigation, recreation and Irrigation.
9. What are the different types of single purpose reservoirs? [N/D 13] rin
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Depending upon the arrangement for releasing stored water, single purpose flood control reservoir may be
further sub-classified as
Retarding reservoir
Detention reservoir
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PART B
1. Briefly state the various steps needed for planning an irrigation project List the various objectives of
water resources development in the context of the lesser developed countries. [N/D-16]
Water available in atmosphere, oceans, on land and within soil. Hydrological cycle main responsible for
this. water resources engineering concerned with utilization, control and quality management of water.

Development of water resources involve conception, planning, design, construction and operation
facilities to control and utilize water. Development of water resources a function of civil engineers.
Levels of planning
1. Local level
2. Regional level
3. State level
4. National level
5. International level
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Water resources planning
1.
2.
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Statement of objectives
Collection of data
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Projections for future
4.
5.
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Project formulation
Project evaluation ngi

Statement of objectives
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

Objective would be based on need of the region.
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For national govt. it may for achieving maximum economic and social benefits.


For state govt. it may be to reduce flood damage.
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For village panchayats, it may be for water supply or irrigation purpose.
Collection of data
(A) General data

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 Physical data- location, size, climate, history, population, etc.
 Hydrological data- precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment, water quality,
etc.
 Geological data- explorations, geological formations, rock and soil type, ground water availability,
minerals, erosion, etc.
 Cartographic data- topographic and other maps of the area.
 Ecological data- vegetation, fish and wild life.
 Economical data- industry, transportation, market, tourism, recreation, land, etc.

 Legal data - water rights, pollution control, land zoning, land ownership, administrative pattern, etc.
 Public opinion data – opinions of public and politicians
(B) Special data
 Agricultural data- crop water requirements, climatic data, types of crops, etc.
 Municipal water supply data- drinking water needs, industrial water needs, quality of water, etc.
 Hydroelectric power data- existing and required capacities, alternative source of power, etc.
 Flood control data- record of past floods, extent of past flooding and damages, storm drainage
requirements, etc.
 Navigation data- present water traffic patterns, alternative means of transportation, etc.
 Recreation data- present recreational facilities, natural attraction, scenic data, etc.
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 Fish and wild life data- types of fishes and wild life, biological data in respect of species and their
habits, protection requirements, etc.
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 Pollution control data- existing waste discharge methods, location, time and character of waste,
water pollution regulation, quality standards, etc.
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Projection of future
 Water resources project usually planned to meet future needs.

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 Projections include future population growth, land use, water requirements for various uses, etc.
 Projection should be worked out with great care and caution, because unrealistic higher values
may lead to over design and excessive investments.
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 Lower value may fail to fulfill the purpose of project, lead to shortage of water.
 So evaluation of future water demands should be based on realistic projections.
Project formulation rin

 g.n
It needs a lot of imagination and skill, only done by experienced planner.

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First step, to define boundary conditions which restrict water resource project.
Physical limitation, e.g, no navigation in torrential mountain river.
 Limitations on available water
 Limited land areas
 Legal problems
 Next step to define alternative land use plans for each possible project units.
 Project units which serve no useful purpose should not included.

 Next is cataloging of possible project units.
 Project units along with alternatives indicated in catalouge.
Project evaluation
 Evaluation carried out to select alternative which is economically suitable.

 Best alternative consists of unit or combination of units which are economically most efficient.
 For economic evaluation benefits and cost data are collected.
 For selecting most efficient unit, fist step is to find out whether individual units are physically and
economically independent or not.
 For single purpose, independent project evaluation is relatively simple.
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 Multipurpose independent unit more difficult.
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2. What are the various water sources used for irrigation? How is the storage capacity of a large
reservoir fed by a river for a large irrigation project determined? [N/D-16]
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Surface Water Sources
• Lakes
• Rivers
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• Streams
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• Drainage ditches
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• Private ponds
Groundwater Sources g.n



Deep wells
Shallow wells
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 Shallow suction wells
 Horizontal suction wells
Reservoir Sizing Reservoir Sizing & Storage Yield
Mass Diagram
Sequent Peak Algorithm

Annual demand for water at a particular site may be less than the total inflow, but the time distribution
of demand may not match the time distribution of inflows resulting in surplus in some periods and deficit
in some other periods.
A reservoir is a storage structure that stores water in periods of excess flow (over demand) in order to
enable a regulation of the storage to best meet the specified demands.
The problem of reservoir sizing involves determination of the required storage capacity of the reservoir
when inflows and demands in a sequence of periods are given.
Reservoir Sizing Reservoir Storage Capacity Components
Active storage used for downstream flow regulation and for water supply, recreational development or
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hydropower production (for conservation purposes). Dead storage required for sediment collection z
Flood storage capacity reserved to reduce potential downstream flood damage during flood events.
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Reservoir sizing studies are focused more on determination of Active Storage requirement. Inflows are
assumed to be deterministic .
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Mass Diagram Method Developed by W. Ripple (1883).
It involves finding the maximum positive cumulative difference between a sequence of pre-specified
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(desired) reservoir releases Rt and known inflows Qt . One can visualize this as starting with a full
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reservoir, and going through a sequence of simulations in which the inflows and releases are added and
subtracted from that initial storage volume value. Doing this over two cycles of the record of inflows will
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identify the maximum deficit volume associated with those inflows and releases. This is the required
reservoir storage.
Rippl’s Mass Diagram Method

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Required reservoir storage for release rates are shown. Sum of all the desired releases should not
exceed the sum of all the inflows over the same sequence of time periods.

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Sequent Peak Algorithm
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Let Kt be the maximum total storage requirement needed for periods 1 through period t. As before, let
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Rt be the required release in period t, and Qt be the inflow in that period. Setting K0 equal to 0, the
procedure involves calculating Kt using equation below for upto twice the total length of record. z The
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maximum of all Kt is the required storage capacity for the specified releases Rt and inflows, Qt .
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3. Compare Levees and flood walls. (M/J 15)
LEVEES AND FLOODWALLS

d the building or may tie into high ground at each end.
If openings are left for the driveway and/or sidewalk, closures must be installed to seal these access
points prior to a flood.
Applicability
Because levees and floodwalls are located away from the structure or area to be protected, they provide
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flood protection without altering the building.
Flood hazard:
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floodwalls and six feet for levees (due to cost, aesthetics, access, water pressure, and space).
protection). asy
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much damage as if no protection were provided (or more).
, which would cause as
prevent undermining of a floodwall.

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of closures that require human intervention to install.
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Site requirements: e manner that
results in damage to surrounding property.
small sites.
er under the
structure.
Building characteristics:

structure from surface water.
event collapse.
Access:
such as a ramp or stairway.
entrances and a mechanism for closing all such openings.
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the effectiveness of the flood protection system depends on the availability of a capable person who is
aware of the flood threat and has sufficient time to install closures and make certain they are properly
sealed.
Aesthetics:
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d outlines of an earthen levee can be shaped to blend into the natural landscape.
Regulations: E
utilizing decorative bricks or blocks (although this will generally increase the cost).
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A levee or floodwall cannot be used to bring a substantially damaged or substantially improved structure
into compliance with current floodplain development standards.
Costs nee
proofing options.
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ocal soil, levees may be less expensive than other flood
the site can be significant.

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Techniques Levees:
ter than that of levees.
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embankment slopes must be gentle (usually a ratio of one vertical to two or three horizontal) to
provide adequate stability and minimize erosion.
Floodwalls:
ted of solid concrete (alone or in combination with masonry). They
must be designed to withstand water pressure without overturning or displacement.

Closures:
ually
expensive) or manually operated flood gates, stop logs, or panels.
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ance is needed to make sure that sump pumps, valves, drain pipes, and closures
operate properly.
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4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Levees and Floodwalls (M/J 15)

Advantages
tion without
significant changes to the structure if the design flood level is not exceeded.
tructure.
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with floodplain development standards.
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flow or in increased flood heights.
(or more). E ngi

adequate warning time. nee
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ainage can be affected, possibly creating water problems for others.
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to evacuate during floods.
5. Discuss the strategies for reservoir sedimentation (N/D 15), [M/J -16]
The flow in the river changes seasonally and from year to year, due to temporal and spatial variation in
precipitation.

undantly during monsoon season becomes scarce during the non-

monsoon season, when it is most needed.
construction of storage reservoir on the river course.
period.
planning a reservoir or a group of reservoirs and to achieve

maximum benefits out of the storage created, it is imperative to evolve guidelines for operation of
reservoirs.
ive for which it was
planned and may also pose danger to the structure itself.
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season.
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FRL in the early stages of monsoon, to avoid the risk of reservoir remaining unfilled at later stage, there
may be problem of accommodating high floods occurring at later stage.
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adoption of a plan that may not be economically the best.
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UNIT II
PART A
1. Define consumptive use of surface water. [N/D-16]
Consumption takes place when water is removed from available supplies by Evaporation or
transpiration, manufacturing and agriculture or for food preparation And drinking. This is called
consumptive use.
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2. What is multipurpose reservoir? [N/D-16]
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A multi purpose reservoir is a man-made lake which is managed for multiple purposes like water supply,
flood control ,soil erosion, environmental ,management ,Hydroelectric power generation, navigation,
recreation and Irrigation.
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3. What is the use of Double mass curve? [N/D 15]
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It is used to check the consistency of the rainfall record. In double mass curve a graph is draw
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between the cumulative values of average rainfall of base stations as the abscissa against the
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corresponding cumulative value of rainfall of the stations under let as ordinate.
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4. Enumerate the methods used to estimate the amount of evaporation from a water surface? [N/D 15]
i) Evaporimeters
ii) Analytical methods g.n

iii) Empirical formulae e
PART B
1. Outline briefly the concept of ground water budgeting and its importance in the determination of the
safe yield from a basin. [N/D-16]
Ground-Water Budgets
Under predevelopment conditions, the ground-water system is in long-term equilibrium.

1. That is, averaged over some period of time, the amount of water entering or recharging the system
is approximately equal to the amount of water leaving or discharging from the system.
2. Because the system is in equilibrium, the quantity of water stored in the system is constant or
varies about some average condition in response to annual or longer-term climatic variations.
3. This predevelopment water budget is shown schematically
4. We also can write an equation that describes the water budget of the predevelopment system as:
5. Recharge (water entering) = Discharge (water leaving)
6. Humans change the natural or predevelopment flow system by withdrawing (pumping) water for
use, changing recharge patterns by irrigation and urban development, changing the type of vegetation,
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and other activities.
7. Focusing our attention on the effects of withdrawing ground water, we can conclude that the source
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of water for pumpage must be supplied by (1) more water entering the ground-water system (increased
recharge), (2) less water leaving the system (decreased discharge), (3) removal of water that was
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stored in the system, or some combination of these three.
8.
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Pumpage = Increased recharge + Water removed from storage + Decreased discharge.
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It is the changes in the system that allow water to be withdrawn.
10. That is, the water pumped must come from some change of flows and from removal of water
stored in the predevelopment system (Theis, 1940; Lohman, 1972).
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11. The predevelopment water budget does not provide information on where the water will come from
to supply the amount withdrawn.
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12. Furthermore, the predevelopment water budget only indirectly provides information on the amount
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of water perennially available, in that it can only indicate the magnitude of the original discharge that can
be decreased (captured) under possible, usually extreme, development alternatives at possible
significant expense to the environment.
2. What is the response in Ground-Water Systems with respect to Pumping? [N/D 13]
1. Consider a ground-water system in which the only natural source of inflow is areal recharge from
precipitation.
2. The amount of inflow is thus relatively fixed.
3. Further consider that the primary sources of any water pumped from this ground-water system are
removal from storage, decreased discharge to streams, and decreased transpiration by plants rooted

near the water table.  If the above-described ground-water system can come to a new equilibrium after
a period of removing water from storage, the amount of water consumed is balanced by less water
flowing to surface-water bodies, and perhaps, less water available for transpiration by vegetation as the
water table declines.
4. If the consumptive use is so large that a new equilibrium cannot be achieved, water would continue
to be removed from storage. In either case, less water will be available to surface-water users and the
ecological resources dependent on stream flow.
5. Depending upon the location of the water withdrawals, the headwaters of streams may begin to go
dry. If the vegetation receives less water, the vegetative character of the area also might change.
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6. These various effects illustrate how the societal issue of what constitutes an undesired result
enters into the determination of ground-water sustainability.
7. The tradeoff between water for consumption and the effects of withdrawals on the environment
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often become the driving force in determining a good management scheme.
8. In most situations, withdrawals from ground-water systems are derived primarily from decreased
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ground-water discharge and decreased groundwater storage.
9. These sources of water were thus emphasized in the previous example. Two special situations in
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which increased recharge can occur in response to ground-water withdrawals are noted here.
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10. Pumping ground water can increase recharge by inducing flow from a stream into the ground-water
system.
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11. When streams flowing across ground-water systems originate in areas outside these systems, the
source of water being discharged by pumpage can be supplied in part by streamflow that originates
upstream from the ground-water basin.
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12. In this case, the predevelopment water budget of the ground-water system does not account for a
stream.
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source of water outside the ground-water system that is potentially available as recharge from the
13. Another potential source of increased recharge is the capture of recharge that was originally
rejected because water levels were at or near land surface.
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14. As the water table declines in response to pumping, a storage capacity for infiltration of water
becomes available in the unsaturated zone. As a result, some water that previously was rejected as
surface runoff can recharge the aquifer and cause a net increase in recharge.
15. This source of water to pumping wells is usually negligible, however, compared to other sources.
3. What are the quality criteria for irrigation water? Show the relationship between the different
parameters. Classify the irrigation water based on various parameters. [N/D-16]
Irrigation Water Requirements
Introduction

a. Irrigated agriculture is facing new challenges that require refined management and innovative
design.
b. Formerly, emphasis centered on project design; however,current issues involve limited water
supplies with several competing users, the threat of water quality degradation through excess irrigation,
and narrow economic margins.
c. Meeting these challenges requires improved prediction of irrigation water requirements.
d. Irrigation water requirements can be defined as the quantity, or depth, of irrigation water in addition
to precipitation required to produce the desired crop yield and quality and to maintain an acceptable salt
balance in the root zone.
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e. This quantity of water must be determined for such uses as irrigation scheduling for a specific field
and seasonal water needs for planning, management, and development of irrigation projects.
f.
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The amount and timing of precipitation strongly influence irrigation water requirements. In arid
areas, annual precipitation is generally less than 10 inches and irrigation is necessary to successfully
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grow farm crops.  In semiarid areas (those typically receiving between 15 to 20 inches of annual
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precipitation), crops can be grown without irrigation, but are subject to droughts that reduce crop yields
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and can result in crop failure in extreme drought conditions.
g. Sub humid areas, which receive from 20 to 30 inches of annual precipitation, are typically
characterized by short, dry periods.
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Depending on the available water storage capacity of soils and the crop rooting depth, irrigation
may be needed for short periods during the growing season in these areas.  In humid areas, those
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receiving more than 30 inches of annual precipitation, the amount of precipitation normally exceeds
evapotranspiration throughout most of the year.
i. e
However, drought periods sometimes occur, which reduce yield and impair quality, especiallyfor
crops grown on shallow, sandy soils or that have a shallow root system.
j. Irrigation is not needed to produce a crop in most years, but may be needed to protect against an
occasional crop failure and to maintain product quality. Irrigation requirements
k. The primary objective of irrigation is to provide plants with sufficient water to obtain optimum yields
and a high quality harvested product.  The required timing and amount of applied water is determined
by the prevailing climatic conditions, the crop and its stage of growth, soil properties (such as water
holding capacity), and the extent of root development.
l. Water within the crop root zone is the source of water for crop evapotranspiration.

m. Thus, it is important to consider the field water balance to determine the irrigation water
requirements.
n. Plant roots require moisture and oxygen to live.
o. Where either is out of balance, root functions are slowed and crop growth reduced.
p. All crops have critical growth periods when even small moisture stress can significantly impact crop
yields and quality.
q. Critical water needs periods vary crop by crop.
r. Soil moisture during the critical water periods should be maintained at sufficient levels to ensure
the plant does not stress from lack of water
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Water characteristics and quality:
a.
b.
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Physical characteristics
Chemical characteristics
c.
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Biological characteristics
Turbidity
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Physical characteristics
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a. nee
the clarity of water Transparency of natural water bodies is affected by human activity, decaying
plant matter, algal blooms, suspended sediments, and plant nutrients
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b.
c.
Turbidity provides an inexpensive estimate of total suspended solids
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TSS concentration Turbidity has little meaning except in relatively clear waters but is useful in
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defining drinking-water quality in water treatment measures how deep a person can see into the water
Total Solids (TS) - the total of all solids in a water sample Total Suspended Solids (TSS) - the amount of
filterable solids in a water sample, filters are dried and weighed
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - Non filterable solids that pass through a filter with a pore size of 2.0
micron, after filtration the liquid is dried and residue is weighed EPA Secondary Drinking Water
Recommendation is for TDS of less than 500mg/L Volatile Solids (VS) - Volatile solids are those solids
lost on heating to 500 degrees C - rough approximation of the amount of organic matter present in the
solid fraction of wastewater
4. What are the chemical characteristics Of Water? [N/D 13]

Commonly measured chemical parameters are: – pH – Alkalinity – Hardness – Nitrates, Nitrites, &
Ammonia – Phosphates – Dissolved Oxygen & Biochemical Oxygen Demand
pH: The pH of water determines the solubility of many ions and biological availability of chemical
constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) an heavy metals (lead, copper,
cadmium)
Hardness
a. Prevents lathering/sudsing - hotter water and extra rinse cycles may be required
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b.
c.
Fabric appearance declines & life may be reduced
Minerals may clog pipes & cause excessive wear on moving parts Solutions: – Distill water to
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remove the calcium and magnesium – Soften the Water - Replaces calcium and magnesium ions with
sodium or potassium ions Cation exchange Strong adsorption » » » Weak adsorption Al+3 > Ca+2 >
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Mg+2 > K + = NH4+ > Na + >H +
Nitrogen
a.
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Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78.1% of the Earth’s atmosphere
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An essential nutrient required by all plants and animals for formation of amino acids (the molecular units
that make up protein) N must be "fixed" (combined) in the form of ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3) to be
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used for growth – N2 + 8H+ + bacteria = 2NH3 + H2 – NH3 + O2 + bacteria = NO2- + 3H+ + 2e- – NO2-
+ H2O + bacteria = NO3- + 2H+ +2e-
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b.
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Ammonia NH3 (extremely toxic) continually changes to ammonium NH4 + (relatively harmless) and
vice versa, relative concentration depends on temperature & pH At higher temperatures and pH, more N
is in the ammonia form Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL): nitrite-N : 1 mg/L nitrate-N : 10 mg/L nitrite
+ nitrate (as N) : 10 mg/L Sources: Fertilized areas; Sewage disposal; Feed lots; N cycle
PHOSPHATES
Secondary Drinking Water Standard EPA recommendation– total phosphate should be < 5mg/L
stresses aquatic life (the lower the concentration, the greater the stress)
Biological Characteristics

a. Harmless bacteria ~ present in large numbers

b. in feces and intestinal tracts of humans and
c. other warm-blooded animals Environmental Impact
d. indicator of contamination with human or animal fecal material  may indicate contamination by
pathogens or disease producing
e. bacteria or viruses Criteria
f. Swimming ~ fewer than 200 colonies/100 mL
g. Fishing and boating ~ fewer than 1000 colonies/100 mL
h. Domestic water supply ~ fewer than 2000 colonies/100 mL  Drinking water 0 colonies/100mL
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Biological Oxygen Demand is a measure of oxygen used by microorganisms to decompose
organic waste (add a microorganism seed to all samples seal sample dead plants, leaves, samples,
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from air, store in dark to prevent photosynthesis, subtract seeded control, measure decrease in DO)
b.
c.
d.
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Nitrates & phosphates are plant
nutrients so may contribute to high
BOD levels When BOD levels are high, dissolved
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oxygen decreases ⇒ fish and other grass clippings, manure, sewage, or food waste aquatic
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organisms may not survive An index of the degree of organic pollution in water BOD level of 1-2 ppm -
very good BOD level of 3-5 ppm - moderately clean BOD level of 6-9 ppm - somewhat polluted.
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5. What is Master Plan in water resources? Explain the scope and aims in detail. [N/D 15]
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1. Considering the existing water stress conditions in India and the likelihood of further worsening
situation due to climate change and other factors, water resources projects should be planned as
per the efficiency benchmarks to be prescribed for various situations.
2. Being inter-disciplinary in nature, water resources projects should be planned considering social
and environmental aspects also in addition to techno-economic considerations in consultation with
project affected and beneficiary families. The integrated water resources management with
emphasis on finding reasonable and generally acceptable solutions for most of the stakeholders
should be followed for planning and management of water resources projects.

3. Considering the heavy economic loss due to delay in implementation of projects, all clearances,
including environmental and investment clearances, be made time bound.
4. Concurrent monitoring at project, State and the Central level should be undertaken for timely
interventions to avoid time and cost over-runs.
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5. All components of water resources projects should be planned and executed in a pari-passu
manner so that intended benefits start accruing immediately and there is no gap between potential
created and potential utilized.
6. Local governing bodies like Panchayats, Municipalities, Corporations, etc., and Water Users
Associations, wherever applicable, should be involved in planning of
7. the projects. The unique needs and aspirations of the Scheduled caste and Scheduled Tribes,
women and other weaker sections of the society should be given due consideration.
8. All water resources projects, including hydro power projects, should be planned to the extent
feasible as multi-purpose projects with provision of storage to derive maximum benefit from
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UNIT III
PART A
1. What are canal regulators? [N/D-16]
Structure at the head of canal taking off from a reservoir may consist of number of spans separated by
piers and operated by gates.
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2. Define Duty, Delta and Base period. [N/D-16]
Duty: is the area in hectare/ m3 that can be irrigated if 1 m3 water is supplied
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Delta : is the depth of water in meters supplied in the entire base period
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Base period is the time from which the crop is irrigated.
3. What is a Barrage ? [N/D 15]
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When the water level on the upstream side of the weir is required to be raised to different levels at
different times, then the barrage is constructed. Practically a barrage is on arrangements are
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adjustable gates or shutters at different tiers over the weir. The water level can be adjusted at H1,
H2, etc. by operating the adjustable gates.

rin
4.What are the functions of a divide wall ? [N/D 15]
g.n
e
a. To form a still water pocket in front of the canal head so that the suspended silt can be settled
down which than later be cleaned through the scouring sluice from time to time.
b. It control the eddy current or cross current in front of the canal head
c. It provides a straight approach in front of the canal head
d. It resists the overturning effect on the weir or barrage caused by the pressure of the
impounding water.
5. What is an aqueduct ? [N/D 12]
The hydraulic structure in which irrigation canal is passing over the drainage is known as

aqueduct. This structure is suitable when bed of canal is above the highest flood level of drainage.
In this case, the drainage water passes clearly below the canal.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
6. What are the main functions of a cross-regulator ? [N/D 12]
The main functions of a cross-regulator are listed below|:
(i) To control the entire Canal Irrigation System.

nee
rin
g.n
(ii) To help in heading up water on the upstream side and to fed the off-taking canals to their full
demand.
e
(iii) To help in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal system, and in preventing
the possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches.
(iv) Cross regulator is often combined with bridges and falls, if required.
7. What are the non-structural measures for reducing water logging? [N/D-12]
(i) Adoption of tolerant crops
(ii) Restricting canal supplies close to crop water needs

(iii) Switch over to drip irrigation
(iv) Conjunctive use of surface and ground water
8 List the methods of estimation of consumptive use. [N/D 13]
To measure or estimate the consumptive use, there are three main methods:
(i) Direct Methods/Field Methods
(ii) Empirical Methods
(iii) Pan evaporation method
ww
9.List the methods of estimation of consumptive use. [N/D 13]
To measure or estimate the consumptive use, there are three main methods:
w.E
(i) Direct Methods/Field Methods
asy
(ii) Empirical Methods
(iii) Pan evaporation method
E ngi
10.List the direct methods for estimation of consumptive use. [N/D-12]
nee
In this method field observations are made and physical model is used for this
purpose. This includes :
(i) Vapour Transfer Method/Soil Moisture Studies

rin
(ii) Field Plot Method
g.n
(iii) Tanks and Lysimeter
(iv) Integration Method/Summation Method

e
(v) Irrigation Method
(vi) Inflow Outflow Method
11. Write short notes on vapour transfer method. [N/D 13]
In this method of estimation of water consumptive use, soil moisture measurements are
taken before and after each irrigation. The quantity of water extracted per day from
soil is computed for each period.This method is suitable in those areas where soil is

fairly uniform and ground water is deep enough so that it does not affect the
fluctuations in the soil moisture within the root zone of the soil.
12. Write short notes on field plot method. [N/D 13]
We select a representative plot of area and the accuracy depends upon the representativeness
of plot (cropping intensity, exposure etc). It replicates the conditions of an actual sample field
(field plot). Less seepage should be there.
13. What is a Barrage? [N/D-12]
ww
When the water level on the upstream side of the weir is required to be raised to different levels at
different times, then the barrage is constructed. Practically a barrage is on arrangements are
w.E
adjustable gates or shutters at different tiers over the weir. The water level can be adjusted at H1,
asy
H2, etc. by operating the adjustable gates.
E
14. What are the functions of a divide wall ?
ngi
a. To form a still water pocket in front of the canal head so that the suspended silt can be settled
nee
Down which than later be cleaned through the scouring sluice from time to time.
b. It controls the eddy current or cross current in front of the canal head
c. It provides a straight approach in front of the canal head
rin
g.n
d. It resists the overturning effect on the weir or barrage caused by the pressure of the
Impounding water.
15. What are the main functions of a cross-regulator? [N/D-12]

e
The main functions of a cross-regulator are listed below|:
(i) To control the entire Canal Irrigation System.
(ii) To help in heading up water on the upstream side and to fed the off-taking canals to their full
demand.
(iii) To help in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal system, and in preventing

the possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches.
(iv) Cross regulator is often combined with bridges and falls, if required.
16. What are the non-structural measures for reducing waterlogging? [N/D 13]
(i) Adoption of tolerant crops
(ii) Restricting canal supplies close to crop water needs
(iii) Switch over to drip irrigation
ww
(iv) Conjunctive use of surface and ground water
w.E PART B
asy
1. What is meant by transpiration by plants? Do you consider it an evil as it causes water loss form the
soil and plants? [N/D-16]
E
Transpiration – The Loss of Water from Plants
ngi
Need of Water:
nee
Of all the materials required by a plant for its existence and normal development that is taken up in the
largest amount, is water.
rin
g.n
Water is absolutely essential to animal and plant life. Plant and animal cells, deprived of water to any
considerable extent soon die.
e
The bulk of this water absorbed, however, takes no permanent part in its development or in metabolic
processes, but evaporates into the air from the leaves and other aerial parts. This loss of water in the
form of vapour from living plants, particularly from the aerial parts, is known as transpiration. The
process is in principle one of evaporation and diffusion.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Loss of water vapour may occur from any part of the plant which is exposed to the air. All aerial parts
lose water by transpiration, although in some tissues due to the presence on some organs, of superficial

layers which are impervious to water, e.g., cork cells, the rate of water loss is almost insignificant
compared to the water lost from leaves through stomata.
Most of the water vapour lost from leaves occurs through the stomata, this is termed stomatal
transpiration; smaller amounts of water vapour are also lost by direct evaporation from the epidermal
cells, when the stomata are closed, through the cuticle; this is usually termed cuticular transpiration.
As a general rule transpiration rates are higher when the stomata are open, lower when they are closed.
In other words, stomatal transpiration is usually many times higher than cuticular transpiration,
commonly about 4 times as high during a warm sunny day.
ww
But there are all gradations from one extreme to the other. In the case of succulents like cacti, cuticular
w.E
transpiration is usually nil. On the other hand, in some plants, cuticular transpiration can be as high as
stomatal transpiration.
asy
2. What is the general need of water for plants? [N/D 13]
E ngi
It is best to point out here that water for its capacity to form hydrogen bonds is largely responsible for
the maintenance of the three dimensional structures of such macromolecules as nucleic acids and
nee
proteins and of the various subcellular organelles —essential for their biological function.
rin
Water scarcity or any other condition which destroys or disrupts their physical structures impairs the
g.n
activity of these macromolecules and organelles, which ultimately may have disastrous consequences
for plant life. Among all natural compounds, water also gains and loses heat slower than any other
known substance.
e
Because plants contain so much water, the rapid changes of temperature that may take place in the
surrounding atmosphere have less effect on the plant than they would, if water gained or lost heat
quickly.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
We know that chemical reactions are speeded up by heating and slowed down by cooling. The
abundance of water in the plant maintains a fairly constant temperature so that chemical reactions

inside the plant are not speeded up or slowed down so rapidly between the extremes of temperature to
which a plant cell may often be subjected.
In nearly all its physical properties, water is either unique or at the extreme end of the range of a
property. From these physical and chemical characteristic of water, the biological importance of water is
realised.
Among its thermal properties, water has the greatest specific heat known among liquids; the same is
true of water’s latent heat of vaporisation. Finally, with the exception of mercury, water has the greatest
thermal conductivity of all liquids.
ww
Structure and Distribution of the Root System:
w.E
Under some environmental conditions, a particular plant may develop a greater total leaf surface in
proportion of the extent of its root system. This structural adaptation will certainly favour maintenance of
asy
higher transpiration rates.
E ngi
The distribution of root system in the soil frequently influences the water balance in plants. In a habitat
where deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants are growing side by side, the former may transpire more
rapidly during dry periods than the latter.
nee
rin
In the former the roots penetrate to a soil horizon which may still contain available water while the roots
g.n
of the latter are in a moisture-deficient surface soil due to drying of superficial layers of soil if caused by
atmospheric and soil drought.
Environmental Factors and Transpiration: e

The rate of transpiration of a plant varies from day to day, from hour to hour and frequently still more
rapidly. The difference in the rapidity with which water is lost by plants when the stomatal pores are
even half open is primarily due to the effects of environmental conditions.
When the stomatal pores are fully open, the diffusion of water vapour from the intercellular spaces of the
leaves to the external air is primarily controlled by the laws of diffusion.
In other words, the larger the difference between the vapour pressure or concentration within the
intercellular spaces of the leaf and that of the surrounding external air, the greater is the transpiration

rate. So any environmental factor which will tend to steepen this gradient will facilitate exit of water
vapour from the plants to the air outside.
The important environmental factors, which help in the development of a difference between the vapour
pressure inside and outside the plant and thus facilitating rapid diffusion of water vapour out of the
plants, are given below.
3.Discuss the supply of water is abundant in the leaves and absorption keeps pace with trans-
piration and the stomata pores are not less than 1/3 open? How? [N/D 13]
Light:
ww
Though light occupies a position of prime importance among the environmental conditions, its effect on
w.E
the development of a difference in vapour pressure within the plant and the outside air is negligible
except in so far as its indirect undoubted effect in increasing the temperature of the leaf.
asy
The principal effect of light in transpiration, as we have seen in our previous discussions, is
E
predominantly through its influence on the opening and closing of stomata. In the complete absence of
ngi
light, in most species of plants under normal environmental conditions, the stomatal pores are usually
closed.
Humidity:
nee
rin
In general, the greater the vapour pressure of the atmospheric air, the slower is the rate of transpiration,
g.n
other factors remaining unchanged. We know that the air in the intercellular spaces of the leaf is
maintained nearly always at the saturation point if the supply of water to the leaf is uninterrupted and
e
abundant while in the outside atmosphere, conditions are rarely favourable for attainment of saturation
vapour pressure.
It is well known that plants show very high transpiration rates on dry days compared to moist ones and
as a result wilting of the aerial parts is a common phenomenon on hot, dry days if the supply of water to
the leaf is not fast enough to keep pace with rapid diffusion of water vapour from the leaf to the external
air.

On rare occasions, when the vapour pressure of the air outside approaches saturation point and in
extreme cases when the diffusion pressure difference between inside and outside becomes zero, no
transpiration occurs even when the stomata are fully open.
Temperature:
Before active transpiration starts leaves exposed to direct sunlight usually have temperatures from 2-5°
C. in excess of that of the atmosphere.
When the temperature of the leaf and the surrounding atmosphere is raised by direct sunlight, unless
the leaf is markedly deficient in water, the vapour pressure of internal atmosphere, i.e., the intercellular
ww
spaces of the leaf maintains essentially a saturation vapour pressure for the prevailing temperature.
w.E
As the internal volume is constant in size and is small, the evaporation of water from wet mesophyll cells
is sufficient to saturate the comparatively small volume of air inside the leaf In the surrounding
asy
atmosphere, however, vapour pressure conditions are very different—on clear days, there is frequently
E
little change in the vapour pressure—evaporation into the atmosphere is insufficient to permit a rapid
ngi
building up of the vapour pressure towards the value for a saturation atmosphere.
nee
Increase in temperature certainly brings about an increase in the movement of the water molecules and
if the volume of the external atmosphere remains constant a small increase in vapour pressure would
rin
result. But this again is nullified by an expansion of atmospheric volume brought about by an increase in
temperature.
g.n
e
Thus, within a certain range of temperature, at which protoplasm remains fully active, the effect of rise in
temperature always results in an increase in the difference between vapour pressure within the plant
and the outside atmosphere and hence an increase in the rate of transpiration.
Wind:
If all other external conditions are favourable, usually a moderate increase in the velocity of wind, results
in an increase in the rate of transpiration. It may be due to the effect of wind in removing the near
saturated layer of air in contact with the leaf surface.

The result of this removal of saturated atmosphere from the immediate vicinity of the leaf will be a
steepening of the vapour pressure gradient that is in a reduction of the distance across which the
vapour pressure difference exists.
This will, however, primarily affect the cuticular transpiration and only relatively slightly, the stomatal
transpiration. This is due to the fact, that the removal of saturated layer of air in contact with leaf, will
alter only the distance across which vapour pressure difference exists in stomatal transpiration
compared to the cuticular transpiration, only a little, where the distance is simply from one side of the
cuticle to the other.
ww
In stomatal diffusion of water vapour the said distance is from the wet mesophyll cell walls across the
w.E
intercellular spaces and the stomatal pore to the external surface of the leaf and this distance is only
slightly affected by removal of saturated layer from the vicinity of the leaf surface.
asy
The effect of wind in removing the saturated air from the immediate vicinity of the leaf surface is
E
probably of less importance than its effect in causing swaying of branches and shoots and the bending,
twisting and fluttering of the leaves.
ngi
nee
It has been shown experimentally that immobile leaves usually transpire much less than leaves which
are fluttering or bending in the wind, when both are exposed to winds of equal velocity.
rin
g.n
Such bending may increase the rate of water vapour loss from leaves in part, by sudden compressing of
the intercellular spaces which actually shakes the water vapour out of the intercellular spaces through
the stomata into the external atmosphere.
e
Winds of high velocity may sometimes actually reduce transpiration rate by causing closure of stomata.
If the wind produces a cooling effect on the leaves due to increased heat emission, this may conceivably
bring about a reduction in the rate of water loss.
Atmospheric Pressure:
The effect of atmospheric pressure on the transpiration rates is in general only of theoretical importance.
It can be shown experimentally that a reduction in atmospheric pressure results in an increase in the
rates of water vapour loss from leaves.

The theoretical explanation will be that a reduction in the density of the atmosphere would permit the
diffusion of water vapour to occur into it more rapidly. However, for all practical purposes, in any given
locality, the variation in atmospheric pressure is too slight to have any significant effect upon rates of
transpiration.
The high altitude flora shows a general trend of high transpiration rates compared to the flora of the
plains, if other soil and atmospheric factors are not limiting.
Antitranspirants:
There are certain compounds which act as inhibitors of transpiration rate through their highly specific
ww
action on guard cells. The most reliable of such inhibitors found, thus far, is phenyl mercuric acetate.
w.E
This compound closes stomata in many plants (such as Vinca, tobacco, maize, etc.) when sprayed on
leaves, at even as low as concentration as 10-4 M.
asy
From critical experimentation, this compound was found to inhibit primarily the stomatal diffusive
resistance—a single treatment may close the stomata for about 6 weeks—the growth rate of the plants,
E
however, remaining unaffected. Several growth retardants also reduce transpiration rates.
ngi
Other compounds have also been successfully tried, such as monomethyl ester of nonenyl succinic acid
and decenyl succinic acid (10-3 M), CO2 etc. nee
4. What does transpiration coefficient means? [N/D-16]
Exudation of Water in Liquid Form: rin
Wilting Co-efficient:
g.n
e
Wilting co-efficient is a physiological measure of the water relations of the soils. It is defined as the
percentage of water content (expressed as % dry wt.) of a soil when the plant or plants growing in it has
just reached the condition of permanent wilting.
A permanently wilted plant is usually considered to be one which will not recover its turgidity unless
water is supplied to the soil. Permanent wilting is not necessarily an accurate indicator of the wilting co-
efficient.
Thus in the seedlings of bean, a relatively large proportion of water content of the plant is stored in the
lower part of the hypocotyl. During loss of water, transpiring leaves draw upon this reserve water in the

stem when the supply of water from the soil is cut off. Thus the critical point of soil moisture may be
reached previous to permanent wilting.
In order to determine the wilting co-efficient of a sample of soil, the sample is enclosed in a water-proof
vessel and the ‘test’ plant is generally allowed to develop from seed in the soil until it has attained a
small size.
The soil surface is then sealed over so that all loss of water from the soil occurs through the plant. Since
no water is added to the soil the plant eventually shows signs of permanent wilting due to loss of water
from leaves by transpiration. As soon as this occurs, a sample of soil is removed and its water content
ww
determined by drying in an oven.
w.E
Before extensive determinations of wilting percentage for plants growing under different soil and climatic
conditions, it was supposed that plants differed markedly in their capacity to reduce the water content of
the soil. asy
E ngi
It was assumed that xerophytes, which endure drought conditions could deplete the moisture content of
a soil to lower value before showing permanent wilting than those species growing in normal supply of
nee
water in the soil. Extensive investigations have shown, however, that hydrophytes, xerophytes,
mesophytes—all reduce the water content of a given type of soil to about the same value, before
showing permanent wilting.
rin
g.n
While the wilting point of a given soil shows no appreciable variation when measured by means of
e
different plants growing in it, this value varies greatly with the type of the soil. The percentage of water
remaining in a soil when permanent wilting of plants growing in it occurs, ranges from 5-10% for sandy
loam, 10-15% for silty loam and 15-20% for clay soil.
Thus we see that different soils have different water-holding capacities. The wilting point at which plants
can no longer remove water from the soil whatever the texture of the soil may be, sand, silt or clay
corresponds to a force of about 15 atmospheres. No root cells can possibly have osmotic pressure
higher than 15 atmospheres and water held in the soil at a force of more than 15 atmospheres is thus
completely unavailable to the plant.

Thus, the amount of water available to the roots of most plants is held in the soil by forces between 0-3
atm. (i.e., at field capacity) and a maximum of 15 atm. The quantity of available water certainly varies
with the type of the soil; it is relatively large in fine textural clay and relatively small in a coarser sandy
soil.
The force with which water is held in the soil increases with decreasing water content and hence at
permanent wilting point it is independent of the species of plant growing in a soil. In general, wilting point
seems to be controlled almost entirely by soil conditions and type of soil—it is only slightly influenced by
the species of plant growing in it or by climatic conditions to which the plant is exposed.
ww
The significance of wilting point lies in the fact that it is essentially a measure of that fraction of soil
w.E
water which is unavailable to the plants and is in turn a measure of the hygroscopic and chemically
bound water present in the soil.
asy
The determination of wilting percentage under field conditions, presents many difficulties compared to
E
the more or less easy manipulation which could be obtained in the laboratory. Large discrepancies are
ngi
sometimes found between the values determined by laboratory methods and those determined actually
in the field, for the same type of soil.
nee
In the laboratory, small water-proof containers are used and effective penetration by roots in the small
rin
soil sample can be taken for granted and a fairly uniform reduction of water content of the small soil
sample can be assured.
g.n
e
In field, conditions are very different, however, soil is less effectively penetrated by roots, some portion
of the soil in the field may be less completely drained of water than others, soil at the immediate vicinity
of the roots may be at wilting point while more remote portions of the soil may still be at field capacity,
etc.
Other difficulties which stand in the way of correct determination of wilting point under field conditions
are the direct evaporation of water from the soil reducing the water content of the soil, local variation in
the soil texture, i.e., some parts of the field may have more clay while others, more silt or sand, lack of
uniformity of root development, etc.

To surmount the difficulties encountered in the determination of wilting co-efficient of the soil under field
conditions and from our knowledge that wilting co-efficient is practically the same for a given soil for any
plant under all climatic conditions, several indirect purely physical methods have been proposed for the
determination of wilting percentage under field conditions.
These methods are based on the relationship of the wilting point to the moisture retentiveness of the soil
as measured by certain physical standards. By determining in the laboratory, some factors on the
moisture retentiveness of a sample of soil from a field in which the plants are growing, wilting co-
efficients can be calculated quite accurately for all types of soil. In these determinations of wilting co-
ww
efficients, the part played by plants is altogether eliminated.
w.E
Large scale determinations of wilting co-efficients have been one of the most important routine work in
ecological and agronomic ones in recent times. By determining the wilting points of different crop fields,
asy
we can obtain some idea about the texture of the soil—suppose, the wilting point of a field is about 15%,
we can guess that the soil is mostly clay, whereas a value of about 5-10% will show that the soil is
mostly sandy.
E ngi
Consequently if the soil is clay, more water is needed for normal growth of the plants and water must be
nee
added to the soil by irrigation when there is no rainfall than when the soil is sandy where less irrigation-
water will be needed.
rin
g.n
5. List out the various physical methods employed for the determination of wilting percentage of
soils? Write any two most commonly used methods?
e
(1) Relation of the wilting percentage to the moisture equivalent of the soil. The moisture equivalent of a
soil is defined as the percentage of water that a soil can retain in opposition to a centrifugal force 1000
times that of gravity.
Wilting co-efficient =moisture equivalent/ (1.84 ± 0.013).
(2) This method depends upon the determination of percentage of coarse, medium and fine particles in
several samples of a soil from a field and then multiplying the three with three constant factors and
finally adding them up.

Wilting co-efficient =percentage of sand (coarse) particles x 0.001+percentage of silt (medium sized)
particles x 0.12+percentage of clay (very fine) particles x 0.57.
6.Suggest a method for estimating the consumptive use of crops over a large area. Classify the
consumption use of water by crop based on its estimation during specific periods. [N/D-16]
To measure or estimation the consumptive use there are two main methods:
1. Direct Methods/Field Methods

2. Empirical Methods
3. Pan evaporation method
ww1. Direct Methods:
w.E
In this method field observations are made and physical model is used for this purpose. This includes,
i.
ii.
iii.
asy
Vapour Transfer Method/Soil Moisture Studies
Field Plot Method
Tanks and Lysimeter
iv.
v.
vi.
E
Integration Method/Summation Method
Irrigation Method
Inflow Outflow Method ngi
1.1 Vapour Transfer Method: nee
rin
In this method of estimation of water consumptive use, soil moisture measurements are taken before
and after each irrigation. The quantity of water extracted per day from soil is computed for each period.
g.n
A curve is drawn by plotting the rate of use against time and from this curve, the seasonal use can be
estimated. This method is suitable in those areas where soil is fairly uniform and ground water is deep
e
enough so that it does not affect the fluctuations in the soil moisture within the root zone of the soil.
It is expressed in terms of volume i.e. Acre-feet or Hectare-meter
1.2 Field Plot Method:
We select a representative plot of area and the accuracy depends upon the representativeness of plot
(cropping intensity, exposure etc).It replicates the conditions of an actual sample field (field plot). Less
seepage should be there.
Inflow + Rain + Outflow = Evapotranspiration
The drawback in this method is that lateral movement of water takes place although more
representative to field condition. Also some correction has to be applied for deep percolation as it

cannot be ascertained in the field.
1.3 Tanks and Lysimeter:
In this method of measurement of consumptive use of water, a watertight tank of cylindrical shape
having diameter 2m and depth about 3m is placed vertically on the ground. The tank is filled with
sample of soil. The bottom of the tank consists of a sand layer and a pan for collecting the surplus
water. The plants grown in the Lysimeter should be the same as in the surrounding field. The
consumptive use of water is estimated by measuring the amount of water required for the satisfactory
growth of the plants within the tanks. Consumptive use of water is given by,
Cu = Wa - Wd
wwWhere,
Cu = Consuptive use of water

Wa
w.E
Wd = Water drained off
= Water Applied
asy
Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive. Methods 1 and 2 are the more reliable methods
as compare to this method.
E
7.Explain in detail about Integration Method? [N/D 13]
ngi
In this method, it is necessary to know the division of total area, i.e. under irrigated crops, natural native
nee
vegetation area, water surface area and bare land area. In this method, annual consumptive use for the
whole area is found in terms of volume. It is expressed in Acre feet or Hectare meter.
Mathematically, rin
Total Evapotranspiration = Total consumptive usex
g.n
Total Area Annual Consumptive Use = Total Evapotranspiration = A+B+C+D Where,
A
B =
= Unit
Unit
consumptive
consumptive use
use
of
for
native
each
vegetation
e
cropxits
xits
area
area
C = Water surface evaporationxits area
D = Bare land evaporationxits area
1.5 Irrigation Method:
In this method, unit consumption is multiplied by some factor. The multiplication values depend upon the
type of crops in certain area. This method requires an Engineer judgment as these factors are to be
investigated by the Engineers of certain area.
1.6 Inflow Outflow Method:

In this method annual consumptive use is found for large areas. If U is the valley consumptive use its
value is given by,
U = (I+P) + (Gs - Ge) - R
Where,
U = Valley consumptive use (in acre feet or hectare meter)

I = Total inflow during a year
P = Yearly precipitation on valley floor
Gs = Ground Storage at the beginning of the year
Ge = Ground Storage at the end of the year
ww
R = Yearly Outflow
All the above volumes are measured in acre-feet or hectare-meter.
w.E
2. Empirical Methods:
asy
Empirical equations are given for the estimation of water requirement. These are,
E
2.1 Lowry Johnson Method:
The equation for this method is, ngi

U = 0.0015 H + 0.9 (Over specified)
nee
U = Consumptive
rin Use
H = Accumulated degree days during the growing season computed from maximum temperature above
32 °F
g.n
2.2 Penman Equation:
According to this method, e

U = ET = AH + 0.27 EaA - 0.27
ET = Evapotranspiration or consumptive use in mm Ea = Evaporation (mm/day)

H = Daily head budget at surface (mm/day)
H is a function of radiation, sunshine hours, wind speed, vapour pressure and other climatic factors.
A = Slope of saturated vapour pressure curve of air at absolute temperature in °F
2.3 Hargreave’s Method:
It is a very simple method. According to this method,

Cu = KEp
Where,
Cu = Consumptive Use coefficient (varies from crop to crop)

Ep = Evapotranspiration K = Coefficient
8. List the various methods of Irrigation [N/D-13].
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
Surface Irrigation:
g.n
In this technique water flows and spreads over the surface of the land. Varied quantities of water are
e
allowed on the fields at different times. Therefore, flow of water under surface irrigation comes under
wobbly flow. Consequently, it is very difficult to understand the hydraulics of surface irrigation. However,
suitable and efficient surface irrigation system can be espoused after taking into consideration different
factors which are involved in the hydraulics of surface irrigation.
1. Surface slope of the field
2. Roughness of the field surface

3. Depth of water to be applied
4. Length of run and time required
5. Size and shape of water-course
6. Discharge of the water-course
7. Field resistance to erosion
If the surface irrigation method is perfectly selected, it fulfils following requirements:

1. It assists in storing required amount of water in the root-zone-depth.
ww
2. It reduces the wastage of irrigation water from the field in the form of run-off water.
3. It reduces the soil erosion to minimum.
w.E
4. It helps applying uniform application of water to the fields.
asy
5. Amount of manual labour required is less.
6. It is suitable to the size of the field and at the same time it uses minimum land for making ditches,
furrows, strips, etc.
E ngi
7. It does not avert use of machinery for land preparation, cultivation, harvesting.
nee
Surface irrigation technique is broadly classified as basin irrigation; border irrigation; furrow irrigation and
uncontrolled flooding.
rin
Basin irrigation:
g.n
Basin irrigation is common practice of surface irrigation. This method is employed for watering orchards. It
is useful especially in regions with layouts of small fields.
e
If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff, and provides an undirected
flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin. A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all
sorts of irregular and rectangular configurations.
It may be furrowed or ridged, have raised beds for the benefit of certain crops, but as long as the inflow is
undirected and uncontrolled into these field modifications, it remains a basin.

9.Write down the types of Basin Method ? [N/D 13]

Furrow Irrigation:
In furrow irrigation technique, trenches or “furrows” are dug between crop rows in a field. Farmers flow
water down the furrows (often using only gravity) and it seeps vertically and horizontally to refill the soil
reservoir. Flow to each furrow is individually controlled.
Furrow irrigation is suitable for row crops, tree crops and, because water does not directly contact the
plants, crops that would be damaged by direct inundation by water such as tomatoes, vegetables, potatoes
and beans. It is one of the oldest system of irrigation. It is economical and low-tech making it particularly
attractive in the developing world or places where mechanized spray irrigation is unavailable or impractical.
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Furrow technique (Source: Basak, 1999 )
In different situations, different furrow methods are used. They are mainly of five types:
1. Sloppy Furrow
2. Levelled Furrow
w.E
3. Contour Furrow asy
4. Serial Furrow
5. Corrugated Furrow
E ngi
There are numerous advantages of Furrow technique of irrigation: nee
1. Large areas can be irrigated at a time.
rin
g.n
2. It saves labour since once the furrow is filled, it is not necessary to give water a second time.
3. It is a reasonably cheaper method.
4. Plants get proper quantity of water by this system. e

Furrow irrigation is also beneficial for growing of tree crops. In the early stages of tree planting, one furrow
alongside the tree row may be sufficient but as the trees develop then two or more furrows can be
constructed to provide sufficient water. Sometimes a special zig-zag system is used to improve the spread
of water.
Major drawback of furrow system of irrigation is ensuring uniform dispersal of water over a given field.
To tackle this problem, some farmers engage in field levelling to remove any small hills that would have
been bypassed by the gravity flow of the water. Other problem with furrow irrigation is the increased

potential for water loss due to runoff. Building retention ponds along the edges of fields can help capture
this runoff, allowing it to be pumped back to the upslope side of the field for use in further irrigation cycles.
Uncontrolled flooding: There are many cases where croplands are irrigated without regard to efficiency or
consistency. These are usually situations where the value of the crop is very small or the field is used for
grazing or recreation purposes. Small land
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asy
E ngi
nee
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g.n
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holdings are generally not subject to the range of surface irrigation practices of the large industrial farming
systems. The assessment methods can be applied if desired, but the design techniques are not generally
applicable nor need they be since the irrigation practices tend to be minimally managed.
Free Flooding:
This flooding system of irrigation is used from ancient times. Flooding method consists in applying the
water by flooding the land of rather smooth and flat topography. In current irrigation practice, several
flooding methods have been developed.
In free flooding method, water is applied to the land from field ditches without any check or guidance to the
flow. The land is divided into plots or kiaries of suitable size depending on porosity of soil. Water is spread
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over the field from watercourse.
The irrigation operation begins at the higher area and proceeds towards the lower levels. The flow is
w.E
stopped when the lower end of the field has received the desired depth of water. The field watercourse
is properly spaced, the spacing depends on the topography, oil texture, depth of soil and size of stream.
asy
E ngi
10. What are the merits and demerits of irrigation? [N/D 15]
MERITS OF IRRIGATION nee

rin
1) During the period of low rainfall or drought, yield of crops may increased or remains same, due to
irrigation system.
g.n
2) The food production of a country can be improved by ensuring the growth of crops. This helps a
country to prevent famine situation.
e
3) Securing increased agricultural production and thus improving the nutrition of the population.
4) Irrigation helps to improve the cultivation of cash crops like vegetables, fruits, tobaccos, sugar cane.
5) In some river valley projects, multipurpose reservoirs are formed by constructing high dams. At these
river valleys, hydroelectric power may be generated.
6) Retention of water in reservoirs and possible multipurpose use there of Irrigation canal may be the
source of water supply for domestic and industrial purposes.
7) The reservoirs and canals can be utilized for the development of the fisher project.
8) Culturing the area, increasing the social and cultural level of the population.
9) Recreation facilities in irrigation canals and reservoirs.

10) Increases employment by providing jobs to people.

11) Improvement of the micro climate. Possibility provided for waste water use and disposal.
12) Improvement of water regime of the irrigated soils.
Demerits of Irrigation
1) Danger of water logging and salination of soils.
2) It may change properties of water in reservoirs due to waste water use and disposal.
3) Deforestation of area is to be done which is to be irrigated. With it, change of water regime in the
area.
4) Possible spread of diseases from certain types of surface irrigation.
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5) Danger of pollution of water resources by return run off from irrigation.
6) New diseases caused by retention of waste water in large reservoirs.
w.E
7) Due to excessive irrigation, climate becomes damp and cold. Thus humidity increases, which is not
good for health.
asy
E
11. Explain factors affecting the duty. [N/D 13]
Factors Affecting Duty: ngi

The factors that affect the duty are described below.
nee
Soil Characteristics If the soil of the canal be dis porous and coarse grained, it leads to more
rin
seepage loss and consequently low duty. if the soil is compact and closed grained, the seepage loss
will be less and the duty will be high.
g.n
If the agricultural land consists of sandy soil, the percolation loss will be high causing the duty to
e
below. If it consists of alluvial soil, the percolation loss will be less and the soil retains the moisture for
longer period and consequently the duty will be high. _
Climatic Condition When the atmospheric temperature of the command area becomes high, the
evaporation loss is more and the duty becomes low and· vice versa.
Rainfall if the rainfall is sufficient during the crop period, less quantity of irrigation water shall be
required and therefore the duty will be more and vice versa.
Base Period When the base period is longer, the water requirement will be more and the duty will be
low and vice versa.
Type of crop The water requirement of various crops are different. So, the duty varies from crop to
crop.

Topography of Agricultural Land If he agricultural land is uneven, the water requirement is more
and hence the duty will be low. If the and has slight slope, the duty will be as water requirement is
optimum.
Methods of ploughing Proper deep ploughing which is done by tractors requires overall less quantity
of water an hence the duty is high. But, shallow ploughing with bullocks requires overall more quantity
of water, and hence the duty is low.
Methods of Irrigation The duty of water is high in case of pernial irrigation system as compared to
that in inundation irrigation system.
Water Tax If some tax is imposed on the basis of the volume of water consumption, the farmer will
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use the water economically, and thus the duty will be high.
12.What are the methods of improving duty? [N/D 13]
w.E
The following points should be remembered for improving the duty of water.
Proper Ploughing Ploughing should be done properly and deeply so that the moisture retaining
capacity of
asy
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the soil is increased.
ngi
Canal Lining To reduce percolation loss the ca.nals should be lined according to site condition.
Transmission Loss To reduce transmission loss the canals· should be taken close to the irrigable
lands as far as possible.
nee
rin
Crop Rotation The principle of crop rotation should be adopted to increase the moisture retaining
capacity and fertility of the soil.
g.n
Implantation of Tax The water tax should be imposed on the basis of volume of water consumption.
e
13. A channel_ is to be designed for irrigating 5000hectares in Kharif crop and 4000hectares 10
Rabicrop. The water requirement for Kharif and Rabi are 60 cm and 25cm, respectively. The Korperiod
for Kharif is 3weeks and for Rabi is 4weeks. Determine the discharge of the channel for which it is to
be designed. [N/D 13]
Solution Using the relation.

Δ = ( 8.64x B) / D
Discharge for Kharif Crop

Here ,Δ =60cm=0.60m
B=3weeks=21day
Duty = 8.64X21 / 0.60 = 302.4 hectares/cumec
Area to be irrigated = 5000hectares
Required discharge of channel = 5000 / 302.4 = 16.53cumec
Discharge for Rabi Crop
Here , Δ =25cm= 0.25m
B= 4weeks = 28days
Duty = 8.64x 28 / 0.25 = 967.68 hectares/cumec
ww
Area to be irrigated=4000hectares
Required discharge of channel = 4000 / 967.68 = 4.13 cumec
w.E
So, the channel is to be designed for the maximum discharge of 16.53cumec, because this discharge
capacity of the channel will be able to supply water to both the seasons
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E ngi
nee
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g.n
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UNIT IV
PART A
1. What is the need for water budget? [N/D-16]
Water budget for a specified water system whether ground water, surfacewater, or the
Complete water system within a geographic area, is a summation of inputs and outputs
to the system.
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2. What is the purpose of canal lining? [N/D-16]
w.E
Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an impermeable layer
to the edges of the trench.. Canal linings are also used to prevent weed growth, which can spread
asy
throughout an irrigation system and reduce water flow.
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3. What is a gravity dam ? [N/D-15]
ngi
nee
A gravity dam is a solid structure, made of concrete or masonry, constructed across a river to
create a reservoir on its upstream . The section of the gravity dam is approximately triangular in
shape, with its apex at its top and maximum width at bottom. rin
g.n
4. What are the forces acting on a gravity dam ? [N/D 13]
(i) Weight of the Dam

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(ii) Water Pressure
(iii) Uplift Pressure
(iv) Seismic Force
(v) Silt Pressure
(vi) Wave Pressure

(vii)Ice Pressure
(viii) Wind Pressure
5. Write short notes on [N/D 12]
(i) Storage head works
(ii) Diversion head works
(i) Storage head works: when a dam is constructed across a river valley to form a storage
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reservoir, it is known as storage head works. The water is supplied to the canal form this reservoir
through the canal head regulator. Again this reservoirs serves the multipurpose functions such as
w.E
hydro-electric power generation, flood control, fishery, etc..,
asy
(ii) Diversion head works: when a weir or barrage is constructed across a perennial river to raise
the water level and to divert the water to the canal then it is known as a diversion head works.
E ngi
The flow of water in the canal is controlled by canal head generator.
nee
6 .What are the points to be remembered while selecting the site for diversion head
works? [N/D 13]
rin
The following points should be remembered while selecting the site for diversion head works:
a. At the site, the river should be straight and narrow. g.n

b. The river banks should be well defined
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c. The valuable land should not be submerged when the weir or barrage is constructed
d. The elevation of the site should be much higher that the area to be irrigated
7. What is a weir? [N/D-15]
Normally, the water level of any perennial river is such that it cannot be diverted to the irrigation
canal. That level of the canal may be higher than the existing water level of the river. In such a
case, weir is constructed across the river to raise the water level from H1 to H2. Then, the water
can be easily diverted to the canal. The surplus water passes over the crest of the weir.

8..What is a divide wall ? [A/M 13]
The divide wall is a long wall constructed at right angles to the weir or barrage, it may be
constructed with stone masonry or cement concrete. On the upstream side, the wall is
extended just to cover the canal head regulator and on the downstream side it is extended up
to the launching apron.
9. .What is a canal head regulator? [A/M 12]
ww
A structure which is constructed at the head of the canal to regulate flow of water is known as
w.E
canal head regulator. It consist of a numbers of piers which divide the total width of the canal
into a number of spans which are known as bays.
asy
10 . What are canal falls? [A/M 12]
E
Generally, the slope of the natural ground surface is not uniform throughout the alignment.
ngi
Sometimes, the ground surface may be steep and sometimes it ma be very irregular with abrupt
nee
change of grade. In such cases, a vertical drop is provided to step down the canal bed and then it
rin
is continued with permissible slope until another step down is necessary. This is done to avoid
g.n
unnecessary huge earth work in filling. Such vertical drops are known as canal falls or simply
falls.
11. What is the necessity for canal falls? [N/D 12]

e
When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, the permissible bed slope cannot
be maintained. It requires excessive earthwork in filling to maintain the slope. In such a case falls
are provided to avoid excessive earth work in filling.

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12. Write short notes on cross-drainage works. [N/D 12]
asy
In an irrigation project, when the network of main canals, branch canals, distributaries, etc. are
provided, then these canals may have to cross the natural drainages like rivers, streams, etc at
E ngi
different points within the command area of the project. The crossing of the canals with
nee
such obstacle cannot be avoided. So, suitable structures must be constructed at the crossing point
for the easy flow of water of the canal and drainage in the respective directions. These structures
are known as cross-drainage works. rin

13. What is the necessity for cross drainage works ? [N/D 13] g.n
e
The water-shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages may be
present across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for running the irrigation
system. At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So, far the
smooth running of the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required.
The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure, the water
of the canal and drainage cannot be diverted to their natural directions. So, the cross drainage

works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.
14. What are the common materials used for canal lining ? [N/D 13]
The commonly used materials for canal lining are :
(i) Concrete
(ii) Rock masonry
(iii) Brick masonry
ww
(iv) Bentonite-earth mixtures
(v) Natural clays of low permeability
w.E
(vi) Different mixtures of rubble, plastic, and asphaltic materials.
asy PART B
E ngi
1. What are cross drainage work? What is necessity of such a work in a canal project, and how does
this necessity is fulfilled by such water? [N/D-16]
nee
What is cross drainage works? rin
g.n
Cross drainage works is a structure constructed when there is a crossing of canal and natural drain, to
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prevent the drain water from mixing into canal water. This type of structure is costlier one and needs to
be avoided as much as possible.
Necessity of Cross Drainage Works
The water-shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal network,
this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages may be present
across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for running the irrigation system.

At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So, for the smooth running
of the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required.
The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure, the water
of the canal and drainage cannot be diverted to their natural directions. So, the cross drainage
works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.
Cross drainage works can be avoided in two ways:
ww


By changing the alignment of canal water way
By mixing two or three streams into one and only one cross drainage work to be constructed,
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making the structure economical.
asy
Types of Cross Drainage works:
E
There are three types of cross drainage works structures:
ngi
Type – 1: Cross drainage work carrying canal over the drain
nee
The structures falling under this type are
rin
 Aqueduct
g.n
 Syphon Aqueduct
Type – 2: Cross Drainage work carrying Drainage over the canal

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 Super passage
 Canal Syphon
Type –3: Cross drainage works admitting canal water into the canal

 Level Crossing
 Canal inlets
Type – 1: Canal over drainage [HFL < FSL]
Aqueduct:
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In an aqueduct, the canal bed level is above the drainage bed level so canal is to be constructed above
drainage.
w.E
asy
A canal trough is to be constructed in which canal water flows from upstream to downstream. This canal
trough is to be rested on number of piers. The drained water flows through these piers upstream to
downstream. E ngi
nee
The canal water level is referred as full supply level (FSL) and drainage water level is referred as high
flood level (HFL). The HFL is below the canal bed level. rin
g.n
e
Aqueduct is similar to a bridge, instead of roadway or railway, canal water are carried in the trough and
below that the drainage water flows under gravity and possessing atmospheric pressure.

ww
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Syphon Aqueduct:
Fig (a) Aqueduct
asy
In a syphon aqueduct, canal water is carrier above the drainage but the high flood level (HFL) of
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drainage is above the canal trough. The drainage water flows under syphonic action and there is no
ngi
presence of atmospheric pressure in the natural drain.
nee
rin
The construction of the syphon aqueduct structure is such that, the flooring of drain is depressed
g.n
downwards by constructing a vertical drop weir to discharge high flow drain water through the
depressed concrete floor.

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Syphonic aqueducts are more often constructed and better preferred than simple Aqueduct, though
costlier.

ww
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asy Fig (b) Syphon Aqueduct
Type – 2: Drainage over canal (HFL > FSL)
Super Passage: E ngi

nee
Super passage structure carries drainage above canal as the canal bed level is below drainage bed
level. The drainage trough is to be constructed at road level and drainage water flows through this from
rin
g.n
upstream to downstream and the canal water flows through the piers which are constructed below this
drainage trough as supports.
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The full supply level of canal is below the drainage trough in this structure. The water in canal flows
under gravity and possess the atmospheric pressure. This is simply a reverse of Aqueduct structure.

ww
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asy Fig (c) Super passage
Canal Syphon: E ngi

nee
In a canal syphon, drainage is carried over canal similar to a super passage but the full supply level of
rin
canal is above than the drainage trough.so the canal water flows under syphonic action and there is no
presence of atmospheric pressure in canal.

g.n
e
When compared, super passage is more often preferred than canal Syphon because in a canal Syphon,
big disadvantage is that the canal water is under drainage trough so any defective minerals or sediment
deposited cannot be removed with ease like in the case of a Syphon Aqueduct.
Flooring of canal is depressed and ramp like structure is provided at upstream and downstream to form
syphonic action. This structure is a reverse of Syphon aqueduct.

ww Fig (d) Canal Syphon
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Type –3: Drainage admitted into canal (HFL = FSL)
asy
In this case, the drainage water is to be mixed up with canal water, here the cost of construction is less
E ngi
but silt clearance and maintenance of canal water becomes really difficult. So the structures falling
under this category are constructed with utmost care.

nee
Level Crossing:
rin
g.n
When the bed level of canal is equal to the drainage bed level, then level crossing is to be constructed.
This consists of following steps:

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1. Construction of weir to stop drainage water behind it
2. Construction of canal regulator across a canal
3. Construction of head regulator across a Drainage
Functioning of a level crossing:

In peak supply time of canal water parallel to drainage, both the regulators are opened to clear the
drainage water from that of canal for certain time interval. Once the drainage is cleared, the head
regulator is closed down. Anyhow, cross regulator is always in open condition throughout year to supply
canal water continuously.
ww
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asy
E ngi
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g.n
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Figure (e) Level crossing
Canal inlets:
In a canal inlet structure, the drainage water to be admitted into canal is very less. The drainage is taken
through the banks of a canal at inlet. And then this drainage mixed with canal travels certain length of
the canal, after which an outlet is provided to create suction pressure and suck all the drainage solids,
disposing it to the watershed area nearby.
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w.E
There are many disadvantages in use of canal inlet structure, because the drainage may pollute canal
water and also the bank erosion may take place causing the canal structure deteriorate so that
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maintenance costs are high. Hence this type of structure is rarely constructed.
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

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E ngi
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Figure (f) Canal inlet plan and cross sectional views (a) pipe type (b) open cut type
g.n
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2. Draw a neat sketch of a typical cross section of a canal carrying a discharge of 60 m3/sec and lined
with brick in cement motor. Mark the salient features on the sketch. [N/D-16]
What is canal lining?
An impermeable layer is provided at the bed and sides of canal to improve the life and discharge
capacity of canal known as canal lining. Generally seepage can result in losses of 30 – 40 % of irrigation
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water in canals, so we can reduce the effect of seepage by providing lining to the canal.
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
Advantages of Canal Lining:
An important reason for lining a canal can be the reduction in water losses, as water losses in unlined
irrigation canals can be high. Canals that carry from 30 to 150 liters/sec can lose 10 to 15% of this flow
by seepage and water consumption by weeds. Lining a canal will not completely eliminate these losses,
but roughly 60 to 80% of the water that is lost in unlined irrigation canals can be saved by a hard-

surface lining. 42 Canal lining Minimizing water losses is very important, and especially so in schemes
where irrigation water is pumped. Reduced water losses means less water to pump and thus a
reduction in pumping costs.
Seepage reduction:
If canal banks are highly permeable, the seepage of water will cause very wet or waterlogged
ww
conditions, or even standing water on adjacent fields or roads. Lining of such a canal can solve this
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problem, since the permeability of a lined canal bank is far less than that of an unlined bank, or may
even be zero, depending on the lining material.
asy
E
Reduced canal dimensions:
ngi
The roughness – resistance to flow – of a lined canal is less than that of an unlined canal, and thus the
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flow velocity will be higher in the lined canal when the canal bed slope is the same. Moreover, the hard
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surface of the lining material allows a higher velocity compared to an earthen canal surface as it is not
g.n
so easily eroded. As discussed earlier, canal discharge is the product of the cross-section of a canal
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and the velocity of the flow. Therefore, with the higher velocity allowable and obtainable in lined canals,
the canal cross-section for a lined canal can be smaller than that of an unlined canal.
Reduced maintenance:
A surface lining, such as concrete, brick or plastic, on the canal prevents the growth of plants and
discourages hole-making by rats or termites, and so the maintenance of a lined canal can be easier and
quicker than that of an unlined canal. Moreover, the higher velocity that can safely be allowed in the

lined canal prevents the small particles of soil carried in the water from settling out, accumulating and
causing siltation.
Above mentioned are the major uses of canal lining and some other uses are:
 To avoid piping through and under channel banks
 To avoid water logging of adjacent land
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 To reduce movement of contaminated ground water plumes
To control vegetation in canals


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3. List the different types of canal lining in common use. [N/D-16]
asy
Types of canal linings:
E
Mainly there are two types of canal linings:
ngi
1. Earthen type lining nee
rin
2. Hard surface lining
g.n
Earthen type canal linings:
e
It is sub-divided into 2 major types:
Compacted earth lining
If suitable earthen material is available near the site of construction, or is in-situ, a lining of compacted
earth is an inexpensive and efficient means of controlling seepage. Compaction reduces soil pore sizes
by displacing air and water. Reduction in void size increases the density, compressive strength and

shear strength of the soil and reduces permeability. This is accompanied by a reduction in volume and
settlement of the surface. Proper compaction is essential to increase the stability and frost resistance
(where required) and to decrease erosion and seepage losses.
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w.E
Soil cement lining
asy
Soil-cement linings are constructed with mixtures of sandy soil, cement and water, which harden to a
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concrete-like material. The cement content should be from 2-8% of the soil by volume. However, larger
cement contents are used. For the construction of soil-cement linings two methods are in general use:
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(1) the dry-mix method and (2) the plastic mix method. For erosion protection and additional strength in
rin
large channels, the layer of soil-cement is sometimes covered with coarse soil. It is recommended the
g.n
soil-cement lining should be protected from the weather for seven days by spreading approximately
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50mm of soil, straw or hessian bags over it and keeping the cover moistened to allow proper curing.
Water sprinkling should continue for 28 days following installation.

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Hard surface Canal linings:
w.E
It is sub divided into:
asy
Cement concrete lining :
E
Concrete linings are widely used, with benefits justifying their relatively high cost. They are tough,
ngi
durable, relatively impermeable and hydraulically efficient. Concrete linings are suitable for both small
nee
and large channels and both high and low flow velocities. They fulfil every purpose of lining.
rin
There are several procedures of lining using cement concrete:
g.n


Cast in situ lining
Shotcrete lining
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 Precast concrete lining
 Cement mortar lining

ww
w.E
Brick lining:
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cement mortar.
E
The canal is said to be lined with bricks when the sides and bed are protected with brick surfacing laid in
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
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Plastic lining:
As a modern technique use of plastics in canal lining holds good promise. There are three types of
plastic membranes which are used in canal lining, namely:

 Low density poly ethylene

 High molecular high density polythene
 Polyvinyl chloride
The plastic as a material for canal lining offers certain characteristic advantages like negligible weight,
easy for handling, spreading and transport, immune to chemical action and speedy construction. The
plastic film is spread on the prepared subgrade of the canal. To anchor the membrane on the banks ‘V
trenches are provided. The film is then covered with protective soil cover.
ww
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asy
E ngi
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Boulder lining:
g.n
e
This type of lining is constructed with dressed stone blocks laid in mortar. Properly dressed stones are
not available in nature. Irregular stone blocks are dressed and chipped off as per requirement. It makes
the type costly. When roughly dressed stones are used for lining, the surface is rendered rough which
may put lot of resistance to low. Technically the coefficient of rugosity will be higher. Thus the stone
lining is limited to the situation where loss of head is not an important consideration and where stones
are available at moderate cost.

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E ngi
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g.n
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UNIT V
PART A
1. Why drip irrigation is preferred? [N/D-16]
Surface irrigation is preferred if the irrigation water contains much sediment. The sediments may clog
the drip or sprinkler irrigation systems. If theirrigation water contains dissolved salts, drip irrigation is
particularly suitable, as less water is applied to the soil than with surface methods
2. Define micro irrigation. [N/D-16]
ww
w.E
Micro irrigationis defined as the frequent application of small quantities of water directly above and below the
soil surface; usually as discrete drops, continuous drops or tiny streams through emitters placed along a
water delivery line.
. a syE
3. Write a short note on Lift irrigation [N/D-15]
ngi
In lift irrigation water is lifted from a river or a canal to the bank to irrigate the land which are not
n
commanded by gravity flow. Lift irrigation is being increasingly practiced in India.
eer
4. What do you meant by water user association (WUA)? [N/D-15]
i ng.
It is a self-managing group of farmers working together to operate and maintain their irrigation and drainage
network, to ensure fair and equitable water distribution, and to increase crop yield.
ne
PART B
1. What is tank irrigation? Differentiate between isolated tanks and Group tanks. How can compute the
storage capacity of an irrigation tank? [N/D-16]
Definition and General Introduction
Tank irrigation may be defined as the storage irrigation scheme, which utilises the water stored on the
upstream side of a smaller .earth dam, called a bund.-These earthen bund reservoirs are, thus, infact, called
as tanks, specifically in South India, where such works are very common. This terminology is, therefore,
limited totlndia only. There is, thus, no technical difference between a 'reservoir' and a 'tank', except that a
large-sized tank will be termed as a reservoir. Moreover, a reservoir will generally be formed by dams of any

rnaterial (such as masonry dam, concrete dam, or earth dam, etc.) ; whereas, a tank is generally said to be
formed by earth dams only (or strictly speaking by earthen bunds). These earthen bunds, spanning across the
streams, are called tank bunds or tank banks. Most of the existing tanks of south India possess a maximum
depth of 4.5 m, while a few are as deep as 7.5 to 9 m, and only a few exceptional ones exceed 11 min depth.
When the depth of the tank exceeds 12 m or SO, the tank is generally referred to as a reservoir. Like all earth
dams, tank bunds are generally provided with sluices or outlets for discharging water from the tank for
irrigation or other purposes. These tank sluices may be pipes or rectangular or arched openings passing near
the base of the bund and through the body of the bund, and carrying the water into the downstream channel
below the bund or transporting at distances where required, through pipes or canals. Some- - times, the
supply sluices may not be passed through the body· of-the ·bund ·and may be carried adjacent to it through
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some hill side at one end of the bund. Similarly, as in the case of all dam reservoir projects, tanks are provided
with arrangements for spilling away the excess surplus water that may enter into the tank, so as to avoid over-
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topping of the tank bund. These surplus escape arrangements may be in the form of a surplus escape weir,·
provided in .the body or at one end of the tank bund, or some- other arrangement like a syphon spillway may
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be provided as is done in the case of earth _dam projects. The surplus escape weir is a masonry weir
(compared to an ogee spillway in an earth dam) with its top i.e. crest level at equal to Full tank level (F.T.L.):
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When tank is full upto FTL, and extra water comes in, it is discharged over the surplus escape weir. The
length or capacity of this surplus escape weir will be so .designed that water_ level in the tank does never.
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exceed the maximum water level W.L.). The top of-the tank bund will be kept at a level so also provide a
suitable free-board above this M.W.L. . ,Since the surplus escape weir is a masonry weir, it will have to be
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properly connected to the earthen build by suitably designed bank connections.
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Isolated Tanks and Tanks in Series
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Isolated Tanks and Tanks in Series .Most of the existing small sized tanks of south India form part of groups
of tanks, which are connected together in series, such that any tank either receives the surplus water of the
upper tank(s), or sends its own surplus into some lower tank(s), or do both. However, when a tank neither
receives water from an upper tank nor discharges its own surplus tank, lt is called an isolated tank. The do
exist some isolated tanks also in South India. Figure 26.1. shows a typical group of 15 tanks numbered 1 to
15, and an isolated tank A. It is evident that considerable economy of water can be obtained from the system
of grouping, because the surplus water of .the each tank and also the drainage of its wet cultivation are caught
up by the next lower tank. Each tank of the group takes a share in the yield of the whole catchment above it,
which can be classified as follows:
(i) the free catchment, which is the catchment area which only drains into the tank under consideration

(ii) the combined catchment, which is the area of the-whole catchment above the tank under consideration.
The difference between the combined and the free catchment, thus, gives the area of catchment intercepted
by upper tanks. The whole catchment of the highest tank, on each drainage, shall be its free catchment.
Moreover, each tank will receive the whole runoff from its free catchment ; but from the remainder of its
catchment it will receive only the balance runoff which remains after ~he upper tanks have been filled.
One of the disadvantage of grouping of tanks, however, is that, if a breach occurs in an upper tank, it exposes
all the tanks in the series below, to the river of similar failures. Hence, while making repairs or doing
restoration works in such groups of tanks, it is necessary to consider system of tanks and to carry out repairs
from the upper end of each group. The extent of danger to lower tanks due to breach of an upper tank,
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however, depends upon their relative capacities. For example, if a small upper tank breaches and' passes its
storage into lower large-capacity tank, it may pose little danger even if the breach may completely empty the
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small tank. However, the danger will be imminent if the case is opposite, and the large sized upper tank
breaches and passes its storage into the lower small sized tank. The provision of suitable breaching sections•
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in tanks forming part of ,a group is, therefore, considered as a very desirable precaution against their failure
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by breaching. This is because, a breach occurring in a tank bund at a well selected point (at the place of
breaching section) will not empty the tank, and indeed frequently does little more than supplement its
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surplusing ·power to a reasonable degree to the greater security both of the tank itself and these below it in
the group.
Capacity of Water Spread of a Tank

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i ng.
The gross capacity of a tank may be defined as the cubic content of water stored in the tank upto F.T.L. The
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effective capacity of a tank, will, however, be the cubic content of water stored between F.T.L. and the bottom
or sill level of supply sluice. These storage capacities can be computed easily by using the contour plan of the
area of the water-spread ; the total capacity being the sum of the capacities between successive contours.
The smaller the contour interval (M), the more accurate the capacity computation will be. This is because, if
A1 andA2 represent the areas enclosed between two successive contours, then the cubic content between
these contours is . A1+A2 roughly taken as 2 (M). The summation of all cubic contents between the
successive contours will be the required storage capacity of the tank. When the contour plan is not available,
and only the area of the tank at F.T.L. is known, then the effective cubic content of the tank may be roughly
computed ~s follows The area of tank at F.T.L. is multiplied by one- third of the depth from this level (F.T.L.)to
the deep bed of the tank, or the level of the sill of the lowest sluice, whichever is higher of the two. If the area
(A1) of the tank bed at the level of the sill of the lowest sluice, and the area (A2) of the tank at .F.T.L. are
known even roughly, then' the effective cubic content --- of the tank maybe computed as t [A1 + A2 + A1Ai] x

h, here the height or difference in elevations between F.T.L. and sill level of the lowest sluice. This formula is
based on the assumption that the water stored is in the shape of a frustum of a cone.
2.What is participatory irrigation management? Give a case study of the above type of management and
explain. [N/D-16]
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) refers to a management approach that embraces the
involvement of the people who directly use the irrigation water: farmers. In small-scale traditional
irrigation systems, farmers' participation is a given.
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Objectives of PIM
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i. To create a sense of ownership of water resources and the irrigation system among the users, so as to
promote economy in water use and preservation of the system.
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ii. To improve service deliveries through better operation and maintenance.
iii. To achieve optimum utilization of available resources through sophisticated deliveries, precisely as per crop
needs. ngi
iv. To achieve equity in water distribution.
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v. To increase production per unit of water, where water is scarce and to increase production per unit of land
where water is adequate.
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vi. To make best use of natural precipitation and ground water in conjunction with flow irrigation for increasing
irrigation and cropping intensity.
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vii. To facilitate the users to have a choice of crops, cropping sequence, timing of water supply, period of
supply and also frequency of supply, depending on soils, climate and other infrastructure facilities available in
the commands such as roads, markets cold storages, etc., so as to maximize the incomes and returns.
viii. To encourage collective and community responsibility on the farmers to collect water charges and
payment to Irrigation Agency.
ix. To create healthy atmosphere between the Irrigation Agency personnel and the users.

Provisions in PIM Acts

Recognising the need for sound legal framework for PIM in the country, the Ministry brought out a model act
to be adopted by the State Legislatures for enacting new irrigation acts/amending the existing irrigation acts
for facilitating PIM.
In accordance with the model act eight State Governments, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala have enacted new acts. The legal framework provides
for creation of farmers organisations at different levels of irrigation system as under:
a. Water Users’ Association (WUA): will have a delineated command area on a hydraulic basis, which shall
be administratively viable. Generally a WUA would cover a group of outlets or a minor.
b. Distributary Committee: will comprise of 5 or more WUAs. All the presidents of WUAs will comprise
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general body of the distributary committee.
c. Project Committee: will be an apex committee of an irrigation system and presidents of the Distributary
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committees in the project area shall constitute general body of this committee.
The Associations at different levels are expected to be actively involved in: (i) maintenance of irrigation system
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in their area of operation; (ii) distribution of irrigation water to the beneficiary farmers as per the warabandi
schedule; (iii) assisting the irrigation department in the preparation of water demand and collection of water
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charges; (iv) resolve disputes among the members and WUA; (v) monitoring flow of water in the irrigation
system etc.
PIM in Orissa
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i ng.
Participatory Irrigation Management that was introduced in the state during 1995 on a pilot basis under Orissa
Water Resources Consolidation Project (OWRCP) under the banner of farmers’ organization and turn over
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(FOT). Experiencing its success at large, it was extended to all the commands of Major, Medium, Minor and lift
Irrigation Projects. Subsequently, during the year 2000, the water users associations have been renamed as
Pani Panchayats.

From its inception, till date a lot of efforts have been given for wide acceptance of the programme. During this
period massive awareness campaign, capacity building through training, workshops, interactive workshops
had been conducted at regular interval for the farmers, office bearers of Pani Panchayats and officials of
concerned departments.
Structure Farmers Organization is three tiers for Medium and Minor Irrigation Projects and four-tier for Major
Irrigation Projects, as indicated below:
i. WUA / Pani Panchayats at primary level consisting of several chak committees.
ii. Distributary Committee at secondary level (Major Projects) is a federation of all WUA / Pani Panchayats
under the distributary.
iii. A Project Committee, at project level, is a federation of all distributary committees’ for major projects.
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Similarly for Medium Irrigation Projects it is a federation of all WUA / Pani Panchayats.
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iv. iv. In Lift Irrigation Projects it is a single tier system i.e. Pani Panchayat.
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Above all, there will be a state level Committee to lay down policies for implementation of Pani Panchayat
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Programme as per the provision of the Orissa Pani Panchayat Act, 2002. Pani Panchayats are farmers’
organizations formed by involving the farmers owning land withing the hydraulically delineated block of 300
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Ha. To 600 Ha. In the command area of Major & Medium Irrigation project. These Pani Panchayats are
Function
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represented by the members of various chaks under the same Pani Panchayat.
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i ng.
The functions of Pani Panchayats have been defined in the Orissa Pani Panchatyat Act-2002and the Orissa
Pani Panchayat Rules-2003
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Some of the important functions are given below: .

ards to crop
diversification. .
season and carryout the maintenance works with the funds of the Pani Panchayats from time to time. .
gulate the use of water among the various pipe outlets under its area of its operation according to the
warabandi schedule of the system. .
n the preparation of demand and collection of
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water rates except EC aided projects and L.I projects over the farmers collect water tax among themselves. .
to raise
resources. .
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been empowered to collect water rate & retention of the same for O&M and take up the O&M of Head works
including the distributary system.
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DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

The important standard for Irrigation

3. .List out the various zones of storage in a reservoir. [M/J 16]

4. Write short notes on Global water resources survey? [N/D 15]

5. What are all the investigations in project planning? [M/J 16]

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7. What are all the drawbacks in project planning? [N/D 15]

generation, navigation, recreation and Irrigation.

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Project evaluation ngi

(A) General data

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(B) Special data

 Water resources project usually planned to meet future needs.

Project formulation rin

Physical limitation, e.g, no navigation in torrential mountain river.

 Limitations on available water

 Limited land areas

 Project units which serve no useful purpose should not included.

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 Next is cataloging of possible project units.

 Project units along with alternatives indicated in catalouge.

 Evaluation carried out to select alternative which is economically suitable.

Groundwater Sources g.n

Reservoir Sizing Reservoir Sizing & Storage Yield

Sequent Peak Algorithm

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Reservoir Sizing Reservoir Storage Capacity Components

Rippl’s Mass Diagram Method

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3. Compare Levees and flood walls. (M/J 15)

LEVEES AND FLOODWALLS

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d the building or may tie into high ground at each end.

prevent undermining of a floodwall.

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structure from surface water.

such as a ramp or stairway.

entrances and a mechanism for closing all such openings.

the site can be significant.

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4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Levees and Floodwalls (M/J 15)

(or more). E ngi

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undantly during monsoon season becomes scarce during the non-

construction of storage reservoir on the river course.

planning a reservoir or a group of reservoirs and to achieve

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1. Define consumptive use of surface water. [N/D-16]

ii) Analytical methods g.n

Under predevelopment conditions, the ground-water system is in long-term equilibrium.

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Irrigation Water Requirements

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4. What are the chemical characteristics Of Water? [N/D 13]

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